2.

Corona

When an alternating potential difference is applied across two conductors whose spacing
is large as compared to their diameters, there is no apparent change in the condition of
atmospheric air surrounding the wires if the applied voltage is low. However, when the
applied voltage exceeds a certain value, called critical disruptive voltage, the conductors
are surrounded by a faint violet glow called corona.
The phenomenon of corona is accompanied by a hissing sound, production of ozone,
power loss and radio interference. The higher the voltage is raised, the larger and higher
the luminous envelope becomes, and greater are the sound, the power loss and the radio
noise. If the applied voltage is increased to breakdown value, a flash-over will occur
between the conductors due to the breakdown of air insulation. The phenomenon of violet
glow, hissing noise and production of ozone gas in an overhead transmission line is
known as corona.
If the conductors are polished and smooth, the corona glow will be uniform throughout
the length of the conductors, otherwise the rough points will appear brighter. With d.c.
voltage, there is difference in the appearance of the two wires. The positive wire has
uniform glow about it, while the negative conductor has spotty glow.
Formation of Corona
Some ionization is always present in air due to cosmic rays, ultraviolet radiations and
radioactivity. Therefore, under normal conditions, the air around the conductors contains
some ionized particles (i.e., free electrons and +ve ions) and neutral molecules. When p.d.
is applied between the conductors, potential gradient is set up in the air which will have
maximum value at the conductor surfaces. Under the influence of potential gradient, the
existing free electrons acquire greater velocities. The greater the applied voltage, the
greater the potential gradient and more is the velocity of free electrons.
When the potential gradient at the conductor surface reaches about 30 kV per cm (max.
value), the velocity acquired by the free electrons is sufficient to strike a neutral molecule
with enough force to dislodge one or more electrons from it. This produces another ion
and one or more free electrons, which is turn are accelerated until they collide with other

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neutral molecules, thus producing other ions. Thus, the process of ionization is
cumulative. The result of this ionization is that either corona is formed or spark takes
place between the conductors.
2.1 Factors Affecting Corona
The phenomenon of corona is affected by the physical state of the atmosphere as well as
by the conditions of the line. The following are the factors upon which corona depends:
1. Atmosphere. As corona is formed due to ionization of air surrounding the
conductors, therefore, it is affected by the physical state of atmosphere. In the
stormy weather, the number of ions is more than normal and as such corona occurs
at much less voltage as compared with fair weather.
2. Conductor size. The corona effect depends upon the shape and conditions of the
conductors. The rough and irregular surface will give rise to more corona because
unevenness of the surface decreases the value of breakdown voltage. Thus a
stranded conductor has irregular surface and hence gives rise to more corona that
a solid conductor.
3. Spacing between conductors. If the spacing between the conductors is made very
large as compared to their diameters, there may not be any corona effect. It is
because larger distance between conductors reduces the electro-static stresses at
the conductor surface, thus avoiding corona formation.
4. Line voltage. The line voltage greatly affects corona. If it is low, there is no change
in the condition of air surrounding the conductors and hence no corona is formed.
However, if the line voltage has such a value that electrostatic stresses developed
at the conductor surface make the air around the conductor conducting, then
corona is formed.
2.1.1 Important Terms
The phenomenon of corona plays an important role in the design of an overhead
transmission line. Therefore, it is profitable to consider the following terms much used in
the analysis of corona effects:

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  Critical disruptive voltage. It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage at which
corona occurs. Consider two conductors of radii r cm and spaced d cm apart. If V
is the phase-neutral potential, then potential gradient at the conductor surface is
given by:

In order that corona is formed, the value of g must be made equal to the breakdown
strength of air. The breakdown strength of air at 76 cm pressure and temperature of
25ºC is 30 kV/cm (max) or 21·2 kV/cm (r.m.s.) and is denoted by go. If Vc is the phase-
neutral potential required under these conditions, then,

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  Visual critical voltage.
It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage at which corona glow appears all along the line
conductors.
It has been seen that in case of parallel conductors, the corona glow does not begin at the
disruptive voltage Vc but at a higher voltage Vv , called visual critical voltage. The
phase-neutral effective value of visual critical voltage is given by the following empirical
formula:

 Power loss due to corona.

Formation of corona is always accompanied by energy loss which is dissipated in the
form of light, heat, sound and chemical action. When disruptive voltage is exceeded, the
power loss due to corona is given by:

2.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Corona

Corona has many advantages and disadvantages. In the correct design of a high voltage
overhead line, a balance should be struck between the advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages
1. Due to corona formation, the air surrounding the conductor becomes conducting
and hence virtual diameter of the conductor is increased. The increased diameter
reduces the electrostatic stresses between the conductors.
2. Corona reduces the effects of transients produced by surges.
Disadvantages

