ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

WEEK 2
Classroom Rules:
1. Respect Everyone
2. No bullying
3. Listen Carefully
4. Raise your Hand to Talk
5. Be Punctual
6. No gadgets during Discussion
7. Phones must be in silent mode
Last week we learned:
• Earthquake
• Continental Drift
• Plate Techtonics
• Geology
• Engineering Geology
• Instruments use for Earthquake
Concrete
 a hard strong building material made by mixing a cementing material (such as
Portland cement) and a mineral aggregate (such as sand and gravel) with sufficient
water to cause the cement to set and bind the entire mass

Cement
or calcium oxide (CaO), is derived from high quality natural deposits of limestone, or
LIME calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Limestone is a sedimentary rock that formed millions of years
ago as the result of the accumulation of shell, coral, algal, and other ocean debris.

Silicon dioxide, also known as silica, is an oxide of silicon with the

SILICA chemical formula SiO 2, commonly found in nature as quartz
Gravel
 (also known as crushed stone) is a collection of loose material that’s primarily
made of rock fragments. The most common types of rock found in gravel are basalt,
limestone, and sandstone
Sand
 when rocks break down from weathering and eroding over thousands and even
millions of years
Coco Board
Earth Processes
 include weathering; sediment production by weathering and biochemical or
chemical precipitation; erosion, transport, and deposition of sediment under the
influence of gravity, flowing water, air, and ice; earthquakes and Earth surface
motions; volcanic eruptions and movement of volcanic ejecta
Humus
is dark, organic material that forms in soil when plant and
animal matter decays
The thick brown or black substance that remains after most of the organic litter has decomposed is
called humus. Earthworms often help mix humus with minerals in the soil.
Rock
is a solid aggregate of mineral materials
A relatively hard, naturally occurring mineral material. Rock can consist of a single mineral or of several
minerals that are either tightly compacted or held together by a cementlike mineral matrix

Divided into three groups:

1. Igneous rock are “fire-born,” meaning that they are formed from the cooling and
solidification of molten (melted) rock. The word igneous derives from ignis,
the Latin word for “fire.”
Examples of Igneous Rocks
2. Sedimentary rock
Are formed through the accumulation and compaction of sedimentary materials such as minerals,
organic matter, and debris often in layers over a long periods of time.
3. Metamorphic rock
Are formed from pre-existing rocks that undergo intense heat, pressure, or chemical
process deep within earths crust.
Weathering
 is the process by which rock deteriorates until it eventually breaks down to soil

Products of Weathering includes

Sand Clay Rock fragments

3 Types of Weathering
Physical Weathering or Mechanical Weathering

 Physical weathering includes pressure, water and temperature changes

 occurs when rock is broken down through mechanical processes such as wind, water,
gravity, freeze-thaw cycles, or the growth of roots into rock.
 Involve the breakdown of rocks into fragments or their disintegration into smaller pieces
without altering the mechanical composition.
Chemical Weathering
 Chemical weathering includes oxidation, biological action and dissolution (the
dissolving of certain kinds of rocks).
 The alteration of rocks into new minerals
Biological Weathering
 The main agent in biological weathering is the organic acids released by organisms
such as bacteria, lichens, mosses, and decaying plants of many times.
Physical Weathering Chemical Weathering
Physical Weathering Subsection includes:
Thermal Stresses
From the expansion or contraction of rocks, caused by temperature changes.
It comprimes main types, thermal shock and thermal fatigue

Spheroidal Weathering and Block Disintegration

Is the flaking of highly heated, exposesd rock as it expands more than the
cooler rock underneath it.

Frost Action
The process wherein snow or ice inside cracks cause their expansion and
the ultimate fragmentation of the rock.

Pressure release
Also know as ‘unloading’ phenomenon, the overlying rock by erosion or other processes
causes the underlying rocks to expand and develop fractures paralledl to the surface.
Slacking and Holoclasty
Is the process that causes the crumbling of rocks when exposed to air or
moisture

Hydraulic action

When water from powerful waves rushes rapidly into the cracks on the
rock face, hydraulic action takes place.

Tree root action

Can widen the joints and fractures in rocks as they grow up, casuing
weakness and ultimately the crumbling of the mass
 Water Weathering Freeze-Thaw Weathering

THERMAL STRESS Root Weathering

Wind Weathering
Chemical Weathering
 In hot, humid climates the following are the most important processes

Decomposition
 The result of chemical changes on exposure to the atmposhere (H2O, C02
and O2).

Disintegration
 Inter and intra grain crack growth and coalescence of cracks to form fissures
and propagation of large scale joints

Eluviation
 The soft, disintegrated (or dissolved) material is washed out from the parent
rock fabric through open joints or from porous skeletal structure
Chemical Weathering

Salt Weathering
Salt weathering is where expanding
salt crystals break fragments of rock
that create an increasingly larger hole
over time. The pattern that results is
known as honeycomb weathering
Decomposition

Disintergration
Chemical Weathering Subsection includes:

is the reaction of rock minerals with oxygen, thus changing the

Oxidation mineral composition of the rock. When minerals in rock oxidize, they
become less resistant to weathering. Iron, a commonly known
mineral, becomes red or rust colored when oxidized.

is the process of rock minerals reacting with carbonic acid. Carbonic

Carbonation acid is formed when water combines with carbon dioxide. Carbonic
acid dissolves or breaks down minerals in the rock

is a chemical reaction caused by water. Water changes the chemical

composition and size of minerals in rock, making them less resistant to
Hydrolysis weathering. Click on the video clip below to see hydrolysis of a
relatively weathering resistant mineral, feldspar
Weathering Depends on may Factors

1. Tends to be faster in the hot and humid tropics

2. The higher the temperature, the faster is the weathering

3. The more the mineral surface area is exposed in the rock by joints, the faster will be the
weathering.

4. Increased number of cracks in the rocks will aloow the agents of water and oxygen to
interact more intensely with the minerals

5. The mineral composition of the rock is also a factor of weathering

Classification of Weathering Grades
Necessary Results required for Soil Boring Test

Ground bearing pressure (bearing capacity of soil)

is important because whenever a load is placed on the ground, such as from
a building foundation, a crane or a retaining wall, the ground must have the capacity
to support it without excessive settlement or failure.
1. Mechanical Seive Analysis

sieve analysis consists of shaking the soil sample through a set of sieves
that have progressively smaller openings. ➢ The results of mechanical
analysis (sieve and hydrometer analyses) are generally presented by
semi-logarithmic plots known as particle-size distribution curves

The sieve analysis determines the gradation (the distribution

of aggregate particles, by size, within a given sample)
2. Atterberg Limit
soils are determined with a series of laboratory tests that classify the properties of silt and clay soils at
different moisture contents. Geotechnical engineers use Atterberg limits to design foundations for
structures and predict the behavior of soils for fills, embankments, and pavements.
3. Moisture Content Test
Oven Drying Method
is a thermogravimetric method (loss on drying) in which the sample is dried for a defined period of time
at constant temperature. The moisture content is determined by weighing the sample before and after
drying and determining the difference.
4. Hydrometer Test
Measuring the particle size distribution of fine-grained soils like clay and silt is
best performed using the soil hydrometer test
is an instrument used to determine specific gravity. It operates based on the Archimedes
principle that a solid body displaces its own weight within a liquid in which it floats.
5. Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of soil solid is used in calculating the phase relationships of soils, such as the void ratio
and the degree of saturation. The specific gravity of soil solids is used to calculate the density of the soil
solids.

Specific Gravity of Soil By Pycnometer Method

is used to determine specific gravity and water content both. This method is suitable for cohesionless
soils. Pycnometer is a glass jar of 1-liter capacity that is fitted at its top by a conical cap made of brass.
6. Consolidation Test
Consolidation Test Apparatus
is used to determine the rate and magnitude of soil consolidation when the soil is
restrained laterally and loaded axially. The Consolidation test is also referred to as Standard
Oedometer test or One-dimensional compression test.
s the basic experiment to measure the settlement characteristics of a clay layer. The rate of
consolidation is governed by a coupling between the hydraulic conductivity and the
compressibility of the soil
7. Strength Test (Direct Shear or Tri-axial Test)
estimate soil strength include triaxial tests and direct simple shear (DSS) tests. Triaxial tests
load a soil sample vertically either in compression or extension, whereas DSS tests shear
the soil horizontally.
Tria-axial apparatus
7. Soil Bearing Capacity
is the capacity of soil to support the loads that are applied to the ground above. It depends primarily
on the type of soil, its shear strength and its density
Plate Load Test
determines the ground's bearing capacity and actual strength by applying an increasing load from a
circular steel plate to induce settlement
Standard Penetration Test
is a simple and low-cost testing procedure widely used in geotechnical investigation to determine the
relative density and angle of shearing resistance of cohesionless soils and also the strength of stiff
cohesive soils.
Soil
the upper layer of earth in which plants grow, a black or dark brown material typically
consisting of a mixture of organic remains, clay, and rock particles

Types of Soil
The first type of soil is sand. It consists of small particles of weathered rock. Sandy soils are one of the poorest types of soil for growing plants
1. Sandy Soil because it has very low nutrients and poor water holding capacity, which makes it hard for the plant’s roots to absorb water. This type of soil
is very good for the drainage system. Sandy soil is usually formed by the breakdown or fragmentation of rocks like granite, limestone and
quartz.

which is known to have much smaller particles compared to sandy soil and is made up of rock and other mineral particles, which are smaller
2. Silt Soil than sand and larger than clay. It is the smooth and fine quality of the soil that holds water better than sand. Silt is easily transported by
moving currents and it is mainly found near the river, lakes and other water bodies

is the smallest particle among the other two types of soil. The particles in this soil are tightly packed together with each other with very
3. Clay Soil little or no airspace. This soil has very good water storage qualities and makes it hard for moisture and air to penetrate into it. It is very
sticky to the touch when wet but smooth when dried. Clay is the densest and heaviest type of soil which does not drain well or provide
space for plant roots to flourish.

is the fourth type of soil. It is a combination of sand, silt and clay such that the beneficial properties of each are included. For instance, it has
4. Loamy Soil the ability to retain moisture and nutrients; hence, it is more suitable for farming. This soil is also referred to as agricultural soil as it includes
an equilibrium of all three types of soil materials, being sandy, clay, and silt, and it also happens to have humus. Apart from these, it also has
higher calcium and pH levels because of its inorganic origins.
Classification of Soil
Residual Soil
Soil covering only the top part of the bedrock from which it has been derived
Soil deposits are of limited thickness varying roughly between 15m and 60m and prevalen in
hell slopes

Transported Soil
Soil formed of materials transported and deposited may very thick

Is a mixture of particles derived from rocks of two or more regions and also of reworked
sediments
 Sandy Soil Silt Soil Clay Soil

The particle size of silt ranges

from 0.002 and 0.06 mm. lay particles are the finest of all the soil
The particle size of course sand ranges particles, measuring fewer than 0.002
from 2 - 4.75mm, Medium sand ranges
from 0.425 - 2 mm and fine sand ranges mm in size.
from 0.075 - 0.425 mm
 Loamy Soil

The way the other particles combine in the soil

makes the loam. For instance, a soil that is 30
percent clay, 50 percent sand and 20 percent silt is
a sandy clay loam,
Backfill Material
is the process of filling in the excavated area around a foundation or structure. The backfill material can
be anything from soil to gravel and is usually compacted to provide support and stability

Liquid Limit (LL) is the moisture content at which a fine-grained soil no longer flows like a liquid
Plastic Limit (PL) Is the moisture content at which a fine-grained soil can no longer be remolded without
cracking.
Plasticity Index defined as the range of moisture contents over which the soil deforms plastically
(PI)
Soil compaction site Testing

includes field density testing using a nuclear density guage

It is used to determine the dry and/or wet density and moisture content of the material being tested. The
Field Density is usually compared with a laboratory compaction test of the same material type
SOIL EROSION
The deplacement of the upper layer of the soil, one form of soil degradation. The natural process
is caused by the dynamic activity of erosive agents, that is water, glaciers, snow, air, wind, plants,
animals and humans.
Is the process in which the soil particles are loosened or washed away in the valleys, oceans,
rivers, streams, or faraway lands.
5 Agents of Soil Erotion
1. Wind
2. Waves
3. Running Water
4. Glaziers

5. Gravity
CAUSES OF SOIL EROSION

1. Rainfull and Flooding

2. Agriculture

3. Grazing expose soil by removing the plant cover for an area

4. Logging and Mining

5. Construction

6. Rivers and Streams

7. Heavy Winds
Landslide
The downward and outward movement of slope forming materials composed of rocks, soils,
or artificial fills
Movement may take place by falling, sliding or flowing or some combination of these factors.
Landslides are actually a very extreme, fast-acting method of erosion:

Two Categories of Landslide

1. Internal Causes
Those mechanisms whithin the mass which bought about a reduction of its shear strength

2. External Causes
Those outside the mass involved, which were responsible for overcoming its internal shear
strength, thereby causing it to fail.
Causes of Landslide
- Heavy rainful can saturate the soil and cause it to
1. Heavy Rainful become unstable, leading to landslide. This is
commonly in areas with poor drainage systems

2. Geological Factors Such as steep slopes, unstable rock formations, and

week soil structures can contribute to landslide

3. Human Activities Such as construction, mining, and

deforestation can weaken and cause landslide

Can cause landslide by shaking the ground

4. Earthquakes and destabilizing slopes
How to Prevent Soil Erosion or Landslide
How to Prevent Soil Erosion or Landslide
1. Retaining Walls

is constructed to resist the lateral

pressure of soil when there is a desired
change in ground elevation that exceeds
the angle of repose of the soil

2. Soil Nailing or rock bolts

offer a method of securing excavations, slopes or

embankments by installing reinforcement bars
through and into the failure zone. Soil nailing
usually involves the insertion of reinforcement
bars (Hollow/solid) into the exposed slope
followed by grouting, placement of a wire mesh
and shotcreting before the testing and locking off
of the nail through stressing jacks.
3. Ground Anchor or Earth Anchor

are strand wire anchors installed in the

ground and prestressed to retain shoring
structures. These structural elements
can used in permanent as well as
temporary structures.

4. Sheet Piling

resist soil and water pressures by

functioning as abeam spanning vertically
between points of support.