ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD

(Early Childhood Education and Elementary Teacher Education Department)

Course: Guidance & Counselling in Elementary School (629)

Level: M.Ed (ETE) Semester: Autumn, 2022

Q. 1 “Behavioral approach in most widely used approach in psychotherapy and counseling with
variety of techniques. Give an overview of these techniques along with its implications. (20)

Behavioral approach:
There are a variety of approaches to psychotherapy and often overlap between them. The
behavioral approach is a form of therapy that focuses on current behaviors and problems, along
with what changes can be made to remove behaviors that are causing difficulties.

The core of the behavioral approach is that people learn from their environment and problems
are caused by learned behaviors that aren’t effective. The goal of this approach to therapy is
to reinforce behaviors that are effective while working to eliminate behaviors that aren’t wanted
or are causing conflicts or problems.

Behavioral therapy:

Behavioral therapy is a term that describes a broad range of techniques used to change
maladaptive behaviors. The goal is to reinforce desirable behaviors and eliminate unwanted
ones.

Rooted in the principles of behaviorism, a school of thought focused on the idea that we learn
from our environment, this approach emerged during the early part of the 20th-century and
became a dominant force in the field for many years. Edward Thorndike was one of the first to
refer to the idea of modifying behavior.
Unlike the types of therapy that are rooted in insight (such as psychoanalytic therapy and
humanistic therapies), behavioral therapy is action-based. Because of this, behavioral therapy
tends to be highly focused. The behavior itself is the problem and the goal is to teach people new
behaviors to minimize or eliminate the issue.1
Types of Behavioral Therapy:

There are a number of different types of behavioral therapy. The type of therapy used can
depend on a variety of factors, including the condition being treated and the severity of the
person's symptoms.

 Applied behavior analysis uses operant conditioning to shape and modify problematic
behaviors.
 Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) relies on behavioral techniques, but the difference
is that CBT adds a cognitive element, focusing on the problematic thoughts behind
behaviors.

 Cognitive behavioral play therapy utilizes play to assess, prevent, or treat psychosocial
challenges. The therapist may use play to help a child learn how to think and behave
differently.

 Dialectical behavioral therapy (DBT) is a form of CBT that utilizes both behavioral and
cognitive techniques to help people learn to manage their emotions, cope with distress,
and improve interpersonal relationships.

 Exposure therapy utilizes behavioral techniques to help people overcome their fears of
situations or objects. This approach incorporates techniques that expose people to the
source of their fears while practicing relaxation strategies. It is useful for treating specific
phobias and other forms of anxiety.

 Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) focuses on identifying negative or

destructive thoughts and feelings. People then actively challenge those thoughts and
replace them with more rational, realistic ones.

 Social learning theory centers on how people learn through observation. Observing
others being rewarded or punished for their actions can lead to learning and behavior
change.
Behavioral Therapy Techniques:

In order to understand how behavioral therapy works, it is important to know more about the
basic principles that contribute to behavioral therapy. The techniques used in this type of
treatment are based on the theories of classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Classical Conditioning:
Classical conditioning involves forming associations between stimuli. Previously neutral stimuli
are paired with a stimulus that naturally and automatically evokes a response. After repeated
pairings, an association is formed and the previously neutral stimulus will come to evoke the
response on its own.

Classical conditioning is one way to alter behavior. Several different techniques and strategies
are used in this approach to therapy.

 Aversion therapy: This process involves pairing an undesirable behavior with an

aversive stimulus in the hope that the unwanted behavior will eventually be reduced. For
example, someone with an alcohol use disorder might take Antabuse (disulfiram), a drug
that causes severe symptoms (such as headaches, nausea, anxiety, and vomiting) when
combined with alcohol.3
 Flooding: This process involves exposing people to fear-invoking objects or situations
intensely and rapidly. It is often used to treat phobias. During the process, the individual
is prevented from escaping or avoiding the situation.

 Systematic desensitization: In this technique, people make a list of fears and then learn
to relax while concentrating on these fears. Starting with the least fear

inducing item and working their way to the most fear-inducing item, people
systematically confront these fears under the guidance of a therapist. Systematic
desensitization is often used to treat phobias and other anxiety disorders.

