BIO101 - General Biology I

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
FACULTY OF SCIENCES
COURSE CODE: BIO101
COURSE TITLE: GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
1
Course Code & Course Title: BIO101: General Biology 1
Course Team
Course Reviewer: Prof. Mohammed Bello Abdullahi

Federal University,
Kashere-Gombe
Reviewed Content Editor: Dr. Maureen N. Chukwu

National Open University of Nigeria
Abuja
Course Coordinator: Dr. Maureen N. Chukwu

Department of Biological Sciences
Reviewed: 2023
2
© 2023 by NOUN Press
Headquarters University Village
Plot 91, Cadastral Zone Nnamdi Azikiwe
Expressway Jabi, Abuja
Lagos Office
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
e-mail:
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
Published by
Printed 2017
Reviewed 2023
All Rights Reserved
3
Course Guide
Introduction
GENERAL BIOLOGY I is a one semester, 16 Units course. It will be suitable to all students to
take towards the core module of B.Sc. (Hons) Biological Sciences. It will also be suitable as an
elective course for any student in Faculty of Sciences who does not want to complete an NOU
qualification but want to learn about Biology. The course involves the study of Cell structure and
organization, functions of cellular organelles, characteristics and classification of living things,
chromosomes, genes their relationships and importance, general reproduction, interrelationships
of organisms (competitions, parasitism, predation, symbiosis, commensalisms, mutualism,
saprophytism); heredity and evolution (introduction to Darwinism and Lamarkism, Mendelian
laws, explanation of key genetic terms), elements of ecology and types of habitat.
Course Competencies
This course aims to enable you to know/understand the basic concepts of ecology, life support and
ecosystem. It will guide your understanding of various natural phenomena in the planet earth.
Course Objectives
The Comprehensive Objectives of the Course as a whole are to;
1. Explain cell structure and organizations,

2. Summarize functions of cellular organelles
3. Characterize living organisms and state their general reproduction
4. Describe the interrelationship that exists between organisms
5. Discuss the concept of heredity and evolution
6. Describe the basic elements of ecology and enumerate habitat types and their
characteristics.
Working Through this Course

To successfully complete this course, you are required to read each study unit, read the textbooks
and other materials provided.
Reading the reference materials can also be of great assistance. Each unit has self –assessment
exercise which you are advised to do.
There will be a final examination at the end of the course. The course should take you about 8
weeks to complete.
This course guide provides you with all the components of the course, how to go about studying
and how you should allocate your time to each unit so as to finish on time and successfully
Study Units
The study units in this course are given below:
BIO 101 GENERAL BIOLOGY I (2 UNITS)
MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
4
Unit 1 Properties of Life
Unit 2: The Diversity of life and its organization
Unit 3: Introduction to Biological Inquiry
Unit 4: Scientific Inquiry method
Unit 5: Microscopy and the Cell Theory
MODULE 2: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL

Unit 1: Cell and Cell Components
Unit 2: Cells Communication
Unit 3: Tissues, Organs and Organ Systems
Unit 4: Characteristics and Classification of Living Things
Unit 5: The Study of Genes and Chromosomes
Unit 6: Reproduction Process and Life cycles
MODULE 3: INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ORGANISMS

Unit 1: Interrelationship between organisms
Unit 2: Heredity and Variation
Unit 3: Introduction to Evolution
Unit 4: Natural selection
Unit 5: Elements of Ecology
References and Further Readings
You would be required to read the recommended references and textbooks as provided in each unit
of the course.
Presentation Schedule
There is a time-table prepared for the early and timely completion and submissions of your TMAs
as well as attending the tutorial classes. You are required to submit all your assignments by the
stipulated date and time. Avoid falling behind the schedule time.
Assessment
There are three aspects to the assessment of this course. The first one is the in-text questions and
the second is self-assessment exercises, while the third is the written examination or the
examination to be taken at the end of the course. Review the exercises or activities in the unit by
applying the information and knowledge you acquired during the course. The work submitted to
your tutor for assessment will account for 30% of your total work. At the end of this course, you
will have to sit for a final or end of course examination of about a two-hour duration and this will
account for 70% of your total course mark.
5
How to get the Most from the Course
In this course, you have the course units and a course guide. The course guide will tell you briefly
what the course is all about. It is a general overview of the course materials you will be using and
how to use those materials. It also helps you to allocate the appropriate time to each unit so that
you can successfully complete the course within the stipulated time limit.
The course guide also helps you to know how to go about your in-text questions and Self-
assessment questions which will form part of your overall assessment at the end of the course.
Also, there will be tutorial classes that are related to this course, where you can interact with your
facilitators and other students. Please I encourage you to attend these tutorial classes.
This course exposes you to Introductory Ecology, a sub-discipline and very interesting field of
Biological Sciences.
Online Facilitation
Eight weeks are provided for tutorials for this course. You will be notified of the dates, times and
location for these tutorial classes.
As soon as you are allocated a tutorial group, the name and phone number of your facilitator will
be given to you.
The duties of your facilitator is to monitor your progress and provide any necessary assistance you
need.
Do not delay to contact your facilitator by telephone or e-mail for necessary assistance if
• You do not understand any part of the study in the course material.
• You have difficulty with the self-assessment activities.
• You have a problem or question with an assignment or with the grading of the assignment.
It is important and necessary you attend the tutorial classes because this is the only chance to have
face to face contact with your facilitator and to ask questions which will be answered instantly. It
is also a period where you can point out any problem encountered in the course of your study.
Course Information
Course Code: BIO 101
Course Title: GENERAL BIOLOGY I
Credit Unit: 2
Course Status: COMPULSORY
Course Blub: This course is designed to enable the students to understand the basic concepts of
ecology, life support and ecosystem. It will also guide their understanding of various
natural phenomena in the planet earth.
Semester: 2 SEMESTERS
Course Duration: 13 WEEKS
Required Hours for Study: 65 hours
Ice Breaker
Prof. Mohammed Bello Abdullahi is a Professor of Biology (Biodiversity and Environmental
Management) in the Department of Biological Sciences, Federal University, Kashere-Gombe. He
has been briefly in the Department of Biological Sciences, National Open University of Nigeria
from 2017-2021 participating in all academic activities in the Department; examining, moderating
6
and facilitating courses such as; BIO101; BIO202; BIO204; BIO304 and BIO412, and seminars
and practicals.
Prof. Abdullahi's research interest covers phytosociology, climate change, ecological economics,
ethnobotany, plant physiology, biodiversity and environmental management, and environmental
toxicology.
7
Module 1: Introduction to Biology
Module Structure
In this module we will discuss about the properties, diversity and organization of life and the scientific
method of inquiry:

Glossary
End of the module Questions
Module 1: Introduction to Biology

Unit Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
1.3 The Study of Biology
1.4 The origin and nature of life
1.5 Properties of Life
1.6 Summary
1.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources
1.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises
1.1 Introduction
Biology is the science of life. All living organisms share several key properties such as order,
sensitivity or response to stimuli, reproduction, adaptation, growth and development, regulation,
homeostasis, and energy processing. Living things are highly organized following a hierarchy that
includes atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. Organisms, in
turn, are grouped as populations, communities, ecosystems, and the biosphere.
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
• Define Biology
• Trace the origin of life
• Identify and describe the properties of life
1.3 The Study of Biology
Earth provides few hints about the variety of life forms that inhabit it when viewed from space.
Microorganisms are assumed to have been the first life forms on Earth, existing for billions of
years before the emergence of plants and animals. Our familiar mammals, birds, and flowers are
8
all quite recent, having evolved 130 to 200 million years ago. Only in the last 300,000 years have
humans begun to resemble the creatures we are today, despite the fact that humans have only been
on this planet for the past 2.5 million years. The science that examines life is called Biology. What
is life, exactly? Although it may seem like a frivolous question with a simple solution, it is difficult
to define life. For instance, the study of viruses, which share some traits with living things but not
all of them, is one area of Biology called virology. Viruses do not fit the criteria that scientists use
to define life, despite the fact that they may assault living things, spread diseases, and even
reproduce. In the past, the study of living things was limited to fields of pure science, such as
botany and zoology, which together make up Biology. However, as time went on, other branches
emerged. New technologies emerged in both applied and pure domains, giving rise to a highly
expansive concept of science known as biological sciences. The field of biological sciences spans
a wide range of topics, from the intricate interactions of chemical elements within living cells to
the expansive ideas of ecosystems and planetary environmental changes. Additionally, it is
interested in the physical traits and actions of both modern and extinct species. How did they come
into being, and what relationships do they have with one another and their surroundings? The
biological sciences deal with a close examination of the inner workings of the human brain, the
make-up of our genes, and even how our reproductive system functions. Four problems have
plagued biology from its earliest days: What characteristics unify things to be considered "alive"?
How do the different living things work? How do we organise the various types of organisms so
that we can better understand them in the face of the astounding diversity of life? And finally, how
did this diversity develop and how is it maintaining itself is what biologists eventually aim to
understand. Biologists are constantly looking for solutions to these and other issues as new
creatures are found every day. Biology is the study of living things as a result. Because of this,
biology is sometimes referred to as "life science." The term "systematic study of living beings or
study of nature" refers to the biological sciences. The main focus of teaching life science is to
enlighten students on the most recent advancements being made worldwide in the biological
sciences. What are the four problems that plagued biology from its earliest days?
Self-Assessment Exercises 1
1. What are the first forms of life that appeared on planet earth?
2. How many years ago did humans starts to inhibit the earth?
1.4 The Origin and Nature of Life

The origin or emergence of life is one of the biggest and most significant emergent phenomena.
Science is still divided on the enigma of life's beginning. It is difficult to give a definitive response
to the question "what is life?" since we truly want to know why it exists. To put it another way,
"we are really asking, in physical terms, why a given material system is an organism and not
anything else." In order to respond to this why question, we must comprehend the potential origins
of life. There are numerous hypotheses on the beginning of life. These various theories regarding
the origin of life are highlighted in the following few sections. The following series of occurrences
have occurred during the evolution of life on Earth. Single-celled organisms were the most basic
species to first exhibit signs of life. These gave rise to more advanced, multicellular creatures.
More cells exhibited cellular specialisation, meaning that some cells within the multicellular
organism carried out certain activities, which meant that becoming more complex meant more than
9
just an increase in cell quantity. The evolution of organisms through millions or perhaps billions
of years gave rise to the living entities we now refer to as plants and animals. Since most geologists,
paleontologists, biologists, and even theologians agree on this basic timeline of events, one would
infer that Moses, Aristotle, and Darwin were all sharp observers and naturalists who were capable
of logically determining the most likely creation story. Most Scientists agree that our solar system
formed around 4.5 billion years ago, and that time has passed since then. People who hold the six-
day creationism theory are frequently referred to as creationists. Their approach to research is
predicated on the idea that the Bible should be taken as a perfectly accurate account of everything
it discusses. On the other side, Scientists apply what they refer to as the scientific method, which
enables them to test theories and hypotheses and to create concepts and ideas. The origin of life on
earth has been the subject of numerous explanations over the years. As a result, these theories each
propose a different explanation for how life might have originated. Here are a few of them:
1. Idea of Special Creation: According to this theory, God, the All-Powerful, created all the many
forms of life that exist today on planet Earth. Hypothesis of Spontaneous Generation: According
to this theory, any type of non-living material could unexpectedly and spontaneously give rise to
a living organism. Aristotle, a Greek philosopher, was one of the ardent supporters of spontaneous
creation (384-322 BC).
2. The notion of catastrophe is merely a special case of the theory of special creation. It claims that
God has created life on earth in several ways, each of which was preceded by a disaster brought
on by a geological disturbance of some kind. This hypothesis holds that since every catastrophe
wiped out all existing life, every new life form that was created was distinct from the preceding
ones.
3. Cosmozoic Theory (Theory of Panspermia): In accordance with this theory, some organisms'
highly resistant spores travelled to Earth from other heavenly bodies like meteorites. This idea was
proposed by Richter in 1865 and supported by Arrhenius (1908) and other contemporary
Scientists. The theory did not gain any support. This theory lacks evidence, hence it was discarded.
4. Theory of Chemical Evolution: This theory is also known as the physical-chemical hypothesis
or the materialistic theory. According to this view, the chemical evolution that led to the origin of
life on Earth probably took place over the course of 3.8 billion years. Two Scientists separately
proposed this theory: A.I. Oparin, a Russian Scientist, in 1923 and J.B.S. Haldane, an English
Scientist, in 1928. How do we best refer to the theory of physical-chemical hypothesis or the
materialistic theory in Biology?
1. What are the four prominent theories on the origin of life?
2. What is the thrust of the theory of Chemical Evolution?
1.5 Properties of Life

All groups of living organisms share several key characteristics or functions: order, sensitivity or
response to stimuli, reproduction, adaptation, growth and development, regulation/homeostasis,
and energy processing. When viewed together, these eight characteristics serve to define life.
Order
Cells make up organisms, which are highly organised structures. It is amazing how intricate even
extremely basic, single-celled organisms are. Molecules are made up of atoms inside each cell.
Organelles or cell components are created from these. Multicellular creatures, which can have
millions of individual cells, have an advantage over single-celled organisms in that they can
10
specialise their cells to carry out particular tasks and even sacrifice them in some circumstances
for the benefit of the organism as a whole. How these specialised cells in creatures like toads
combine to generate organs like the heart, lung, or skin.
Sensitivity or Response to Stimuli
Organisms react to a variety of stimuli. For instance, plants might sway in the direction of a light
source or react to touch. Even very little bacteria can move in response to chemicals or light (a
process known as chemotaxis) (phototaxis). Moving away from a stimulus is regarded as a
negative response, but moving toward it is regarded as a good response. The plant returns to normal
after a short while.
Reproduction
The genetic material, or DNA, of single-celled organisms is first duplicated, and then it is divided
equally when the cell gets ready to divide into two new cells. Numerous species with more than
one cell, or multicellular organisms, create specialised reproductive cells that give rise to new
individuals. DNA containing genes is transferred to an organism's progeny during reproduction.
Because of these genes, the progeny will be of the same species as the parents and will share traits
like fur colour and blood type with them.
Adaptation
Every living thing displays a "fit" to its surroundings. This adaptability, as described by Biologists,
is the result of evolution by natural selection, which affects every lineage of reproducing creatures.
Examples of adaptations range from heat-resistant Archaea that can survive in steaming hot springs
to a nectar-eating moth whose tongue length matches that of the flower it feeds on. The ability to
survive and reproduce is improved by adaptations in the individual who is displaying them.
Adaptations change with time. Natural selection drives the traits of individuals in a population to
follow environmental changes.
Growth and Development
Genes encode specific instructions on how organisms should grow and develop. These genes give
instructions for cellular growth and development, ensuring that the offspring of a species will
develop into adults who share many traits with their parents.
Regulation/Homeostasis
Living organisms are complex and need various regulatory mechanisms to regulate internal
processes like nutrition, transport, stimulus response, and stress management.
Homeostasis, which is defined as a "steady state," is a generally stable internal environment needed
to support life. For instance, organ systems like the digestive or circulatory systems convey oxygen
throughout the body, remove waste, give nutrients to every cell, and cool the body, among other
specific tasks.
Cells need the right circumstances to function effectively, including the right temperature, pH, and
chemical concentrations. These circumstances could, however, change at any time. By turning on
regulatory systems, organisms are able to nearly constantly maintain homeostatic internal
conditions within a small range, despite changes in their environment. For instance, many species
use a mechanism called thermoregulation to control their body temperatures. Cold-adapted
organisms, like the polar bear, have physical characteristics that enable them to survive extreme
cold and retain body heat. In hot regions, species have mechanisms to assist them release extra
body heat, such as perspiration in humans or panting in canines. By producing heat and preventing
heat loss through their thick fur and a layer of dense fat under their skin, polar bears and other
mammals that live in ice-covered areas keep their body temperatures stable.
Energy Processing
11
All living things require a source of energy for their metabolic processes. Some species use
chemical energy from molecules they consume, whereas others use chemical energy that is
captured from the Sun and transformed into chemical energy in food.
Evolution
Mutations, or chance changes in hereditary material over time, are the cause of the diversity of life
on Earth. These mutations give organisms the chance to adapt to a shifting environment. According
to the laws of natural selection, an organism with traits adapted to its surroundings will reproduce
more successfully. Why do living things require energy?
1. How does the process of reproduction in single celled organisms
begins?
2. How does organisms respond to environmental changes?
1.6 Summary
You have learned about the concept of Biology as the study of living things. You have studied
about the characteristics of living things such as order, sensitivity or response to stimuli,
reproduction, adaptation, growth and development, regulation, homeostasis, and energy
processing and the organization of life itself into hierarchy that includes atoms, molecules,
organelles, cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. Organisms, in turn, are grouped as
populations, communities, ecosystems, and the biosphere.
Mader, S. (2017). Essentials of Biology. Published by McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 10:
1259660265 ISBN 13: 9781259660269
Putman, R.J. and S.D. Wratten (1984). Principles of Ecology, Publisher Springer Dordrecht,
eBook PackagesSpringer Book Archive, DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1007, /978-94-011-
6948-6, eBook ISBN978-94- 011-6948-6. 388pp
https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/1-1-themes-and-concepts-of-biology/
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_General_B
iology_(Boundless)/04%3A_Cell_Structure/4.03%3A_Studying_Cells_-_Cell_Theory#title
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cQPVXrV0GNA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=juxLuo-sH6M
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=juxLuo-sH6M
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ltRApt0IpCE
Answers to SAE 1
1. The first forms of life that appeared on Earth are thought to have been microorganisms
2. Humans have inhabited this planet for only the last 2.5 million years
Answers to SAE 2
1. Several theories attempts to offer explanation on the possible mechanism of origin of life and
prominent of these are:
1. Theory of Special Creation
2.Theory of Catastrophism
3. Cosmozoic Theory
12
4. Theory of Chemical Evolution
2. According this theory, Origin of life on earth is the result of a slow and gradual process of
chemical evolution that probably occurred about 3.8 billion years ago.
Answers to SAE 3
1. Single-celled organisms reproduce by first duplicating their DNA, which is the genetic
material, and then dividing it equally as the cell prepares to divide to form two new cells
2. As an environment change, natural selection causes the characteristics of the individuals in
a population to track those changes.

Unit Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.3 The Diversity of Life
2.4 Levels of Organization of Living Things
2.5 Evolutionary Relationships of Life Forms
2.6 Summary
2.1 Introduction
You will learn about the diversity of life on planet earth today. You will study about evolutionary
relationships of life forms and the levels of organization of living things
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• Explain the diversity of life on planet earth.

• Describe the levels of organization of living things and
• Explain the evolutionary relationships of life forms
2.3 The Diversity of Life
Biology is a science with a relatively broad field of study because there is a wide variety of life on
Earth. Evolution, the process of progressive change in which new species develop from more
established ones is the cause of this diversity. The development of living beings in all spheres of
existence, from the microscopic to ecosystems, is studied by evolutionary Biologists. The idea of
classifying all known species of creatures into a hierarchical taxonomy was first put forth in the
18th century by a Scientist by name Carl Linnaeus. In this concept, a genus is a collection of the
species that are most similar to one another. Additionally, within a family, comparable genera
(plural of genus) are grouped together. The level at which all creatures are gathered together into
groups is reached at the end of this grouping. From lowest to highest, the eight levels of the present
taxonomic hierarchy are: species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, and domain. As a
13
result, species are grouped inside genera, families and orders are grouped within classes, and so
on.
The system's highest level, domain, has only recently been added since the 1990s. There are
currently three recognised domains of life: Eukarya, Archaea, and Bacteria. Eukaryotic creatures
are those that have cells with nuclei. It comprises various protist kingdoms as well as the kingdoms
of fungi, plants, and animals. Numerous extremophiles, single-celled organisms without nuclei
that can survive in extreme conditions like hot springs, are members of the Archaea. Another
distinct category of single-celled organisms without nuclei is the bacteria. Bacteria and Archaea
are both prokaryotes, a colloquial term for cells devoid of nuclei. The suggestion to categorise life
into three domains was inspired by the 1990s realisation that some "bacteria," now known as the
Archaea, were different genetically and biochemically from other bacterial cells as they were from
eukaryotes. This abrupt shift in our understanding of the tree of life shows that classifications are
subject to change when new data becomes available.
Linnaeus was the first to name creatures using two distinct names, commonly known as the
binomial naming system, in addition to the hierarchical taxonomic system. Because there were
regional variations in these popular names prior to Linnaeus, using them to refer to species caused
confusion. The capitalised genus name and the species name make up binomial names (all lower-
case). When printed, both names are put in italics. Every species is given a distinct binomial that
is known around the world, allowing any Scientist to identify the species being discussed. As an
illustration, the North American blue jay has its own scientific name, Cyanocitta cristata. Homo
sapiens is our own species. Who was the first to come up with the idea of classifying all known
species of creatures into a hierarchical taxonomy in the 18th century?
1. What is the source of biological diversity?
2. Who was the first scientist to name organisms using two unique
names, now called the binomial naming system.
2.4 Levels of Organization of Living Things

Living things follow a hierarchy from little to large and are highly structured and organised. The
atom is the lowest and most basic unit of matter that yet has elemental characteristics. It consists
of an electron-surrounded nucleus. Moles are made of atoms. A molecule is an organic compound
made up of at least two atoms joined by a chemical bond. Numerous biologically significant
molecules are macromolecules, which are huge molecules created typically by joining monomers,
or smaller building blocks. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which carries the blueprints for an
organism's operation, is an illustration of a macromolecule. Organelles are collections of
macromolecules seen in some cells that are encased in membranes, and they carry out specific
tasks within cells. The smallest essential unit of structure and function in living beings, the cell,
makes up all living things. Some organisms only have one cell, whereas others have several cells.
There are two types of cells; eukaryotic or prokaryotic cells. Prokaryotes are single-celled
organisms that lack nuclei and organelles that are encased in nuclear membranes. In contrast,
eukaryotic cells do include nuclei and organelles that are encased in membranes.
The majority of multicellular organisms combine cells to form tissues, which are collections of
comparable cells performing the same function. Organs are assemblages of tissues arranged
14
according to a shared purpose. Organs can be found in both plants and animals. An organ system
is a more advanced level of organisation made up of organs with similar functions. Vertebrate
animals, for instance, have a variety of organ systems, such as the circulatory system, which carries
blood to and from the lungs as well as throughout the body. This system is made up of the heart
and blood arteries. Organisms are unique forms of life. For instance, every tree in a forest is a
living thing. Even though they are commonly referred to as microbes, single-celled prokaryotes
and eukaryotes are also regarded as organisms.
A population is the aggregate term for all members of a species that are present in a given location.
For instance, a forest can have a lot of white pine trees. The population of white pine trees in this
woodland is represented by all of these trees. Various populations may coexist in the same region.
For instance, there are communities of flowering plants, insects, and microbiological colonies in
the forest of pine trees. A community is made up of all the people who live in a certain location.
For instance, the community of a forest is made up of all the populations of trees, flowers, insects,
and other living things. An ecology exists in the forest itself. Abiotic, or non-living, elements of
the environment, such as nitrogen in the soil or precipitation, coexist with all the living things in a
certain area to form an ecosystem. At the highest level of organization, the biosphere is the
collection of all ecosystems, and it represents the zones of life on Earth. It includes land, water,
and portions of the atmosphere.
15
Figure 2.1. Biological Levels of Organization: The biological levels of organization of living
things follow a hierarchy, from a single organelle to the entire biosphere, living organisms are part
of a highly structured hierarchy, such as the one shown above. What does the biosphere represent
at the highest level of organization of living things?
16
Explain the meaning of each of the following

1. molecule
2. macromolecule
3. polymerization
2.5 Evolutionary Relationships of Life Forms

A phylogenetic tree can summarise the relationships between different types of life on Earth in
terms of evolution. A phylogenetic tree is a diagram that depicts the relationships between
biological species in terms of their shared and unique genetic, physical, or both features. A
phylogenetic tree is made up of branches and branch points, or nodes. The internal nodes indicate
ancestors and are instances in evolution when two new species are believed to have sprung from a
common ancestor, according to scientific data. Each branch's length can be viewed as a relative
time estimate. Animals, plants, fungus, protists, and bacteria were the five kingdoms that
Biologists previously divided living things into. However, the groundbreaking research of
American microbiologist Carl Woese in the early 1970s has demonstrated that the three lineages
of life on Earth—Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya—have developed over time. To represent the
new evolutionary tree, Woese proposed the domain as a new taxonomic level and Archaea as a
new domain. Extremophiles are creatures from the Archaea domain that thrive in harsh
environments. Woese built his tree using genetic linkages rather than morphological similarities
(shape). In phylogenetic analyses, various genes were employed. Woese's tree was created using
comparative sequencing of genes that are widely distributed, conserved (meaning that they have
undergone only minor changes during evolution), of an appropriate length, and can be found in
some form in every organism.
17
Figure 2.2. The Phylogenetic tree of life
How was Woese's tree built using genetic linkages?
1. List the past grouping of living organisms into the five kingdoms
2. Who is the 18th century scientists that first proposed the grouping
of organisms into a hierarchical taxonomy?
2.6 Summary
You have studied about evolution as the source of biological diversity on Earth. A diagram called
a phylogenetic tree was also used to show evolutionary relationships among organisms. You have
also learned about the many branches and sub disciplines of Biology such as molecular biology,
microbiology, neurobiology, zoology, and botany, among others.
Miller, G. Tyler Jr. and Scott E. Spoolman (2009). Essentials of Ecology, 5e, Brooks/Cole,
Cengage Learning, 10 Davis Drive Belmont, CA 94002-3098 USA, ISBN-13: 978-0-
495-55795-1, 383pp
6948-6, eBook ISBN978-94- 011-6948-6. 388pp
https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/1-1-themes-and-concepts-of-biology/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xSIrobQxuzI
18
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wxjSx9wluAQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fV2aaV-Hp2U
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P3lsApPq-OQ
Answers to SAEs 1
1. The source of the diversity is evolution, the process of gradual change during which new
species arise from older species.
2. Carl Linnaeus
Answers to SAEs 2
The meaning of the following terms:

1. molecule: The smallest particle of a specific compound that retains the chemical properties
of that compound; two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.
2. macromolecule: a very large molecule, especially used in reference to large biological
polymers (e.g. nucleic acids and proteins)
3. polymerization: The chemical process, normally with the aid of a catalyst, to form a
polymer by bonding together multiple identical units (monomers).
Answers to SAEs 3
1. In the past, biologists grouped living organisms into five kingdoms: animals, plants, fungi,
protists, and bacteria.
2. In the 18th century, a scientist named Carl Linnaeus first proposed organizing the known
species of organisms into a hierarchical taxonomy.

Unit Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.3 Scope of Biology
3.4 The Study of Life
3.5 The Nature of Science
3.6 Summary
3.1 Introduction
You will learn that the scope of biology is broad and therefore contains many branches and sub
disciplines. You will study about the shared characteristics of the natural sciences and understand
the process of scientific inquiry. You will also be able understand the application of forensic
science in law and describe the basic scientific ethics in research. Science is knowing. Scientists
search for knowledge through inquiry, which is a way of questioning and explaining phenomena
that occur in nature. Let's begin by exploring how biologists and researchers use the scientific
method in the scientific inquiry of life
19
• Appreciate the various branches of biology
•Identify the shared characteristics of the natural sciences
• Describe the application of forensic Scientist to answer law matters
•Understand the basic Scientific ethics in research
3.3 The Scope of Biology

Since biology has a wide range of applications, there are numerous branches and subfields within
it. It is possible for biologists to specialise in one of such subdisciplines. For instance, the study of
biological processes at the molecular level, including interactions between molecules like DNA,
RNA, and proteins as well as how they are controlled, is known as molecular biology. The study
of the composition and operation of microbes is known as microbiology.
It is a somewhat diverse field in and of itself, with additional specialists including geneticists,
ecologists, and microbial physiologists depending on the area of research. Neurobiology is a
different area of biological study that focuses on the biology of the nervous system. It is
acknowledged as a branch of biology as well as an interdisciplinary subject of study. This sub-
discipline, which is interdisciplinary in nature, uses molecular, cellular, developmental, medicinal,
and computational approaches to study many aspects of the nervous system.
Another area of biology called palaeontology examines the evolution of life using fossils. The
study of animals and plants is known as zoology and botany, respectively. Biotechnologists,
ecologists, and physiologists are just a few of the areas in which biologists can specialise.
Biotechnologists employ their understanding of biology to develop practical products. Ecologists
investigate how creatures interact with their surroundings. Physiologists research how cells,
tissues, and organs function. These are just a few of the numerous careers that biologists might
choose from. Biology-related discoveries can have a very significant and immediate impact on us,
on everything from our bodies to the environment we live in. We rely on these findings for our
food security, our health, and the advantages our ecosystem offers. Because of this, having a basic
understanding of biology might help us make better judgments in our daily lives. Biology has been
altered by the technological advancements of the 20th century, notably those related to the
description and manipulation of DNA. This change will make it possible for scientists to continue
learning more about the evolution of life, the human body, our ancestry, and how we can continue
to exist as a species on this planet despite the pressures brought on by our expanding population.
The fact that biologists are still solving complex questions concerning life suggests that we are
only at the beginning of our understanding of the planet's history, the origins of life, and our place
within it. For these and other reasons, the biology information you acquire from this textbook and
other printed and electronic materials should be useful in whichever line of work you choose.
Which area of biology examines the evolution of life using fossils?
1. What is the scope of molecular biology?
2. What is the interest of Forensic Science?
3.4 Forensic Science and Scientific Ethics
20
Forensic science is the application of science to answer questions related to the law. Forensic
scientists can be biologists, chemists, or biochemists. The work of forensic scientists involves
looking at evidence linked to crimes and providing scientific testimony for use in court. In recent
years, interest in forensic science has grown, probably as a result of well-liked television
programmes that showcase forensic scientists in action. Additionally, the types of work that
forensic scientists can perform have been updated thanks to the advancement of molecular
techniques and the creation of DNA databases. The majority of their work is focused on crimes
against humans like murder, rape, and assault. Their work entails processing DNA from a variety
of locations and materials in addition to evaluating samples including hair, blood, and other bodily
fluids. Other biological evidence, such bug fragments or pollen grains, that has been left at crime
sites is also examined by forensic specialists. Most likely, students who want to major in forensic
science will need to complete chemistry, biology, and some challenging math courses.
Scientists have a responsibility to protect people, animals, and the environment from unwarranted
harm. Additionally, they must make sure that their research and communications are impartial and
that all relevant factors—including financial, legal, safety, and replicability—are correctly
balanced. In the significant and ever-evolving discipline of bioethics, scholars cooperate with other
organisations and individuals. They try to establish standards for current practise and are
constantly thinking about new innovations and upcoming technology to come up with solutions
for the coming years and decades. Unfortunately, a number of patently unethical activities, where
biologists failed to treat research subjects with dignity and, in some cases, actually harmed them,
preceded the development of the area of bioethics. 399 African American men were diagnosed
with syphilis in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study of 1932, but they were never told they had the
infection, so they continued to live with it and spread it to others. Because the aim of the study
was to comprehend the effects of untreated syphilis on Black males, doctors even withheld proven
medicines. While the choices made in the Tuskegee research cannot be justified, certain choices
are really challenging. Bioethicists, for instance, may investigate the ethical implications of gene
editing technologies, such as the potential for creating species that could supplant others in the
ecosystem and the potential for "designing" human beings. Ethicists will probably attempt to strike
a balance between the positive and negative effects of their work, such as bettering medicines or
preventing specific diseases. Because bioethics is seldom straightforward, scientists frequently
must weigh benefits and risks. You will learn about medical advancements that, at their root, have
what many people view as an ethical failing in this literature and course. Henrietta Lacks, an
African American woman in her 30s, received a cervical cancer diagnosis at Johns Hopkins
Hospital in 1951.
Her illness-specific traits allowed her cells to divide continuously, effectively rendering them
"immortal." Researchers obtained samples of her cells without her knowledge or consent and used
them to make the immortal HeLa cell line. Major medical advancements made possible by these
cells include the development of the polio vaccine, as well as studies into cancer, AIDS, cell
ageing, and, most recently, COVID-19. Lacks' contributions to those discoveries have largely gone
unrecognised, and neither she nor her family have reaped the millions of dollars in pharmaceutical
revenues made possible in part by the use of her cells. Even if it could save the lives of other
patients, taking tissue or organs without the patient's permission nowadays is not just regarded as
unethical but also unlawful. Examining related concerns before, during, and after research or
practise is conducted, adhering to accepted professional standards, and taking into account the
21
safety and dignity of all organisms participating or impacted by the work are all part of the function
of ethics in scientific research. What is forensic science?
1. What is the scope of molecular biology?
2. What is the interest of Forensic Science?
3.5 The Nature of Science

However, what exactly is science? Biology is a science. What connections exist between the study
of biology and other scientific fields? The definition of science is "knowledge of the natural world"
(from the Latin scientia, "knowledge"). A particularly precise method of learning about or knowing
the world is science. The previous 500 years have shown that science is a highly potent way of
understanding about the world, and that it has played a significant role in the technological
revolutions that have occurred during this time. The tools of science, however, cannot be used to
study all fields of knowledge and human experience. These include things like providing answers
to only moral questions, questions about aesthetics, or questions that can be broadly characterised
as spiritual concerns. These topics are not within the purview of material phenomena, the
phenomena of matter and energy, and hence cannot be witnessed or quantified.
The scientific method is a structured approach to research that includes meticulous observation
and experimentation. The testing of hypotheses is one of the most crucial parts of this strategy. A
testable hypothesis is a theory put out to explain an occurrence. Typically, tentative explanations,
or hypotheses, are developed within the framework of a scientific theory. A widely accepted,
rigorously investigated, and verified explanation for a collection of observations or a phenomenon
is what is known as a scientific theory. The basis of all scientific knowledge is scientific theory.
Additionally, there are scientific laws that describe how parts of nature will act under specific
circumstances in many scientific disciplines (less so in biology). These laws are succinct
descriptions of areas of the world that can be expressed using formulas or mathematics. There is
no progression from hypotheses to theories to laws, as though these concepts signified a rise in
worldly certainty.
The value of various branches of science has been a topic of discussion within the scientific
community for the last few decades. Is it worthwhile to pursue science for the sake of merely
learning something, or does scientific information only have value if we can use it to solve a
particular issue or improve our quality of life? The distinctions between basic science and applied
science are the main subject of this query.
• Basic science or Regardless of how such knowledge might be used in the near future, "pure"
science aims to further knowledge. It is not concentrated on creating something with immediate
commercial or public benefit. Although knowing for knowledge's sake is the immediate aim of
basic research, this does not preclude the possibility of an application in the long run.
• In contrast, The goal of applied science, sometimes known as "technology," is to apply scientific
knowledge to solve practical issues. For instance, it could be possible to identify a treatment for
a specific disease, increase crop yields, or save animals in danger from a natural disaster. In
applied science, the researcher typically has the problem defined for them.
Some people could view basic science as "useless" while viewing applied science as "helpful."
These people might ask, "What for?" to a scientist who promotes knowledge acquisition. However,
22
a close examination of the history of science indicates that many outstanding applications of
enormous value have been made possible by fundamental knowledge. Since many scientists believe
that a fundamental understanding of science is required before an application can be produced,
applied science is dependent on the findings of basic science. Others believe it is time to move
beyond fundamental research and focus on developing answers for real-world issues. Both
strategies are appropriate. It is true that there are problems that demand immediate attention;
however, few solutions would be found without the help of the knowledge generated through basic
science. The understanding of the molecular mechanisms driving DNA replication that resulted
from the discovery of DNA structure is one instance of how basic and applied science can cooperate
to solve practical challenges. Our cells contain DNA strands that are particular to each individual
and which carry the instructions for life. Before a cell divides to create new cells, DNA replication
creates new copies of the DNA. In order to identify genetic illnesses, locate people who were
present at a crime scene, and establish paternity, scientists had to first understand the principles of
DNA replication. It seems doubtful that applied science would exist without foundational science.
The Human Genome Project, a study in which each human chromosome was examined and mapped
to ascertain the specific sequence of DNA subunits and the precise position of each gene, serves as
another illustration of the relationship between basic and applied research. (The genome is a
person's entire collection of genes; the gene is the fundamental unit of heredity.) As part of this
project, research on other organisms has also been done in order to better understand human
chromosomes. Basic research using non-human organisms and later the human genome was crucial
to the Human Genome Project. Utilizing the data for applied research to find treatments for
genetically based diseases eventually became a significant end goal. It is crucial to remember that
while research projects in both basic and applied science are typically meticulously planned, some
discoveries are made by serendipity, that is, by way of a fortunate accident or a happy surprise.
When biologist Alexander Fleming unintentionally left a petri dish of Staphylococcus bacteria
uncovered, penicillin was accidently discovered. The microorganisms were killed by an unwelcome
mould growth. Penicillium was found to be the mould, and a new antibiotic was found. Even in the
highly structured field of science, serendipity can produce surprising discoveries when combined
with an attentive, inquisitive mind. What is a genome?
1. What is the scientific method?
2. Which is the one of the most important aspects of the scientific method?
3.6 Summary
You must have learned about the scope of biology as containing many branches and sub
disciplines. You have also studied the shared characteristics of the natural sciences and the process
of scientific inquiry. The nature of science as a critical component of scientific literacy
that enhances students' understandings of science concepts and enables them to make informed
decisions about scientifically-based personal and societal issues have been highlighted in the unit.
495-55795-1, 383pp
23
6948-6, eBook ISBN978-94- 011-6948-6. 388pp
https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/nature-of-life/what-is-the-meaning-of-
life/77B3F144E9C039AEB1CC06FCE39D470A
https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-basic-nature-of-life.html
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6679625/
https://people.reed.edu/~mab/papers/life.OXFORD.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IadAzzx7EHc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HaVmHJzBrMg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hBBEOgD_bwY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oIMUPPIoqPY
Answers to SAE 1
1. Life of the body (physical), life of the mind and life of the spirit.
2. The methods of science include careful observation, record keeping, logical and
mathematical reasoning, experimentation, and submitting conclusions to the scrutiny of others.
Answers to SAE 2
1. Molecular biology studies biological processes at the molecular level, including
interactions among molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well as the way they are
regulated.
2. Forensic science is the application of science to answer questions related to the law.
Biologists as well as chemists and biochemists can be forensic scientists. Forensic scientists
provide scientific evidence for use in courts, and their job involves examining trace material
associated with crimes.
Answers to SAE 3
1. The scientific method is a method of research with defined steps that include experiments
and careful observation.
2. One of the most important aspects of this method is the testing of hypotheses
Unit Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.3 Scientific Inquiry
4.4 Hypothesis in Science
4.5 Basic and Applied Science
4.6 Summary
4.1 Introduction
24
You will learn the meaning and method of the scientific inquiry in this unit. You will study the
meaning of hypothesis and how to test and apply it in science research. You will also learn about
basic and applied research in science.
• Understand the meaning and method of the scientific inquiry.

• Explain the meaning of hypothesis
• Describe how to test and apply hypothesis in science research.
• Explain the meaning of basic and applied research in science.
4.3 Scientific Inquiry
All branches of science share the same ultimate objective, which is "to know." The advancement
of science is fueled by curiosity and enquiry. The goal of science is to comprehend the world and
how it works. Inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning are the two types of logical thinking
that are employed. Inductive reasoning is a type of logical reasoning that draws a generalisation
from a set of related observations. In descriptive science, this kind of thinking is typical. A
biologist or other life scientist will make observations and note them. These data may be
quantitative (containing of statistics) or qualitative (descriptive), and the raw data may be
supplemented with illustrations, photographs, films, or other visual media. The scientist can draw
conclusions (inductions) based on evidence from several observations. Formulating
generalisations via inductive reasoning requires close observation and in-depth data investigation.
This is how many brain studies operate. While people are performing a task, several brains are
being watched. It is then shown that the area of the brain controlling the reaction to that task is the
part that lights up, signifying activity. Science that is hypothesis-based employs a sort of logic
known as deductive reasoning or deduction. In contrast to inductive reasoning, deductive
reasoning follows a different pattern of thought. Deductive reasoning is a type of logical reasoning
where specific outcomes are predicted using a general principle or law. A scientist can infer and
forecast specific conclusions from those broad principles, provided that the general principles are
true. For instance, it is expected that as a region's climate warms, the distribution of plants and
animals will alter. Distributions in the past and the present have been compared, and numerous
alterations have been discovered that are compatible with a warming climate. The discovery of the
distributional change serves as support for the validity of the climate change conclusion.
The two primary avenues of scientific inquiry, descriptive science and hypothesis-based research,
are connected to both types of logical thinking. While hypothesis-based science begins with a
specific issue or problem and a potential response or solution that can be investigated, descriptive
(or discovery) science attempts to observe, explore, and discover. Because most scientific activities
use both methodologies, the line separating these two fields of study is frequently blurred.
Observations spark questions, those questions prompt the creation of a hypothesis as a potential
response, and finally the hypothesis is put to the test. As a result, descriptive science and science
based on hypotheses are constantly conversing. What are the two primary avenues of scientific
inquiry?
1. What are the two methods of logical reasoning in science?
2. What are the two main pathways of scientific study?
25
4.4 Hypothesis in Science
By asking questions about the living world and looking for logical answers, biologists investigate
it. Other sciences also use this process, which is frequently referred to as the scientific method.
Although Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626), an Englishman, established inductive methods for
scientific investigation, the scientific method was employed already in antiquity. The scientific
method can be used to solve practically any logical problem; hence it is not just used by biologists.
The scientific method often begins with an observation that prompts a query (often a problem to
be solved). Let's consider a straightforward issue that begins with an observation and use the
scientific process to find a solution. A student walks into class on a Monday morning and
immediately notices that the room is too warm. The classroom is excessively warm, which is an
observation that also indicates a problem. The youngster then inquires as to why the classroom is
so warm. Remember that a hypothesis is an explanation that has been proposed and may be tested.
There may be various hypotheses put out to address a problem. One possible explanation, for
instance, could be that "No one switched on the air conditioner, thus the classroom is heated."
However, there might be other answers to the query, and as a result, different hypotheses might be
put out. Another possibility is that the air conditioner isn't working because there is a power outage,
which is why the classroom is heated. A prediction can be made after a hypothesis has been chosen.
Similar to a hypothesis, a prediction usually follows the structure "If... then..." For instance, if the
student turns on the air conditioning, the classroom won't be overly warm any longer, according
to the prediction for the first hypothesis. For a theory to be proven correct, it must be testable. A
hypothesis that depends on what a bear thinks, for instance, cannot be tested because it is
impossible to know what a bear thinks. Additionally, it must be able to be refuted by the outcomes
of experiments, or be falsifiable. The statement "Botticelli's Birth of Venus is beautiful" is an
example of an unprovable hypothesis. There is no experiment that might disprove this claim. A
researcher will carry out one or more experiments meant to rule out one or more of the hypotheses
in order to test a hypothesis. This is crucial. Although a theory can be refuted or rejected, it can
never be proven. Like mathematics, science does not deal with proofs. We find evidence in favour
of an explanation when an experiment fails to refute a hypothesis, but this does not preclude the
discovery of a more convincing explanation or the use of a more meticulously planned experiment
in the future. There will be one or more controls and one or more variables in every experiment.
Any element of the experiment that is subject to modification or variation is referred to as a
variable. A control is a variable that stays the same throughout the experiment. The next example
asks you to look for the variables and controls. As a straightforward illustration, a test may be done
to see whether phosphorus limits the growth of algae in freshwater ponds. Half of a series of man-
made ponds that contain water are treated each week by adding phosphate, while the other half are
treated by adding a salt that is known not to be consumed by algae. The phosphate (or lack thereof)
is the variable in this situation; the experimental or treatment instances are the ponds with added
phosphate, while the control ponds are those with inert additives like salt added. Another safeguard
against the likelihood that adding more matter to the pond has an impact is to just add something.
If the treated ponds exhibit decreased algal growth, then our hypothesis is supported. If they don't,
we'll have to abandon our hypothesis. Be mindful that rejecting one hypothesis merely eliminates
the one that is invalid, not whether the other hypotheses can be accepted or not. The scientific
method is used to disprove assumptions that don't match up with the results of experiments. Due
to the exponential growth of data deposited in various databases in recent years, a new method of
26
testing hypotheses has emerged. A new discipline known as "data research" (also known as "in
silico" research) offers new techniques for data analysis and its interpretation using computer
algorithms and statistical analyses of data in databases. The demand for experts in both biology
and computer science will rise as a result, creating an exciting employment opportunity.
What does "in silico" research step to offer?
1. What is the new approach of testing hypotheses?
2. What happens to the hypotheses that are inconsistent with
experimental data using the scientific method?
4.5 Basic and Applied Science

The value of various branches of science has been a topic of discussion within the scientific
community for the last few decades. Is it worthwhile to pursue science for the sake of merely
learning something, or does scientific information only have value if we can use it to solve a
particular issue or improve our quality of life? The distinctions between basic science and applied
science are the main subject of this query. Regardless of how such knowledge might be used in
the near future, basic or "pure" science aims to advance understanding. It is not concentrated on
creating something with immediate commercial or public value. Although knowing for
knowledge's sake is the immediate aim of basic research, this does not preclude the possibility of
an application in the long run.
In contrast, applied science, also known as "technology," tries to apply research to solve real-world
issues. For instance, it may be able to increase crop yields, discover a treatment for a specific
illness, or save animals in danger from a natural disaster. In applied science, the researcher
typically has the problem defined for them. Some people could view basic science as "useless"
while viewing applied science as "helpful." These people might ask, "What for?" to a scientist who
promotes knowledge acquisition. However, a close examination of the history of science indicates
that many amazing applications of fundamental knowledge have been made. Since many scientists
believe that a fundamental understanding of science is required before an application can be
produced, applied science is dependent on the findings of basic science. Others believe it is time
to move beyond fundamental research and focus on developing answers for real-world issues. Both
strategies are appropriate. While it is true that some issues require immediate attention, few would
be resolved without the aid of the information produced by basic research. The understanding of
the molecular mechanisms driving DNA replication that resulted from the discovery of DNA
structure is one instance of how basic and applied science can cooperate to solve practical
challenges. Our cells contain DNA strands that are particular to each individual and which carry
the instructions for life. Before a cell divides to create new cells, DNA replication creates new
copies of the DNA. In order to identify genetic illnesses, locate people who were present at a crime
scene, and establish paternity, scientists had to first understand the principles of DNA replication.
Applied science is unlikely to exist without foundational science. The Human Genome Project, a
study in which each human chromosome was examined and mapped to ascertain the specific
sequence of DNA subunits and the precise position of each gene, serves as another illustration of
the relationship between basic and applied research. (The gene is the basic unit of heredity
represented by a specific DNA segment that codes for a functional molecule.) As part of this
27
initiative, research on other organisms has also been done in order to better understand human
chromosomes. Basic research with non-human species and later the human genome was crucial to
the Human Genome Project. Utilizing the data for applied research to find treatments for
genetically based disorders subsequently became a significant end aim. It is crucial to remember
that while research projects in both basic and applied science are typically meticulously planned,
some discoveries are made by serendipity, that is, by way of a fortunate accident or a happy
surprise. When biologist Alexander Fleming unintentionally left a petri dish of Staphylococcus
bacteria uncovered, penicillin was accidently discovered. The microorganisms were killed by an
unwelcome mould growth. Penicillium was identified as the mould, and a brand-new, very
important antibiotic was found. Similar to this, Percy Lavon Julian was a renowned medicinal
chemist who was working on a method to mass synthesise chemicals used in the production of
significant medications. It wasn't until water inadvertently leaked into a sizable soybean oil storage
tank that he discovered his strategy for using soybean oil to produce progesterone, a hormone
crucial to the menstrual cycle and pregnancy. He started the process of reproducing and
industrialising the procedure after immediately identifying the produced molecule as stigmasterol,
a key component in progesterone and comparable medications. This has benefitted millions of
individuals. Even in the highly organized world of science, luck—when combined with an
observant, curious mind focused on the types of reasoning discussed above—can lead to
unexpected breakthroughs. What is the main aim of applied science research?
1. What value of different types of science was the scientific community
debating for the last few decades?
2. What can lead to unexpected breakthroughs even in the highly organized
world of science?
4.6 Summary
You must have learned about the meaning and method of the scientific inquiry in this unit. You
have studied about the meaning of hypothesis and how to test and apply it in science research. You
must have also learned about basic and applied research in science.
Allchin, D., H.M. Andersen and K. Nielsen, (2014). “Complementary Approaches to Teaching
Nature of Science: Integrating Student Inquiry, Historical Cases, and Contemporary Cases in
Classroom Practice”, Science Education, 98: 461–486.
Anderson, C. (2008). “The end of theory: The data deluge makes the scientific method
obsolete”, Wired magazine, 16(7): 16–07
Fox, K., E. (2003). “Models, Simulation, and ‘computer experiments’”, in The Philosophy of
Scientific Experimentation, H. Radder (ed.), Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh University Press, 198–215.
Gimbel, S. ( 2011). Exploring the Scientific Method, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-method/
https://thescienceteacher.co.uk/the-scientific-method/
https://www.teachstarter.com/au/teaching-resource-collection/scientific-method/
https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/isb202/chapter/nature-of-science-draft/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=16Q6NMCsLq8
28
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lN7yd23hCbE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fu2TS0DjBxE
Answers to SAE 1
1. The two methods of logical thinking are inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.
2. The two main pathways of scientific study are descriptive science and hypothesis-based
science
Answers to SAE 2
1. In recent years a new approach of testing hypotheses has developed using computer
algorithms and statistical analyses of data in databases, known as "data research" which provides
new methods of data analyses and their interpretation.
2. Using the scientific method, the hypotheses that are inconsistent with experimental data
are rejected.
Answers to SAE 3
1. The scientific community has been debating for the last few decades about whether it is
valuable to pursue science for the sake of simply gaining knowledge, or does scientific knowledge
only have worth if we can apply it to solving a specific problem or bettering our lives?
2. Luck—when combined with an observant, curious mind focused on the types of reasoning
discussed above— can lead to unexpected breakthroughs even in the highly organized world of
science

Unit Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.3 The Cell and Cell Theory
5.4 How Cells Are Studied
5.5 Role of Cell Technologist in the Study of the Cell
5.6 Summary
5.1 Introduction
You will study the meaning of cell, structure, and functioning in this unit. The various essential
characteristics of cells will also be highlighted. You will also learn about the different types of
cells. You will study the differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells. You will also learn
how cells are being studied with the use of microscopes. Electron microscopes provide higher
magnification, higher resolution, and more detail than light microscopes.

• Justify that cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all organisms
29
• List the components of the cell and state cell theory
• Differentiate between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
• Describe the roles of cells in organisms
• Compare and contrast light microscopy and electron microscopy
5.3 The Cell and Cell Theory
In biology, the cell is the fundamental building block of all living things. It is the smallest structural
unit of living matter capable of functioning on its own. A cell is a collection of cytoplasm that is
held together on the outside by a cell membrane. Cells are the smallest structural units of living
matter and make up all living things. They are typically tiny in size. Numerous organelles,
including one or more nuclei, are present in most cells and perform a range of functions. Like a
bacterium or yeast, some single cells are entire organisms. Others serve as specialised components
of multicellular organisms like plants and animals. As in the case of bacteria and protozoans, a
single cell can be an entire organism in and of itself. In multicellular organisms like higher plants
and animals, specialised cell groups are arranged into tissues and organs. Prokaryotic cells and
eukaryotic cells are two different types of cells.Eukaryotic cells include those found in animals,
plants, fungi, and protists, whereas prokaryotic cells include those found in bacteria and archaea.
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have different shapes, yet they have a lot of similarities in their
molecular make-up and functions. Proteins, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids make up the
majority of the molecules in cells. A membrane that surrounds a cell allows it to exchange specific
materials with its environment. This membrane is contained within the rigid cell wall of plant cells.
By the late 1830s, zoologist Theodor Schwann and botanist Matthias Schleiden were researching
tissues and putting forth the unified cell hypothesis. According to the unified cell theory, each
living entity is made up of one or more cells, each cell is the building block of life, and new cells
develop from existing cells. Later, this idea benefited greatly from the contributions of Rudolf
Virchow.
Schleiden and Schwann advocated spontaneous generation (also known as abiogenesis) as the
mechanism for cell origination, but spontaneous generation was later demonstrated to be false.
"Omnis cellula e cellula"—"All cells only come from pre-existing cells"—was a famous phrase
used by Rudolf Virchow. "However, the portions of the hypothesis that did not concern the genesis
of cells withstood scientific investigation and are now generally accepted by the scientific
community. The following are the elements of contemporary cell theory that are commonly
acknowledged:
1. The basic unit of structure and functionality in living things is the cell.
2. One or more cells make up every living thing.
3. Cellular division creates new cells from existing ones.
The cell theory can be broadened to cover the following as well: 1). All cells have roughly the
same chemical makeup; 2). All cells carry genetic material that is passed on to daughter cells
during cellular division. and 3). Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) takes place inside of
cells. The following are the essential characteristics of cells:
• Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.

• The cell interior is organised into different individual organelles surrounded by a separate
membrane.
• The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for reproduction and
cell growth. Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in the cytoplasm.
30
• Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound organelle is mainly responsible for the energy
transactions vital for the survival of the cell.
• Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.
• Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the internal organisation of the cell by
synthesising selective molecules and processing, directing and sorting them to their
appropriate locations.
What does specialized cells in multicellular creatures like higher plants and animals, come to form
as the next level of organization of life?
1. How is the unified cell theory stated?
2. What are the components of the expanded version of the cell theory?
5.4 How Cells Are Studied

The majority of cells are too tiny to be seen with the human eye, therefore, in order to study cells,
scientists must utilise microscopes. Electron microscopes offer greater magnification, resolution,
and details compared to optical microscopes. All organisms are made up of one or more cells. In
multicellular organisms, a number of cells of the same kind interact with one another and carry out
shared functions to form tissues (eg. muscle tissue, connective tissue, and nervous tissue), a
number of tissues come together to form an organ (eg. stomach, heart, or brain), and a number of
organs make up an organ system (such as the digestive system, circulatory system, or nervous
system). Together, various systems compose an organism (such as an elephant, for example). Now
let's examine how biologists study cells.
• Light Microscopes
Sizes of cells differ. Individual cells are typically too small to be observed with the human eye,
therefore researchers employ microscopes to investigate them. An instrument that magnifies a
thing is a microscope. Micrographs are photographs of individual cells that are typically taken
under a microscope. A typical human red blood cell measures eight millionths of a metre, or eight
micrometres (abbreviated as m), in diameter. In comparison, the head of a pin measures
approximately two thousandths of a metre (millimetres, or mm). Thus, 250 red blood cells or so
may fit on the head of a pin. A light microscope's optics adjust how the lenses are oriented. When
examined using a microscope, a specimen that is upside-down and facing right on the microscope
slide will seem upside-down and facing left, and vice versa. Similar to how the slide would appear
to move right and left when viewed through a microscope, moving the slide down will make it
appear to move up. This happens as a result of the two sets of lenses that microscopes use to enlarge
the image. The way light passes through the lenses in this lens system causes an inverted image to
be created (binoculars and a dissecting microscope work in a similar manner, but include an
additional magnification system that makes the final image appear to be upright). Light
microscopes are the most common type of student microscope. The lens mechanism allows the
user to see the specimen by allowing visible light to flow through while also deflecting it. Light
microscopes are useful for observing live things, but since individual cells are typically
transparent, it is difficult to tell which parts of an organism are which without the use of specific
stains. However, staining typically results in cell death. Light microscopes, which are frequently
31
used in lab settings in undergraduate colleges, may magnify up to 400 times. Magnification and
resolving power are two factors that are significant in microscopy. The degree of an object's
enlargement is known as its magnification. The ability of a microscope to differentiate two nearby
structures as separate is known as its resolving power; the greater the resolution, the closer those
two items can be and the clearer and more detailed the image would be. Magnification is typically
increased to 1,000 times when oil immersion lenses are used to investigate smaller cells, such as
the majority of prokaryotic cells. Light microscopy can be used to view a specimen because light
entering a specimen from below is directed into the observer's eye. For this reason, a sample must
be thin or translucent in order for light to travel through it.
The dissecting microscope is a second kind of microscope utilised in labs. These microscopes can
give a three-dimensional image of the specimen and have a lesser magnification (20 to 80 times
the object size) than light microscopes. Thick objects allow for the simultaneous examination of
numerous components in focus. These microscopes are made to provide a clear, enlarged image
of both the anatomy of the entire organism and the tissue structure inside it. The majority of
contemporary dissecting microscopes are binocular, meaning that they contain two different lens
systems, one for each eye, just like light microscopes. As a result of the distance between the lens
systems, the subject appears to have depth, which facilitates manual manipulations. Dissecting
microscopes also have optics that correct the image so that it appears as if being seen by the naked
eye and not as an inverted image. The light illuminating a sample under a dissecting microscope
typically comes from above the sample, but may also be directed from below.
• Electron Microscopes
Electron microscopes, as opposed to light microscopes, employ an electron beam as opposed to a
light beam. This offers higher resolving power in addition to increased magnification and, thus,
more detail. Live cells cannot be examined using an electron microscope since the preparation of
a specimen for viewing under one will kill it. Furthermore, because the electron beam moves best
in a vacuum, it is not possible to observe live things.
A scanning electron microscope reveals the specifics of a cell's surface properties by reflection
when an electron beam travels back and forth across it. The typical coating on cells and other
structures is made of a metal like gold. In a transmission electron microscope, the electron beam
is transmitted through the cell and provides details of a cell’s internal structures. As you might
imagine, electron microscopes are significantly more bulky and expensive than are light
microscopes. How is the electron beam transmitted in a transmission electron microscope?
1. What is a microscope?
2. What is the contrasting feature between the light and an electron microscope?
5.5 Role of Cell Technologist in the Study of the Cell

Cytotechnologists (cyto- = cell) are professionals who study cells through microscopic
examinations and other laboratory tests. They are trained to determine which cellular changes are
within normal limits or are abnormal. Their focus is not limited to cervical cells; they study cellular
specimens that come from all organs. When they notice abnormalities, they consult a pathologist,
32
who is a medical doctor who can make a clinical diagnosis. Cytotechnologists play vital roles in
saving people’s lives. When abnormalities are discovered early, a patient’s treatment can begin on
time, thus increasing the chances of survival. Have you ever heard of a medical test called a Pap
smear? In this test, a doctor takes a small sample of cells from the uterine cervix of a patient and
sends it to a medical lab where a cytotechnologist stains the cells and examines them for any
changes that could indicate cervical cancer or a microbial infection. The microscopes we use today
are far more complex than those used in the 1600s by Antony van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch
shopkeeper who had great skill in crafting lenses. Despite the limitations of his now-ancient lenses,
van Leeuwenhoek observed the movements of protists (a type of single-celled organism) and
sperm, which he collectively termed “animalcules.” In a 1665, a scientist Robert Hooke coined the
term “cell” (from the Latin cella, meaning “small room”) for the box-like structures he observed
when viewing cork tissue through a lens. In the 1670s, Van Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria and
protozoa. Later advances in lenses and microscope construction enabled other scientists to see
different components inside cells. By the late 1830s, botanist Matthias Schleiden and zoologist
Theodor Schwann were studying tissues and proposed the unified cell theory, which states that all
living things are composed of one or more cells, that the
cell is the basic unit of life, and that all new cells arise from existing cells. These principles still
stand today. Who is a Cytotechnologist?
1. Who is a Cytotechnologist?
2. When did van Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria and protozoa?
5.6 Summary
You have studied about the smallest unit that can live on its own and that makes up all living
organisms and the tissues of the body. You have also learned about the different types of cell
and the three main parts of the cell: the cell membrane, the nucleus, and the cytoplasm. The cell
membrane surrounds the cell and controls the substances that go into and out of the cell.

Anderson, C., (2008). “The end of theory: The data deluge makes the scientific method
obsolete”, Wired magazine, 16(7): 16–07
https://www.britannica.com/science/cell-biology/Secretory-vesicles
https://nios.ac.in/media/documents/SrSec314NewE/Lesson-04.pdf
https://ncert.nic.in/pdf/publication/exemplarproblem/classVIII/science/heep108.pdf
https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anatomy_and_Physiology/Book%3A_Human_Anatomy
_and_Physiology_Preparatory_Course_(Liachovitzky)/04%3A_Smallest_Level_of_Complexity_
Alive-_Cells_Their_Structures_and_Functions/4.01%3A_Cell_Structure_and_Function
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=URUJD5NEXC8
https://encrypted-
vtbn0.gstatic.com/video?q=tbn:ANd9GcRvB4Sn3kiummaGCLdnWMbpRu8faf_dNOAMzQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kcG1F88KQA0
33
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V6s0xOTNmT4
Answers to SAE 1
1. The unified cell theory states that: all living things are composed of one or more cells; the
cell is the basic unit of life; and new cells arise from existing cells.
2. The expanded version of the cell theory is made up of:
• Cells carry genetic material passed to daughter cells during cellular division
• All cells are essentially the same in chemical composition
• Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells
Answers to SAE 2
1. A microscope is an instrument that magnifies an object
2. In contrast to light microscopes, electron microscopes use a beam of electrons instead of a
beam of light.
Answers to SAE 3
1. Cytotechnologist (cyto- = cell) is a professionals who study cells through microscopic
examinations and other laboratory tests.
2. 1670s
Glossary
Applied science: a form of science that solves real-world problems
Basic science: science that seeks to expand knowledge regardless of the short-term
application of that knowledge
Control: a part of an experiment that does not change during the experiment
Deductive reasoning: a form of logical thinking that uses a general statement to forecast specific
results
Descriptive science: a form of science that aims to observe, explore, and find things out
Falsifiable: able to be disproven by experimental results
Hypothesis: a suggested explanation for an event, which can be tested
Inductive reasoning: a form of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a
general conclusion
Life science: a field of science, such as biology, that studies living things
Natural science: a field of science that studies the physical world, its phenomena, and
processes
Physical science: a field of science, such as astronomy, physics, and chemistry, that studies
nonliving matter
Science: knowledge that covers general truths or the operation of general laws,
especially when acquired and tested by the scientific method
Scientific law: a description, often in the form of a mathematical formula, for the
behavior of some aspect of nature under certain specific conditions
Scientific method: a method of research with defined steps that include experiments and
careful observation
Scientific theory: a thoroughly tested and confirmed explanation for observations or
phenomena
34
End of the module Questions
1. What process causes the diversity of life?

2. How do we organize diversity of life?
3. How does evolution lead to both the diversity and unity of life?
4. Why is organization of life important?
5. List the levels of organization, ranging from simplest to most complex.
6. Describe what it means to "Construct a Hypothesis."
7. What does a scientist do if the hypothesis is not supported?
8. Outline the steps of a scientific investigation.
9. Give an example of a scientific question that could be investigated with an experiment.
Module 2: Structure and Functions of the Cell
Module Structure
In this module we will discuss about the cellular organization, structure and functions

Glossary
End of note questions

Unit Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.3 Cellular Organization
1.3.1 Prokaryotic Cell
1.3.2 Eukaryotic Cell
1.4 Cell Organelles
1.5 Other Organelles
35
1.6 Summary
1.1 Introduction
You will learn in this unit that the cell falls into one of two broad categories: prokaryotic and
eukaryotic. You will study that the predominantly single-celled organisms of the domains Bacteria
and Archaea are classified as prokaryotes (pro- = before; -karyon- = nucleus), and all other animal
cells, plant cells, fungi, and protists are eukaryotes (eu- = true). You will also learn how to draw
and describe the structure of the various cell organelles
• Illustrate the structure of a prokaryote and eukaryote cells

• Describe the structure of plant and animal cells by drawing labelled diagrams;
• Differentiate between a Unicellular and Multicellular organisms
• describe the structure and function of the various cell organelles
1.3 The Cell and its Components
Although all cells share certain features (for example, every cell has a plasma membrane),
biologists recognize two fundamentally different categories of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
We compartmentalize cells into several structures, organelles with specific functions. Organelles
are subunits in the anatomy of the cell. The compartmentalization inside the cell allows many
different functions to be localized in specific places. This brings about a high level of organization
and efficiency in the cell. In this unit we will discuss the structures and functions of the different
parts of the cell.
36
Figure 1. An image illustrating the difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells. Note that
the prokaryotic cell is a complete individual organism. Source: www.byjus.com
Advancements in science and technology shed more light into the cell, with new findings and
discoveries about its structure and cellular components. In 1950s, scientists postulated the concept
of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, with earlier groundwork laid by Edouard Chatton, a French
biologist in 1925. Anatomically, cells vary in respect to their classification, thus, prokaryotic
cells and eukaryotic cells differ from each other drastically. Read on to explore how they differ
from each other.
1.3.1 Prokaryotic Cell
The term “prokaryote” is derived from the Greek word “pro” (meaning: before) and “karyon”
(meaning: kernel). It translates to “before nuclei”. Prokaryotes are one of the most ancient groups
of living organisms on earth, with fossil records dating back to almost 3.5 billion years ago.
These prokaryotes thrived in the earth’s ancient environment, some using up chemical energy and
others using the sun’s energy. These extremophiles thrived for millions of years, evolving and
adapting. Scientists speculated that these organisms gave rise to the eukaryotes. Prokaryotic cells
are comparatively smaller and much simpler than eukaryotic cells. The other defining
characteristic of prokaryotic cells is that they do not possess membrane-bound cell organelles such
as a nucleus, and reproduction is by binary fission.
37
Structurally, each prokaryote has a capsule enveloping its entire body which functions as a
protective coat. This is crucial for preventing the process of phagocytosis (where the bacteria gets
engulfed by other eukaryotic cells, such as macrophages). A hair-like appendage found on the
external surface of most prokaryotes is called pilus, and it helps the organism to attach itself to
various environments. The pilus is commonly observed in bacteria and essentially resists being
flushed, hence, it is also called attachment pili.
Right below the protective coating lies the cell wall, which provides strength and rigidity to the
cell. Further down lies the cytoplasm that helps in cellular growth, and is contained within the
plasma membrane. This separates the inner contents of the cell from the outside
environment. Ribosomes exist within the cytoplasm; it is also one of the smallest components
within the cell and plays an important role in protein synthesis. Some prokaryotic cells contain
special structures called mesosomes which assist in cellular respiration. Most prokaryotes also
contain plasmids, which contain small, circular pieces of DNA. To help with locomotion, flagella
are present, though, pilus can also serve as an aid for locomotion. Common examples of
Prokaryotic organisms are bacteria, archaea and all members of Kingdom Monera.
1.3.2 Eukaryotic Cell
The term “Eukaryotes” is derived from the Greek word “eu“, (meaning: good) and “karyon”
(meaning: kernel), being translated to “good or true nuclei.” Eukaryotes are more complex and
much larger than prokaryotes. They include almost all the major kingdoms except kingdom
monera. Structurally, eukaryotes possess a cell wall, which supports and protects the plasma
membrane. The cell is surrounded by the plasma membrane which controls the entry and exit of
some substances. The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear membrane and contains DNA, which
is responsible for storing all genetic information. Within the nucleus is the nucleolus, and it plays
a crucial role in proteins synthesis. Eukaryotic cells also contain mitochondria, which are
responsible for the production of energy utilized by the cell.
Chloroplasts are the subcellular sites of photosynthesis present in only plant cells. The
endoplasmic reticulum helps in the transportation of materials. Besides these, there are also
other cell organelles that perform various other functions, these include ribosomes, lysosomes,
Golgi bodies, cytoplasm, chromosomes, vacuoles and centrosomes. Examples of eukaryotes
include almost every unicellular organism with a nucleus and all multicellular organisms.
1.3.3 Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Though these two classes of cells are quite different, they do possess some common characteristics.
For example, both possess cell membranes and ribosomes. The complete list of differences
between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is summarized as follows:
Feature Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Organisms Bacteria Protists, fungi, plants and animals
Cell size Average diameter 0.5 - 10µm Diameter commonly 1000 – 10000
times the volume of prokaryotes
Form Mainly unicellular Mainly multicellular
Evolution origin 3.5 thousand million years ago 1.2 thousand million years ago,
evolve from prokaryotes
38
Cell division Mostly binary fission, no spindle Mitosis, meiosis or both, spindle
formed
Genetic material DNA is circular and lies freely in the DNA linear and contained in a
cytoplasm (no true nucleus). DNA is nucleus. DNA is also associated
also naked; not associated with with RNA to form chromosomes
RNA to form chromosomes.
Protein synthesis 70s ribosomes, no endoplasmic 80s ribosomes, and may be attached
reticulum to endoplasmic reticulum
Organelles Few organelles, none surrounded by Many organelles and envelope-
envelope (two membranes) bound organelles present eg.
nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast.
There are also some organelles
bounded by single membrane eg.
golgi apparatus, lysosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum.
Cell wall Rigid and contain polysaccharides Cell walls of green plants and fungi
with amino acids; murein are rigid and contain
strengthening compounds. polysaccharides; cellulose is the
main strengthening compounds of
plant cell walls. Chitin for fungal
cell wall while there is no cell wall
in animal cells.
Flagella Simple, lacking microtubules; Complex with microtubules;
extracellular, 20nm diameter intracellular, 200nm diameter
Respiration Membranes in blue green bacteria Mitochondria for aerobic
respiration
Photosynthesis No chloroplasts; takes place in Chloroplasts containing membranes
membranes which show no stacking which are usually stacked into
lamellae or grana
Nitrogen fixation Some have the ability to fix nitrogen None can fix nitrogen
39
What is the main difference between the ribosomes of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
1. Give the general example of a eukaryote.
2. Differentiate between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
1.4 The Nature and Function of Cells
The plasma membrane that encloses a cell creates a selective barrier that allows nutrients to enter
and waste products to exit. Each of the numerous specialised compartments, or organelles, that
make up a cell's inside is encircled by a different membrane. The nucleus is one important
organelle that houses the genetic materials required for cell division and growth. each cell only has
one nucleus, while other organelles are found in many copies in the cytoplasm. These organelles
include mitochondria, which carry out the energy exchanges required for cell viability, and
lysosomes, which break down waste products inside the cell, the endoplasmic reticulum and
the Golgi apparatus, which play important roles in the internal organization of the cell by
synthesizing selected molecules and then processing, sorting, and directing them to their proper
locations. In addition, chloroplasts, parts of plant cells, are involved in photosynthesis, the process
by which carbon dioxide (CO2) and water molecules are changed into carbohydrates using the
energy of sunlight. The region of the cytoplasm known as the cytosol is located between all these
organelles. The cytoskeleton, gives a cell its shape, allows organelles to move inside the cell, and
provides a mechanism by which the cell itself can move, is an organised framework of fibrous
molecules found in the cytosol. The process of producing large biological molecules from smaller
ones, known as cellular biosynthesis, involves more than 10,000 different types of molecules, all
of which can be found in the cytosol. Specialized organelles are a characteristic of eukaryotic
cells. In contrast, prokaryotic cells do not contain organelles and are generally smaller than
eukaryotic cells. However, all cells share strong similarities in biochemical functions.
40
Figure 1.2 Typical example of a cell containing the primary organelles and internal structures.
1.4.1 The Cell Organelles

Cell organelles are the cellular constituents and they differ in their structures and functions. They
include both membrane-bound and non-membrane-bound organelles. For the cell to function
properly, they coordinate and work effectively. Some of them giving shape and support to a cell,
while others are involved in a cell's movement and reproduction. The cells are divided into three
groups based on whether they have a membrane or not. However, as we will see in a moment, a
semi-permeable plasma membrane protects the cytoplasm that is home to these organelles will be
treated as component part of the cell.
1. The Plasma Membrane
Eukaryotic cells, like prokaryotes, have a plasma membrane (Figure 3), a phospholipid bilayer
with proteins embedded that seperates the inside of the cell from its external environment. A
phospholipid is a lipid molecule that has a phosphate-containing group and two fatty acid chains.
The flow of organic molecules, ions, water, and oxygen into and out of the cell is regulated by the
plasma membrane. Wastes such as including ammonia and carbon dioxide also exit the cell
through the plasma membrane.
41
Figure 1.3: The eukaryotic plasma membrane
The eukaryotic plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with proteins and cholesterol
embedded in it.
2. Microvilli, the plasma membranes of cells that specialise in absorbing substances are folded into
fingerlike projections (Figure 4.).
3. The small intestine, being the organ that absorbs nutrients from digested food, is normally lined
by these cells. This is a superb illustration of structure adhering to function. Gluten, a protein
included in wheat, barley, and rye, causes an immunological reaction in people with celiac disease.
The immune response harms microvilli, making it impossible for those with the condition to absorb
nutrition. Malnutrition, cramps, and diarrhoea result from this. Gluten-free diets are required for
celiac disease patients.
Figure 1.4 Microvilli, shown here as they appear on cells lining the small intestine, increase the
surface area available for absorption.
These microvilli are only found on the area of the plasma membrane that faces the cavity from
which substances will be absorbed.
2. The Cytoplasm
The total area of a cell between the nuclear envelope and the plasma membrane is known as the
cytoplasm. The Cytoplasm is made up of the cytoskeleton, numerous molecules, and organelles
suspended in the gel-like cytosol. The proteins in the cytoplasm give it a semi-solid solidity,
despite the fact that it contains between 70 and 80 percent water. However, organic compounds
other than proteins can also be present in the cytoplasm. In addition, polysaccharides, amino
acids, nucleic acids, fatty acids, and glycerol derivatives are present there along with glucose and
42
other simple carbohydrates. The cytoplasm also contains dissolved sodium, potassium, calcium,
and many other elemental ions. The cytoplasm is where many metabolic processes, including as
protein synthesis, take place.
1.4.2 Organelles without membrane
The Cell wall, Ribosomes, Cytoskeleton (actin filaments, intermediate filaments, centrioles) and
microtubules are non-membrane-bound cell organelles. They are present both in the prokaryotic
land the eukaryotic cells.
1. The Cell wall
Outside of the plasma membrane is a structure known as cell wall. The cell wall is a thick layer
that serves as the cell's defense, structural support, and form. Cell walls are also present in fungus
and protozoan cells. While peptidoglycan is the main organic molecule in the cell walls of
prokaryotic organisms, cellulose, a polysaccharide comprising of glucose units, is the main organic
molecule in the cell walls of plants (figure 1.5). Have you ever noticed how a raw vegetable, like
celery, crunches as you chew it? This is due to the fact that you are shredding the celery cells' stiff
cell walls with your teeth. The dashed lines at each end of the figure indicate a series of many more
glucose units. The size of the page makes it impossible to portray an entire cellulose molecule.
Figure 1.5. Cellulose is a long chain of β-glucose molecules connected by a 1-4 linkage.
2. Ribosomes
Ribosomes are biological elements in charge of producing proteins. Under an electron microscope,
ribosomes can be observed as either solitary, tiny specks floating freely in the cytoplasm or as
polyribosome clusters. They might be connected to the plasma membrane, the cytoplasmic side of
the endoplasmic reticulum, or the nuclear envelope (Figure 6.). Since ribosomes are large
complexes of protein and RNA, electron microscopy has shown that they are composed of two
subunits known as large and small subunits. The ribosomes receive their "orders" for protein
synthesis from the nucleus, where DNA is transformed into messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA
travels to the ribosomes, which translate the code provided by the sequence of the nitrogenous
bases in the mRNA into a specific order of amino acids in a protein. Amino acids are the building
blocks of proteins.
43
Figure 1.6 Ribosomes are made up of a large subunit (top) and a small subunit (bottom).
Ribosomes put together amino acids into proteins during the process of protein synthesis. All
cells including enzymes, hormones, antibodies, pigments, structural elements, and surface
receptors must be able to synthesise proteins, hence ribosomes are present in almost all cells. In
cells that produce a lot of protein, ribosomes are very prevalent, as seen in the pancreas that is in
charge of producing a number of digestive enzymes. We observe another instance of form
following function as a result.
3. Cytoskeleton
Would the plasma membrane and the cytoplasm be the only elements left in a cell if all the
organelles were taken out? No. Ions and organic molecules would still be present in the cytoplasm,
along with a network of protein fibres that support some organelles in particular places, permit
movement of cytoplasm and vesicles inside the cell, and allow movement of cells within
multicellular animals. The term "cytoskeleton" refers to this web of protein fibres as a whole. The
cytoskeleton is made up of three different types of fibres: microfilaments, intermediate filaments,
and microtubules (Figure 7.). Here, we'll look at each. Inside the cell, microtubules prevent
compressive forces from changing the shape of the cell. Intermediate filaments are found
throughout the cell and hold organelles in place.
44
Figure 1.7 Microfilaments thicken the cortex around the inner edge of a cell; like rubber bands,
they resist tension.
4. Microfilaments
Of the three types of protein fibers in the cytoskeleton, microfilaments are the narrowest. They
function in cellular movement, have a diameter of about 7 nm, and are made of two intertwined
strands of a globular protein called actin (Figure 7.). For this reason, microfilaments are also
known as actin filaments.
Figure 1.8 Microfilaments made of two intertwined strands of actin.
The filamentous form of actin, which serves as a conduit for the motion of the myosin motor
protein, is created using ATP. Actin can now take part in cellular activities that require movement,
such as cell division in animal cells and cytoplasmic streaming, the circular movement of the cell
cytoplasm in plant cells. Actin and myosin are both abundantly dispersed in muscle cells. As actin
45
and myosin filaments pass by one another, your muscles tighten. Microfilaments also give the cell
some form and stiffness. A cell can change and migrate because it has the capacity to depolymerize
(disassemble) and reconstruct quickly. The cells in your body that fight infections, called white
blood cells, are quite good at using this ability.
5. Intermediate Filaments
Intermediate filaments are made of several strands of fibrous proteins that are wound
together (Figure 9.). These elements of the cytoskeleton get their name from the fact that their
diameter, 8 to 10 nm, is between those of microfilaments and microtubules.
Figure 1.9 Intermediate filaments consist of several intertwined strands of fibrous proteins.
In the migration of cells, intermediate filaments play no part. Their sole purpose is structural. They
support tension, preserving the cell's structure, and serve as anchors for the nucleus and other
organelles. Figure 9 demonstrates how internal scaffolding is built by intermediate filaments. The
cytoskeletal elements with the highest variety are the intermediate filaments. The intermediate
filaments contain several kinds of fibrous proteins known as keratin, which supports your hair,
nails, and skin's epidermis, is perhaps the one you know best.
6. Microtubules
Microtubules are little, hollow tubes, as their name suggests. Two globular proteins, α-tubulin and
β -tubulin, are polymerized dimers that make up the walls of the microtubule (Figure 10). The
largest cytoskeleton elements are microtubules, which have a diameter of roughly 25 nm. They
enable vesicles to flow across the cell along a track and draw replicated chromosomes to the
opposite ends of a dividing cell. They also aid in the cell's resistance to compression. Microtubules
can dissolve and swiftly regenerate, just like microfilaments.
Figure 1.10 Microtubules are hollow. Their walls consist of 13 polymerized dimers of α-tubulin
and β-tubulin (right image). The left image shows the molecular structure of the tube.
46
Microtubules are also the structural elements of flagella, cilia, and centrioles (the latter are the two
perpendicular bodies of the centrosome). In fact, in animal cells, the centrosome is the
microtubule-organizing center. In eukaryotic cells, flagella and cilia are quite different structurally
from their counterparts in prokaryotes, as discussed below.
7. Flagella and Cilia

Recall that flagella are long, hairlike projections that emerge from the plasma membrane and are
used to propel an entire cell (for example, sperm, Euglena). The cell may have one or more
flagellums when they are present. However, a sizable number of cilia (singular: cilium) cover the
whole surface of the plasma membrane when they are present. They are microscopic, hair-like
structures that transfer materials or whole cells, like paramecia, along the surface of the cell (for
example, the cilia of cells lining the Fallopian tubes that move the ovum toward the uterus, and
cilia lining the cells of the respiratory tract that trap particulate matter and move it toward your
nostrils.) Despite their differences in length and number, flagella and cilia share a common
structural arrangement of microtubules called a "9 + 2 array". This is an appropriate name because
a single flagellum or cilium is made of a ring of nine microtubule doublets, surrounding a single
microtubule doublet in the center (Figure 10.).
Figure 1.11 This transmission electron micrograph of two flagella shows the 9 + 2 array of
microtubules: nine microtubule doublets surround a single microtubule doublet.
1.4.3 Single membrane-bound organelles
Vacuole, Vesicles, Lysosome, Golgi Apparatus, Endoplasmic Reticulum, mitochondria,
peroxisomes, and transport vesicles are single membrane-bound organelles present only in a
eukaryotic cell.
1. Vesicles and Vacuoles
Vacuoles and vesicles are single membrane-bound sacs with storage and transport capabilities.
There is a little or no difference between vacuoles and vesicles save the fact that the former are
slightly larger: Vesicle membranes are capable of joining with the cell's plasma membrane or other
membrane systems. Furthermore, some substances, like the enzymes found in plant vacuoles,
degrade macromolecules. A vacuole's membrane does not meld with the membranes of other
cellular parts. In response to shifting external conditions, the central vacuole is crucial in
47
controlling the water content within the cell. Have you ever observed that plants wilt if they go
without water for a few days? This is due to water moving out of the central vacuoles and
cytoplasm as the water concentration in the soil drops below the water concentration in the plants,
the cell wall is left unsupported while the central vacuole contracts. The plant appears wilted as a
result of the loss of support to the cell walls of the plant cells. The expansion of the cell is also
supported by the central vacuole which can store more water, thus allowing the cell to grow
without expending a lot of energy on producing new cytoplasm.
2. Lysosome
Lysosomes are thought to be a member of the endomembrane system in addition to serving as the
animal cell's organelle recycling facility of digestive system. Lysosomes also use their hydrolytic
enzymes to eliminate any pathogens (organisms that cause disease) that might enter the cell. The
immune system of your body's macrophages, a class of white blood cells, serves as a good
illustration of this. A portion of the macrophage's plasma membrane invaginates (folds in) and
engulfs a pathogen during phagocytosis or endocytosis. The pathogen-filled invaginated area
subsequently pinches itself off from the plasma membrane and transforms into a vesicle. The
pathogen is then eliminated by the lysosome's hydrolytic enzymes (Figure 12.).
Figure 1.12 A macrophage has engulfed (phagocytized) a potentially pathogenic bacterium and
then fuses with lysosomes within the cell to destroy the pathogen. Other organelles are present in
the cell but for simplicity are not shown.
3. Golgi Apparatus
The Golgi apparatus, also known as the Golgi body, is a collection of flattened membranes that is
responsible for the classification, labelling, packaging, and distribution of lipids and proteins
(Figure 13). We have already mentioned that vesicles can form in the emergency room and travel
elsewhere with their contents, but where do the vesicles themselves go? The transport vesicles'
lipids or proteins still need to be processed, packaged, and labelled before they go to their final
location to ensure they end up there.
48
Figure 1.13 The Golgi apparatus in this white blood cell is visible as a stack of semicircular,
flattened rings in the lower portion of the image.
The cis face refers to the receiving side of the Golgi apparatus. The trans face is the side that faces
the other way. When the transport vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) fuse with the cis
face, they release their contents into the lumen of the Golgi apparatus. The proteins and lipids go
through additional changes in the Golgi apparatus that enable sorting as they move through it. The
most common alteration is the insertion of sugar molecules in short chains. Then, in order to direct
these newly altered proteins and lipids to their correct locations, they are marked with phosphate
groups or other tiny molecules. Finally, secretory vesicles that bud from the trans face of the Golgi
are used to package the changed and tagged proteins. Other secretory vesicles fuse with the plasma
membrane and release their contents outside the cell, while some of these vesicles deposit their
contents into other areas of the cell where they will be utilised. Another example of shape
following function is the profusion of Golgi in cells that release a lot of materials, such as salivary
gland cells that secrete digestive enzymes or immune system cells that secrete antibodies. The
Golgi apparatus in plant cells also plays the additional task of synthesising polysaccharides, some
of which are utilised to build the cell wall and others in other regions of the cell.
4. The Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (Figure 14.) is a collection of mesh worked sacs and tubules that
work together to manufacture lipids and modify proteins. The rough ER and the smooth ER,
respectively, are where these two tasks are carried out in the ER. The lumen or cisternal space
refers to the hollow area of the ER tubules. The nuclear envelope and the phospholipid bilayer that
makes up the ER's membrane are one continuous structure. The two are as follows: I Rough ER:
i). The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is named as such because, when studied under an
electron microscope, the ribosomes clinging to its cytoplasmic surface give it a studded look.
(Figure 5).
49
Figure 1.14 This transmission electron micrograph shows the rough endoplasmic reticulum and
other organelles in a pancreatic cell.
The freshly synthesised proteins are transferred by ribosomes into the lumen of the RER, where
they go through structural changes such folding or side chain acquisition. These altered proteins
will either be released from the cell or integrated into cellular membranes, such as the ER
membrane or those of other organelles (such as protein hormones, enzymes). Phospholipids for
cellular membranes are also produced by the RER. If the phospholipids or altered proteins are not
meant to remain in the RER, transport vesicles that sprout from the RER's membrane will carry
them to their intended locations (Figure 14) You would be right in believing that the RER is
prevalent in cells that produce proteins because it is involved in altering proteins such as enzymes,
that will be released from the cell such as liver cells.
ii). The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER), which is continuous with the RER, has few or no
ribosomes on the surface of its cytoplasm (Figure 4.18). The SER performs several functions, such
as calcium ion storage, drug detoxification, and the production of carbohydrates, lipids, and steroid
hormones. The sarcoplasmic reticulum, a specific type of SER, is in charge of storing the calcium
ions required to start the coordinated contractions of muscle cells.
5. Peroxisomes
Small, spherical organelles called peroxisomes are surrounded by a single membrane. In their
oxidation reactions, fatty acids and amino acids are broken down. They also cleanse the body of
numerous toxins that might be ingested. (Many of these oxidation events produce hydrogen
peroxide, H2O2, which can harm cells; however, when these reactions take place inside of
peroxisomes, enzymes safely break down the H2O2 into oxygen and water.) For example,
peroxisomes in liver cells detoxify alcohol. Plants' specialised peroxisomes called glyoxysomes
are in charge of converting stored fats into sugars.
1. What is a flagellum?
2. Which form of peroxisomes are responsible for the conversion of

stored fat into sugars?
50
1. Flagella are long, hair-like structures that extend from the plasma membrane and are
utilised to move a complete cell such as sperm and Euglena cells.
2. Glyoxysomes
1.5 Double membrane-bound organelles
Nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplast are double membrane-bound organelles present only in a
eukaryotic cell.
1. Nucleus
Typically, the nucleus is the most prominent organelle in a cell (Figure 1.15). The nucleus (plural
nuclei) houses the cell's DNA and directs the synthesis of ribosomes and proteins. Let's look at it
in more detail (Figure 1.15).
Figure 1.15 The nucleus stores chromatin (DNA plus proteins) in a gel-like substance called the
nucleoplasm.
Ribosome synthesis takes place in the nucleolus, a compressed area of chromatin. The nuclear
envelope is the term used to describe the nucleus' outside. It is made up of an outer membrane and
an inner membrane which are both phospholipid bilayers. The endoplasmic reticulum and the
nuclear membrane are one unit. Nuclear pores allow substances to enter and exit the nucleus.
The Nuclear Envelope
The nuclear envelope is a double-membrane structure that constitutes the outermost portion of
the nucleus (Figure 14). Both the inner and outer membranes of the nuclear envelope are
phospholipid bilayers. The nuclear envelope is punctuated with pores that control the passage of
ions, molecules, and RNA between the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm. The nucleoplasm is the semi-
solid fluid inside the nucleus, where we find the chromatin and the nucleolus.
51
Chromatin and Chromosomes
It is useful to start with chromosomes in order to comprehend chromatin. Chromosomes are

nucleus-located components consisting of DNA, the genetic material. In prokaryotes, DNA is
arranged into a single circular chromosome, as you may recall. Chromosomes are organised in a
linear fashion in eukaryotes. In the cell nuclei of its body, each eukaryotic species has a certain
number of chromosomes.
For instance, the number of chromosomes in humans is 46, whereas it is just eight in fruit flies.
Only when the cell is about to divide can the chromosomes be seen and distinguished from one
another. Proteins are connected to chromosomes during the growth and maintenance phases of the
cell's life cycle, and they take on the appearance of an unravelled, disorganised collection of
threads.
These unwound protein-chromosome complexes are called chromatin (Figure 15); chromatin
describes the material that makes up the chromosomes both when condensed and decondensed.
Figure 1.16. (a) This image shows various levels of the organization of chromatin (DNA and
protein). (b) This image shows paired chromosomes.
The Nucleolus
We already know that the nucleus directs the synthesis of ribosomes, but how does it do this?
Some chromosomes have sections of DNA that encode ribosomal RNA. A darkly staining area
within the nucleus called the nucleolus (plural = nucleoli) aggregates the ribosomal RNA with
associated proteins to assemble the ribosomal subunits that are then transported out through the
pores in the nuclear envelope to the cytoplasm.
The Centrosome
The centrosome is a microtubule-organizing center found near the nuclei of animal cells. It
contains a pair of centrioles, two structures that lie perpendicular to each other. Each centriole is a
cylinder of nine triplets of microtubules.
52
Figure 1.17. The centrosome consists of two centrioles that lie at right angles to each other.
Nine triplets of microtubules make up each centriole, which is shaped like a cylinder. The
microtubule triplets are held together by nontubulin proteins, which are represented by the green
lines. Before a cell divides, the centrosome (the organelle from which all microtubules originate)
copies itself, and centrioles seem to play a part in directing the duplicated chromosomes to the
opposing ends of the dividing cell. The precise role of centrioles in cell division, however, is
unclear because plant cells, which lack centrosomes, can divide even after having their
centrosomes removed from them.
2. Mitochondria
Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) are often called the "powerhouses" or "energy factories"
of a cell because they are responsible for making adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell's main
energy-carrying molecule. ATP represents the short-term stored energy of the cell. Nine triplets of
microtubules make up each centriole, which is shaped like a cylinder. The microtubule triplets are
held together by nontubulin proteins, which are represented by the green lines. Before a cell
divides, the centrosome (the organelle from which all microtubules originate) copies itself, and
centrioles seem to play a part in directing the duplicated chromosomes to the opposing ends of the
dividing cell. The precise role of centrioles in cell division, however, is unclear because plant cells,
which lack centrosomes, can divide even after having their centrosomes removed from them.
53
Figure 1.18. This electron micrograph shows a mitochondrion as viewed with a transmission
electron microscope.
This organelle has an outer membrane and an inner membrane. The inner membrane contains folds,
called cristae, which increase its surface area. The space between the two membranes is called the
intermembrane space, and the space inside the inner membrane is called the mitochondrial matrix.
ATP synthesis takes place on the inner membrane.
3. Chloroplast
Chloroplasts have their own DNA and ribosomes, just like mitochondria, but they serve a
completely different purpose. Organelles in plant cells called chloroplasts are responsible for
photosynthesis. The set of chemical processes known as photosynthesis convert carbon dioxide,
water, and light energy into glucose and oxygen. This is a key distinction between plants and
animals; although animals (heterotrophs) must consume their food, plants (autotrophs) may
produce food like sugars on their own. Chloroplasts, like mitochondria, have an inner and an outer
membrane. However, the inner membrane of a chloroplast encloses a collection of interconnected
and stacked fluid-filled membrane sacs known as thylakoids (Figure 19). A granum (plural: grana)
is the name given to each stack of thylakoids. the liquid that fills the space between the inner
membrane and the grana

Figure 1.19. The chloroplast has an outer membrane, an inner membrane, and membrane structures
called thylakoids that are stacked into grana.
The space inside the thylakoid membranes is called the thylakoid space. The light harvesting
reactions take place in the thylakoid membranes, and the synthesis of sugar takes place in the fluid
inside the inner membrane, which is called the stroma. Chloroplasts also have their own genome,
which is contained on a single circular chromosome.
The chloroplasts contain a green pigment called chlorophyll, which captures the light energy that
drives the reactions of photosynthesis. Like plant cells, photosynthetic protists also have
chloroplasts. Some bacteria perform photosynthesis, but their chlorophyll is not relegated to an
organelle.
Comparing the Components of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
54
Components of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Presen
Present Presen
t in
Cell in t in
Function Anima
Component Prokar Plant
l
yotes? Cells?
Cells?
Separates cell from external environment;

Plasma
controls passage of organic molecules, ions, Yes Yes Yes
membrane
water, oxygen, and wastes into and out of cell
Provides turgor pressure to plant cells as fluid

Cytoplasm inside the central vacuole; site of many metabolic Yes Yes Yes
reactions; medium in which organelles are found
Darkened area within the nucleus where

Nucleolus No Yes Yes
ribosomal subunits are synthesized.
Cell organelle that houses DNA and directs

Nucleus No Yes Yes
synthesis of ribosomes and proteins
Ribosomes Protein synthesis Yes Yes Yes
Mitochondri
ATP production/cellular respiration No Yes Yes
a
Peroxisome Oxidizes and thus breaks down fatty acids and

No Yes Yes
s amino acids, and detoxifies poisons
Vesicles and Storage and transport; digestive function in plant

No Yes Yes
vacuoles cells
Unspecified role in cell division in animal cells;

Centrosome No Yes No
source of microtubules in animal cells
Digestion of macromolecules; recycling of worn-

Lysosomes No Yes No
out organelles
Yes, Yes,
primari primar
Protection, structural support and maintenance of
Cell wall ly No ily
cell shape
peptido cellulo
glycan se
55
Components of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Presen
Present Presen
t in
Cell in t in
Function Anima
Component Prokar Plant
l
yotes? Cells?
Cells?
Chloroplast
Photosynthesis No No Yes
s
Endoplasmi
Modifies proteins and synthesizes lipids No Yes Yes
c reticulum
Golgi Modifies, sorts, tags, packages, and distributes

No Yes Yes
apparatus lipids and proteins
Maintains cell's shape, secures organelles in

Cytoskeleto specific positions, allows cytoplasm and vesicles
Yes Yes Yes
n to move within cell, and enables unicellular
organisms to move independently
No,
except
for
Flagella Cellular locomotion Some Some some
plant
sperm
cells.
Cellular locomotion, movement of particles

Cilia along extracellular surface of plasma membrane, Some Some No
and filtration
What is the set of chemical processes that converts carbon dioxide, water, and light energy into
glucose and oxygen known?
1. Which cell organelle is referred to as the Powerhouse of the cell?
2. What do you refer to as the double-membrane structure that
constitutes the outermost portion of the nucleus?
56
1.6 Summary
You have learnt in this unit that the cell falls into one of two broad categories: prokaryotic and
eukaryotic. You have also learnt that the predominantly single-celled organisms of the domains
Bacteria and Archaea are classified as prokaryotes, and all other animal cells, plant cells, fungi,
and protists are eukaryotes, and how to draw and describe the structure of the various cell
organelles
Ahern, K. (2019). Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Great Courses, The Teaching
Company.
Russel, P. J. (2010). iGenetics: A Molecular Approach, 3rd edition, Benjamin Cummings (2010),
p. 111-117
Holt, R. I. G. and Hanley, N. A. (2012). Essential Endocrinology and Diabetes, 6th edition, Wiley-
Blackwell (2012), p. 18-23
https://byjus.com/biology/cell-organelles/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9941/
https://hsc.one/courses/biology-preliminary/module-1/
https://untamedscience.com/biology/cells/basic-types-of-cells/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UHJGy1ZW7kE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8IlzKri08kk&vl=en
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t5DvF5OVr1Y
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JL19uv7NT7s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8v4HE8dCfgI
Answers to SAE 1
1. Examples of eukaryotes include almost every unicellular organism with a nucleus and all
multicellular organisms.
2. Prokaryotes are always unicellular, unlike eukaryotes which are both unicellular and multi-
cellular
Answers to SAE 2
1. Flagella are long, hair-like structures that extend from the plasma membrane and are
utilised to move a complete cell (for example, sperm, Euglena)
2. Glyoxysomes
Answers to SAE 3
1. Mitochondria
2. Nuclear envelope
2.1 Introduction
2.3 Cells Communication
2.4 Transport in Cells
2.5 Active transport

57
2.6 Summary
2.1 Introduction
You already know that a group of similar cells working together is called a tissue. As you may
expect, if cells are to work together, they must communicate with each other, just as you need to
communicate with others if you work on a group project. Let's take a look at how cells
communicate with each other.

• Explain why and how passive transport occurs
• Understand the processes of osmosis and diffusion
• Define tonicity and describe its relevance to passive transport
• Understand how electrochemical gradients affect ions
• Describe endocytosis, including phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated
endocytosis
• Understand the process of exocytosis
3.3 Cells Communication
We have devoted a lot of time to study the components of a cell. Now what exactly is outside?
What kind of cell you are looking at makes a big difference. Animal cells have the ability to secrete
substances into their environment to create the extracellular matrix, a meshwork of
macromolecules that provides support and protection for plants, fungi, and other living things.
Here, we'll delve deeper into these extracellular elements and the functions they serve in various
cell types.
1. Extracellular Matrix of Animal Cells
Extracellular space is where the majority of animal cells releases stuff; proteins being the main
building blocks of these materials, and collagen the most prevalent protein. Proteoglycans, which
are protein molecules with carbohydrates, are woven into collagen fibres. These substances are
referred to as the extracellular matrix collectively (Figure 1.). The extracellular matrix not only
holds the cells together to form a tissue, but also enables intercellular communication between
The cells. How is this possible?
58
Figure 2.1 The extracellular matrix consists of a network of proteins and carbohydrates.
On the extracellular surfaces of their plasma membranes, cells have protein receptors. The
receptor's chemical structure is altered when a molecule from the matrix attaches to it. The
microfilaments located immediately inside the plasma membrane are modified by the receptors,
which in turn modify their shapes. These conformational changes cause chemical signals to be
released inside the cell, which travel to the nucleus and modify the transcription of particular DNA
segments. This in turn affects the creation of linked proteins, which alters the activities carried out
by the cell. A case study of the extracellular matrix's function in cell communication is blood
coagulation. When blood vessel lining cells are harmed, they exhibit a protein receptor known as
tissue factor. When tissue factor binds with another factor in the extracellular matrix, it causes
platelets to adhere to the wall of the damaged blood vessel, stimulates the adjacent smooth muscle
cells in the blood vessel to contract thus, constricting the blood vessel, and initiates a series of
steps that stimulate the platelets to produce clotting factors.
2. Intercellular Junctions
Intercellular junctions, which allow cells to communicate directly with one another, are another
method of cell communication. Animal and plant cells function in this fashion somehow
differently. In contrast to animal cell interactions like tight junctions, gap junctions, and
desmosomes, plant cell junctions are called plasmodesmata.
3. Plasmodesmata
In general, the cell wall that encloses each plant cell prevents the lengthy stretches of plasma
membranes from nearby plant cells from touching one another. So how does a plant get water and
other nutrients from the soil from its roots to its stems and finally to its leaves? Vascular tissues
(xylem and phloem) are predominantly used in this transport. Additionally, there are structural
alterations known as plasmodesmata (plural: plasmodesma), which are numerous channels that
pass through the cell walls of neighbouring plant cells, connect their cytoplasm, and allow
materials to be transported from one cell to the next and thus throughout the entire plant.
59
Figure 2.2. A plasmodesma is a channel between the cell walls of two adjacent plant cells.
Plasmodesmata allow materials to pass from the cytoplasm of one plant cell to the cytoplasm of
an adjacent cell.
4. Tight Junctions
A tight junction is a watertight seal between two adjacent animal cells (Figure 2.3). The cells are
held tightly against each other by proteins (predominantly two proteins called claudins and
occludins).
Figure 2.3. Tight junctions form watertight connections between adjacent animal cells. Proteins
create tight junction adherence.
This tight adherence prevents materials from leaking between the cells; tight junctions are typically
found in epithelial tissues that line internal organs and cavities, and comprise most of the skin. For
example, the tight junctions of the epithelial cells lining your urinary bladder prevent urine from
leaking out into the extracellular space.
5. Desmosomes
These are found only in animal cells and act like spot welds between adjacent epithelial cells
(Figure 2.4.). Short proteins called cadherins in the plasma membrane connect to intermediate
filaments to create desmosomes. The cadherins join two adjacent cells together and maintain the
cells in a sheet-like formation in organs and tissues that stretch, like the skin, heart, and muscles.
60
Figure 2.4. A desmosome forms a very strong spot weld between cells. It is created by the linkage
of cadherins and intermediate filaments. (credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal)
6. Gap Junctions
Gap junctions in animal cells are like plasmodesmata in plant cells in that they are channels
between adjacent cells that allow for the transport of ions, nutrients, and other substances that
enable cells to communicate (Figure 6). However, gap junctions and plasmodesmata differ.
Figure 2.5. A gap junction is a protein-lined pore that allows water and small molecules to pass
between adjacent animal cells. (credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal)
Gap junctions develop when a set of six proteins (called connexins) in the plasma membrane
arrange themselves in an elongated donut-like configuration called a connexon. When the pores
("doughnut holes") of connexons in adjacent animal cells align, a channel between the two cells
forms. Gap junctions are particularly important in cardiac muscle: The electrical signal for the
muscle to contract is passed efficiently through gap junctions, allowing the heart muscle cells to
contract in tandem. What is the watertight seal between two adjacent animal cells called?
1. Gap Junctions
2. What is the role of intercellular Junctions in cells
2.4 Transport in Cells

Transport is the movement of substances across the cell membrane either into or out of the cell.
Sometimes things just move through the phospholipid bilayer. Other times, substances need the
assistance of a protein, like a channel protein or some other transmembrane protein, to cross the
cell membrane. Several types could be noticed:
1. Passive transport
Plasma membranes must permit some compounds to enter and exit a cell while blocking the entry
of hazardous molecules and the exit of necessary ones. Plasma membranes are selectively
permeable (semipermeable); chemicals pass through them while others do not. The cell would be
destroyed if it were to lose its selectivity, which would prevent it from continuing to function.
Some cells need certain compounds in greater concentrations than others. These cells must have a
method of acquiring these substances from the extracellular fluids. The movement of specific
materials back and forth may cause this to occur passively, or the cell may have unique processes
to ensure movement. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), primarily used by cells, is used to establish
61
and maintain an unbalanced distribution of ions on the opposing sides of their membranes. These
tasks are aided by the plasma membrane's structure, but it has significant drawbacks. Passive
membrane transport methods are the most direct. Passive transport is a phenomenon that occurs
naturally and doesn't require energy. Diffusion is the process by which chemicals travel passively
from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. A concentration gradient
is a difference in the concentration of one substance throughout a physical region.
2. Selective Permeability
Plasma membranes are asymmetric, which means that despite the phospholipids' creation of a
mirror image, the interior and exterior of the membrane are not the same. Integral proteins that
function as pumps or channels only move one way. Outside the plasma membrane are also found
carbohydrates that are linked to proteins or lipids. These carbohydrate complexes assist the cell in
binding components from the extracellular fluid that the cell need. This greatly enhances the
selectiveness of plasma membranes. Keep in mind that the hydrophilic and hydrophobic sections
of plasma membranes exist. This property facilitates the passage of some elements through the
membrane while impeding the passage of others. Lipid-soluble material scan easily pass through
the hydrophobic lipid core of the membrane. The plasma membranes in the gastrointestinal system
and other tissues are easily permeable to substances like the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K.
Drugs that are soluble in fat are also easily absorbed by cells and are quickly absorbed by tissues
and organs of the body. Carbon dioxide and oxygen molecules have no charge and go through via
simple diffusion. The membrane has trouble with polar chemicals. While some polar molecules
can easily connect with a cell's exterior, they cannot easily travel through the plasma membrane's
lipid core. Small ions could also easily pass through the cracks in the mosaic of the membrane, but
they can't because of their charge ions.
3. Diffusion
Transport that is done passively is called diffusion. Until the concentration is the same throughout
the space, a single substance has a tendency to travel from an area of high concentration to an area
of low concentration. You are aware of how compounds diffuse through the air. Consider the
scenario of someone opening a perfume bottle in a crowded space. The perfume is most
concentrated in the bottle and least concentrated at the room's perimeter. As the perfume vapour
diffuses, or spreads from the bottle, more and more individuals will eventually be able to smell it.
Diffusion is the process by which certain substances pass through the plasma membrane and others
diffuse within the cytoplasm of the cell (Figure 2.6).
Rather the different concentrations of materials in different areas are a form of potential energy,
and diffusion is the dissipation of that potential energy as materials move down their concentration
gradients, from high to low.
62
Figure 2.6. Diffusion through a permeable membrane follows the concentration gradient of a
substance, moving the substance from an area of high concentration to one of low concentration.
Each separate substance in a medium, such as the extracellular fluid, has its own concentration
gradient, independent of the concentration gradients of other materials. In addition, each substance
will diffuse according to that gradient. The rate of diffusion is affected by several factors. These
include:
• Extent of the concentration gradient: The greater the difference in concentration, the more
rapid the diffusion. The closer the distribution of the material gets to equilibrium, the
slower the rate of diffusion becomes.
• Mass of the molecules diffusing: More massive molecules move more slowly, because it
is more difficult for them to move between the molecules of the substance they are moving
through; therefore, they diffuse more slowly.
• Temperature: Higher temperatures increase the energy and therefore the movement of the
molecules, increasing the rate of diffusion.
• Solvent density: As the density of the solvent increases, the rate of diffusion decreases. The
molecules slow down because they have a more difficult time getting through the denser
medium (facilitated transport).
Material flows across the plasma membrane with the help of transmembrane proteins along a
concentration gradient (from high to low concentration) in assisted transport, also known as
facilitated diffusion, without using up any cellular energy. The compounds that are transported
more easily and quickly would not otherwise diffuse over the plasma membrane. The proteins that
cover the plasma membrane's surface hold the key to transporting polar chemicals and other
compounds across it. The substance being transported is initially anchored to protein or
glycoprotein receptors on the plasma membrane's outer surface. This enables the substance that
the cell requires to be taken out of the extracellular fluid. The substances are then transferred to
particular integral proteins that help them pass through the membrane by forming channels or pores
that allow specific substances to do so. Transport proteins are the collective name for the integral
proteins that play a role in facilitated transport and serve as either carriers or material channels.
4. Osmosis
The process of osmosis involves the passage of free water molecules across a semipermeable
membrane in response to the gradient of water concentration across the membrane, which is
inversely proportional to the concentration of the solutes. Osmosis moves just water across a
membrane, and the barrier restricts the diffusion of solutes in the water, whereas diffusion
transports material across membranes and within cells. A specific example of diffusion is osmosis.
Water flows from a region with a high concentration of free water molecules to one with a low
concentration of free water molecules, just like other things do. Imagine a beaker with two sides
or halves separated by a semipermeable membrane (Figure 2.7). The water level is the same on
both sides of the membrane, but the concentration of a dissolved material, or solute, that cannot
cross the barrier varies on each side. Water, the solvent, will have different concentrations on either
side of the membrane if the volume of water is the same but the solute concentrations are different.
63
Figure 2.7. In osmosis, water always moves from an area of higher concentration (of water) to one
of lower concentration (of water).
The selectively permeable membrane in this system is impermeable to the solute. The molecules
travel and, if possible, distribute uniformly throughout the medium, according to a diffusion
principle. Only substances that can pass through the membrane, however, will diffuse across it. In
this case, the water can permeate through the barrier even though the solute cannot. In this system,
water exhibits a gradient in concentration. Water will therefore diffuse along its gradient of
concentration and cross the membrane to the side where it is less concentrated. Osmosis, the
process of water diffusing through a membrane, will continue until the water's concentration
gradient is zero. Living systems continually undergo osmosis, the classic example used to
demonstrate osmosis and osmotic pressure is to immerse cells into sugar solutions of various
concentrations. There are three possible relationships that cells can encounter when placed into
a sugar solution.
A B C
Figure 2.8. Shows what happens in osmosis through the semi-permeable membrane of the cells.
A= Hypertonic solution. A solution that has a higher solute concentration than another solution.
Water particles will move out of the cell, causing crenation.
B= Isotonic solution. A solution that has the same solute concentration as another solution. There
is no net movement of water particles, and the overall concentration on both sides of the cell
membrane remains constant.
C= Hypotonic solution. A solution that has a lower solute concentration than another solution.
Water particles will move into the cell, causing the cell to expand and eventually lyse.
64
The concentration of solute in the solution can be greater than the concentration of solute in the
cells. This cell is described as being in a hypertonic solution (hyper = greater than normal). The
net flow or water will be out of the cell
The concentration of solute in the solution can be equal to the concentration of solute in cells. In
this situation, the cell is in an isotonic solution (iso = equal or the same as normal). The amount of
water entering the cell is the same as the amount leaving the cell
The concentration of solute in the solution can be less than the concentration of solute in the cells.
This cell is in a hypotonic solution (hypo = less than normal). The net flow of water will be into
the cell
5. Tonicity
The quantity of solute in a solution is referred to as tonicity. The osmolarity of a solution is a

measurement of its tonicity, or the total number of solutes dissolved in a given volume of solution.
The relationship between the osmolarity of a cell and the osmolarity of the extracellular fluid in
which the cell is contained is termed hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic. Water enters the cell in
a hypotonic solution, eg. tap water, since the extracellular fluid has a lower solute concentration
than the fluid inside the cell. The prefix hypo- denotes that the extracellular fluid has a lower
concentration of solutes or a lower osmolarity than the cell cytoplasm. Also, it implies that the
extracellular fluid contains more water than the cell does. In this case, water will enter the cell by
following its gradient of concentration. An animal cell may lyse or burst as a result of this. The
extracellular fluid, such as saltwater, has less water than the cell does in a hypertonic solution (the
prefix hyper- alludes to the extracellular fluid having a higher concentration of solutes than the
cell's cytoplasm). The water will leave the cell since the solute concentration is lower there. The
solute is actually sucking water out of the cell. An animal cell may shrink or crenate as a result of
this. The extracellular fluid and the cell have the same osmolarity in an isotonic solution. There
won't be any net flow of water into or out of the cell if the solute content of the cell and the
extracellular fluid are equal. Blood cells have distinctive appearances in hypertonic, isotonic, and
hypotonic solutions. Certain species have cell walls that enclose the plasma membrane and inhibit
cell lysis, including some plants, fungi, bacteria, and protists. The plasma membrane can only
stretch as far as the cell wall allows, preventing the cell from lysing. In fact, water always enters a
cell if water is available, and the cytoplasm in plants is always slightly hypertonic in comparison
to the cellular environment. This increase in water pressure creates turgor pressure, which stiffens
the plant's cell walls (Figure 2.9). Turgor pressure provides support for non woody plants. Water
will leak out of the cell if the plant cells become hypertonic, which happens during droughts or if
a plant is not given enough water. In this situation, plants wilt as they lose turgor pressure.
When is a solution said to be isotonic?
65
Figure 2.9. The turgor pressure within a plant cell depends on the tonicity of the solution that it is
bathed in.
1. How is the relationship between the osmolarity of a cell and the
osmolarity of the extracellular fluid in which the cell is contained
described?
2. Outline factors affecting rate of diffusion.
2.5 Active transport

The usage of the cell's energy, often in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is necessary for
active transport processes. The cell must expend energy to transfer a material into the cell when it
must move against its concentration gradient, or when the concentration of the substance inside
the cell must be higher than its concentration in the extracellular fluid. Small-molecular weight
substances, such as ions, are transported through the membrane via several active transport
processes. Cells must expel and take in bigger molecules and particles in addition to transporting
tiny ions and molecules via the membrane. Some cells have the capacity to completely engulf
unicellular creatures. You may have guessed properly when you said that the cell needs energy to
take in and release big particles. A large particle, however, cannot pass through the membrane,
even with energy supplied by the cell.
1. Electrochemical Gradient
While simple concentration gradients—differential concentrations of a chemical across a region

or a membrane—have been covered, gradients in living systems are more intricate. There is an
electrical gradient, or difference in charge, across the plasma membrane because cells contain
proteins, the majority of which are negatively charged, and because ions migrate into and out of
cells. Living cells have an electrically negative interior compared to the extracellular fluid in which
they are bathed. Cells also have higher potassium (K+) and lower sodium (Na+) concentrations
than the extracellular fluid does. Therefore, in a live cell, the electrical gradient of Na+ (a positive
ion) tends to pull it inward to the negatively charged interior, while the concentration gradient of
Na+ favours diffusion of the ion into the cell. However, the situation is more complicated for some
elements, including potassium; while the concentration gradient of K+ promotes diffusion out of
the cell, the electrical gradient of K+ favours diffusion of the ion into the cell (Figure 2.10). Its
electrochemical gradient, which refers to the combined gradient that influences an ion, is crucial
for muscle and nerve cells in particular.
66
Figure 2.10. Electrochemical gradients arise from the combined effects of concentration gradients
and electrical gradients. (credit: modification of work by “Synaptitude”/Wikimedia Commons)
2. Moving Against a Gradient
The cell must use energy to transfer materials against a concentration or electrochemical gradient.
ATP is used to generate this energy, which is produced by cellular metabolism. Pumps or carrier
proteins collectively refer to active transport systems that operate against electrochemical
gradients. Small compounds continuously move through plasma membranes, with the exception
of ions. In the face of these passive variations, active transport keeps concentrations of ions and
other chemicals needed by live cells constant. A significant portion of a cell's metabolic energy
supply might go into supporting these processes. Active transport mechanisms are vulnerable to
several metabolic toxins that disrupt the flow of ATP since they rely on cellular metabolism for
energy. There are two methods for moving macromolecules and materials with modest molecular
weights. Primary active transport generates a difference in charge across a membrane while
moving ions across it. A material, such as an ion, is transported into the cell via the major active
transport system using ATP, and frequently at the same time, a different substance is transported
out of the cell. An essential pump in animal cells called the sodium-potassium pump uses energy
to transfer potassium ions into the cell and a different number of sodium ions out of the cell (Figure
2.11). This pump's operation causes a concentration and charge differential to exist across the
membrane.
Figure 2.11. The sodium-potassium pump moves potassium and sodium ions across the plasma
membrane.
67
The movement of material utilising the primary active transport-created electrochemical gradient
is referred to as secondary active transport. Other molecules, including amino acids and glucose,
can enter the cell through membrane channels by utilising the energy of the electrochemical
gradient produced by the major active transport mechanism through secondary active transport
utilising a hydrogen ion gradient in the mitochondrion, ATP being created.
3. Endocytosis
Active transport, such as endocytosis, transports particles into a cell, including big molecules,
fragments of cells, and even complete cells. Endocytosis comes in a variety of forms, but they all
have one thing in common: Invasion of the cell's plasma membrane creates a pocket around the
target particle. The particle is held in a freshly generated vacuole made of the plasma membrane
after the pocket pinches off.
Figure 2.12. Three variations of endocytosis are shown. (a) In one form of endocytosis,
phagocytosis, the cell membrane surrounds the particle and pinches off to form an intracellular
vacuole. (b) In another type of endocytosis, pinocytosis, the cell membrane surrounds a small
volume of fluid and pinches off, forming a vesicle. (c) In receptor-mediated endocytosis, uptake
of substances by the cell is targeted to a single type of substance that binds at the receptor on the
external cell membrane.
A cell takes in huge objects like cells through a process called phagocytosis. For example, a kind
of white blood cell known as a neutrophil removes the intruder when bacteria enter the human
body through this mechanism, encircling and engulfing the bacterium, which is subsequently
destroyed by the neutrophil (Figure 2.12). Pinocytosis is an alternative to endocytosis. This term,
which literally translates to "cell drinking," was given to a cell when it was thought that the cell
was actively ingesting extracellular fluid at the time it was named. Actually, this process draws
the necessary solutes from the extracellular fluid that the cell needs. Utilizing binding proteins in
the plasma membrane that are specific for particular compounds, a targeted version of endocytosis
is carried out (Figure 2.12.). The substance and the proteins enter the cell after the particles bind
to the proteins and the plasma membrane protrudes. It won't be eliminated from the tissue fluids
or blood if passage across the membrane of the target of receptor-mediated endocytosis is
unsuccessful. Instead, it will persist and become more concentrated in those fluids. Failure of
receptor-mediated endocytosis is a contributing factor in some human illnesses. For example,
receptor-mediated endocytosis is used to remove low-density lipoprotein, or LDL, generally
known as "bad" cholesterol, from the blood. LDL receptors are damaged in the human hereditary
condition familial hypercholesterolemia or missing entirely. People with this condition have life-
68
threatening levels of cholesterol in their blood, because their cells cannot clear the chemical from
their blood.
4. Exocytosis
This process stands in contrast to these mechanisms for introducing material into a cell. Exocytosis
serves to expel material from the cell into the extracellular fluid, which is the polar opposite of the
activities outlined above. Membrane-encased particles combine with the inside of the plasma
membrane. The particle is released into the extracellular space as a result of this fusion, which
makes the membranous envelope of the cell accessible to the outside (Figure 10.)
Figure 2.13. In exocytosis, a vesicle migrates to the plasma membrane, binds, and releases its
contents to the outside of the cell. What is Pinocytosis?
Differentiate between the following type of solutions:
1. Hypertonic solution
2. Isotonic solution
3. Hypotonic solution
2.6 Summary
You must have learned why and how passive transport occurs within the cells of multicellular
organisms. You have also studied the processes of osmosis, diffusion, tonicity and describe its
relevance to passive transport. You have also learned about how electrochemical gradients affect
ions. You have also studied the processes;
• Describe endocytosis, including phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated

endocytosis
• Understand the process of exocytosis
69
Reece, B. , L. A. Urry, M. L. Cain, S. A. Wasserman, P. V. Minorsky, R. B. Jackson.Biology, 9th
edition, Benjamin Cummings p. 104-118
Ross, M. H. (2011): Histology: A Text and Atlas, 6th edition, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, p.
22-29; 35-39; 45-67
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Human_Biology/Book%3A_Human_Biology_(Wakim_an
d_Grewal)/05%3A_Cells/5.07%3A_Cell_Transport
https://byjus.com/biology/cell-organelles/
https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/cellular-organelles
(nucleus https://youtu.be/VJhYCYxBbys
https://youtu.be/5dSCNDqH-Gk
https://youtu.be/zVqYOnwpKDo types
https://youtu.be/Q1IHL8TytMY
organelles https://youtu.be/tgMZcHpL_ts
cyto https://youtu.be/9kb_JJwapRg
membrane https://youtu.be/gh4ciqmXLsU ))
Answers to SAE 1
1. Gap junctions in animal cells are like plasmodesmata in plant cells in that they are channels
between adjacent cells that allow for the transport of ions, nutrients, and other substances that
enable cells to communicate
2. Intercellular junctions, allow cells to communicate directly with one another, are another
method of cell communication.
Answers to SAE 2
1. It is described by the following terms: terms hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic.
2. Factors affecting rate of diffusion
• Extent of the concentration gradient

• Mass of the molecules diffusing
• Temperature
• Solvent density
Answers to SAE 3
1= Hypertonic solution. A solution A solution that has a higher solute concentration than another
solution. Water particles will move out of the cell, causing crenation.
2= Isotonic solution. A solution that has the same solute concentration as another solution. There
is no net movement of water particles, and the overall concentration on both sides of the cell
membrane remains constant.
3= Hypotonic solution. A solution that has a lower solute concentration than another solution.
Water particles will move into the cell, causing the cell to expand and eventually lyse.
70
Unit Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.3 Tissues, Organs and Organ Systems
1.3.1 Types of Animal Tissues
1.3.2 Types of Plant Tissues
3.4 The Organs and Organ System
1.4.1 The Organ Systems in Animals
1.4.2 The Organ Systems in Plants
3.5 Organs in a system work together.
3.6 Summary
3.1 Introduction
You will Learn about the various tissue types of both plants and animals and organ and organ
systems of plants and animals. You will also learn how the organs in a system work together.

• Define tissues, organs and organ system as part of the level of organization of living things
• Describe the organ in both animals and plants
• Describe the major organ systems of the animal and plant bodies
• Explain how organs in a system work together and
• Explain the workings of organ systems in animals and plants.
3.3 Tissues, Organs and Organ Systems

In physiology, a group of physically and functionally related cells and their intercellular materials
make up a tissue, which is a level of organisation in multicellular organisms. Tissues are by
definition absent in unicellular organisms. Even the most basic multicellular animals, like sponges,
lack or have poorly differentiated tissues. However, highly developed multicellular animals and
plants have specialised tissues that can plan and control an organism's response to its environment.
Life would be simple if you were a single-celled organism and you were in a nutrient-rich
environment. If you were an amoeba living in a pond, for example, you could directly take in
nutrients from the water. Through your cell membrane, the oxygen you need for metabolism could
enter, and carbon dioxide and other waste products could exit. You could simply divide yourself
in half when the time comes to reproduce!
3.3.1 Types of Animal Tissues

There are four different types of tissues in animals: connective, muscle, nervous, and epithelial.
Groups of tissues make up organs in the body such as the brain and heart.
71
1. Connective
Groups of various tissues are connected or divided by connective tissue. It can be found between
every other tissue and organ in the body. Cells and ground material, a gel that surrounds cells,
make up connective tissue. Except for lymph and blood, the majority of connective tissues
comprises fibres, which are long, slender proteins. Collagenous fibres attach bones to tissues,
elastic fibres enable the movement of organs such as the lungs, and reticular fibres give cells
structural support. In addition, connective tissue enables the diffusion of oxygen from blood
vessels into the cells. About 1 in every 10 people have a disorder involving connective tissues.
Some connective tissue disorders include sarcomas, Marfan syndrome, lupus, and scurvy; is a
Vitamin C deficiency that leads to fragile connective tissues.
2. Muscle
All the muscles in the body are made of muscular tissue, and the ability to contract is due to the
tissue's specific makeup. Skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle are the three
different forms of muscle tissue. Skeletal muscle holds tendons to bones and permits movement
of the body. The heart contains cardiac muscle, which contracts to pump blood. In addition to the
intestines, where it aids in the passage of food through the digestive tract, smooth muscle is also
present in blood arteries, the uterus, and the bladder. The sarcomeres (a unit of muscle tissue) in
skeletal and cardiac muscles are striated, which means they are arranged in a predictable pattern.
Sarcomeres are absent in the smooth muscle. One condition of the muscle tissue is Duchenne
muscular dystrophy. Muscle atrophy is brought on by this genetic condition over time. As the
muscles deteriorate, they shorten, which can result in scoliosis and stiff joints. Due to the disorder's
X chromosome-associated gene, those who have it are often male (of which males have only one).
3. Nervous
The brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves are all components of the nervous system and contain
nervous tissue. Neurons, which are nerve cells, and neuroglia, which support the transmission of
nerve impulses, make up this structure. Gray matter and white matter in the brain, as well as nerves
and ganglia in the peripheral nervous system, are two of the four categories of nervous tissue. The
primary distinction between grey and white matter is that although white matter's axons are
myelinated, grey matter's are not. A white, fatty material called myelin protects neurons and is
essential for the proper operation of the neurological system. Memory loss, irritability, and
confusion are some of the signs of Alzheimer's disease that are brought about by the degeneration
of nerve tissue. Another condition that involves the degeneration of neural tissue and, over time,
the loss of higher brain functions is Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS). Other conditions
affecting the nervous system include multiple sclerosis, in which the immune system attacks and
damages the nervous system, Huntington's disease, in which an abnormal protein results in the
death of neurons, and Parkinson's disease, in which the dopamine-producing region of the brain is
compromised.
4. Epithelial
The skin, trachea, reproductive system, and inner lining of the digestive tract are only a few of the
organ surfaces covered in epithelial tissue, or epithelium. It functions to absorb water and nutrients,
get rid of waste, and secrete enzymes or hormones in addition to forming a barrier that aids in
protecting organs. All of the glands in the body are created by epithelial ingrowths. Skin conditions
like eczema and psoriasis, which can result in rashes, are examples of prevalent epithelial tissue
illnesses. A carcinoma is a form of cancer that arises from epithelial tissue. Asthma is characterised
by airway inflammation that causes shortness of breath and is caused by epithelial cells in the
airways.
72
Figure 3.1. The different types of Tissues: Source: https://byjus.com/biology/structural-
organization-animals/
3.3.2 Types of Plant Tissues

Plants are multicellular eukaryotes, and their tissue systems are made up of many cell types that serve
distinct purposes. Meristematic tissue and permanent (or non-meristematic) tissue are the two main forms
of plant tissue systems. Meristems, which are areas of plants that experience continuous cell division and
expansion, are where the meristematic tissue's cells may be located. Meristematic tissue cells continue to
divide and support plant growth despite being either undifferentiated or incompletely differentiated. The
meristematic tissue in a plant's apical meristems, which are found at the tips of its stems and roots, allows
it to grow longer. A mature plant's lateral meristems enable increase in thickness or girth. Only monocots
have intercalary meristems, which are found at the bases of leaf blades and at nodes (the areas where
leaves attach to a stem). The monocot leaf blade can lengthen from the leaf base because of this tissue;
for example, it permits lawn grass leaves to lengthen even after frequent mowing.
Meristems generate cells that swiftly specialise or differentiate into permanent tissue, dormant plant cells,
which are no longer actively dividing. Such cells acquire particular functions and stop proliferating. Based
on where they are located in the plant, meristematic tissues are divided into three categories; Dermal,
vascular, and ground tissues. Vascular tissue carries water, minerals, and sugars to various areas of the
plant, while dermal tissue covers and protects the plant. In addition to acting as a photosynthetic site and
vascular tissue support matrix, ground tissue also helps to store water and sugars. Secondary tissues can
be straightforward (made up of similar cell types) or complex (composed of different cell types). For
instance, dermal tissue is a straightforward tissue that covers the plant's exterior and regulates gas
exchange. One example of a complex tissue is vascular tissue, which is composed of the specialised
conducting tissues; xylem and phloem. Xylem tissue conducts water and nutrients from the roots to various
sections of the plant and are made up of three main cell types; xylem parenchyma, vessel elements, and
tracheids (two of which conduct water). The phloem tissue transports organic compounds from the centre
of photosynthesis to other sections of the plant are made up of four distinct cell types; companion cells,
sieve cells (which conduct photosynthates), phloem parenchyma, and phloem fibres. Phloem conducting
cells are alive at maturity, in contrast to xylem conducting cells. Phloem and xylem are constantly next to
one another (Figure 3.2). The xylem and phloem combine to produce a structure in stems known as a
vascular bundle; in roots, this structure is known as a vascular stele or vascular cylinder.
73
Figure 3.2. Plant Organs and Tissues (Each plant organ contains all three tissue types).
Source: http://plantphys.info/plant_physiology/plantbasics1.shtml.
Assessment Exercises 1
1. What are different types of animal tissues?
2. What is the function of an epithelial tissue?
3.4 The Organs and Organ System

The organ is the next level of animal organisation. An organ is a group of tissues that structurally
constitute a functional unit that is specialised to carry out a specific function. The word organ
comes from the Latin word "organum," which means an instrument or tool. Tissues with a similar
structure and function make up each organ. The heart, skin (the biggest human organ), lungs,
stomach, kidneys, and heart are a few examples of organs. Organs are composed of two or more
types of tissue that are arranged to perform specific functions. For example, the heart pumps blood,
the lungs bring in oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide, and the skin provides a barrier to protect
internal structures from the external environment. The small intestine's stratified walls serve as a
good illustration of how tissues combine to form an organ. Epithelial cells line the interior of the
colon; some of these cells release hormones or digesting enzymes, while others absorb nutrition.
There are layers of smooth muscle and connective tissue surrounding the epithelium layer, as well
as glands, blood arteries, and neurons. Under the direction of the accompanying neuronal
networks, the smooth muscle contracts to convey food through the intestine.
Plants have four main organs:
74
i). The primary organs for absorbing sunlight for photosynthesis are leaves;
ii. The primary organs that draw water and nutrients from the soil are the roots;
iii). The primary organs for moving materials between leaves and roots are stems; and
iv). Similarly, flowers, reproductive organs release seeds that develop into new plants.
Typically, flowers have vibrant petals that entice bees, butterflies, and other pollinators. The next
level of organisation are the organ systems. An organ system is made up of two or more organs
that cooperate to carry out a certain task for the organism. The circulatory, neurological, skeletal,
muscular, integumentary, endocrine, digestive, immunological, reproductive, excretory, and
respiratory systems are the main organ systems that make up the human body. The integumentary
system, for instance, consists of the skin, hair, nails, and glands. The deeper tissues and organs of
the body are safeguarded by this system, which receives impulses from the outside world. There
are several organs that make up the digestive system. The stomach aids in digestion and stores
food. Intestines break down food and take in nutrients. The liver contributes to the function of the
digestive system by secreting bile, a lipid-degrading agent that aids in the digestion of fats.
Multiple organ systems can cooperate with a single organ. For example, the liver and circulatory
system collaborate to filter wastes from the blood. Although we frequently refer to the various
organ systems as though they were separate, components of one system may have an impact on
another. The various systems also have a lot of functional overlap. For example, although we
frequently associate the circulatory system with the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to cells, it
also contributes to the regulation of body temperature. White blood cells are an essential part of
the immune system, and the blood also carries hormones produced by the endocrine system's
glands.
1.4.1 The Organ Systems in Animals
S/NO Organ system/Function Organs and tissues involved
Cardiovascular:
Transports oxygen, nutrients, and other substances to
the cells and transports wastes, carbon dioxide, and
other substances away from the cells; it can also help
1. stabilize body temperature and pH Heart, blood, and blood vessels
Lymphatic:
Defends against infection and disease and transfers Lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph
2. lymph between tissues and the blood stream vessels
Mouth, salivary glands, esophagus,
Digestive: stomach, liver, gallbladder, exocrine
Processes foods and absorbs nutrients, minerals, pancreas, small intestine, and large
3. vitamins, and water intestine
Endocrine:
Provides communication within the body via Pituitary, pineal, thyroid,
hormones and directs long-term change in other organ parathyroids, endocrine pancreas,
4. systems to maintain homeostasis adrenals, testes, and ovaries.
Integumentary:
Provides protection from injury and fluid loss and
provides physical defense against infection by
5. microorganisms; involved in temperature control Skin, hair, and nails
75
S/NO Organ system/Function Organs and tissues involved
Muscular: Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
6. Provides movement, support, and heat production muscles
Nervous: Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and
Collects, transfers, and processes information and sensory organs; eyes, ears, tongue,
7. directs short-term change in other organ systems skin, and nose
Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina,

Reproductive: ovaries, mammary glands (female),
Produces gametes—sex cells—and sex hormones; testes, vas deferens, seminal
8. ultimately produces offspring vesicles, prostate, and penis (male)
Mouth, nose, pharynx, larynx,
Respiratory: trachea, bronchi, lungs, and
9. Delivers air to sites where gas exchange can occur diaphragm
Skeletal:
Supports and protects soft tissues of the body; provides
movement at joints; produces blood cells; and stores Bones, cartilage, joints, tendons, and
10. minerals ligaments
Urinary:
Removes excess water, salts, and waste products from Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder,
11. the blood and body and controls pH and urethra
Immune:
Defends against microbial pathogens—disease- Leukocytes, tonsils, adenoids,
12. causing agents—and other diseases thymus, and spleen
Although we frequently refer to the various organ systems as if they were separate, components of
one system may have an impact on another. For example, the mouth is a part of both the digestive
and respiratory systems. The various systems also have a lot of functional overlap. For example,
although we frequently associate the circulatory system with the delivery of oxygen and nutrients
to cells, it also contributes to the regulation of body temperature. White blood cells are an essential
part of the immune system, and the blood also carries hormones produced by the endocrine
system's glands.
1.4.2 The Organ Systems in Plants
A tissue is created by comparable cells coming together, exactly like in animals and plants. An organ is
created when many tissue types collaborate to carry out a certain function; organ systems are created when
multiple organs act as a unit. A shoot system and a root system are the two separate organ systems found
in vascular plants. The root and any accompanying fibres that branch off the main root are included in the
root system, which is normally underground. This structure holds the plant in place and draws moisture and
nutrients from the soil. The stem, leaves, and reproductive organs, such as flowers, are all parts of the shoot
system, which is normally above ground. Photosynthesis and reproduction are just two of the many tasks
performed by this system. As with animals, the organ systems of plants work together to make up
the structure and function of the entire organism.
76
Figure 3.3 The organ system in plants. Source:
http://plantphys.info/plant_physiology/plantbasics1.shtml.
1. Name the main organs in the digestive system.

2. Which plant organ is most important?
3. What are the organ system of plants working together?
3.5 Organs in a system work together

The organs in an organ system must cooperate with one another in order for the system to function
as a whole, just like employees on an assembly line. For example, the digestive system relies on
each succeeding organ performing its particular task in order to function—that is, to take in food,
break it down into molecules small enough to be absorbed, absorb it, and eliminate undigested
waste items. Food is broken down during digestion so that its nutrients can be absorbed. It consists
of both chemical and mechanical digestion. Smaller particles of food are broken down into larger
ones during mechanical digestion. Large molecules like proteins and carbohydrates are broken
down into smaller, more easily absorbed pieces during chemical digestion. In the mouth and
stomach, mechanical digestion takes place in addition to some initial chemical digestion. Food is
broken down into tiny bits through chewing, and is then mixed with fluid in the stomach. In
addition, the stomach serves as a storage space, allowing for the controlled release of partially
digested food into the small intestine.
77
Chemical digestion takes place mostly in the small intestine and is accomplished by pancreatic
and liver-derived enzymes. Majority of nutrient absorption occurs in the small intestine, where
cells pick up substances like carbohydrates and amino acids and transfer them into circulation for
usage. Efficiency in food digestion and nutrient absorption depends on the cooperation of the
mouth, stomach, small intestine, and other digestive system organs. If your stomach stopped
turning or if one of your glands that makes enzymes, like the pancreas, take a day off, digestion
wouldn't function as well. Plants have two organ systems; the shoot and the root systems. The
leaves, stems, and flowers are all a part of the shoot system. The soil's nutrients and water are
absorbed by the roots. These two systems supply the entire plant with water and nutrients. The
various organ systems collaborate to keep the body functioning, just as the organs in an organ
system work together to accomplish their mission. For example, the respiratory system and the
circulatory system work closely together to deliver oxygen to cells and to get rid of carbon dioxide
from the cells. The circulatory system transfers carbon dioxide from the tissues into the lungs,
where it is ultimately reconverted to oxygen by the lungs. The carbon dioxide is expelled by the
lungs, and fresh air containing oxygen is breathed in. Oxygen and carbon dioxide can only be
successfully exchanged between cells and the environment when both systems are functioning
properly. Similarly, without the kidneys' filtration and the nutrients from your digestive system,
the blood in your circulatory system would not be able to support your body's cells and flush out
the wastes they create. Chemical messengers are used by these two regulatory systems to influence
the operation of other organ systems and to synchronise activity across the body.
How are the nerve and endocrine systems different? Hormones are secreted into the blood serve
as the chemical messengers in the endocrine system. Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers
that are delivered directly from one cell to another across a very small gap in the nervous system.
The endocrine system often coordinates operations on a slower time scale than the neurological
system because hormones must travel through the bloodstream to reach their targets. In contrast,
the neural system delivers messages immediately to the target cell. For example, during the fight-
or-flight reaction to a serious threat, the neurological and endocrine systems collaborate to create
a physiological response.
Self-Assessment Exercise 3
1. What are the two main organ systems of a plant?
2. Give examples of organ systems working together?
3.6 Summary
You must have learned how to draw and describe the various cell organelles. You have also studied
the main tissue types and organ systems of both plants and animals. How the various organ systems
work in tandem was also highlighted. In this unit you have learned about the organs and organ
systems of organisms. In animals there are about twelve major organs, while plants consists of
four organs and two organ systems. The shoot system includes the aboveground vegetative
portions (stems and leaves) and reproductive parts (flowers and fruits).
You have also studied how the organs in a system work together, and the workings of organ
systems in both animals and plants.
Gurevitch, J., Scheiner, S. M. and Fox, G.A. (2020). The Ecology of Plants, 3rd Edition,
78
Matthew, R. Fisher (2018). Environmental Biology, Publisher: Open Oregon Educational
Resources
495-55795-1, 383pp
eBook Packages Springer Book Archive, DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1007, /978-94-011-
6948-6, eBook ISBN978-94- 011-6948-6. 388pp
https://www.britannica.com/science/cell-biology/Secretory-vesicles
https://www.labxchange.org/library/items/lb:LabXchange:aedf2fbb-0aa0-3751-88f4-
bcaad6454864:html:1
http://www.esalq.usp.br/lepse/imgs/conteudo_thumb/Organization-in-plants-and-animals.pdf
https://byjus.com/biology/what-is-tissue/
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/plant-tissues-and-organs/
https://www.britannica.com/science/organ-biology
https://biologydictionary.net/organ/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UHJGy1ZW7kE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RKmaq7jPnYM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LReJG7PrXFY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gEUu-A2wfSE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Nb9E62p2c0
Answers to SAE 1
1. An organ system consists of two or more organs working together to perform a specific
function for the organism.
2. Yes, there is a functional overlap among the different systems, for example, while we tend
to think of the cardiovascular system as delivering oxygen and nutrients to cells, it also plays a
role in maintaining temperature.
Answers to SAE 2
1. The main organs of the human digestive system participate in the following order in
process of digestion:
Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus.
2. Leaves: Leaves are the most important part of a plant. They contain chlorophyll that helps
the plants to prepare their food using sunlight, carbon dioxide and water. A leaf consists of three
main parts- petiole, leaf base and lamina.
3. Plant organs are organized into two organ systems. The shoot system includes the leaves,
stems, and flowers. The root system takes up water and nutrients from the soil. These two systems
work together to deliver water and nutrients to the entire plant.
Answers to SAE 3
1. Each plant has two main organ systems. They are;
79
Root system and Shoot system
2. Some body systems work together to complete a job. For example, the respiratory and
circulatory systems work together to provide the body with oxygen and to rid the body of carbon dioxide.
The lungs provide a place where oxygen can reach the blood and carbon dioxide can be removed from it.

Unit Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.3 Characteristics of Living Things
4.3.1 Non-living things
4.3.2 Difference between living and non-living things
4.4 The use of the hierarchical classification system
4.4.1 The hierarchical classification system
4.4.2 Properties of the Five Kingdoms
4.5 Systems of Classification
4.5.1 Evolutionary relationships
4.5.2 Artificial classification and the binomial system
4.6 Summary
4.1 Introduction
In this Unit, you will learn the main characteristics and developments in the classification of
organisms, and the scientific method of naming of organisms using the binomial nomenclature.
All organisms have only one scientific name but many common names. The division of organisms
into prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and the major differences between the two. The classification of
living organisms into five major kingdoms: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia and the
unique characteristics of each kingdom.

• Understand and describe the characteristics of living and non living things.
• Know the definition of the biological classification system.
• Explain the hierarchical manner of grouping of living organisms based on similarities and
differences.
• Describe living organisms into five major kingdoms.
80
4.3 Characteristics of Living Things
We can find many things around us, from mountains and oceans to plants and animals. The earth
in which we live is made up of several things. These “things” can be categorized into Living and
Non-living Things.
• All living things breathe, eat, grow, move, reproduce and have senses.
• Non-living things do not eat, grow, breathe, move and reproduce.
Even though some living organisms may not display obvious symptoms, they all have "life". For
example, a tree definitely wouldn't respond the same way a person would when we struck it, but it
is not be able to move. The fact that they don't exhibit many observable indicators of life does not
imply that they are not alive. Cells are the building blocks of all living organisms, and they develop
and show signs of motility. They go through metabolism, which involves both catabolic and
anabolic processes. Through the process of reproduction, living beings are able to create brand-
new lives that are of their own types. Everything that is alive has a finite lifespan and is not eternal.
Cellular Respiration enables living organisms to acquire energy used by cells to perform their
functions. They digest food for energy and also excrete waste from their bodies. Their life cycle
can be summarised as follows – birth, growth, reproduction and death. Examples of living things
are animals, birds, insects, and human beings.
Fig. 4.1. Characteristics of Living Things. Source: www.byjus.com

The important characteristics of living things include:
1. Living things move and display locomotory motion. Animals can move because they have
specific locomotory organs. For example, earthworms use their circular and longitudinal
muscles to move across the soil surface. Movement helps plants capture sunlight for
photosynthesis.
2. Life forms breathe. A chemical mechanism called respiration takes place inside of cells to
extract energy from food. Through the process of digestion, food is broken down to release
energy which is used by the body to create the byproducts of water and carbon dioxide.
3. Living things are capable of detecting changes in their surroundings and are sensitive to
touch (as well as other stimuli).
81
4. They grow: Living things grow and mature through different stages of development.
5. One of the remarkable characteristics is that through the process of reproduction, in which
genetic information is conveyed from the parents to the offspring, living beings are able to
produce offspring of their own type.
6. Through the process of nutrition and digestion, which involves ingesting and digesting the
food, they obtain and fulfil their nutritional needs. Autotrophs can produce food using
sunlight or chemical energy.
7. The body expels the food that has been digested through the excretion process.
4.3.1 Non-Living Things

Non-living things don't have life in them. They do not develop, have cells, or exhibit motility or
movement. They don't go through anabolic and catabolic responses throughout metabolism,
neither do they procreate nor have a lifespan. Since they do not need food for energy, they do not
breathe or excrete. They are not subject to any cycle of birth, development, or demise. External
influences both build and destroy them. Examples of non-living things are stones, pencils, books,
bikes, and bottles. Following are some of the crucial traits of non-living things:
1. Non-living things are lifeless. They do not have cells, and there is no protoplasm which
forms the basis for life to exist.
2. Lack of protoplasm leads means no metabolic activities.
3. They do not have a definite and certain size of their own. They take the shape of the
substance they are contained in, for example, a liquid takes the shape of its container.
Stones, rocks and boulders are mould by the changing environment and landscape. The
change in the state of a non-living thing is due to an external influence.
4. Non-living things “grow” by accretion which occurs through adding materials externally.
For example, A snowball may increase in size due to the accumulation of smaller units of
its own on its outer surface.
5. Non-living things never die as they do not have cells with a definite lifespan. Immortality
is a distinguishing factor.
6. Fundamental life processes such as reproduction, nutrition, excretion, etc. are absent in
non-living things.
4.3.2 Difference Between Living and Non-Living Things
Scientists have developed qualities or characteristics exclusive to living things in order to
distinguish them from non-living things. The classification standard is required to prevent
erroneous grouping. As a result, science created a framework for classification. A live thing is
defined as anything that has life. Examples include people, pets, and trees. Non-living things are
those that do not have any form of life. For example, a watch, a stone, or a mountain. The following
are some key distinctions between living and non-living things:
Living Things Non-Living Things
They possess life. They do not possess life.
They are capable of giving birth to their young

They do not reproduce.
ones.
They depend on water, air and food for

They have no such requirements
survival.
82
They are not sensitive and do not
They are sensitive and responsive to stimuli.
respond to stimuli.
Metabolic reactions constantly occur in all There are no metabolic reactions in

living things. Non-living things.
They undergo growth and development. They do not grow or develop.
They have no lifespan and are

They have a lifespan and are not immortal.
immortal.
They move from one place to another. They cannot move by themselves.
They respire and the exchange of gases takes

They do not respire.
place in their cells.
Example: Rock, pen, buildings,

Example: Humans, animals, plants, insects.
gadgets.
What are non-living things?
1. What is the one characteristic that enables living organisms to

acquire energy used by cells to perform their functions?
2. What is the process that is lacking in non-living things which
distinguishes them from living things?
4.4 The Use of Hierarchical Classification System

We can impose order and a broad scheme on the diversity of living things by classifying them.
Scientists have always attempted to categorise and organise the surrounding items, including
biological things. Classification means grouping organisms based on structural similarity. This
implies that species with comparable traits are grouped together. These groups are arranged from
the group to the smallest. Kingdom, phylum (plural phyla), class, order, family, genus (plural
genera), and species are the groups as listed in order of largest to smallest. The smallest class of
organisms is the species. As you move up the classification hierarchy, you will notice that scientists
classified organisms into kingdoms, which are the largest groups of organisms, using broader
features. The characteristics become more specialised as you get closer to the species, which are
the smallest groups of organisms. In other woeds, two organisms from the same species have more
traits in common than two organisms from the same kingdom but different species. A group of
organisms with comparable characteristics that are able to reproduce and give birth to healthy
offspring are referred to as species. You are undoubtedly already aware that although horses and
donkeys come from separate species, they are members of the same kingdom, phylum, class, order,
family, and genus. As a result, if a donkey and a horse were to breed, the result would be a creature
known as a mule. The mule cannot produce children because it is a hybrid of various species of
83
organisms, making it sterile. Hierarchical classification has various applications. First, it aids
scientists in the classification of organisms. Secondly, it helps in finding out which category a new
organism belongs helping them recognise it. Thirdly, grouping organisms makes it simpler to
research with them.
4.4.1 The Hierarchical Classification System
Based on very fundamental, common traits, groups of all living things are identified. The
organisms within each category are subsequently sorted into even more compact groups. These
more specific similarities within each bigger group form the basis for these smaller groups. It is
simpler for scientists to investigate particular groupings of species; thanks to this classification
scheme. The kingdom is the biggest group. Prokaryotes, which comprises bacteria, protoctista,
fungus, plants, and animals make up the five kingdoms. Based on a few traits that certain
organisms share, phyla are smaller groups that are further subdivision of each kingdom. For
example, the arthropod phylum, which includes insects, crustaceans, and spiders, includes all
organisms without a backbone who also have jointed legs and a hard covering over their bodies.
The subdivisions within a phylum are classes, orders, families, genera, and finally species. The
various categories in this classification scheme are referred to as taxa (singular: taxon). The
classification hierarchy is depicted in figure 4.2 below. The taxonomy of living things refers to
all of these specific divisions, and seven categories that make up the taxonomy of living things
are kingdom, phylum, classes, order, families, genus, and species.
Figure 4.2. The Hierarchical Classification System. Source: www.byjus.com
The most basic classification of living things is kingdoms. Currently there are five kingdoms.
Living things are placed into certain kingdoms based on how they obtain their food, the types of
cells that make up their body, and the number of cells they contain.
Phylum
The phylum is the next level following kingdom in the classification of living things. It is an
attempt to find some kind of physical similarities among organisms within a kingdom. These
physical similarities suggest that there is a common ancestry among those organisms in a
particular phylum.
84
Classes
Classes are way to further divide organisms of a phylum. As you could probably guess, organisms
of a class have even more in common than those in an entire phylum. Humans belong to the
Mammal Class because we drink milk as a baby.
Order
Organisms in each class are further broken down into orders. A taxonomy key is used to determine
to which order an organism belongs. A taxonomy key is a checklist of characteristics that
determines how organisms are grouped together.
Families
Orders are divided into families. Organisms within a family have more in common than with
organisms in any classification level above it. Because they share so much in common, organisms
of a family are said to be related to each other. Humans are in the Hominidae Family.
Genus
Genus is a way to describe the generic name for an organism. The genus classification is very
specific so there are fewer organisms within each one. For this reason, there are a lot of different
genera among both animals and plants. When using taxonomy to name an organism, the genus is
used to determine the first part of its two-part name.
Species
Species are as specific as you can get. It is the lowest and most strict level of classification of
living things. The main criterion for an organism to be placed in a particular species is the ability
to breed with other organisms of that same species. The species of an organism determines the
second part of its two-part name.
4.4.2 Properties of the Five Kingdoms

The properties of the five kingdoms are as follows:
Monera
The cell type is prokaryotic. The cell wall is present and it is non-cellulosic. The nuclear membrane
is absent. It is a unicellular organism and the mode of nutrition is autotrophic and heterotrophic.
Bacteria are an example of an organism in the monera kingdom.
Protista
The cell type is eukaryotic. The cell wall is present. The nuclear membrane is also present. It is a
unicellular organism and the mode of nutrition is autotrophic.
Fungi
The cell type is eukaryotic. The cell wall is present. The nuclear membrane is also present and it
is a multicellular organism and the mode of nutrition is heterotrophic. Example mushroom is a
fungus. They cannot make their own food.
Plantae
The cell type is eukaryotic. The cell wall is non-cellulosic. The nuclear membrane is present. The
organism is tissue or organ. The mode of nutrition is autotrophic. Examples are plants, trees, and
a bush.
Animalia
85
The cell type is eukaryotic. The cell wall is absent. The nuclear membrane is present. The organism
is a tissue, organ or organ system. The mode of nutrition is heterotrophic.
Which kingdom has a prokaryotic cell type?
1. What are the levels of classification of organisms?

2. What does genus represent in the classification scheme?
4.5 Systems of Classification
There are two different systems that can be used for classification: natural and artificial. First, let's
examine natural classification. Natural categorization The aforementioned hierarchical
categorization method is based on a natural classification scheme that makes use of traits that all
living things have in common. Two concepts serve as the foundation for natural classification: 1)
homologous structures, and 2) evolutionary links. Homologous structures are characteristics of
organisms that share a similar structure, but can have extremely distinct appearances and serve
various functions. Homologous features are frequently seen in the forelimbs of vertebrates, where
the forelegs of four-legged vertebrates like dogs and crocodiles, as well as the arms of primates,
whales' front flippers, and bats' and birds' wings, are all descended from the same ancestral
tetrapod. Their identical bone count and arrangement indicates that they most likely descended
from a single type of structure that existed in a common ancestor millions of years ago. The wing
of a fly and the wing of a bat are not analogous. Despite having a similar appearance and
performing the same function, it has a totally different beginning. The wing of the fly is not covered
with feathers and has no bones. It is said that a fly's wing and a bat's wing are comparable. You
wouldn't mix a fly and a bat together! Relationships formed through the worldwide process of
evolution between two separate creatures are known as evolutionary relationships. They are, in
other words, the connections between two species that shared an ancestor. Evolutionary
relationships are crucial to research because they provide insight into the timing and processes by
which particular traits were developed in particular species. Phylogenetics is the study of
evolutionary relationships and their effects. There is frequently remarkable physical resemblance
between persons who have a shared ancestry, like a grandmother or great grandparent. The
individuals in the pictures are undoubtedly linked to one another and have traits that they got from
their ancestors. Biologists classify species according to their common ancestry and structural
similarities in a natural classification system. A branching collection of associations is produced
via natural classification. This demonstrates how the key plant subgroups, including mosses, ferns,
conifers, and flowering plants, are separated out. It is possible to divide each of these groupings;
humans, Homo sapiens, and cockroach Periplaneta americanus are in the animal kingdom.
Humans and cockroaches share a common ancestor more than 500 million years ago! You can see
many structural differences between humans and cockroaches and so there is no natural
relationship, thus we classify Homo sapiens and Periplaneta americanus into very different
groups.
4.5.1 Artificial classification and Binomial system
You are free to use whichever grouping you like while using artificial classification. You could
classify all flying animals together. Birds, bats, and a variety of insects would then be included in
86
this group. All aquatic creatures with bodies that are streamlined and resemble those of fish could
be grouped together. Fish and whales would then be included in this group. Biologists employ
dichotomous keys to distinguish different types of organisms, and these dichotomous keys are
based on artificial classification systems species naming using the binomial system. The
hierarchical classification scheme that we have so far examined was first proposed by the Swedish
naturalist Carl Linnaeus, who lived from 1707 to 1778. He also assigned a Latin scientific name
to each and every species giving each living thing two Latin names known as the "binomial"
system of species naming (scientific names). Binomial literally translates to "two names" because
"bi" stands for "two" and "nomial" stands for "name." Scientific names for organisms were derived
by Linnaeus from their genus and species. The genus name is written first and begins with a capital
letter when writing a scientific name, and the species name is written second and begins with a
small letter. When typing or handwriting the scientific name, it should be printed in italics or
underlined individually. The tiger is a member of the Panthera genus and the tigris species, hence
its scientific name will be written as Panthera tigris or typed as Panthera tigris. Scientific names
are universal because, for example, every biologist will understand that Felis catus means ‘house
cat’ without resorting to the dictionary, no matter what language they speak. Can you think of the
scientific names for some other organisms?
4.5.2 History and the Study of Evolutionary Relationships
The evolution of interactions between species dates back to the dawn of time. Small
microorganisms in water were the first organisms to be produced on land. Amphibians started to
evolve over time, old World monkeys were the first to diverge from the primary root of the primate
family tree approximately 25–30 million years ago. The earliest relatives of modern humans
diverged from their forebears about 6 million years ago, starting the evolutionary tree that
produced many humanoid and ape species, including the Ardipithecus family, Australopithecus
afarensis, Homo habilis, and many others. Homo erectus eventually evolved between 1.5 and 2
million years ago. Numerous variations of Homo sapiens have descended from this species. Homo
sapiens, the current species, is a combination of all of these previous versions. Understanding the
relationships between numerous non-human species as well as those between humans and similar
species can be aided by an understanding of evolutionary relationships. For instance, it is possible
to determine who descended from whom and how by comparing two species of birds that are
similar to one another. The comprehensive field of phylogenetics focuses on scientifically
classifying and analysing the traits of various species to ascertain their evolutionary ties, which is
why people investigate evolutionary relationships. The following are characteristics of
phylogenetic research:
• Systematics- the method through which species are placed into particular families and
how their connections to one another are established. In other words, this is the system
that establishes taxonomy.
• Taxonomy - Taxonomy is the labelling of certain species in order to highlight the
connections between various species and investigate their interconnections. A taxon is the
name for a certain group or family's designation. Classes, orders, families, and species,
for instance, each have their own distinct taxa. A taxa is a group of taxons.
87
•Evolution- Without the basis of evolution to build on, phylogenetics would be functionally
meaningless. The study of phylogenetics was founded on the theory of evolution. To
understand how evolution works, systematic research is conducted at all taxonomic levels.
What is Systematics in taxonomy?
1. The tiger belongs to the genus called Panthera and the species called
tigris, therefore what is its scientific name?
2. Describe the binomial classification.
4.6 Summary
You have learned the main characteristics and developments in the classification of organisms.
You have studied the scientific method of naming of organisms using the binomial nomenclature.
The division of organisms into prokaryotes (simple, unicellular) and eukaryotes (mostly
multicellular) and the major differences between the two has been highlighted. You have also
learned about the classification of living organisms into five major kingdoms
495-55795-1, 383pp
https://assets.cambridge.org/97805216/80547/excerpt/9780521680547_excerpt.pdf
https://byjus.com/biology/living-and-non-living-things/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wt5ZE5Qcr0Y
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UjOz-My9gEI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z8znhBuIwr4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-jFIjA8YHfE

Answers to SAE 1
1. Cellular respiration
2. Life processes
Answers to SAE 2
1. The classification of living things include 7

levels: kingdom, phylum, classes, order, families, genus, and species .
2. The genus classification is very specific so there are fewer organisms within each one.
Genus is a way to describe the generic name of an organism.
88
Answers to SAE 3
1. Panthera tigris
2. The binomial system of naming species means giving organisms two names in Latin
(scientific names)

Unit Structure
5.1 Introduction
4.3 Study of Genes and Chromosomes
5.3.1 Proteins and DNA
5.3.2 Structure of DNA
5.4 Synthesizing Proteins
5.5 Gene replication and Mutations
5.6 Summary
5.1 Introduction
In this unit we shall highlight the occurrence and significance of genes and chromosomes. The
contribution of proteins and DNA in heredity will be explained. You will learn about the structure
of DNA and be able to explain the process of synthesizing proteins. You will also learn the process
of gene replication and mutations, coding, transcription and translation, and the control of gene
expression

• Describe the occurrence and significance of genes and chromosomes

• Describe proteins and the structure of DNA
• Explain the synthesizing proteins
• Describe the process of gene replication and mutations
• Explain the meaning of coding, transcription and translation, and the control of gene
expression
5.3 The Study of Genes and Chromosomes

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) segments called genes are responsible for carrying out specified
protein functions in one or more types of bodily cells. The sizes of the proteins that genes code for
determine the size of the genes. Chromosomes, found in the cell nucleus, are where genes are
found. Any characteristic that is influenced by more than one gene is called a trait. Some features
are brought about by mutated genes, either ones that are passed down from parents or ones that
89
arise from new gene mutations. A person's genotype (or genome) is their particular set of genes or
genetic make-up. As a result, the genotype has a comprehensive set of instructions for how that
person's body should synthesise proteins, and consequently, how their body should be constructed
and operate. The physical makeup and capabilities of an individual make up their phenotype. Not
all the instructions in the genotype may be followed out, and the phenotype is how the genotype
manifests in an individual (or expressed). The environment (including sicknesses and diet) and
other factors, some of which are unknown, as well as the genotype affect how a gene is expressed.
The structures called chromosomes found in cells house a person's genes. Each cell in the human
body normally contains 46 chromosomes; two sex chromosomes and twenty-two pairs of
autosomes.
There are between 20,000 and 25,000 genes on these chromosomes, new genes being discovered
on daily basis. According to size, the paired chromosomes are numbered from 1 to 22. (The largest
chromosome is number one.) Autosomes are the name for these non-sex chromosomes, each
chromosome typically has two copies in an individual. Their mother passes one copy on to them
through the egg, while their father passes the other one along (via the sperm). Each egg and sperm
have a single set of 23 chromosomes. Two copies of each chromosome and two copies of each
gene are present when the sperm fertilises the egg, resulting in the formation of an embryo. Sex
chromosomes are the X and Y chromosomes, which are responsible for a baby's sex. An X
chromosome is typically contributed by the mother's egg, and either an X or a Y chromosome is
contributed by the father's sperm. The biological gender of a person with a XX pairing of sex
chromosomes is female, while the biological gender of a person with an XY pairing is male. The
sex chromosomes contain genes that regulate numerous bodily activities in addition to determining
sex. Fewer genes are found on the Y chromosome than there are on the X chromosome. The term
"X-linked" refers to genes that are located on the X chromosome. Y-linked genes are those that
reside on the Y chromosome. A karyotype is a representation of a person's entire chromosomal set
as seen in their cells.
5.3.1 Proteins and DNA
The most significant class of substance in the body is likely proteins. Proteins serve as more than
only the building blocks for skin, connective tissue, muscles, and other organs. The production of
enzymes also requires them. Nearly all chemical reactions and functions in the body are controlled
and carried out by sophisticated proteins called enzymes. There are thousands of distinct enzymes
that the body makes. As a result, the kinds and quantities of proteins the body synthesises control
the overall structure and operation of the body. Genes, which are found on chromosomes, regulate
the production of proteins. There is deoxyribonucleic acid in genes (DNA). The instructions, or
blueprint, needed to synthesise a protein are found in DNA. Each DNA molecule is a lengthy
double helix with millions of steps, resembling a spiral staircase. The steps of the staircase consist
of pairs of four types of molecules called bases (nucleotides). In each step, the base adenine (A) is
paired with the base thymine (T), or the base guanine (G) is paired with the base cytosine (C).
Each extremely long DNA molecule is coiled up inside one of the chromosomes.
5.3.2 Structure of DNA

The genetic substance of the cell is DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), which is found in chromosomes
within the cell nucleus and mitochondria. The nucleus of every cell includes 23 pairs of
chromosomes, with the exception of some cells (such as sperm and egg cells and red blood cells).
Many genes are found on one chromosome. A gene is a section of DNA that contains the
90
instructions needed to build a protein. The DNA molecule is a lengthy, double-helix structure that
coils around itself like a spiral staircase. In it, bases—pairs of four molecules that make up the
staircase's steps—connect two strands of sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate molecules. In the
process, guanine and cytosine are coupled with adenine and thymine, respectively. A hydrogen
bond holds each pair of bases together. A gene consists of a sequence of bases. Sequences of three
bases code for an amino acid (building blocks of proteins) or other information.
Fig. 1. The structure of DNA Source: www.byjus.com
1. What are Genes?
2. What is deoxyribonucleic acid?
5.4 Protein Synthesis
A lengthy chain of consecutively linked amino acids makes up proteins. There are 20 different
amino acids that can be used to make proteins; some must be obtained through diet (essential
amino acids), while others are produced by the body's own enzymes. A chain of amino acids forms
a complicated three-di5.mensional shape when it folds in on itself during synthesis. The function
of the folded structure in the body is determined by its shape. Every individual sequence produces
a different protein because the specific sequence of amino acids controls how the protein folds.
Some proteins, such as haemoglobin, have many folded chains in them. DNA contains codes that
specify how to make proteins.
91
5.4.1 Coding, Transcription and Translation
The order of the bases (A, T, G, and C) in DNA serves as a code for information. Triplets are used
to write the programme. In other words, the bases are placed in three-base groups. DNA codes for
precise instructions, such as the insertion of one amino acid to a chain, using specific three-base
sequences. For example, the addition of the amino acid, alanine is coded for by GCT (guanine,
cytosine, thymine), and the addition of the amino acid, valine is coded for by GTT (guanine,
thymine, thymine). As a result, the arrangement of triplet base pairs in the gene for a protein on
the DNA molecule determines the order of amino acids in that protein. Transcription and
translation are required for the conversion of genetic information encoded in a protein.
The process of transcription involves transferring (transcription) data encoded in DNA to
ribonucleic acid (RNA). Similar to a strand of DNA is RNA, a lengthy chain of bases, except that
the base uracil (U) is used instead of the base thymine (T). So, like DNA, RNA carries triplet-
coded information too.
A portion of the DNA double helix opens and unwinds when transcription starts. A complementary
strand of RNA is created using one of the unwound DNA strands as a template. The name of the
RNA's complementary strand being messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA dissociates from the
DNA, leaves the nucleus, and enters the cytoplasm of the cell, and connect to the ribosome, a small
cell structure where protein synthesis takes place. The mRNA coding (from the DNA) instructs
the ribosome how and what kind of amino acids to bind with during translation. An RNA subtype
known as transfer RNA (tRNA), which is much smaller, transports the amino acids to the
ribosome. One amino acid is added by each tRNA molecule to the expanding protein chain, which
is folded into a complicated three-dimensional structure by the action of neighbouring molecules
known as chaperone molecules.
5.4.2 Control of Gene Expression
A person's body contains a variety of cells which cells have varied appearances, behaviours, and
chemical outputs. However, because each cell is descended from a single fertilised egg cell, they
all have the same DNA. However, since different genes are expressed in different cells, cells have
extremely distinct looks and activities. DNA also contains codes that specify when a gene should
be expressed. The kind of tissue, the individual's age, the availability of particular chemical signals,
and a variety of other factors and methods all affect how genes are expressed. Although our
understanding of these additional factors and mechanisms that regulate gene expression is rapidly
expanding, many of them remain poorly understood. The processes by which genes regulate one
another are extremely intricate. Chemical markers in genes serve as start and stop signals for
transcription. Numerous chemicals in and around the DNA including histones either prevent or
allow transcription. In addition, translation can be stopped by pairing with a complementary strand
of mRNA known as antisense RNA.
Cells divide into two to reproduce. When a cell divides, the DNA molecules in the original cell
must replicate themselves because each new cell needs a full set of DNA molecules. Replication
also involves the double-stranded DNA molecule unwinding and splitting in two. Following the
splitting, bases on each strand bind to floating complementary bases (A with T and G with C).
Two identical double-strand DNA molecules result from this procedure.
5.3.3 Gene replication and Mutations
Cells feature a "proofreading" mechanism helps to make sure that bases are matched correctly in
order to prevent errors during replication. Chemical processes are also available to fix improperly
duplicated DNA. However, errors could occur due to the complexity of the protein synthesis
92
process and the billions of base pairs that are involved. Such errors may happen from a variety of
causes such as exposure to radiation, medications, or infections, or seemingly for no reason at all.
Majority of people have extremely little variances in their DNA. Mutations are errors that appear
twice in successive copies. