Module 4

Module 4
Thursday, March 14, 2024 10:30 AM
EDS 103_ Theories of learning Page 1

Self-Efficacy and Why Believing in Yourself Matters
By Kendra Cherry, MSEd
Self-efficacy is a person's belief in their ability to complete a task or achieve a goal. It encompasses a
person's confidence in themselves to control their behavior, exert an influence over their environment,
and stay motivated in the pursuit of their goal. People can have self-efficacy in different situations and
domains, such as school, work, relationships, and other important areas.
When facing a challenge, do you feel like you can rise up and accomplish your goal, or do you give up in
defeat? Are you like the little train engine from the classic children's book ("I think I can, I think I can!"),
or do you doubt your own abilities to rise up and overcome the difficulties that life throws your way? If
you tend to keep going in the face of obstacles, you probably have a high degree of self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy is important because it plays a role in how you feel about yourself and whether or not you
successfully achieve your goals in life. The concept of self-efficacy is central to Albert Bandura’s social
cognitive theory, which emphasizes the role of observational learning, social experience, and reciprocal
determinism in personality development.
According to Bandura, self-efficacy is part of the self-system comprised of a person’s attitudes, abilities,
and cognitive skills. This system plays a major role in how we perceive and respond to different
situations. Self-efficacy is an essential part of this self-system.
Self-Efficacy Basics
According to Albert Bandura, self-efficacy is "the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the
courses of action required to manage prospective situations." Self-efficacy is a person’s belief in their
ability to succeed in a particular situation. Such beliefs play a role in determining how people think,
behave, and feel.1
Since Bandura published his seminal 1977 paper, "Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral
Change," the subject has become one of the most studied topics in psychology. Why has self-efficacy
become such an important topic among psychologists and educators?
As Bandura and other researchers have demonstrated, self-efficacy can impact everything from
psychological states to behavior to motivation.2 Self-efficacy determines what goals we pursue, how we
accomplish those goals, and how we reflect upon our own performance.

Our belief in our own ability to succeed plays a role in how we think, how we act, and how we feel about
our place in the world.
The Role of Self-Efficacy

Virtually all people can identify goals they want to accomplish, things they would like to change, and
things they would like to achieve. However, most people also realize that putting these plans into action
is not quite so simple. Bandura and others have found that an individual’s self-efficacy plays a major role
in how goals, tasks, and challenges are approached.1
Having high self-efficacy is a good thing. People with a strong sense of self-efficacy:
• Develop a deeper interest in the activities in which they participate

• Form a stronger sense of commitment to their interests and activities
• Recover quickly from setbacks and disappointments
• View challenging problems as tasks to be mastered
Poor self-efficacy, on the other hand, can have a number of detrimental effects. People with a weak
sense of self-efficacy:
• Avoid challenging tasks

• Believe that difficult tasks and situations are beyond their capabilities
• Focus on personal failings and negative outcomes
• Quickly lose confidence in personal abilities
Self-Efficacy vs. Self-Esteem vs. Self-Confidence

Self-efficacy is sometimes confused with self-esteem, but there are important distinctions between the
two. What is the difference between self-efficacy and self-esteem? Self-efficacy refers to how you feel
about your ability to succeed in different situations, while self-esteem refers to your respect for your
own value and worth.
Is self-efficacy the same as self-confidence? While the two terms are related, there are some important
distinctions. Self-confidence is more general and refers to a person's overall belief in themselves in all
contexts. Self-efficacy, on the other hand, is more specific and context-dependent. A person can have
high self-efficacy in one area (such as in academics) and low self-efficacy in other areas (such as in
sports).
Research suggests that self-efficacy predicts self-esteem. In other words, people with high self-efficacy
also tend to have high self-esteem and vice versa.3
How Does Self-Efficacy Develop?

We begin to form our sense of self-efficacy in early childhood by dealing with various experiences, tasks,
and situations. However, the growth of self-efficacy does not end during youth but continues to evolve
throughout life as people acquire new skills, experiences, and understanding.1
What are the four types of self-efficacy?

Bandura identified four major sources of self-efficacy. The four ways that self-efficacy is achieved are
mastery experiences, social modeling, social persuasion, and psychological responses.
Mastery Experiences
"The most effective way of developing a strong sense of efficacy is through mastery experiences,"
Bandura explained. Performing a task successfully strengthens our sense of self-efficacy. However,
failing to adequately deal with a task or challenge can undermine and weaken self-efficacy.1
Social Modeling
Witnessing other people successfully completing a task is another important source of self-efficacy.1

Witnessing other people successfully completing a task is another important source of self-efficacy.1
According to Bandura, "Seeing people similar to oneself succeed by sustained effort raises observers'
beliefs that they too possess the capabilities to master comparable activities to succeed."
Social Persuasion
Bandura also asserted that people could be persuaded to believe that they have the skills and
capabilities to succeed. Consider a time when someone said something positive and encouraging that
helped you achieve a goal. Getting verbal encouragement from others helps people overcome self-
doubt and instead focus on giving their best effort to the task at hand.1
Psychological Responses
Our own responses and emotional reactions to situations also play an important role in self-efficacy.
Moods, emotional states, physical reactions, and stress levels can all impact how a person feels about
their personal abilities in a particular situation. A person who becomes extremely nervous before
speaking in public may develop a weak sense of self-efficacy in these situations.1
However, Bandura also notes "it is not the sheer intensity of emotional and physical reactions that is
important but rather how they are perceived and interpreted."1
By learning how to minimize stress and elevate mood when facing difficult or challenging tasks, people
can improve their sense of self-efficacy.
Examples of High Self-Efficacy

So what exactly does high self-efficacy look like? You can probably think of some examples from your
own life including areas where you feel a great deal of efficacy. People may possess a general sense of
self-efficacy or in a specific domain where they believe they can do well such as school, work,
friendships, parenting, sports, hobbies, and other areas.
Some examples of strong self-efficacy include:
A person struggling to manage a chronic illness feels confident that they can get back on track and
improve their health by working hard and following their doctor's recommendations.
A student who feels confident that they will be able to learn the information and do well on a test.
Someone who has just accepted a job position in a role they have never performed before but feels that
they have the ability to learn and perform the job well.
Self-efficacy can play an important role in health psychology and how people manage their health,
nutrition, and illness. For example, having a strong sense of self-efficacy can help people who are trying
to quit smoking stick to their goals.
Maintaining a weight loss plan, managing chronic pain, giving up alcohol, sticking to an exercise
schedule, and following an eating plan can all be influenced by a person's levels of self-efficacy.1
Research has also shown that when teachers have high self-efficacy, it has a positive impact on
academic outcomes, including student motivation and achievement.4
Bandura suggests that self-efficacy can benefit a person's sense of well-being in a number of ways. For
instance, they remain optimistic and confident in their abilities, even when things become difficult.
Because individuals with high self-efficacy look at difficulties as challenges rather than threats, they tend
to be more intrinsically interested in the tasks they pursue. Difficulty and failure don't mean defeat;
instead, these individuals redouble their efforts and look for new ways to overcome.
Issues With Low Self-Efficacy

People who are low in self-efficacy tend to see difficult tasks as threats they should avoid. Because of

People who are low in self-efficacy tend to see difficult tasks as threats they should avoid. Because of
this, they also tend to avoid setting goals and have low levels of commitment to the ones they do make.
When setbacks happen, they tend to give up quickly. Because they don't have much confidence in their
ability to achieve, they are more likely to experience feelings of failure and depression. Stressful
situations can also be very hard to deal with and those with low self-efficacy are less resilient and less
likely to bounce back.1
Learned helplessness is the opposite of self-efficacy. It can occur when people feel they have no power
to control what happens in a situation. Instead of looking for opportunities to change the outcome, they
give up and behave passively.5
Evaluating Self-Efficacy Strength

For a quick, informal assessment of your own self-efficacy levels, consider the following questions:
• Do you feel like you can handle problems if you are willing to work hard?
• Are you confident in your ability to achieve your goals?
• Do you feel like you can manage unexpected events that come up?
• Are you able to bounce back fairly quickly after stressful events?
• Do you feel like you can come up with solutions when you are facing a problem?
• Do you keep trying even when things seem difficult?
• Are you good at staying calm even in the face of chaos?
• Do you perform well even under pressure?
• Do you tend to focus on your progress rather than getting overwhelmed by all you still have to do?
• Do you believe that hard work will eventually pay off?
If you can answer yes to many or most of these questions, then chances are good that you have a fairly
strong sense of self-efficacy.6 If you feel like your self-efficacy could use a boost, consider some of the
following strategies for improving your sense of efficacy.
Building Self-Efficacy
Fortunately, self-efficacy is a psychological skill that you can foster and strengthen. Start by looking for
ways to incorporate Bandura's sources of self-efficacy into your own life. Some ways that self-efficacy
can be achieved include acknowledging your success, observing your mentors, getting positive feedback,
and practicing positive self-talk.
Celebrate Your Success

Mastery experiences play a critical role in the establishment of self-efficacy. Bandura actually identified
this as the single most effective way to create a strong sense of self-belief.
When you succeed at something, you are able to build a powerful belief in your ability. Failure, on the
other hand, can undermine these feelings, particularly if you are still in the early phases of building a
sense of personal efficacy.1
The ideal sorts of successes, however, are not necessarily those that come easily. If you experience a lot
of easy success, you may find yourself giving up more readily when you finally do encounter failure. So
work on setting goals that are achievable, but not necessarily easy. They will take work and
perseverance, but you will emerge with a stronger belief in your own abilities once you achieve them.
Observe Others
Bandura also identified vicarious experiences obtained through peer modeling as another important
means of establishing and strengthening self-efficacy. Seeing others putting in effort and succeeding, as
a result, can increase your belief in your own ability to succeed.
One factor that plays a key role in the effectiveness of this approach is how similar the model is to

One factor that plays a key role in the effectiveness of this approach is how similar the model is to
yourself. The more alike you feel you are, the more likely it is that your observations will increase your
sense of self-efficacy.1
Seek Positive Affirmations

Hearing positive feedback from others can also help improve your sense of self-efficacy. By that same
token, try to avoid asking for feedback from people who you know are more likely to have a negative or
critical view of your performance.
For example, your doctor telling you that you are doing a good job sticking to your diet plan can be
encouraging. Feedback from friends, mentors, health practitioners, and people who you respect can
help you feel greater confidence in your own abilities.
Positive social feedback can be helpful for strengthening your already existing sense of efficacy, but
negative comments can often have a powerful undermining effect. Bandura suggested that social
feedback alone is not enough to build your self-belief, but it can be a useful tool when you need a little
extra encouragement.1
Pay Attention to Your Thoughts and Emotions

If you find yourself getting stressed out or nervous before a challenging event, you might feel less sure
of your ability to cope with the task at hand.
Another way to boost your self-efficacy is to look for ways to manage your thoughts and emotions about
what you are trying to accomplish.
Do you feel anxious? Looking for ways to ease your stress levels can help you feel more confident in
your capabilities. Do you find yourself dwelling on negative thoughts? Look for ways to replace
negativity with positive self-talk that promotes self-belief.7
Get Advice From The Verywell Mind Podcast

Hosted by therapist Amy Morin, LCSW, this episode of The Verywell Mind Podcast shares strategies that
can help you learn to truly believe in yourself, featuring IT Cosmetics founder Jamie Kern Lima.
Follow Now: Apple Podcasts / Spotify / Google Podcasts
There are a number of different scales that are used to evaluate levels of self-efficacy including the
General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE) and the Self-Efficacy Questionnaire.
Developing a strong sense of self-efficacy can play an important role in almost every aspect of your life.
Life is full of challenges and high levels of self-efficacy can help you better deal with these difficulties
more effectively. Your belief in your abilities can predict how motivated you feel, how you feel about
yourself, and the amount of effort you put into achieving your goals.
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How Social Learning Theory Works

Social learning theory, introduced by psychologist Albert Bandura, proposed that learning occurs
through observation, imitation, and modeling and is influenced by factors such as attention, motivation,
attitudes, and emotions. The theory accounts for the interaction of environmental and cognitive
elements that affect how people learn.1

elements that affect how people learn.1
The theory suggests that learning occurs because people observe the consequences of other people's
behaviors. Bandura's theory moves beyond behavioral theories, which suggest that all behaviors are
learned through conditioning, and cognitive theories, which consider psychological influences such as
attention and memory.
According to Bandura, people observe behavior either directly through social interactions with others or
indirectly by observing behaviors through media. Actions that are rewarded are more likely to be
imitated, while those that are punished are avoided.
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Basic Principles of Social Learning Theory
What Is Social Learning Theory?

During the first half of the 20th-century, the behavioral school of psychology became a dominant force.
The behaviorists proposed that all learning was a result of direct experience with the environment
through the processes of association and reinforcement.2 Bandura's theory believed that direct
reinforcement could not account for all types of learning.
For example, children and adults often exhibit learning for things with which they have no direct
experience. Even if you have never swung a baseball bat in your life, you would probably know what to
do if someone handed you a bat and told you to try to hit a baseball. This is because you have seen
others perform this action either in person or on television.
While the behavioral theories of learning suggested that all learning was the result of associations
formed by conditioning, reinforcement, and punishment, Bandura's social learning theory
proposed that learning can also occur simply by observing the actions of others.
His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviors by
watching other people. Known as observational learning, this type of learning can be used to explain a
wide variety of behaviors, including those that often cannot be accounted for by other learning theories.
Core Concepts of Social Learning Theory

There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory. First is the idea that people can
learn through observation. Next is the notion that internal mental states are an essential part of this
process. Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has been learned, it does not mean
that it will result in a change in behavior.
"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely
on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do," Bandura explained in his 1977
book Social Learning Theory.
Bandura goes on to explain that "Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through
modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later
occasions, this coded information serves as a guide for action."
Let's explore each of these concepts in greater depth.

People Can Learn Through Observation
One of the best-known experiments in the history of psychology involved a doll named Bobo. Bandura
demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they have observed in other people.
The children in Bandura’s studies observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the
children were later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the aggressive
actions they had previously observed.5
Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:
• A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior.
• A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books, films,
television programs, or online media.
• A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior.
As you can see, observational learning does not even necessarily require watching another person to
engage in an activity. Hearing verbal instructions, such as listening to a podcast, can lead to learning. We
can also learn by reading, hearing, or watching the actions of characters in books and films.6
It is this type of observational learning that has become a lightning rod for controversy as parents and
psychologists debate the impact that pop culture media has on kids. Many worry that kids can learn bad
behaviors such as aggression from violent video games, movies, television programs, and online videos.
Mental States Are Important to Learning

Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence learning
and behavior. And he realized that reinforcement does not always come from outside sources.3Your
own mental state and motivation play an important role in determining whether a behavior is learned or
not.
He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal rewards, such as pride, satisfaction, and a
sense of accomplishment.7 This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions helps connect learning
theories to cognitive developmental theories. While many textbooks place social learning theory with
behavioral theories, Bandura himself describes his approach as a 'social cognitive theory.'

Learning Does Not Necessarily Lead to Change
So how do we determine when something has been learned? In many cases, learning can be seen
immediately when the new behavior is displayed. When you teach a child to ride a bicycle, you can
quickly determine if learning has occurred by having the child ride his or her bike unassisted.
But sometimes we are able to learn things even though that learning might not be immediately obvious.
While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent change in behavior, observational learning
demonstrates that people can learn new information without demonstrating new behaviors.3
Key Factors for Social Learning Success

It is important to note that not all observed behaviors are effectively learned. Why not? Factors
involving both the model and the learner can play a role in whether social learning is successful. Certain
requirements and steps must also be followed.
The following steps are involved in the observational learning and modeling process:3
• Attention: In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that distracts your
attention is going to have a negative effect on observational learning. If the model is interesting or
there is a novel aspect of the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate your full attention to
learning.
• Retention: The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process.
Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and
act on it is vital to observational learning.
• Reproduction: Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time
to actually perform the behavior you observed. Further practice of the learned behavior leads to
improvement and skill advancement.
• Motivation: Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated
to imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important
role in motivation.
• While experiencing these motivators can be highly effective, so can observing others experiencing
some type of reinforcement or punishment. For example, if you see another student rewarded
with extra credit for being to class on time, you might start to show up a few minutes early each
day.
Real-World Applications for Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory can have a number of real-world applications. For example, it can be used to help
researchers understand how aggression and violence might be transmitted through observational
learning. By studying media violence, researchers can gain a better understanding of the factors that
might lead children to act out the aggressive actions they see portrayed on television and in the movies.
But social learning can also be utilized to teach people positive behaviors. Researchers can use social
learning theory to investigate and understand ways that positive role models can be used to encourage
desirable behaviors and to facilitate social change.
A Word From Verywell

In addition to influencing other psychologists, Bandura's social learning theory has had important
implications in the field of education. Today, both teachers and parents recognize how important it is to
model appropriate behaviors. Other classroom strategies such as encouraging children and building self-
efficacy are also rooted in social learning theory.
As Bandura observed, life would be incredibly difficult and even dangerous if you had to learn
everything you know from personal experience. Observing others plays a vital role in acquiring new
knowledge and skills. By understanding how social learning theory works, you can gain a greater

knowledge and skills. By understanding how social learning theory works, you can gain a greater
appreciation for the powerful role that observation plays in shaping the things we know and the things
we do.
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How Observational Learning Affects Behavior

There are a number of learning theories, such as classical conditioning and operant conditioning, that
emphasize how direct experience, reinforcement, or punishment can lead to learning. However, a great
deal of learning happens indirectly.
For example, think about how a child may watch adults waving at one another and then imitates these
actions later on. A tremendous amount of learning happens through this process. In psychology, this is
referred to as observational learning.
Observational learning is sometimes called shaping, modeling, and vicarious reinforcement. While it can
take place at any point in life, it tends to be the most common during childhood.
It also plays an important role in the socialization process. Children learn how to behave and respond to
others by observing how their parent(s) and/or caregivers interact with other people.
History of Observational Learning

Psychologist Albert Bandura is the researcher most often associated with learning through observation.
He and others have demonstrated that we are naturally inclined to engage in observational learning.

Studies suggest that imitation with social understanding tends to begin around 2 years old, but will vary
depending on the specific child. In the past, research has claimed that newborns are capable of
imitation, but this likely isn't true, as newborns often react to stimuli in a way that may seem like
imitation, but isn't.
If you've ever made faces at a toddler and watched them try to mimic your movements, then you may
have witnessed how observational learning can be such an influential force. Bandura's social learning
theory stresses the power of observational learning.
Observational Learning Examples

The following are instances that demonstrate observational learning has occurred.
• A child watches their parent folding the laundry. They later pick up some clothing and imitate
folding the clothes.
• A young couple goes on a date to an Asian restaurant. They watch other diners in the restaurant
eating with chopsticks and copy their actions to learn how to use these utensils.
• A child watches a classmate get in trouble for hitting another child. They learn from observing this
interaction that they should not hit others.
• A group of children play hide-and-seek. One child joins the group and is not sure what to do. After
observing the other children play, they quickly learn the basic rules and join in.
Stages of Observational Learning

There are four stages of observational learning2 that need to occur for meaningful learning to take
place. Keep in mind, this is different than simply copying someone else's behavior. Instead,
observational learning may incorporate a social and/or motivational component that influences whether
the observer will choose to engage in or avoid a certain behavior.
Attention
For an observer to learn, they must be in the right mindset to do so. This means having the energy
to learn, remaining focused on what the model is engaging in, and being able to observe the
model for enough time to grasp what they are doing.
How the model is perceived can impact the observer's level of attention. Models who are seen
being rewarded for their behavior, models who are attractive, and models who are viewed as
similar to the observer tend to command more focus from the observer.

Retention
If the observer was able to focus on the model's behavior, the next step is being able to remember
what was viewed. If the observer is not able to recall the model's behavior, they may need to go
back to the first stage again.
Reproduction
If the observer is able to focus and retains the information, the next stage in observational
learning is trying to replicate it. It's important to note that every individual will have their own
unique capacity when it comes to imitating certain behaviors, meaning that even with perfect
focus and recall, some behaviors may not be easily copied.
Motivation
In order for the observer to engage in this new behavior, they will need some sort of motivation.
Even if the observer is able to imitate the model, if they lack the drive to do so, they will likely not
follow through with this new learned behavior.
Motivation may increase if the observer watched the model receive a reward for engaging in a
certain behavior and the observer believes they will also receive some reward if they imitate said
behavior. Motivation may decrease if the observer had knowledge of or witnessed the model
being punished for a certain behavior.
Influences on Observational Learning

According to Bandura's research, there are a number of factors that increase the likelihood that a
behavior will be imitated. We are more likely to imitate:
• People we perceive as warm and nurturing

• People who receive rewards for their behavior
• People who are in an authoritative position in our lives
• People who are similar to us in age, sex, and interests
• People we admire or who are of a higher social status
• When we have been rewarded for imitating the behavior in the past
• When we lack confidence in our own knowledge or abilities
• When the situation is confusing, ambiguous, or unfamiliar
Pros and Cons of Observational Learning

Observational learning has the potential to teach and reinforce or decrease certain behaviors based on a
variety of factors. Particularly prevalent in childhood, observational learning can be a key part of how we
learn new skills and learn to avoid consequences.
However, there has also been concern about how this type of learning can lead to negative outcomes
and behaviors. Some studies, inspired by Bandura's research, focused on the effects observational
learning may have on children and teenagers.
For example, previous research drew a direct connection between playing certain violent video games
and an increase in aggression in the short term. However, later research that focused on the short- and
long-term impact video games may have on players has shown no direct connections between video
game playing and violent behavior.3
Similarly, research looking at sexual media exposure and teenagers' sexual behavior found that, in
general, there wasn't a connection between watching explicit content and having sex within the
following year.4
Another study indicated that if teenagers age 14 and 15 of the same sex consumed sexual media

Another study indicated that if teenagers age 14 and 15 of the same sex consumed sexual media
together and/or if parents restricted the amount of sexual content watched, the likelihood of having sex
was lower. The likelihood of sexual intercourse increased when opposite-sex peers consumed sexual
content together.5
Research indicates that when it comes to observational learning, individuals don't just imitate
what they see and that context matters. This may include who the model is, who the observer is
with, and parental involvement.
Uses for Observational Learning

Observational learning can be used in the real world in a number of different ways. Some examples
include:
• Learning new behaviors: Observational learning is often used as a real-world tool for teaching
people new skills. This can include children watching their parents perform a task or students
observing a teacher engage in a demonstration.
• Strengthening skills: Observational learning is also a key way to reinforce and strengthen
behaviors. For example, if a study sees another student getting a reward for raising their hand in
class, they will be more likely to also raise their hand the next time they want to ask a question.
• Minimizing negative behaviors: Observational learning also plays an important role in reducing
undesirable or negative behaviors. For example, if you see a coworker get reprimanded for failing
to finish a task on time, it means that you may be more likely to finish your work more quickly.

Observational learning can be a powerful learning tool. When we think about the concept of learning,
we often talk about direct instruction or methods that rely on reinforcement and punishment. But, a
great deal of learning takes place much more subtly and relies on watching the people around us and
modeling their actions. This learning method can be applied in a wide range of settings including job
training, education, counseling, and psychotherapy.
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What Is Reciprocal Determinism?
This theory explores the role our behavior plays in our environment
Reciprocal determinism is a central concept of Albert Bandura's social learning theory. Also known as
triadic reciprocality, reciprocal determinism is a model composed of three factors that influence
behavior: the individual (including how they think and feel), their environment, and the behavior itself.1
Previous theories of learning, such as the one put forth by B.F. Skinner argued that people’s behavior
was always controlled by the environment.2 That people were nothing more than passive recipients of
environmental influences.
But according to Bandura, not only does the environment influence a person’s thinking, but their
subsequent behavior influences their environment. In other words, the environment influences how a
person thinks and feels, which in turn influences their behavior, which impacts the environment, and so

person thinks and feels, which in turn influences their behavior, which impacts the environment, and so
on.
Behavioral Factors in Reciprocal Determinism

According to the concept of reciprocal determinism, a person's behavior is influenced through cognitive
processes and environmental factors such as social stimuli. For example, say a child acts out because
they don't like school. This results in the teacher reprimanding the child, which may cause the child to
act out even more.
Behavior refers to anything you do that may be rewarded or punished.
Environmental Factors in Reciprocal Determinism

The environmental component refers to the context in which the behavior occurs. More than a person's
physical environment, this includes their social environment as well. Specifically, what people are
present (or absent) and the attitudes, beliefs, and ideas these people hold.
So if the child from the previous example gets yelled at by a teacher for talking in class, it not only has an
effect on them but on the classroom environment for the rest of the students, not to mention the
teacher.
A person's physical and social environment influences the intensity and frequency of the behavior,
just as the behavior itself can have an impact on the environment.3
Personal Factors in Reciprocal Determinism

The individual component includes all the characteristics that have been rewarded in the past.
Personality and cognitive factors play an important part in how a person behaves, including all of the
individual's expectations, beliefs, and unique personality characteristics.
The behavior itself is something that may or may not be reinforced at any given time or situation. If the
previous student knows that their teacher is more likely to reward them if they wait the end of the
school day to misbehave, they'll likely tailor their behavior.
Example
Notice how all the factors in this troubled student example affect each other: the child doesn't like
school, they act out, the teachers and classmates react to the bad behavior, reinforcing the
student's dislike of school and creating a hostile environment.
An Example of Reciprocal Determinism

Of course, the situation doesn't have to be a negative one.
Imagine a shy student who usually keeps to themselves (personal factor), walks into class on the first
day of school to find that the other students are already sitting down (environmental factor). The shy

day of school to find that the other students are already sitting down (environmental factor). The shy
student tries to slip into the back of the class to avoid becoming the center of attention (behavioral
factor).
But if a classmate sitting at the front of the room boisterously greets the shy student and invites them to
sit next to them, the environment has introduced a new reinforcing stimulus (the friendly student) that
could lead to a change in this student's normal routine as well as a change in their behavior.
Self-Efficacy and Reciprocal Determinism

Reciprocal determinism is also associated with self-efficacy, or a person's level of belief in their own
ability to achieve their goals. Self-efficacy represents a personal factor in reciprocal determinism. People
with high self-efficacy are more likely to be confident when approaching problems (the behavior), which
means they may be more likely to succeed in different situations (the environment).
In situations where someone has low self-efficacy, such as a student in class who lacks faith in their
ability to do well, modifying aspects of the environment can be helpful. For example, a teacher who
offers additional supportive resources and encouragement can help foster success which may then
improve success and boost a student's sense of self-efficacy.

Bandura's theory represented an important shift from the behavioral perspective to a more social-
cognitive approach to understanding behavior. Behaviorists suggested that it was the environment that
almost entirely shaped individual behavior.
Meanwhile, Bandura recognized the importance of the bidirectional relationship between individuals,
their behaviors, and the environment. This suggests that while people are certainly affected by the
things they experience in their environment, they also have the power to exert a change on their
situation and circumstances through their own choices and behaviors.
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By Ashley Crossman
Updated on January 16, 2019
Social learning theory is a theory that attempts to explain socialization and its effect on the
development of the self. There are many different theories that explain how people become socialized,
including psychoanalytic theory, functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interaction theory. Social
learning theory, like these others, looks at the individual learning process, the formation of self, and the
influence of society in socializing individuals.
The History of Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory considers the formation of one’s identity to be a learned response to social
stimuli. It emphasizes the societal context of socialization rather than the individual mind. This theory
postulates that an individual’s identity is not the product of the unconscious (such as the belief of
psychoanalytic theorists), but instead is the result of modeling oneself in response to the expectations of
others. Behaviors and attitudes develop in response to reinforcement and encouragement from the
people around us. While social learning theorists acknowledge that childhood experience is important,
they also believe that the identity people acquire is formed more by the behaviors and attitudes of
others.
Social learning theory has its roots in psychology and was shaped greatly by psychologist Albert
Bandura. Sociologists most often use social learning theory to understand crime and deviance.

Bandura. Sociologists most often use social learning theory to understand crime and deviance.
Social Learning Theory and Crime/Deviance

According to social learning theory, people engage in crime because of their association with others who
engage in crime. Their criminal behavior is reinforced and they learn beliefs that are favorable to crime.
They essentially have criminal models that they associate with. As a consequence, these individuals
come to view crime as something that is desirable, or at least justifiable in certain situations. Learning
criminal or deviant behavior is the same as learning to engage in conforming behavior: it is done through
association with or exposure to others. In fact, association with delinquent friends is the best predictor
of delinquent behavior other than prior delinquency.
Social learning theory postulates that there are three mechanisms by which individuals learn to engage
in crime: differential reinforcement, beliefs, and modeling.
Differential Reinforcement of Crime

Differential reinforcement of crime means that individuals can teach others to engage in crime by
reinforcing and punishing certain behaviors. Crime is more likely to occur when it 1. Is frequently
reinforced and infrequently punished; 2. Results in large amounts of reinforcement (such as money,
social approval, or pleasure) and little punishment; and 3. Is more likely to be reinforced than alternative
behaviors. Studies show that individuals who are reinforced for their crime are more likely to engage in
subsequent crime, especially when they are in situations similar to those that were previously
reinforced.
Beliefs Favorable to Crime

On top of reinforcing criminal behavior, other individuals can also teach a person beliefs that are
favorable to crime. Surveys and interviews with criminals suggest that beliefs favoring crime fall into
three categories. First is the approval of certain minor forms of crime, such as gambling, “soft” drug use,
and for adolescents, alcohol use and curfew violation. Second is the approval of or justification of certain
forms of crime, including some serious crimes. These people believe that crime is generally wrong, but
that some criminal acts are justifiable or even desirable in certain situations. For example, many people
will say that fighting is wrong, however, that it is justified if the individual has been insulted or provoked.
Third, some people hold certain general values that are more conducive to crime and make crime
appear as a more attractive alternative to other behaviors. For example, individuals who have a large
desire for excitement or thrills, those who have a disdain for hard work and a desire for quick and easy
success, or those who wish to be seen as “tough” or “macho” might view crime in a more favorable light
than others.
The Imitation of Criminal Models

Behavior is not only a product of beliefs and reinforcements or punishments that individuals receive. It is
also a product of the behavior of those around us. Individuals often model or imitate the behavior of
others, especially if it is someone that individual looks up to or admires. For example, an individual who
witnesses someone they respect committing a crime, who is then reinforced for that crime, is then more
likely to commit a crime themselves.
Learning Theory?
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Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

By Saul Mcleod, PhD

SLT is often described as the ‘bridge’ between traditional learning theory (behaviorism) and the
cognitive approach. This is because it focuses on how mental (cognitive) factors are involved in learning.
Unlike Skinner, Bandura (1977) believes humans are active information processors and think about the
relationship between their behavior and its consequences.
Assumptions
Social learning theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes the importance of observing, modeling,
and imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others.
Social learning theory considers how both environmental and cognitive factors interact to influence
human learning and behavior.
In social learning theory, Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the behaviorist learning theories of classical
conditioning and operant conditioning. However, he adds two important ideas:
Mediating processes occur between stimuli & responses.

Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning.
Mediational Processes
Observational learning could not occur unless cognitive processes were at work. These mental factors
mediate (i.e., intervene) in the learning process to determine whether a new response is acquired.
Therefore, individuals do not automatically observe the behavior of a model and imitate it. There is
some thought prior to imitation, and this consideration is called the mediational process.
This occurs between observing the behavior (stimulus) and imitating it or not (response).

There are four mediational processes proposed by Bandura (1969, 1971, 1977). Each of these
components is crucial in determining whether or not imitation occurs upon exposure to a model:
1. Attention
Attentional processes are crucial because mere exposure to a model doesn’t ensure that observers will
pay attention (Bandura, 1972).
The model must capture the observer’s interest, and the observer must deem the model’s behavior
worth imitating. This decides if the behavior will be modeled.
The individual needs to pay attention to the behavior and its consequences and form a mental
representation of the behavior.
For a behavior to be imitated, it has to grab our attention. We observe many behaviors on a daily basis,
and many of these are not noteworthy. Attention is, therefore, extremely important in whether a
behavior influences others to imitate it.
2. Retention
Bandura highlighted the retention process in imitation, where individuals symbolically store a model’s
behavior in their minds.
For successful imitation, observers must save these behaviors in symbolic forms, actively organizing
them into easily recalled templates (Bandura, 1972).
How well the behavior is remembered. The behavior may be noticed, but it is not always remembered,
which obviously prevents imitation.
It is important, therefore, that a memory of the behavior is formed to be performed later by the
observer.
Much of social learning is not immediate, so this process is especially vital in those cases. Even if the
behavior is reproduced shortly after seeing it, there needs to be a memory to refer to.
3. Motor Reproduction
This is the ability to perform the behavior that the model has just demonstrated. We see much behavior
daily that we would like to be able to imitate, but this is not always possible.

Our physical ability limits us, so even if we wish to reproduce the behavior, we sometimes cannot.
This influences our decisions whether to try and imitate it or not. Imagine the scenario of a 90-year-old
lady who struggles to walk while watching Dancing on Ice.
She may appreciate that the skill is desirable, but she will not attempt to imitate it because she
physically cannot do it.
Motor reproduction processes use internal symbolic images of observed behaviors to guide actions
(Bandura, 1972). An observer internally replicates a behavior using these symbols as a reference, even if
it’s not externally shown (Manz & Sims, 1981).
4. Motivation
Lastly, motivational and reinforcement processes refer to the perceived favorable or unfavorable
consequences of mimicking the model’s actions that are likely to increase or decrease the likelihood of
imitation.
The will to perform the behavior. The observer will consider the rewards and punishments that follow a
behavior.
If the perceived rewards outweigh the perceived costs (if any), the observer will more likely imitate the
behavior.
If the vicarious reinforcement is unimportant to the observer, they will not imitate the behavior.
What Is Observational Learning?

Observational learning is a key aspect of social learning theory, where individuals learn and adopt
behaviors by observing others.
This process often involves modeling after those who are similar, high-status, knowledgeable, rewarded,
or nurturing figures in our lives.
Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways. This is illustrated during the famous
Bobo doll experiment (Bandura, 1961).
What is a model?
Individuals that are observed are called models. In society, children are surrounded by many
influential models, such as parents within the family, characters on children’s TV, friends within
their peer group, and teachers at school.
These models provide examples of behavior to observe and imitate, e.g., masculine and feminine, pro
and anti-social, etc.
Children pay attention to some of these people (models) and encode their behavior. At a later time,
they may imitate (i.e., copy) the behavior they have observed.
They may do this regardless of whether the behavior is ‘gender appropriate’ or not, but there are
several processes that make it more likely that a child will reproduce the behavior that society deems
appropriate for its gender.
Albert Bandura, through his work on social learning theory, identified three primary models of
observational learning:

1. Live Model: Observing an actual individual perform a behavior.
2. Verbal Instructional Model: Listening to detailed descriptions of behavior and then acting based
on that description.
3. Symbolic Model: Learning through media, such as books, movies, television, or online media,
where behaviors are demonstrated.
Through these models, individuals can vicariously learn by watching others without necessarily
undergoing direct firsthand experiences.
Influences on Observational Learning

Based on Bandura’s research, several factors enhance the likelihood of a behavior being imitated.
We are more prone to imitate behaviors when the following conditions apply:
Attentional Processes
1. Similarity of the Model
We are more likely to model our behaviors after individuals who are similar to us. This is because we are
more likely to identify with these individuals, making their behaviors seem more relevant and attainable.
This can include similarity in terms of age, gender, ethnicity, or even shared interests and values (e.g.,
Lockwood & Kunda, 1997; Marx & Ko, 2012).
2. Identification with the Model

Identification occurs with another person (the model) and involves taking on (or adopting) observed
behaviors, values, beliefs, and attitudes of the person you identify with.
The motivation to identify with a particular model is that they have a quality that the individual would
like to possess.
The more an individual identifies with the model (for instance, because they are similar or aspire to be
like the model), the more likely they are to imitate their behavior.
This relates to an attachment to specific models that possess qualities seen as rewarding. Children will
have several models with whom they identify. These may be people in their immediate world, such as
parents or older siblings, or they could be fantasy characters or people in the media.
Identification differs from imitation as it may involve adopting several behaviors, whereas imitation
usually involves copying a single behavior.
Motivational Processes
3. Rewarded Behaviors
Individuals who see that a model is rewarded for their behaviors are likelier to imitate them, while
behavior resulting in negative outcomes is less likely to be copied.
This is known as vicarious reinforcement. For instance, if a student sees that another student gets
praised by the teacher for asking questions, they are likelier to ask questions themselves.
The way role models achieve success impacts their effectiveness. People benefit more from role models
whose success is due to factors they can control, like effort, rather than uncontrollable factors like
innate talent (Weiner, 1979, 1985).
Studies showed girls performed better in math when their role model’s success was linked to effort. In
contrast, if the success was attributed to natural talent, their performance declined compared to boys
(Bàges, Verniers, & Martinot, 2016).

(Bàges, Verniers, & Martinot, 2016).
4. Status of the Model

We are likelier to imitate individuals who hold high-status positions, such as leaders, celebrities, or
successful people in our field of interest.
High-status individuals are often admired and seen as role models, so their behaviors are likelier to be
seen as desirable and worth imitating.
People are also more likely to imitate experts or knowledgeable individuals in a certain area. These
individuals’ behaviors are seen as effective and efficient ways of achieving goals in that area.
5. Reinforcement and punishment

The people around the child will respond to the behavior it imitates with either reinforcement or
punishment. If a child imitates a model’s behavior and the consequences are rewarding, the child will
likely continue performing the behavior.
If a parent sees a little girl consoling her teddy bear and says, “what a kind girl you are,” this is rewarding
for the child and makes it more likely that she will repeat the behavior. Her behavior has been positively
reinforced (i.e., strengthened).
Reinforcement can be external or internal and can be positive or negative. If a child wants approval
from parents or peers, verbal approval is an external reinforcement, but feeling happy about being
approved of is an internal reinforcement. A child will behave in a way that it believes will earn approval
because it desires approval.
Positive (or negative) reinforcement will have little impact if the external reinforcement does not match
an individual’s needs. Reinforcement can be positive or negative, but the important factor is that it will
usually change a person’s behavior.
Examples
Education
 Sense of Belonging: Exposure to positive role models in education enhances a sense of belonging,
especially for groups subjected to negative stereotypes like women and racial minorities in STEM
(Dasgupta, 2011; Rosenthal et al., 2013).
For instance, women who read about successful female physicians in male-dominated careers felt a
stronger connection to their own paths (Rosenthal et al., 2013).
 Self-Efficacy: Self-efficacy, the belief in one’s abilities, greatly influences whether a person will
imitate an observed behavior.
Women in calculus classes reported higher self-efficacy and participation when taught by female
professors compared to male professors (Stout et al., 2011).
The women’s identification with their female professors significantly predicted this increased belief in
their own abilities.
 Increased Achievement: Students who read about the challenges overcome by famous scientists
performed better than those who read only about their achievements (Lin-Siegler et al., 2016).
Observing perseverance fosters personal performance.
 Perceived attainability: Role models’ successes should be achievable. If aspirants believe they can

 Perceived attainability: Role models’ successes should be achievable. If aspirants believe they can
attain similar success, they’re more motivated.
For example, college freshmen were more motivated by successful seniors than fourth-year students
were, likely because the freshmen felt they had more time to achieve similar success (Lockwood &
Kunda, 1997).
 Perceived similarity: An effective role model is someone others see as similar or relatable. This
perceived similarity, whether through shared group membership, experiences, or interests, boosts
motivation.
For example, women were more interested in computer science when interacting with relatable models,
like a casually dressed and socially skilled computer scientist, than with stereotypical ones (Cheryan et
al., 2011).
Media Violence
 Children observe violent behavior in media and tend to mimic or imitate it. This imitation occurs
through social learning processes and is likely mediated by “mirror neurons” that activate when
actions are observed or performed (Huesmann, 2005).
 Extensive observation of violence can bias children’s world schemas toward attributing hostility or
negative intentions to others’ actions. These hostile attributions increase the likelihood of
behaving aggressively (Huesmann & Kirwil, 2007).
 Children acquire social scripts for behaviors they observe around them, including in the media.
Once learned, these scripts can automatically control social behavior. Exposure to media violence
provides aggressive scripts.
 Normative beliefs about acceptable social behaviors crystallize as children mature. These beliefs
act as filters limiting inappropriate behaviors. Observing violence in media can influence which
behaviors children see as normative or acceptable.
 Repeated exposure to media violence can lead to desensitization – the diminishing of emotional
responses to violence. This makes it easier for children to think about and plan aggressive acts
without negative affect.
 Playing violent video games allows for enactive learning of aggression, as players actively
participate and are rewarded for violent actions in the game. This should strengthen the learning
of aggression beyond passive media observation.
Social Learning Theory Evaluation

The social learning approach takes thought processes into account and acknowledges the role that
they play in deciding if a behavior is to be imitated or not.
As such, SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognizing the role of
mediational processes.
For example, Social Learning Theory can explain many more complex social behaviors (such as gender
roles and moral behavior) than models of learning based on simple reinforcement.
Lack of Clarity about Cognitive Processes

Some critics argue that social learning theory does not fully explain the cognitive processes involved in
learning or how they interact with environmental and individual factors.
However, although it can explain some quite complex behavior, it cannot adequately account for how
we develop a range of behavior, including thoughts and feelings.
We have a lot of cognitive control over our behavior, and just because we have had experiences of
violence does not mean we have to reproduce such behavior.
For this reason, Bandura modified his theory and, in 1986, renamed his Social Learning Theory, Social

For this reason, Bandura modified his theory and, in 1986, renamed his Social Learning Theory, Social
Cognitive Theory (SCT), as a better description of how we learn from our social experiences.
Overemphasis on Observation
Critics suggest that the theory might overstate the role of observational learning while undervaluing
other forms of learning, such as operant conditioning or individual exploration and discovery.
Some criticisms of social learning theory arise from their commitment to the environment as the chief
influence on behavior.
Describing behavior solely in terms of either nature or nurture is limiting, and attempts to do this
underestimate the complexity of human behavior.
It is more likely that behavior is due to an interaction between nature (biology) and nurture
(environment).
Finally, observational learning does not happen in isolation. Each individual brings their unique personal
characteristics, prior experiences, and current circumstances to the learning process.
These factors can all influence what is learned, how it is interpreted, and whether and when it is acted
upon.
Difficulty in Predicting Behavior

Social learning theory provides a valuable framework for understanding how learning occurs. However,
predicting behavior in real-world contexts can be challenging, given the many potential models and
reinforcements in a person’s environment.
The complexity of predicting behavior based on the social learning theory stems from the number of
potential influencing factors in a person’s environment.
In real-world contexts, an individual is exposed to countless potential role models across various
settings, including family, friends, teachers, and media figures.
Moreover, these models’ behaviors are often rewarded or punished inconsistently, further complicating
the learning process.
Neglect of Biological Factors

Social learning theory has been critiqued for not adequately addressing biological factors, such as
genetic predispositions, which can also impact behavior.
Social learning theory is not a full explanation for all behavior. This is particularly the case when there is
no apparent role model in the person’s life to imitate for a given behavior.
The discovery of mirror neurons has lent biological support to the social learning theory. Although
research is in its infancy, the recent discovery of “mirror neurons” in primates may constitute a
neurological basis for imitation.
These are neurons that fire if the animal does something itself and if it observes the action being done
by another.
Freud vs. Bandura

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and Bandura’s social learning theory both acknowledge the importance of
identification, but their perspectives differ significantly.

identification, but their perspectives differ significantly.
While both theories acknowledge the importance of identification, they conceptualize it differently and
have distinct views on human behavior, learning, and the potential for change.
 Focus: Freud’s theory focuses heavily on the unconscious mind, instinctual drives, and early
childhood experiences.
On the other hand, Bandura’s social learning theory emphasizes learning through observation and
modeling, taking into account cognitive and environmental factors.
 Identification: Freud’s concept of identification in the Oedipus complex involves a child identifying
with the same-sex parent and internalizing their characteristics.
This process is driven by psychosexual development and often results in the development of gender
roles. In contrast, social learning theory sees identification as a more flexible process.
Regardless of age, individuals can identify with and learn from anyone around them, not necessarily
limited to parents or same-sex individuals.
 Determinism vs. Agency: Freud’s theory leans toward psychic determinism, suggesting that
unconscious desires largely shape our behaviors and feelings.
Social learning theory, while acknowledging the influence of environment, also stresses personal
agency – our capacity to influence our own behavior and the environment in a purposeful, goal-directed
way.
 Change: In Freudian theory, personality is largely formed by age 5, making change difficult. Social
learning theory suggests that because learning is a lifelong process, individuals can change their
behaviors and attitudes throughout life.
Future Research
The motor reproduction process, where observers externally mimic modeled behaviors based on their
internalized symbols, is also significant but less explored.
Most research showcases role model successes instead of the actionable steps taken to achieve them
(Bandura, 1972).
Detailed behavioral scripts, outlining step-by-step actions, are crucial for observational learning but are
often overlooked.
Current role model studies in education don’t emphasize the observer’s cognitive and motivational
processes as much as Bandura did, indicating a research gap that needs bridging.
FAQs
What are the 4 stages of social learning theory?
The social learning theory proposes that individuals learn through observation, imitation, and
reinforcement. According to the theory, there are four stages of social learning:
1. Attention: In this stage, individuals must first pay attention to the behavior they are observing.
This requires focus and concentration on the model’s behavior.
2. Retention: In this stage, individuals must remember the behavior they observed. This involves

2. Retention: In this stage, individuals must remember the behavior they observed. This involves
cognitive processing and memory storage.
3. Reproduction: In this stage, individuals attempt to reproduce the behavior they observe. This may
involve practicing and refining the behavior until it can be performed accurately.
4. Motivation: In this stage, individuals must have a reason or motivation to perform the behavior.
This may involve reinforcement, punishment, social approval, disapproval, or other incentives.
What is the main idea of social learning theory?

Social Learning Theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, posits that people learn through observing,
imitating, and modeling others’ behavior. This theory posits that we can acquire new behaviors and
knowledge by watching others, a process known as vicarious learning.
Bandura emphasized the importance of cognitive processes in learning, which set his theory apart from
traditional behaviorism.
He proposed that individuals have beliefs and expectations that influence their actions and can think
about the links between their behavior and its consequences.
Why is social learning theory important?

Social learning theory helps us understand how our environment and the people around us shape our
behavior. It helps explain how individuals develop new skills and behaviors by paying attention to the
behavior of others and then trying to reproduce that behavior themselves.
It is an important theory for psychologists, educators, and anyone interested in human behavior and
development.
Who is Albert Bandura?

Albert Bandura was a prominent Canadian-American psychologist known for his work in social learning
theory and the concept of self-efficacy.
His groundbreaking research on observational learning, through experiments such as the Bobo Doll
experiment, shifted the focus of psychological theory from behaviorism to cognitive processes.
Bandura’s work significantly influenced the understanding of how individuals learn within social
contexts.
Albert Bandura is best known for his contributions to the field of psychology, particularly in the areas of
social learning theory, self-efficacy, and aggression. He is considered one of the most influential
psychologists of the 20th century.
Bandura’s work has significantly impacted our understanding of human behavior and has informed fields
such as education, psychology, and social work.
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Bandura’s 4 Principles Of Social Learning Theory

Learning Theories: Albert Bandura’s Principles Of Social
Learning
By TeachThought Staff
Those who are new to social learning theory might not make the immediate connection to an
individual’s beliefs about their own abilities; however, self-efficacy is a core tenet of Albert Bandura’s
social learning theory. In this segment of learning theories, we are performing a deep dive into
psychologist Albert Bandura, his contributions to social learning theory, how his ideas have evolved, and
how teachers can capitalize on social learning theory to increase achievement and other positive
outcomes for students in the classroom.
The Man Behind The ‘Bobo Doll’

Albert Bandura was born in Canada in 1925 to immigrant parents of Polish and Ukrainian descent. He
obtained his bachelor’s, master’s, and doctorate degrees in psychology before he was hired as a
professor at Stanford University in California. There, Bandura’s research honed in on the gaps of existing
social and behavioral learning theories by figures like B.F. Skinner, which did not consider the potential
influence of social variables in the acquisition of new learning and responses.
Bandura is best known, perhaps, for the ‘Bobo doll’ experiment. In this study, researchers abused a doll–
both physically and verbally–while pre-school-aged children observed. Later on, the children mimicked
the behavior of the researchers, proving Bandura’s hypothesis that children can learn through adults’
behaviors. Bandura’s findings led him to develop what was first termed ‘social learning theory’ in the
1960s.

As it was originally explained in 1963, social learning theory aligned mostly with previous behavioral
theories–the novel component was its emphasis on imitation in learning. It stated the following:
• When someone witnesses a ‘model’ performing a specific behavior, as well as the consequences
of that behavior, they can commit the sequence of actions to memory and recall that data to
guide their future behaviors.

guide their future behaviors.
• People do not learn new behaviors simply by attempting them, and then succeeding or failing.
Instead, they depend largely upon the imitation of action sequences by other people.
• People choose to replicate or dismiss certain behaviors based on how they observe others being
rewarded or punished for those behaviors, or the outcomes of those behaviors.
• In other words, monkey see, monkey do (or do not…).
Over time, Bandura’s social learning theory moved away from the behavioral end of the spectrum and
closer to the cognitive end. He published a significant revision to his theory in 1977, which included the
concept of self-efficacy at the core of its theoretical framework. In this revision, individual choices,
effort, and feelings about those choices are affected by their beliefs about their own abilities to perform
certain behaviors to achieve certain outcomes. Bandura was the first person to make this connection,
and the main pillars of social learning theory were revised to make the following arguments:
• Learning is both behavioral and cognitive. It also occurs in a social context.

• Learning occurs through vicarious reinforcement–observing a behavior and its consequences
(which have social ramifications).
• Learning involves observation, drawing conclusions from observations, and making subsequent
decisions (that do not necessarily result in an observable change in behavior).
• While reinforcement is critical to learning, it is not the sole cause of learning.
• Through the concept of reciprocal determinism, cognition, environment, and behavior all
influence each other and the learner
Here, we can connect Bandura’s evolved theory and Paulo Freire’s criticism of the ‘banking model’ of
education, wherein students are regarded as passive ‘banks’ into which teachers make ‘deposits’ of
information.
After almost a decade of continued research, Bandura again revised his theory of social learning in 1986.
Now referred to as ‘social cognitive theory,’ Bandura purported that–in addition to the interplay among
the person, their environment, and their behavior–a person’s past experiences also help determine their
actions. Such experiences are not limited to physical behaviors, but also include previous expectations,
expectancies, and reinforcements. While other theorists attribute greater influence to one of the three
realms of environment, behavior, and cognition in how a person behaves, Bandura gave them equal
weight in the learning process.
At this stage, Bandura would very likely have agreed with the oft-repeated quote in education: “Insanity
is doing the same thing over and over again and expecting a different result.”
4 Principles: Breaking Down An Evolving Theory

Though Albert Bandura passed away in 2021, his contributions to psychology will continue to drive
future research on learning within social contexts. If readers take away one thing from this post, it
should be that learning is directly correlated to social models, which can be observed in person or via
the media. We can summarize the latest edition of Bandura’s social cognitive/learning theory by
focusing on the following four principles:
• Attention: An observer pays attention to particular social behaviors. Their ability to pay attention
depends on their accessibility to what is being observed, the relevance of the behaviors, the
complexity of the behaviors, the perceived value of the behaviors, and the observer’s own
cognitive abilities and preconceptions.
• Retention: An observer retains the sequence of behaviors and consequences, which they can
retrieve for future imitations of the behaviors.
• Production: An observer repeats the behavior in a different social context and receives feedback
from other observers, which they can use to adjust how they perform the behaviors in future
contexts.

contexts.
• Motivation: An observer is motivated to repeat the behaviors based on the social responses and
consequences they receive when they imitate a behavior.
How Can Teachers Use Social Learning Theory In The Classroom?

Perhaps the better question is, is there any aspect of the school experience where social learning does
not apply? From classroom management and collaborative learning to gamification and providing
feedback, Bandura’s theory is widely applicable.
• Managing the classroom: Teachers can use positive and negative reinforcement to motivate
students to perform certain behaviors (i.e., verbally praising a student staying on task,
participating, or showing up prepared to learn consistently).
• Making transitions or clarifications: Teachers can use physical and/or verbal cues to elicit student
attention (i.e., initiating a call-and-response, using a hand signal, or pointing to an object).
• Planning for instruction: Teachers should incorporate multimodal learning to help students retain
new information (i.e., presenting new content through visual, auditory, and kinesthetic modes).
• Supporting intrinsic motivation: Teachers can use rewards and reinforcement to help students
develop confidence, self-efficacy, and a love for learning (i.e., offering verbal praise or
constructive feedback regarding progress-tracking and goal-setting).
• Incorporating collaborative learning: Teachers can create time in each lesson for students to
practice and learn with diverse students (models) in low-stakes activities. We know that students
pay more attention to their friends and peers than to other adults. For more on this, see 8 Ways
To Help Students Learn More From Others Than They Do From You
• Trying a flipped classroom model: In this model, students watch a video or lesson at home and
observe others’ behaviors during the learning activities in the classroom. Through reinforcement,
students can apply observations to their own learning. (*refer to flipped classroom article).
• Applying gamification principles to lessons: Gamification naturally creates rewards and
reinforcements for positive behaviors, increasing student motivation. If you want to learn more
about how to ‘gamify’ your classroom, read our article “12 Examples Of Gamification In The
Classroom.”
When educators have a comprehensive knowledge of how social learning works, they can use integrate
its four principles in all areas of the classroom to amplify positive outcomes for their students. One of
the major criticisms of social learning theory is that it fails to take into account certain environmental
considerations in the process of learning.
Several examples include the learning environment (noise, temperature, amount of space), whether or
not a learner’s basic needs have been met (like adequate sleep, nutrition, and health), and the impact of
poverty on a student’s ability to learn. As teachers make conscious efforts to amplify social learning in
their classrooms, they can keep these considerations in mind.
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Observational learning
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Observational learning is learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others. It is a form of
social learning which takes various forms, based on various processes. In humans, this form of learning
seems to not need reinforcement to occur, but instead, requires a social model such as a parent, sibling,
friend, or teacher with surroundings. Particularly in childhood, a model is someone of authority or
higher status in an environment. In animals, observational learning is often based on classical
conditioning, in which an instinctive behavior is elicited by observing the behavior of another (e.g.
mobbing in birds), but other processes may be involved as well.[1]

mobbing in birds), but other processes may be involved as well.[1]
Human observational learning

Many behaviors that a learner observes, remembers, and imitates are actions that models display and
display modeling, even though the model may not intentionally try to instill a particular behavior. A child
may learn to swear, smack, smoke, and deem other inappropriate behavior acceptable through poor
modeling. Albert Bandura claims that children continually learn desirable and undesirable behavior
through observational learning. Observational learning suggests that an individual's environment,
cognition, and behavior all incorporate and ultimately determine how the individual functions and
models.[2]
Through observational learning, individual behaviors can spread across a culture through a process
called diffusion chain. This basically occurs when an individual first learns a behavior by observing
another individual and that individual serves as a model through whom other individuals learn the
behavior, and so on.[3]
Culture plays a role in whether observational learning is the dominant learning style in a person or
community. Some cultures expect children to actively participate in their communities and are therefore
exposed to different trades and roles on a daily basis.[4] This exposure allows children to observe and
learn the different skills and practices that are valued in their communities.[5]
Bobo doll experiment identified the importance of observational learning

Albert Bandura, who is known for the classic Bobo doll experiment, identified this basic form of learning
in 1961. The importance of observational learning lies in helping individuals, especially children, acquire
new responses by observing others' behavior.
Albert Bandura states that people's behavior could be determined by their environment. Observational
learning occurs through observing negative and positive behaviors. Bandura believes in reciprocal
determinism in which the environment can influence people's behavior and vice versa. For instance, the
Bobo doll experiment shows that the model, in a determined environment, affects children's behavior.
In this experiment Bandura demonstrates that one group of children placed in an aggressive
environment would act the same way, while the control group and the other group of children placed in
a passive role model environment hardly shows any type of aggression.[6]
In communities where children's primary mode of learning is through observation, the children are
rarely separated from adult activities. This incorporation into the adult world at an early age allows
children to use observational learning skills in multiple spheres of life. This learning through observation
requires keen attentive abilities. Culturally, they learn that their participation and contributions are
valued in their communities. This teaches children that it is their duty, as members of the community, to
observe others' contributions so they gradually become involved and participate further in the
community.[7]
Influential stages and factors
The stages of observational learning include exposure to the model, acquiring the model's behaviour
and accepting it as one's own.
Bandura's social cognitive learning theory states that there are four factors that influence observational
learning:[8]
• Attention: Observers cannot learn unless they pay attention to what's happening around them.
This process is influenced by characteristics of the model, such as how much one likes or identifies
with the model, and by characteristics of the observer, such as the observer's expectations or level
of emotional arousal.

of emotional arousal.
• Retention/Memory: Observers must not only recognize the observed behavior but also remember
it at some later time. This process depends on the observer's ability to code or structure the
information in an easily remembered form or to mentally or physically rehearse the model's
actions.
• Initiation/Motor: Observers must be physically and/intellectually capable of producing the act. In
many cases, the observer possesses the necessary responses. But sometimes, reproducing the
model's actions may involve skills the observer has not yet acquired. It is one thing to carefully
watch a circus juggler, but it is quite another to go home and repeat those acts.
• Motivation: The observer must have motivation to recreate the observed behavior.
Bandura clearly distinguishes between learning and performance. Unless motivated, a person does not
produce learned behavior. This motivation can come from external reinforcement, such as the
experimenter's promise of reward in some of Bandura's studies, or the bribe of a parent. Or it can come
from vicarious reinforcement, based on the observation that models are rewarded. High-status models
can affect performance through motivation. For example, girls aged 11 to 14 performed better on a
motor performance task when they thought it was demonstrated by a high-status cheerleader than by a
low-status model.[9]
Some have even added a step between attention and retention involving encoding a behavior.
Observational learning leads to a change in an individual's behavior along three dimensions:
1. An individual thinks about a situation in a different way and may have incentive to react to it.
2. The change is a result of a person's direct experiences as opposed to being in-born.
3. For the most part, the change an individual has made is permanent.[10]
Effect on behavior
According to Bandura's social cognitive learning theory, observational learning can affect behavior in
many ways, with both positive and negative consequences. It can teach completely new behaviors, for
one. It can also increase or decrease the frequency of behaviors that have previously been learned.
Observational learning can even encourage behaviors that were previously forbidden (for example, the
violent behavior towards the Bobo doll that children imitated in Albert Bandura's study). Observational
learning can also influence behaviors that are similar to, but not identical to, the ones being modeled.
For example, seeing a model excel at playing the piano may motivate an observer to play the
saxophone.
Age difference
Albert Bandura stressed that developing children learn from different social models, meaning that no
two children are exposed to exactly the same modeling influence. From infancy to adolescence, they are
exposed to various social models. A 2013 study found that a toddlers' previous social familiarity with a
model was not always necessary for learning and that they were also able to learn from observing a
stranger demonstrating or modeling a new action to another stranger.[11]
It was once believed that babies could not imitate actions until the latter half of the first year. However,
a number of studies now report that infants as young as seven days can imitate simple facial
expressions. By the latter half of their first year, 9-month-old babies can imitate actions hours after they
first see them. As they continue to develop, toddlers around age two can acquire important personal
and social skills by imitating a social model.
Deferred imitation is an important developmental milestone in a two-year-old, in which children not

only construct symbolic representations but can also remember information.[12] Unlike toddlers,

only construct symbolic representations but can also remember information.[12] Unlike toddlers,
children of elementary school age are less likely to rely on imagination to represent an experience.
Instead, they can verbally describe the model's behavior.[13] Since this form of learning does not need
reinforcement, it is more likely to occur regularly.
As age increases, age-related observational learning motor skills may decrease in athletes and
golfers.[14] Younger and skilled golfers have higher observational learning compared to older golfers
and less skilled golfers.
Observational causal learning

Humans use observational Moleen causal learning to watch other people's actions and use the
information gained to find out how something works and how we can do it ourselves.
A study of 25-month-old infants found that they can learn causal relations from observing human
interventions. They also learn by observing normal actions not created by intentional human action.[15]
Comparisons with imitation

Observational learning is presumed to have occurred when an organism copies an improbable action or
action outcome that it has observed and the matching behavior cannot be explained by an alternative
mechanism. Psychologists have been particularly interested in the form of observational learning known
as imitation and in how to distinguish imitation from other processes. To successfully make this
distinction, one must separate the degree to which behavioral similarity results from (a) predisposed
behavior, (b) increased motivation resulting from the presence of another animal, (c) attention drawn to
a place or object, (d) learning about the way the environment works, as distinguished from what we
think of as (e) imitation (the copying of the demonstrated behavior).[16]
Observational learning differs from imitative learning in that it does not require a duplication of the
behavior exhibited by the model. For example, the learner may observe an unwanted behavior and the
subsequent consequences, and thus learn to refrain from that behavior. For example, Riopelle (1960)
found that monkeys did better with observational learning if they saw the "tutor" monkey make a
mistake before making the right choice.[17] Heyes (1993) distinguished imitation and non-imitative
social learning in the following way: imitation occurs when animals learn about behavior from observing
conspecifics, whereas non-imitative social learning occurs when animals learn about the environment
from observing others.[18]
Not all imitation and learning through observing is the same, and they often differ in the degree to
which they take on an active or passive form. John Dewey describes an important distinction between
two different forms of imitation: imitation as an end in itself and imitation with a purpose.[19] Imitation
as an end is more akin to mimicry, in which a person copies another's act to repeat that action again.
This kind of imitation is often observed in animals. Imitation with a purpose utilizes the imitative act as a
means to accomplish something more significant. Whereas the more passive form of imitation as an end
has been documented in some European American communities, the other kind of more active,
purposeful imitation has been documented in other communities around the world.
Observation may take on a more active form in children's learning in multiple Indigenous American
communities. Ethnographic anthropological studies in Yucatec Mayan and Quechua Peruvian
communities provide evidence that the home or community-centered economic systems of these
cultures allow children to witness first-hand, activities that are meaningful to their own livelihoods and
the overall well-being of the community.[20] These children have the opportunity to observe activities
that are relevant within the context of that community, which gives them a reason to sharpen their
attention to the practical knowledge they are exposed to. This does not mean that they have to observe
the activities even though they are present. The children often make an active decision to stay in
attendance while a community activity is taking place to observe and learn.[20] This decision
underscores the significance of this learning style in many indigenous American communities. It goes far

underscores the significance of this learning style in many indigenous American communities. It goes far
beyond learning mundane tasks through rote imitation; it is central to children's gradual transformation
into informed members of their communities' unique practices. There was also a study, done with
children, that concluded that Imitated behavior can be recalled and used in another situation or the
same.[21]
Apprenticeship
Apprenticeship can involve both observational learning and modelling. Apprentices gain their skills in
part through working with masters in their profession and through observing and evaluating the work of
their fellow apprentices. Examples include renaissance inventor/painter Leonardo da Vinci and
Michelangelo, before succeeding in their profession they were apprentices.[22]
Learning without imitation

Michael Tomasello described various ways of observational learning without the process of imitation in
animals[23] (ethology):
• Exposure – Individuals learn about their environment through close proximity to other individuals
that have more experience. For example, a young dolphin learning the location of a plethora of
fish by staying near its mother.
• Stimulus enhancement – Individuals become interested in an object from watching others interact
with it.[24] Increased interest in an object may result in object manipulation, which facilitates new
object-related behaviors by trial-and-error learning. For example, a young killer whale might
become interested in playing with a sea lion pup after watching other whales toss the sea lion pup
around. After playing with the pup, the killer whale may develop foraging behaviors appropriate
to such prey. In this case, the killer whale did not learn to prey on sea lions by observing other
whales do so, but rather the killer whale became intrigued after observing other whales play with
the pup. After the killer whale became interested, then its interactions with the sea lion resulted
in behaviors that provoked future foraging efforts.
• Goal emulation – Individuals are enticed by the end result of an observed behavior and attempt
the same outcome but with a different method. For example, Haggerty (1909) devised an
experiment in which a monkey climbed up the side of a cage, stuck its arm into a wooden chute,
and pulled a rope in the chute to release food. Another monkey was provided an opportunity to
obtain the food after watching a monkey go through this process on four separate occasions. The
monkey performed a different method and finally succeeded after trial and error.[25]
Peer model influences

Observational learning is very beneficial when there are positive, reinforcing peer models involved.
Although individuals go through four different stages for observational learning: attention; retention;
production; and motivation, this does not simply mean that when an individual's attention is captured
that it automatically sets the process in that exact order. One of the most important ongoing stages for
observational learning, especially among children, is motivation and positive reinforcement.[26]
Performance is enhanced when children are positively instructed on how they can improve a situation
and where children actively participate alongside a more skilled person. Examples of this are scaffolding
and guided participation. Scaffolding refers to an expert responding contingently to a novice so the
novice gradually increases their understanding of a problem. Guided participation refers to an expert
actively engaging in a situation with a novice so the novice participates with or observes the adult to
understand how to resolve a problem.[27]
Cultural Variation
Cultural variation can be seen by the extent of information learned or absorbed by children in non-
Western cultures through learning by observation. Cultural variation is not restricted only to ethnicity
and nationality, but rather, extends to the specific practices within communities. In learning by

and nationality, but rather, extends to the specific practices within communities. In learning by
observation, children use observation to learn without verbal requests for further information, or
without direct instruction. For example, children from Mexican heritage families tend to learn and make
better use of information observed during classroom demonstration than children of European
heritage.[28][29] Children of European heritage experience the type of learning that separates them
from their family and community activities. They instead participate in lessons and other exercises in
special settings such as school.[30] Cultural backgrounds differ from each other in which children display
certain characteristics in regards to learning an activity. Another example is seen in the immersion of
children in some Indigenous communities of the Americas into the adult world and the effects it has on
observational learning and the ability to complete multiple tasks simultaneously.[7] This might be due to
children in these communities having the opportunity to see a task being completed by their elders or
peers and then trying to emulate the task. In doing so they learn to value observation and the skill-
building it affords them because of the value it holds within their community.[5] This type of
observation is not passive, but reflects the child's intent to participate or learn within a community.[4]
Observational learning can be seen taking place in many domains of Indigenous communities. The
classroom setting is one significant example, and it functions differently for Indigenous communities
compared to what is commonly present in Western schooling. The emphasis of keen observation in
favor of supporting participation in ongoing activities strives to aid children to learn the important tools
and ways of their community.[28] Engaging in shared endeavors – with both the experienced and
inexperienced – allows for the experienced to understand what the inexperienced need in order to grow
in regards to the assessment of observational learning.[28] The involvement of the inexperienced, or the
children in this matter, can either be furthered by the children's learning or advancing into the activity
performed by the assessment of observational learning.[29] Indigenous communities rely on
observational learning as a way for their children to be a part of ongoing activities in the community
(Tharp, 2006).
Although learning in the Indigenous American communities is not always the central focus when
participating in an activity,[29] studies have shown that attention in intentional observation differs from
accidental observation. Intentional participation is "keen observation and listening in anticipation of, or
in the process of engaging in endeavors". This means that when they have the intention of participating
in an event, their attention is more focused on the details, compared to when they are accidentally
observing.
Observational learning can be an active process in many Indigenous American communities. The learner
must take initiative to attend to activities going on around them. Children in these communities also
take initiative to contribute their knowledge in ways that will benefit their community. For example, in
many Indigenous American cultures, children perform household chores without being instructed to do
so by adults. Instead, they observe a need for their contributions, understand their role in their
community, and take initiative to accomplish the tasks they have observed others doing.[31] The
learner's intrinsic motivations play an important role in the child's understanding and construction of
meaning in these educational experiences. The independence and responsibility associated with
observational learning in many Indigenous American communities are significant reasons why this
method of learning involves more than just watching and imitating. A learner must be actively engaged
with their demonstrations and experiences in order to fully comprehend and apply the knowledge they
obtain.[32]
Indigenous communities of the Americas

Children from indigenous heritage communities of the Americas often learn through observation, a
strategy that can carry over into adulthood. The heightened value towards observation allows children
to multi-task and actively engage in simultaneous activities. The exposure to an uncensored adult
lifestyle allows children to observe and learn the skills and practices that are valued in their
communities.[5] Children observe elders, parents, and siblings complete tasks and learn to participate in

communities.[5] Children observe elders, parents, and siblings complete tasks and learn to participate in
them. They are seen as contributors and learn to observe multiple tasks being completed at once and
can learn to complete a task while still engaging with other community members without being
distracted.
Indigenous communities provide more opportunities to incorporate children in everyday life.[33] This
can be seen in some Mayan communities where children are given full access to community events,
which allows observational learning to occur more often.[33] Other children in Mazahua, Mexico are
known to observe ongoing activities intensely .[33] In native northern Canadian and indigenous Mayan
communities, children often learn as third-party observers from stories and conversations by others.[34]
Most young Mayan children are carried on their mother's back, allowing them to observe their mother's
work and see the world as their mother sees it.[35] Often, children in Indigenous American communities
assume the majority of the responsibility for their learning. Additionally, children find their own
approaches to learning.[36] Children are often allowed to learn without restrictions and with minimal
guidance. They are encouraged to participate in the community even if they do not know how to do the
work. They are self-motivated to learn and finish their chores.[37] These children act as a second set of
eyes and ears for their parents, updating them about the community.[38]
Children aged 6 to 8 in an indigenous heritage community in Guadalajara, Mexico participated in hard

work, such as cooking or running errands, thus benefiting the whole family, while those in the city of
Guadalajara rarely did so. These children participated more in adult regulated activities and had little
time to play, while those from the indigenous-heritage community had more time to play and initiate in
their after-school activities and had a higher sense of belonging to their community.[39] Children from
formerly indigenous communities are more likely to show these aspects than children from
cosmopolitan communities are, even after leaving their childhood community[40]
Within certain indigenous communities, people do not typically seek out explanations beyond basic
observation. This is because they are competent in learning through astute observation and often
nonverbally encourage to do so. In a Guatemalan footloom factory, amateur adult weavers observed
skilled weavers over the course of weeks without questioning or being given explanations; the amateur
weaver moved at their own pace and began when they felt confident.[33] The framework of learning
how to weave through observation can serve as a model that groups within a society use as a reference
to guide their actions in particular domains of life.[41] Communities that participate in observational
learning promote tolerance and mutual understand of those coming from different cultural
backgrounds.[42]
Other human and animal behavior experiments

When an animal is given a task to complete, they are almost always more successful after observing
another animal doing the same task before them. Experiments have been conducted on several
different species with the same effect: animals can learn behaviors from peers. However, there is a need
to distinguish the propagation of behavior and the stability of behavior. Research has shown that social
learning can spread a behavior, but there are more factors regarding how a behavior carries across
generations of an animal culture.[43]
Learning in fish
Experiments with ninespine sticklebacks showed that individuals will use social learning to locate
food.[43]
Social learning in pigeons

A study in 1996 at the University of Kentucky used a foraging device to test social learning in pigeons. A
pigeon could access the food reward by either pecking at a treadle or stepping on it. Significant
correspondence was found between the methods of how the observers accessed their food and the
methods the initial model used in accessing the food.[44]

Acquiring foraging niches
Studies have been conducted at the University of Oslo and University of Saskatchewan regarding the
possibility of social learning in birds, delineating the difference between cultural and genetic
acquisition.[45] Strong evidence already exists for mate choice, bird song, predator recognition, and
foraging.
Researchers cross-fostered eggs between nests of blue tits and great tits and observed the resulting
behavior through audio-visual recording. Tits raised in the foster family learned their foster family's
foraging sites early. This shift—from the sites the tits would among their own kind and the sites they
learned from the foster parents—lasted for life. What young birds learn from foster parents, they
eventually transmitted to their own offspring. This suggests cultural transmissions of foraging behavior
over generations in the wild.[46]
Social learning in crows

The University of Washington studied this phenomenon with crows, acknowledging the evolutionary
tradeoff between acquiring costly information firsthand and learning that information socially with less
cost to the individual but at the risk of inaccuracy. The experimenters exposed wild crows to a unique
"dangerous face" mask as they trapped, banded, and released 7-15 birds at five different study places
around Seattle, WA. An immediate scolding response to the mask after trapping by previously captured
crows illustrates that the individual crow learned the danger of that mask. There was a scolding from
crows that were captured that had not been captured initially. That response indicates conditioning
from the mob of birds that assembled during the capture.
Horizontal social learning (learning from peers) is consistent with the lone crows that recognized the
dangerous face without ever being captured. Children of captured crow parents were conditioned to
scold the dangerous mask, which demonstrates vertical social learning (learning from parents). The
crows that were captured directly had the most precise discrimination between dangerous and neutral
masks than the crows that learned from the experience of their peers. The ability of crows to learn
doubled the frequency of scolding, which spread at least 1.2 km from where the experiment started to
over a 5-year period at one site.[47]
Propagation of animal culture

Researchers at the Département d’Etudes Cognitives, Institut Jean Nicod, Ecole Normale Supérieure
acknowledged a difficulty with research in social learning. To count acquired behavior as cultural, two
conditions need must be met: the behavior must spread in a social group, and that behavior must be
stable across generations. Research has provided evidence that imitation may play a role in the
propagation of a behavior, but these researchers believe the fidelity of this evidence is not sufficient to
prove the stability of animal culture.
Other factors like ecological availability, reward-based factors, content-based factors, and source-based
factors might explain the stability of animal culture in a wild rather than just imitation. As an example of
ecological availability, chimps may learn how to fish for ants with a stick from their peers, but that
behavior is also influenced by the particular type of ants as well as the condition. A behavior may be
learned socially, but the fact that it was learned socially does not necessarily mean it will last. The fact
that the behavior is rewarding has a role in cultural stability as well. The ability for socially-learned
behaviors to stabilize across generations is also mitigated by the complexity of the behavior. Different
individuals of a species, like crows, vary in their ability to use a complex tool. Finally, a behavior's
stability in animal culture depends on the context in which they learn a behavior. If a behavior has
already been adopted by a majority, then the behavior is more likely to carry across generations out of a
need for conforming.
Animals are able to acquire behaviors from social learning, but whether or not that behavior carries
across generations requires more investigation.[48]

across generations requires more investigation.[48]
Hummingbird experiment
Experiments with hummingbirds provided one example of apparent observational learning in a non-
human organism. Hummingbirds were divided into two groups. Birds in one group were exposed to the
feeding of a knowledgeable "tutor" bird; hummingbirds in the other group did not have this exposure. In
subsequent tests the birds that had seen a tutor were more efficient feeders than the others.[49]
Bottlenose dolphin
Herman (2002) suggested that bottlenose dolphins produce goal-emulated behaviors rather than
imitative ones. A dolphin that watches a model place a ball in a basket might place the ball in the basket
when asked to mimic the behavior, but it may do so in a different manner seen.[50]
Rhesus monkey
Kinnaman (1902) reported that one rhesus monkey learned to pull a plug from a box with its teeth to
obtain food after watching another monkey succeed at this task.[51]
Fredman (2012) also performed an experiment on observational behavior. In experiment 1, human-

raised monkeys observed a familiar human model open a foraging box using a tool in one of two
alternate ways: levering or poking. In experiment 2, mother-raised monkeys viewed similar techniques
demonstrated by monkey models. A control group in each population saw no model. In both
experiments, independent coders detected which technique experimental subjects had seen, thus
confirming social learning. Further analyses examined copying at three levels of resolution.
The human-raised monkeys exhibited the greatest learning with the specific tool use technique they
saw. Only monkeys who saw the levering model used the lever technique, by contrast with controls and
those who witnessed poking. Mother-reared monkeys instead typically ignored the tool and exhibited
fidelity at a lower level, tending only to re-create whichever result the model had achieved by either
levering or poking.
Nevertheless, this level of social learning was associated with significantly greater levels of success in
monkeys witnessing a model than in controls, an effect absent in the human-reared population. Results
in both populations are consistent with a process of canalization of the repertoire in the direction of the
approach witnessed, producing a narrower, socially shaped behavioral profile than among controls who
saw no model.[52]
Light box experiment

Pinkham and Jaswal (2011) did an experiment to see if a child would learn how to turn on a light box by
watching a parent. They found that children who saw a parent use their head to turn on the light box
tended to do the task in that manner, while children who had not seen the parent used their hands
instead.[53]
Swimming skill performance

When adequate practice and appropriate feedback follow demonstrations, increased skill performance
and learning occurs. Lewis (1974) did a study[54] of children who had a fear of swimming and observed
how modelling and going over swimming practices affected their overall performance. The experiment
spanned nine days, and included many steps. The children were first assessed on their anxiety and
swimming skills. Then they were placed into one of three conditional groups and exposed to these
conditions over a few days.
At the end of each day, all children participated in a group lesson. The first group was a control group
where the children watched a short cartoon video unrelated to swimming. The second group was a peer
mastery group, which watched a short video of similar-aged children who had very good task
performances and high confidence. Lastly, the third group was a peer coping group, whose subjects

performances and high confidence. Lastly, the third group was a peer coping group, whose subjects
watched a video of similar-aged children who progressed from low task performances and low
confidence statements to high task performances and high confidence statements.
The day following the exposures to each condition, the children were reassessed. Finally, the children
were also assessed a few days later for a follow-up assessment. Upon reassessment, it was shown that
the two model groups who watched videos of children similar in age had successful rates on the skills
assessed because they perceived the models as informational and motivational.
Do-as-I-do Chimpanzee
Flexible methods must be used to assess whether an animal can imitate an action. This led to an
approach that teaches animals to imitate by using a command such as "do-as-I-do" or "do this" followed
by the action that they are supposed to imitate .[55] Researchers trained chimpanzees to imitate an
action that was paired with the command. For example, this might include a researcher saying "do this"
paired with clapping hands. This type of instruction has been utilized in a variety of other animals in
order to teach imitation actions by utilizing a command or request.[55]
Observational learning in Everyday Life

Observational learning allows for new skills to be learned in a wide variety of areas. Demonstrations
help the modification of skills and behaviors.[56]
Learning physical activities

When learning skills for physical activities can be anything that is learned that requires physical
movement, this can include learning a sport, learning to eat with a fork, or learning to walk.[56] There
are multiple important variables that aid in modifying physical skills and psychological responses from
an observational learning standpoint. Modeling is a variable in observational learning where the skill
level of the model is considered. When someone is supposed to demonstrate a physical skill such as
throwing a baseball the model should be able to execute the behavior of throwing the ball flawlessly if
the model of learning is a mastery model.[56] Another model to utilize in observational learning is a
coping model, which would be a model demonstrating a physical skill that they have not yet mastered or
achieved high performance in.[57] Both models are found to be effective and can be utilized depending
on the what skills is trying to be demonstrated.[56] These models can be used as interventions to
increase observational learning in practice, competition, and rehabilitation situations.[56]Observational
learning is also dependent on the learner's intentions and goals where performance can be enhanced by
increasing instruction and beneficial feedback depending on the individual's age, personality, and
abilities.[58]
Neuroscience
Recent research in neuroscience has implicated mirror neurons as a neurophysiological basis for
observational learning.[59] Mirror neurons were first discovered in 1991 by researchers led by Giacomo
Rizzolatti. The scientists had a device connected to a monkey to monitor brain activity. When the
scientists came into the lab eating ice cream, the device buzzed. This accidental finding led them to
mirror neurons which are an essential part in imitation and observational learning.[60] These specialized
visuomotor neurons fire action potentials when an individual performs a motor task and also fire when
an individual passively observes another individual performing the same motor task.[61] In
observational motor learning, the process begins with a visual presentation of another individual
performing a motor task, this acts as a model. The learner then needs to transform the observed visual
information into internal motor commands that will allow them to perform the motor task, this is known
as visuomotor transformation.[62] Mirror neuron networks provide a mechanism for visuo-motor and
motor-visual transformation and interaction. Similar networks of mirror neurons have also been
implicated in social learning, motor cognition and social cognition.[63]
Clinical Perspective
Clinical Perspective
Autism Spectrum Disorder
Discrete trial training (DTT) is a structured and systematic approach utilized in helping individuals with
autism spectrum disorder learn.[64] Individuals with autism tend to struggle with learning through
observation, therefore something that is reinforcing is necessary in order to motivate them to imitate or
follow through with the task.[64] When utilizing DTT to teach individuals with autism modeling is utilized
to aid in their learning. Modeling would include showing how to reach the correct answer, this could
mean showing the steps to a math equation. Utilizing DTT in a group setting also promotes
observational learning from peers as well.[64]

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EDS 103_ Theories of learning Page 1

EDS 103_ Theories of learning Page 2

The Role of Self-Efficacy

• Develop a deeper interest in the activities in which they participate

• Avoid challenging tasks

Self-Efficacy vs. Self-Esteem vs. Self-Confidence

How Does Self-Efficacy Develop?

What are the four types of self-efficacy?

EDS 103_ Theories of learning Page 3

Examples of High Self-Efficacy

Some examples of strong self-efficacy include:

Issues With Low Self-Efficacy

EDS 103_ Theories of learning Page 4

Evaluating Self-Efficacy Strength

Celebrate Your Success

EDS 103_ Theories of learning Page 5

Seek Positive Affirmations

Pay Attention to Your Thoughts and Emotions

Get Advice From The Verywell Mind Podcast

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How Social Learning Theory Works

EDS 103_ Theories of learning Page 6

What Is Social Learning Theory?

Core Concepts of Social Learning Theory

Let's explore each of these concepts in greater depth.

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Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:

Mental States Are Important to Learning

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Key Factors for Social Learning Success

Real-World Applications for Social Learning Theory

A Word From Verywell

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How Observational Learning Affects Behavior

History of Observational Learning

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Observational Learning Examples

Stages of Observational Learning

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Influences on Observational Learning

• People we perceive as warm and nurturing

Pros and Cons of Observational Learning

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Uses for Observational Learning

A Word From Verywell

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Behavioral Factors in Reciprocal Determinism

Behavior refers to anything you do that may be rewarded or punished.

Environmental Factors in Reciprocal Determinism

Personal Factors in Reciprocal Determinism

An Example of Reciprocal Determinism

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Self-Efficacy and Reciprocal Determinism

A Word From Verywell

What Is Social Learning Theory?

The History of Social Learning Theory

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Social Learning Theory and Crime/Deviance