Relaxation training:
It mostly helps to control physiological responses in stressful situations. Although there are a
variety of relaxation methods available, most of the methods use progressive muscle relaxation.
This provides a means of voluntarily reducing or preventing a high level of arousal. Using this
method, clients relax major muscle groups in a fixed order, beginning with the small muscle
groups of the feet, and working towards shoulders, neck, face, head etc.

Operant Conditioning:
Operant conditioning focuses on how reinforcement and punishment can be utilized to either
increase or decrease the frequency of a behavior. Behaviors followed by desirable consequences
are more likely to occur again in the future, while those followed by negative consequences
become less likely to occur.
Behavioral therapy techniques use reinforcement, punishment, shaping, modeling, and related
techniques to alter behavior. These methods have the benefit of being highly focused, which
means they can produce fast and effective results.
 Contingency management: This approach uses a formal written contract between a
client and a therapist (or parent or teacher) that outlines behavior-change goals,
reinforcements, rewards, and penalties. Contingency contracts can be very effective in
producing behavior changes since the rules are spelled out clearly, preventing both
parties from backing down on their promises.
 Extinction: Another way to produce behavior change is to stop reinforcing behavior in
order to eliminate the response. Time-outs are a perfect example of the extinction
process. During a time-out, a person is removed from a situation that provides
reinforcement. By taking away what the person found rewarding, unwanted behavior is
eventually extinguished.

 Behavior modeling: This technique involves learning through observation and modeling
the behavior of others. Rather than relying simply on reinforcement or punishment,
modeling allows individuals to learn new skills or acceptable behaviors by watching
someone else perform those desired skills.

 Token economies: This strategy relies on reinforcement to modify behavior. Parents

and teachers often use token economies, allowing kids to earn tokens for engaging in
 preferred behaviors and lose tokens for undesirable behaviors. These tokens can then be
traded for rewards such as candy, toys, or extra time playing with a favorite toy.

Behavioral therapy is problem-focused and action-oriented. For this reason, it can also be useful
for addressing specific psychological concerns such as anger management and stress
management.

Q. 2 Define counseling interview. What are the general considerations of counseling interview
according to Chouhan? Explain.

Counseling Interviewing:

Counseling interview refers to a technique that involves face-to-face or ear-to-ear (over the
phone, the internet, or even radio sets) interaction between a counselor who serves as the
interviewer and a client who serves as the respondent.

The counselor asks personal questions and observes the verbal and nonverbal communication of
the client.

2 Types of Counseling Interview

There are 2 types of counseling interviews. They are subjective or unstructured counseling
interviews and objective or structured counseling interviews.

Unstructured or Subjective Counseling Interview

Counseling interviews can take a subjective form where the counselor asks questions as they
come to mind and is dependent on the response of the client.

The counselor does not begin the relationship with a prescribed list of questions that will be
asked. This form of counseling interview is used for general “check-ups” and it is especially
helpful when counseling goals and objectives have not been set.
Feedback gotten from this interview can be used to establish the goals of the counseling
relationship. Unstructured counseling interview useful technique in non-directive counseling.

For this type of counseling interview to be successful, the counselor must be an active listener
and a good observer to pick nonverbal cues the client is sending to press further questions on
them else he or she will run out of questions quickly while some important information from the
client has not been elicited.

Structured or Objective Counseling Interview

The second type of counseling interview, structured interview, is one where the counselor
begins the counseling encounter with specific questions in mind and sticks with them.

This type of counseling interview can be used to break down and understand complex
circumstances around the case of the client which the counselor may miss if they aren’t pre-
spelled out.

For example, a client suffering from post-traumatic stress because of a series of events that
occurred within the space of 3 years (divorce, robbery, and loss of home due to natural disaster).

If the counselor does not come into the relationship with questions in mind, there are some
important details that the client will not talk about if unstructured counseling interview is used.

But the counselor, being one who has had experiences with PTSD, will know the likely root
causes and anxiety inducers around the issue and prepare questions beforehand to address
those areas.

It can also be used to get background information about the client like demographics, family
history, health records, and so on.
6 Qualities of an Effective Counseling Interview

For a counseling interview to be successful, the following must be in place

1. A professional interviewer

The interviewer in this place is the counselor. He or she must display the qualities of a
professional counselor, especially congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathy. He
or she must also uphold all principles of guidance and counseling.

The counselor must also be versed in the issues the client wishes to address.

Just like a doctor asks the right questions to identify symptoms and predict the likely ailment, a
professional interviewer knows the right questions to ask to get to the root of issues.

For instance, there are slim chances there will be a need to ask someone seeking career
guidance for their eating habits.

2. Quality relationship between the counselor and the client(s)

People only open up to people they trust. At the beginning of the counseling interview, the
counselor should be focused on building a good rapport with the client.

If the interviewee can see the counselor as a friend, there will be no need for twisting questions
to get him to talk freely.

3. The presence of goals and objectives

While counselors should seek to become friends with clients, the goal of the relationship is not to
just club together and get to know each other.
So the counselor must ask questions to drive at a point. It could be either to find the root causes
of issues (which is very typical of counseling interviews) or identify options available for the
clients or any other reasons.

4. Confidentiality and privacy

Confidentiality and privacy in this context are not as much where the client stays as much as it is
how the client feels. A client can still lack confidence in the interview even if kept in a
soundproof room alone with the counselor.

One way to build the client’s confidence in the process is to display professionalism and careful
attention to detail. The counselor’s look, behavior & response, the office environment &
arrangement, the documents used, and so on must be reassuring.

If you and your environment look collected, the client will feel safe.

5. Sufficient time for the interview

Counseling interviews shouldn’t be rushed. There should be room for the client to take his time
and think through questions before answering.

But it’s not only the client. The interviewer also shouldn’t rush questions. If either the
interviewer or interviewee has a tight schedule, the interview should be rescheduled to a freer
time.

6. A focus on the client’s needs, feelings, and values

The focus of the counseling interview is the client. The counselor should be open to leaning
toward the client’s values while identifying their needs and paying attention to their feelings.
3 Stages of Counseling Interview

There are 3 major stages of counseling interviews that occur in a typical counseling relationship,
from when a client first enters the counselor’s office until the relationship is terminated either
due to success or referral.

1. Initial Phase

The initial phase of the counseling interview happens in the first meeting between the counselor
and the client. Here, the counselor focuses on building rapport and trust with the client and
encouraging open communication.

The counselor also gives a background to the client on what to expect in the counseling
encounter.

There is first a structured interview (of client demographics) that takes place if the counselor
has no previous knowledge of the client. Then there is another interview to ascertain the needs
of the clients and set counseling goals.

2. Body Interviews

These are all other interviews that take place in the course of the counseling relationship. These
interviews are mostly targeted toward understanding the client’s situation better.

A kind of formative evaluation through interviews is also done to ascertain if progress is being
made in the relationship.

3. Termination Phase

The third stage of the counseling interview is mainly focused on evaluation, but this time,
summative evaluation.
The counselor asks the client questions about the sessions they have had so far and how
satisfied they are concerning the issues they brought for counseling.

10 Importance of Counseling Interview

Counseling interview plays the following roles to the counselor and the client

1. It can be used to find out the root causes of clients’ issues

2. It can be used to get demographic data of clients
3. It builds rapport between the counselor and the client thereby making the counseling
relationship more effective
4. It is necessary for effective goals setting in counseling
5. It gives the client trust in the counseling process that it is aimed at meeting his needs
6. It can serve as talk therapy where clients gain relief by talking to someone who cares and
understand
7. It can help clients gain insights and clarity about themselves and their thoughts
8. Listening to the complexities of clients’ issues widens the experience scope of the
counselor
9. It can help the client develop communication skills that will be useful outside the
counseling relationship
10. It can be used for surveys e.g need assessment in school guidance programs

Q. 3 What do you mean by commutative record? Write down the principles and its importance
in educational context?
answer no 3
Meaning of Cumulative Record Card:
A Cumulative Record Card is that which contains the results of different assessment and
judgments held from time to time during the course of study of a student or pupil. Generally it
covers three consecutive years. It contains information regarding all aspects of life of the child or
educed-physical, mental, social, moral and psychological. It seeks to give as comprehensive
picture as possible of the personality of a child.

“The significant information gathered periodically on student through the use of various
techniques tests, inventories, questionnaire, observation, interview, case study etc.”

According to Jones, a Cumulative Record is, “A permanent record of a student which is kept up-
to-date by the school; it is his educational history with information about his school
achievement, attendance, health, test scores and similar pertinent data,” If the Cumulative
Record is kept together in a folder it is called Cumulative Record Folder (CRF). If the Cumulative
Record is kept in an envelope it is called a Cumulative Record Envelop (CRE). If the cumulative
Record is kept in a card it is called a Cumulative Record Card (CRC).

Need for School Record:

The modern type of Cumulative Record was first made available in 1928 by the American
Council on education. The need for such a record was felt in view of an inadequate information
that was contained in the various forms as available. The Secondary Education Commission has
made the following observations regarding the need for School records “neither the external
examination singly or together can give a correct and complete picture of a pupils all round
progress at any particular age of his education, yet it is imparted for us to assess this in order to
determine his future course of study or his future vocation.”

Characteristics of Cumulative Record:The Cumulative Record is characterised in the following

grounds:
(i) The Cumulative Record is a permanent record about the pupil or student.

(ii) It is maintained up-to-date. Whenever any new information is obtained about the pupil it is
entered in the card.

(iii) It presents a complete picture about the educational progress of the pupil, his past
achievements and present standing.
(iv) It is comprehensive in the sense that it contains all information about the pupil’s attendance,
test scores, health etc.

(v) It contains only those information’s which are authentic, reliable, pertinent, objective and
useful.

(vi) It is continuous in the sense that it contains information about the pupil from the time he
enters for pre-school education or kindergarten system till he leaves the school.

(vii) Whenever any information is desired by any-body concerned with the welfare of the child
he should be given the information but not the card itself.

Basic Principles that Should Govern the Maintenance of the CRC:

Data contained in the cumulative record card (CRC) should be:
1. Accurate

2. Complete

3. Comprehensive

4. Objective

5. Usable

6. Valid

(i) Keeping of record is a continuous process and should cover the hole history from pre-school
or kindergarten to the college and this should follow the child from school. The Card will furnish
valuable information’s about the growth of a child and the new school can place him and deal
with him to a greater advantage.

(ii) All the teachers and the guidance workers should have access to these records. Matters too
confidential may be kept at a separate place. The child concerned may have an opportunity to
study his own Cumulative Record in consultation with the counseller.
(iii) The essential data should be kept in a simple, concise and readable form so that it may be
convenient to find out the main points of life of the child at a glance.

(iv) Records should be based on an objective data. They should be as reliable as possible.

(v) The record system should provide for a minimum of repetition of items.

(vi) It should contain reliable, accurate and objective information.

(vii) A manual should be prepared and directions for the guidance of persons, feeling out of
using the records given in it.

(viii) The record should be maintained by the counsellor and should not be circulated
throughout the faculty for making entries on it by other members of the staff. These entries
should made by them on other forms and the entry in this card should be made very carefully by
counsellor.

Importance of Cumulative Record in education:

The main aim of education is to develop all-round personality of the child. To discharge
function, it is absolutely essential to his/her growth and development. During his/her
schooling, he/she has to decide the subjects which she/ he will study and after schooling
take a decision regarding his/her profession or vocation. Usually parents take advice of
teachers.

The Secondary Education Commission emphasized the importance of Cumulative Record

Card in the following words:

“Neither the external examination nor the internal examination, singly or together, can give
a complete and correct picture of pupil’s all-round progress at any particular stage of his
education, yet it is important for us to assess this, in order to determine his future course of
study or future vocation.
For this purpose, a proper system of school records should be maintained for every pupil
indicating the work done by him in the school from day-to-day, from month-to-month, from
term-to- term, and from year-to-year. Such school records will present a clear and
continuous statement of the attainments of the child in different intellectual pursuits
throughout successive stages of his education.”

Key feature of commutative record:

 It helps in deciding upon the vocation and profession for a student.

 It helps to observe various aspects of child’s personality.

 The data helps when a student leaves the school and gets admission in another school.

 It helps in identifying an abnormal child and those who are weak in studies.

Q. 4 Discuss in detail the professional competence and skills of counselor.

A career in counseling gives licensed professionals the opportunity to help those who are coping
with loss, depression, anxiety, addiction, relationship issues, and other everyday mental health
struggles. In order to be an effective counselor, there are many characteristics that one must
possess.

Whether you’re a counseling degree student, a licensed counselor, or even if you’re starting your
own counseling practice, here are some characteristics that can make an effective counselor.
1. Be organized within your practice:

Effective counselors prioritize organization in their practice, which makes it much easier to
provide effective counseling to both new and existing clients. Organization of paperwork,
scheduling, and proper storing of confidential information will give your clients peace of mind
and confidence in your counseling process. While providing your clientele with a greater sense
of well-being from your organization, an effective and organized counselor will also experience a
greater sense of wellness and balance within themselves, which will allow space for a more
effective counseling process.

2. Practice ethically and professionally:

Due to the power differential that may often be experienced in the counseling relationship, an
effective counselor needs to be able to understand their duties as an ethical professional.
Doctoral and master’s degree programs will include courses focused solely on ethics in
healthcare, more specifically in mental health. Beyond classroom education on ethics, there are
many resources for counselors to understand the ethics of the profession. Some resources
include the American Counseling Association Code of Ethics, ASERVIC competencies, and mental
health statutes that vary from state to state.

3. Educate yourself:

If you are on the path to earning a degree in clinical mental health counseling, you’re already
moving forward with one of the most important, and necessary steps needed to take to become
an effective counselor. Alongside clinical experiences in the counseling field, counselor education
helps mental health professionals be able to extend the scope of their work. Another great way
to gain experience is to attend a counseling conference, such as the ACA Conference. Study hard,
ask a lot of questions, and get all the experience you can while earning your
undergraduate, Master of Arts in Clinical Mental Health Counseling, or doctoral degrees.
4. Be confident in your position and responsibility:

Whether you’ve been a licensed professional counselor for 20 years or you’re new to the
profession, you must maintain confidence in your work. A client is looking to you for help, so use
your education and experience assuredly. Good clinical supervision is also suggested and
necessary to maintain competence and to review situations that may happen in practice that can
lead to further education and confidence in the application of counseling skills.

5. Be respectful and non-judgmental:

According to the ACA Code of Ethics, “Counselors are aware of — and avoid imposing — their
own values, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors” (A.4.b). As a counselor, you must respect each
client’s beliefs and struggles, and never assert your personal values or beliefs. Self-disclosure
must be used appropriately and in necessary situations to further build out the therapeutic
relationship. Research shows that the therapeutic alliance or therapeutic relationship is one of
the strongest predictors of success. A good therapeutic relationship is often defined as having
trust, agreement on therapeutic goals formulated together on a treatment plan, and a
collaborative approach to working towards those goals.

6. Understand the importance of communication:

Every client is different, you may have some that need time to warm up to you, while some aren’t
afraid to divulge their life story from the start. An effective counselor must understand that
communication needs to be personalized to each client. Interpersonal skills go beyond the
context of therapy itself. Consider differences in ethnicity, culture, and background, and be self-
aware of personal biases that may hinder or create barriers within the therapeutic relationship.
When there is a cultural difference, one can combine this characteristic with that of educating
oneself, and seek out the necessary clinical supervision or take education training to gain the
necessary education to effectively communicate with clients that may have different beliefs or
cultural experiences. If the communication barrier still remains after seeking out supervision
and additional training, an effective counselor must consider the option of a more appropriate
referral outside of one’s private practice.
7. Have a flexible attitude:

When working as an effective counselor, you will have to be accommodating to the

unpredictability of your clientele. Some clients will be late or may cancel, along with clients that
are seeking an emergency session. An effective counselor must possess a flexible attitude and
unconditional positive regard to ensure your clients feel safe and understood which in turn
becomes beneficial for the development of the therapeutic alliance.
Counseling skills:

There are a variety of skills that are beneficial to a counselor's understanding of their client, and
to the client's overall comfort and willingness to be vulnerable about their personal hardships.
Here's a list of useful skills that counselors should have:

1. Active listening: This type of listening can be defined as the use of eye contact, facial
expressions and gestures to imply that you are engaged and focused on the information
the other person is saying. It can help a client feel like they've been heard and validated in
the information they chose to share.
2. Questioning:

Open questioning includes all questioning that is directed toward gathering more
detailed and complex information. Closed questioning is directed toward more short-
ended questions with specific answers.

3. Self-awareness:

Counselors need to be aware of how their body language, gestures and tone of voice can
affect their client and their willingness to talk about the situation. Having good self-
awareness can keep a counselor from accidentally exhibiting signs of boredom,
frustration or judgment.

4. Trustworthiness: An important skill for a counselor is to be able to build and maintain

trust with their clients. This can affect a client's willingness to share information.
 5. Empathy: A counselor needs to be able to see a client's situation from their perspective
in order to best help them overcome their obstacles.

6. Emotional compartmentalization: Another skill that can be specific to counselors is the

ability to emotionally compartmentalize themselves from their clients and maintain
professional boundaries in order to continue healthy client relationships.

7. Information recall: Counselors should be able to retain information that was shared
with them earlier in the session or from a previous session in order to help guide their
questioning toward a particular client.

8. Confidentiality: Confidentiality can be seen as a valued skill for a counselor to have as

they must respect their clients and the information they share with them.

9. Record keeping: Counselors should be able to keep detailed records of their clients,
relevant paperwork and session notes to make sure everything stays up-to-date.

Q. 5 What evaluation procedure are followed in programme evolution.

Answer no 5:
Evaluation Phases and Processes:

In general, evaluation processes go through four distinct phases: planning, implementation,

completion, and reporting. While these mirror common program development steps, it is
important to remember that your evaluation efforts may not always be linear, depending on
where you are in your program or intervention.

Planning:
The most important considerations during the planning phase of your project evaluation are
prioritizing short and long-term goals, identifying your target audience(s), determining methods
for collecting data, and assessing the feasibility of each for your target audience(s).

Defining and identifying stakeholders is a significant component of the planning stage.

Stakeholders are people or organizations that have an interest in or could be affected by the
program evaluation. They can be people who are involved in program operations, people who
are served or affected by the program, or the primary users of the evaluation. The inclusion of
stakeholders in an evaluation not only helps build support for the evaluation but also increases
its credibility, provides a participatory approach, and supplies the multiple perspectives of
participants and partners (Rossi et al., 2004).

Stakeholders might include community residents, businesses, community-based organizations,

schools, policy makers, legislators, politicians, educators, researchers, media, and the public. For
example, in the evaluation of a program to increase access to healthy food choices in and near
schools, stakeholders could include store merchants, school boards, zoning commissions,
parents, and students. Stakeholders constitute an important resource for identifying the
questions a program evaluation should consider, selecting the methodology to be used,
identifying data sources, interpreting findings, and implementing recommendations (CDC,
1999).

Implementation:

This is the carrying out of your evaluation plan. Although it may vary considerably from project
to project, you will likely concentrate on formative and process evaluation strategies at this
point in your efforts.

Evaluation during a program’s implementation may examine whether the program is

successfully recruiting and retaining its intended participants, using training materials that meet
standards for accuracy and clarity, maintaining its projected timelines, coordinating efficiently
with other ongoing programs and activities, and meeting applicable legal standards. Evaluation
during program implementation could be used to inform mid-course corrections to program
implementation (formative evaluation) or to shed light on implementation processes (process
evaluation).
Completion
Upon completion of your program, or the intermediate steps along the way, your evaluation
efforts will be designed to examine long term outcomes and impacts, and summarize the overall
performance of your program.

Once the positive outcome of a program is confirmed, subsequent program evaluation may
examine the long-term impact the program hopes to have. For example, the outcome of a
program designed to increase the skills and retention of health care workers in a medically
underserved area would not be represented by the number of providers who participated in the
training program, but it could be represented by the proportion of health care workers who stay
for one year. Reduction in maternal mortality might constitute the long-term impact that such a
program would hope to effect

Reporting and Communication

In order to tell your story effectively, it's critical for you to consider what you want to
communicate about the results or processes of your project, what audiences are most important
to communicate with, and what are the most appropriate methods for disseminating your
information.

To ensure that the dissemination and reporting of results to all appropriate audiences is
accomplished in a comprehensive and systematic manner, one needs to develop a dissemination
plan during the planning stage of the evaluation. This plan should include guidelines on who will
present results, which audiences will receive the results, and who will be included as a coauthor
on manuscripts and presentations.

Dissemination of the results of the evaluation requires adequate resources, such as people, time,
and money. Finding time to write papers and make presentations may be difficult for community
members who have other commitments (Parker et al., 2005). In addition, academics may not be
rewarded for nonscientific presentations and may thus be hesitant to spend time on such
activities. Additional resources may be needed for the translation of materials to ensure that
they are culturally appropriate.
.