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 1. Corona is accompanied by a loss of energy. This affects the transmission efficiency
of the line.
2. Ozone is produced by corona and may cause corrosion of the conductor due to
chemical action.
3. The current drawn by the line due to corona is non-sinusoidal and hence non-
sinusoidal voltage drop occurs in the line. This may cause inductive interference
with neighboring communication lines.
2.1.3 Methods of Reducing Corona Effect
It has been seen that intense corona effects are observed at a working voltage of 33 kV or
above. Therefore, careful design should be made to avoid corona on the sub-stations or
bus-bars rated for 33 kV and higher voltages otherwise highly ionized air may cause
flash-over in the insulators or between the phases, causing considerable damage to the
equipment. The corona effects can be reduced by the following methods:
1. By increasing conductor size. By increasing conductor size, the voltage at which
corona occurs is raised and hence corona effects are considerably reduced. This is
one of the reasons that ACSR conductors which have a larger cross-sectional area
are used in transmission lines.
2. By increasing conductor spacing. By increasing the spacing between conductors,
the voltage at which corona occurs is raised and hence corona effects can be
eliminated. However, spacing cannot be increased too much otherwise the cost of
supporting structure (e.g., bigger cross arms and supports) may increase to a
considerable extent.
More worked examples in Principles of Power System Book. Page 176-177
2.1.4 Sag in Overhead Lines
While erecting an overhead line, it is very important that conductors are under safe
tension. If the conductors are too much stretched between supports in a bid to save
conductor material, the stress in the conductor may reach unsafe value and in certain
cases the conductor may break due to excessive tension. In order to permit safe tension
in the conductors, they are not fully stretched but are allowed to have a dip or sag. The

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difference in level between points of supports and the lowest point on the conductor is
called sag.
Figure 11 (i) shows a conductor suspended between two equilevel supports A and B. The
conductor is not fully stretched but is allowed to have a dip. The lowest point on the
conductor is O and the sag is S. The following points can be noted:

Figure 11: Conductors suspended in supports

1. When the conductor is suspended between two supports at the same level, it takes
the shape of catenary. However, if the sag is very small compared with the span,
then sag-span curve is like a parabola.
2. The tension at any point on the conductor acts tangentially. Thus tension TO at the
lowest point O acts horizontally as shown in Figure 11 (ii).
3. The horizontal component of tension is constant throughout the length of the wire.
4. The tension at supports is approximately equal to the horizontal tension acting at
any point on the wire. Thus if T is the tension at the support B, then T = TO.
Conductor sag and tension: This is an important consideration in the mechanical design
of overhead lines. The conductor sag should be kept to a minimum in order to reduce the
conductor material required and to avoid extra pole height for sufficient clearance above
ground level. It is also desirable that tension in the conductor should be low to avoid the
mechanical failure of conductor and to permit the use of less strong supports. However,
low conductor tension and minimum sag are not possible. It is because low sag means a
tight wire and high tension, whereas a low tension means a loose wire and increased sag.
Therefore, in actual practice, a compromise in made between the two.
2.1.5 Calculation of Sag

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In an overhead line, the sag should be so adjusted that tension in the conductors is within
safe limits. The tension is governed by conductor weight, effects of wind, ice loading and
temperature variations. It is a standard practice to keep conductor tension less than 50%
of its ultimate tensile strength i.e., minimum factor of safety in respect of conductor
tension should be 2. We shall now calculate sag and tension of a conductor when
(i) supports are at equal levels and (ii) supports are at unequal levels.
 When supports are at equal levels.
Consider a conductor between two equilevel supports A and B with O as the lowest point
as shown in Figure 11. It can be proved that lowest point will be at the mid-span.

Figure 11: Conductor suspended at equal level

Let
l = Length of span
w = Weight per unit length of conductor
T = Tension in the conductor.
Consider a point P on the conductor. Taking the lowest point O as the origin, let the co-
ordinates of point P be x and y. Assuming that the curvature is so small that curved length
is equal to its horizontal projection (i.e., OP = x), the two forces acting on the portion OP
of the conductor are:
(a) The weight wx of conductor acting at a distance x/2 from O.
(b) The tension T acting at O.
Equating the moments of above two forces about point O, we get,

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The maximum dip (sag) is represented by the value of y at either of the supports A and
B. At support A,

 When supports are at unequal levels.

In hilly areas, we generally come across conductors suspended between supports at
unequal levels. Figure 12 shows a conductor suspended between two supports A and B
which are at different levels. The lowest point on the conductor is O.
Let
l = Span length
h = Difference in levels between two supports
x1 = Distance of support at lower level (i.e., A) from O
x 2 = Distance of support at higher level (i.e. B) from O
T = Tension in the conductor

Figure 12: Conductor suspended at different level

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  Effect of wind and ice loading.
The above formulae for sag are true only in still air and at normal temperature when the
conductor is acted by its weight only. However, in actual practice, a conductor may have
ice coating and simultaneously subjected to wind pressure. The weight of ice acts
vertically downwards i.e., in the same direction as the weight of conductor. The force due
to the wind is assumed to act horizontally i.e., at right angle to the projected surface of
the conductor. Hence, the total force on the conductor is the vector sum of horizontal and
vertical forces as shown in Figure 13 (iii).

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Total weight of conductor per unit length is:

When the conductor has wind and ice loading also, the following points may be noted:

More worked examples in Principles of Power System Book. Page 182 - 189

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