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7. Survey of Muslim Rule in West Africa

West African region has a long history of Berber and Negro dynasties ruled from the
ancient period in different areas of this region. Although these all were non Muslim rule but up
to the 11th century they all had came into the fold of Islam. Some of these Muslim Empires are
Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, Songhai Empire and Kanem Empire etc.
The Ghana Empire
An ancient empire of West Africa, located in what is now southeastern Mauritania,
Western Mali, and eastern Senegal. Ghana Empire reached on its height in 11 th century when it
covered a vast area surrounded by Sahel from North, Bambuk from South, Niger River from East
and Atlantic from the West. According to the tradition of the Soninke people, they migrated to
southeastern Mauritania in the 1st century, and as early as around 100 CE created a settlement
that would eventually developed into the Ghana Empire. The sources identify the beginnings of
the empire sometime in the mid-8th century.
The people Ghana were an idolater that is why Muslim called them “Ghanatul Kuffar”.
th
In 10 century these Ghana forces captured capital of Lamtuna, Audaghast. But Abdullah bin
Yasin, Almoravid, after getting power and with the help of Tekrur tribe recaptured it from
Ghana. After the death of Abdullah bin Yasin his successor Abu Bakr captured Ghana’s capital
Kumbi Saleh and finished idolater’s rule. According to the description of the town by Al-Bakri
in 1067/1068, the capital was actually made up of two towns six miles apart, one inhabited by
Muslim merchants and the other by the king of Ghana. Muslim town was large in area with
twelve mosques, one of which for public prayer and one for lawyers and academics.
Islam in the Ghana Empire
It is said that these Ghana Berbers accepted Islam at the hand of the Almoravids in 11 th
century. These Ghana people were impressed by the teachings and practices of Muslims even
before accepting Islam. Ghana king patronized Muslims Jurists, scholars and used to give
stipends to muazzin of mosques, Qaris, Imam and Jurists. And after conversion they made
alliance with Almoravids and joined with them to spread Islam.
Al Harrani writes the Ghana’s economic development and eventual wealth was linked to
the growth of regular and intensified trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt, and ivory, which allowed
for the development of larger urban centers and encouraged territorial expansion to gain control
over different trade routes.
The Mali Empire
The Mali Empire was an empire in West Africa that lasted from 1230 to 1600.
Historically it referred to as the Manden Kurufaba. It was the largest empire in West Africa and
profoundly influenced the culture of the region through the spread of its language, laws, and
customs along lands adjacent to the Niger River, as well as other areas consisting of numerous
vassal kingdoms and provinces in the West Africa.
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The Ghana Empire had various small tributary principalities. After the downfall of
Soninke these small dynasties declared independency and Mali was one out of these independent
principalities. Mali Empire was founded by Maghan Sundiata in 1230 with the name of Sundiata
Keita who owned title Mansa (emperor) and became renowned for the wealth of its rulers.
Sundiata or Malian king was also known as Maridjata I. Islam came into the Mali Empire in the
early 11th century. First Muslim Mali King was Barmundan, who belong to a great tribe of West
Africa name Mandingo.
By 1140 the Sosso king of Soumaoro started to conquer the lands of his masters. By
1203, Sosso came into the power and forced Soninke to pay tribute. He terrorized much of kings
and stolen women and goods. Sundiata made alliance with chieftains and ruler of Malinke
against Sosso and declared independency. A decisive battle ‘Kirina’ took place near Niger River
decided the fate of Sundiata. The victory resulted in the fall of the Soumaoro kingdom and the
rise of the Mali Empire. In 1235, Sundiata’s victorious army went to conquered territory in each
direction. After this liberation war Malinke chiefs acknowledged the sovereignty of Sundiata.
This marked the foundation of the Mali Empire with the Keita clan as the ruling dynasty. At the
age of eighteen, Sundiata gained authority over all the twelve kingdoms in an alliance known as
the Manden Kurufaba. He was crowned under the name Sunidata Keita, becoming the first
Mandinka emperor and a rule with the name Keita tribe. The Mali ruled from the capital Niani,
the ancestral place of the tribe of Keita tribe. Sundiata’s son Mansa Uli expended territories
including Timbuktu and Gao.
Mansa Musa (1307-37 CE)
Sundiata’s nephew Mansa Musa I was a great emperor of this empire who ruled 30 years
1307 to 1337. His period was golden period of Mali Empire. Mansa Musa was a kind and just
ruler. He had spiritual bent of mind, the stories of his justice and kindness are very famous. His
pilgrimage to Makkah in 1324 left a deep impact on Egyptians where the value of gold became
down for many years, because Mansa Musa largely distributed gold in Egypt while crossing the
country. Due to this pilgrimage he literally got fame throughout the world. On his return from
pilgrimage Musa brought a Spanish architect Abu Ishaq Ibrahim al Sahili, who built mosque and
palaces in Timbuktu and Gao. He encouraged the pursuit of Knowledge particularly regarding
Islam. Timbuktu emerged as a centre of learning, established Madrasahs as well as a centre of
Trans-Saharan gold and salt trade. He also transformed Sankore from an informal madrasah into
an Islamic university. By the end of Mansa Musa’s reign, the Sankore University had been
converted into a fully staffed university, with the largest collections of books in Africa since the
Library of Alexandria. After Mansa Musa’s death the decline of Mali Empire was started. In
1545, it replaced by Songhai Empire.
Mali rule is renowned for wealth of its rulers. It flourished because of trade above all
else. It contained three immense gold mines within its borders, and the empire taxed every ounce
of gold or salt that entered its borders. By the beginning of the 14th century, Mali was the source

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of almost half the Old World’s gold, exported from mines in Bambuk, Boure, and Galam. There
was no standard currency throughout the realm.
The number and frequency of conquests in the late 13 th century and throughout the 14th
century indicate that the Mansas inherited and/or developed a capable military. Due to steady tax
revenue and a stable government beginning in the last quarter of the 13th century, the Mali
Empire was able to project its power throughout its own extensive domain and beyond. The
empire maintained a semi-professional full-time army in order to defend its borders.
Mali rulers ruled over a vast area due to its decentralized nature of state. The towns,
villages, cities and provinces in the Mali Empire had their own administration and had freedom
to choose their governor according to their local customs but this governor was approved by the
centre. A great traveler Ibn Batutta of Morocco in 1352 spent many months in Mali and
described Mali as peaceful state.
The Songhai Empire (1468-1591 CE)
The Songhai Empire was a state that dominated the western Sahel in the 15 th and 16th
centuries. At its peak, it was one of the largest states in African history. The state is known by its
historical name, derived from its leading ethnic group and ruling elite, the Songhai.
Sonni Ali established Gao as the capital of the empire, although a Songhai state had
existed in and around Gao since the 11th century. Other important cities in the empire were
Timbuktu and Djenné, conquered in 1468 and 1475 respectively, where urban-centered trade
flourished. Initially, the empire was ruled by the Sonni dynasty (1464–1493 CE), but it was later
replaced by the Askiya dynasty (1493–1591 CE).
During the second half of the 13th century, Gao and the surrounding region had grown
into an important trading center and attracted the interest of the expanding Mali Empire. Mali
conquered Gao towards the end of the 13th century and the town would remain under Malian
domination until the late 14th century. But as the Mali Empire started to disintegrate, the Songhai
reasserted control of Gao. Songhai rulers subsequently took advantage of the weakened Mali
Empire to expand Songhai rule.
Imperial Songhai
The Kingdom of Songhai dates back to at least the 9th century and were contemporary
with Ghana Empire. Although, was conquered by Mali empire but they continuously struggling
for their independency and they got controlled over the transport at the Niger at some extent. In
the second half of the 14th century, disputes over succession weakened the Mali Empire and in
the 1430s, Songhai, previously a Mali dependency, gained independence under the Sonni
Dynasty. Around thirty years later, Sonni Sulayman Dama attacked Mema in the West of
Timbuktu then his successor, Sonni Ali, turn his country into one of the greatest empires sub-
Saharan Africa has ever seen.

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Sonni Dynasty
Finally after getting power from Malian kings Songhai empire got independency in 15 th
century. The first ruler of Songhai Empire was Sonni Ali. Sonni Ali reigned from 1468 to 1492
CE. After conquering Timbaktu and Jenne cities Sonni Ali founded his independent rule with the
capital of Gao. Like Songhai kings before him, he was a Muslim. In the late 1470s, he conquered
many of the Songhai’s neighboring states, including what remained of the Mali Empire. He was
arguably the empire’s most formidable military strategist and conqueror. Under his rule, Songhai
reached a size of over 1,400,000 square kilometers. During his campaigns for expansion, Ali
conquered many lands, repelling attacks from the Mossi to the south and overcoming the Dogon
people to the north. He annexed Timbuktu in 1468, after Islamic leaders of the town requested
his assistance in overthrowing marauding Tuaregs who had taken the city following the decline
of Mali. However, Ali met harsh resistance after setting his sights on the wealthy and renowned
trading town of Djenne. After a persistent seven-year siege, he was able to forcefully incorporate
it into his vast empire in 1473, but only after having starved its citizens into surrender.
Songhai rulers took advantage of the weakened Mali Empire to expanded Songhai rule.
Under the rule of Sonni Ali, the Songhai surpassed the Malian Empire in area, wealth, and
power, absorbing vast areas of the Mali Empire and reaching its greatest extent.
Askiya the Great
Following Ali’s Askia (1492-1528) the Great further strengthened the Songhai Empire
and made it the largest empire in West Africa’s history. At its peak under his reign, the Songhai
Empire encompassed the Hausa states as far as Kano and much of the territory that had belonged
to the Songhai Empire in the west. Askiya’s real name was Muhammad Turi, he was from
Soninke tribe, with his accession he owned title Askiya, means king. In the history he is known
as Muhammad I or Askiya the Great. He was the contemporary of Sulayman Ottoman, Shah
Ismail Safavi, Husain Baiqara, Shibani Khan and Sikandar Lodhi.
After consolidation of Empire he went on pilgrimage in 1496 with 500 riders and 1000
pedestrians along with the 3 lake gold coins for travelling expenditure. From which 1/3 he gave
in Makkah and Madinah. While return he met to Abbasid Caliph in Egypt to get the authority to
rule Sudan. During his stay there he obtained knowledge from Jalaluddin Suyuti. On his return to
his homeland he annexed Gober, Kano and Hausa States which is now a part of Nigeria.
Achievements
His policies resulted in a rapid expansion of trade with Europe and Asia, the
establishment of many schools, and the establishment of Islam as an integral part of the empire.
Askia opened religious schools, constructed mosques, and opened up his court to scholars and
poets throughout the Muslim world; he was also tolerant of other religions and did not enforced
Islam on his people. Among his great accomplishments was an interest in astronomical
knowledge, which led to the development of astronomy and observatories in the capital.

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He was a propagator of Islam and a good administrator who encouraged trade. He

centralized the administration of the empire and established an efficient bureaucracy. He
constructed canals to enhance agriculture. More importantly he appointed inspectors in the trade
centres to look after the accurate weights and measures. During his reign Islam became more
widely well-established, trade flourished, and the Saharan salt mines of Taghaza were brought
within the boundaries of the empire.
When Askia the Great grew older, his power declined. In 1528, his sons revolted against
him and declared Musa, one of his many sons, as king. After Musa in 1531 CE, Songhai’s
empire went into decline. Multiple attempts at governing the empire by Askia’s sons and
grandsons failed and between the political chaos and multiple civil wars within the empire,
Saadis of Morocco invaded Songhai to seize control and revive the trans-Saharan trade in salt
and gold. The Songhai military, during Askia’s reign, consisted of full-time soldiers, but the king
never modernized his army. After Askiya the Empire fell to the Moroccans in the disastrous
battle of Tondibi in 1591. Moroccan ruler Mansur Dhahabi invaded Songhai Empire to possess
gold mines and captured Timbuktu and capital of Gao.
The Organization of Songhai
The Songhai city of Timbuktu became a prosperous cultural and commercial center
where Arab, Italian, and Jewish merchants all gathered for trade. Central to the regional
economy were independent gold fields. The merchants would form partnerships, and the state
would protect these merchants and the port cities of the Niger.
The Songhai economy was based on a clan system. The clan a person belonged to
ultimately decided one’s occupation. The most common were metalworkers, fishermen, and
carpenters. At the top were noblemen and direct descendants of the original Songhai people,
followed by freemen and traders. At the bottom were war captives and European slaves obligated
to labor, especially in farming.
The Songhai’s judiciary system was based on Islamic principles at some extent,
especially during the rule of Askia the Great. Upper classes in society converted to Islam while
lower classes often continued to follow traditional religions. Sonni Ali established a system of
government under the royal court, later to be expanded by Askia. For local tributary regions the
governors were responsible as long as they did not undermine Songhai policy. Tax was imposed
onto marginalized chiefdoms. Timbuktu and Jenne were great educational and cultural centres
from where various Muslim scholars were flourished like Ahmad Baba who wrote various books
founded a personal library in Timbuktu. Another was Abdul Rahman Saadi whose important
book is Tarikh Sudan.
The Kanem Empire (9th to 19th Century)
The Kanem Empire is often referred to as the longest empire to rule in African history. It
is also known for its wealth and contribution to pre-colonial African history. The empire was
ruled by the Duguwa Dynasty and consisted of several ethnic groups skilled in iron and

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horsemanship. The capital of the Kanem Empire was in Njimi. As a result of their strategic
location between northern Africa and sub-Saharan Africa, the Kanem Empire benefitted from
trade.
The Kanem-Bornu Empire existed in modern day Chad, Nigeria, Niger, Libya and
Cameroon from the 9th Century until 1900. It was third great Muslim Empire in Sudan. The
origin of the Kanem remains unclear. There are several theories that attempt to tell its story. One
theory claims that the Kanem came about as a result of the collapse of the Assyrian Empire.
Another popular theory claims the Kanem Empire was created around 700AD under the
Nomadic Tebu speaking people of Kanembu who were forced towards fertile lands in south
around Lake Chad due to political pressure and settled there.
Islam in Kanem Empire
The kingdom adopted the Islam after long contact with Muslim clerics and traders from
th
the 11 century onwards. The first Kanem ruler was a queen, Hawwa (1067-1071 CE) and first
king was Umme Jilmi’s (1085-1097) was first Muslim King of Kanem Empire who was a pious
man. Thereafter, many Kanem rulers made pilgrimages to Islam's holy sites in North Africa
and Arabia after accepting Islam. Umme Jilmi was said to have died while making a religious
trip to the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. He was succeeded by Dunama I (1097-1150 CE).
He was a powerful king and an honest Muslim. He too, made the pilgrimage to Mecca twice and
on the third attempt, he lost his life in the Red Sea.
In 12th century with the help of Tunisia Kanem ruler conquered Sahara Desert. Up to 13 th
century it reached on its peak and stretched to Nile River in the East, to the West Niger River in
the west, to the Fezzan in the North and to the Admava in the South. Up to the 13 th century not
only many kings but number of their subject came into the fold of Islam. Near 1250 Kanem
emperor established Madrasah at Cairo, where education was served according to the Maliki
school of fiqh. Kanem emperor Donama bin Musalma (1221-1259 CE) developed foreign affairs
with Tunisia and also sent gifts to Al Mustansir, Hafisid ruler including a giraffe.
The Sayfawa Dynasty replaced the Duguwa Dynasty during the 11 th century. The
Sayfawa ruled until the 19th century. The Sayfawa Dynasty faced decades of internal conflicts
and invasions from various groups such as the Bulala people, a non Muslim tribe who driven out
Kanem rulers from their capital city Njimi. The Kanembu persisted and overcame several other
attacks and moved their Empire to Bornu. The Bulala tribe ruled over Kanem for 70 years and
Kanem’s royal family entered into a new era known as Borno.
Bornu Empire
The Bornu Empire was a continuation of the Kanem Empire. It became bigger than the
Kanem Empire at the peak of its greatest. It included areas in present day Chad, Niger, Nigeria
and Cameroon. Although, the Sayfawa Dynasty overcame several invasions, their troubles did
not stop when the Empire was moved to Bornu. Under the leadership of Dunanami, the Sayfawa
Dynasty was able to consolidate and build a capital in Ngazargamu in present day Nigeria. By

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the early 16th century, the Sayfawa Dynasty was able to defeat the Bulala group and reclaim its
former capital in Njimi. The Sayfawa Dynasty became more powerful than before with the
control of both capitals, the capitals were consolidated but political and economic authority was
in Bornu. This merging of Kanem and Bornu led to the name – Kanem-Bornu Empire.
Although, the Kanem and Bornu Empire were influential especially in the areas of trade,
iron and horsemanship, the peak of their influence emerged under the leadership of Mai Idris
Alooma (1572-1603 CE). Alooma is known for his excellent military skills and administrative
reforms. He employed several effective tactics to diminish the power of his main rivalries. Some
of his military tactics were the use of fixed military camps with protective walls, horses, boatmen
and iron-helmeted musketeers trained by Turkish military. He also developed diplomatic
relations with Tripoli, Egypt and the Ottoman Empire. It is also believed that Alooma signed the
first written treaty in Chadian history. In terms of wealth, Alooma developed a steady
government revenue stream. Some of the government revenue included tribute, duties on
participation in the tran-Saharan trade.
Alooma’s son Umar III could not match his father’s political, military and economic
skills, so he delegated to a team of advisors. The Kanem-Borno Empire was in decline by the
19th century due to the Fulani invasion through jihad, administrative disorganization and other
internal conflicts. The Sayfawa Dynasty ended but the Kanem-Borno Empire continued but
faced a continuing decline in power. They suffered other invasion from militants from the East.
In the end, the European division of the continent absorbed them under the British rule.
When the Kanembu people were forced to leave Kanem and moved to Borno.
Intermarriage between the two groups created a new people and language called the Kanuri. So
the Kanuris are descendants of the Kanem and Borno people. They mostly live in present day
Borno State of North Eastern Nigeria and can also be found in neighboring state in Nigeria and
other countries – Niger, Chad, Cameroon.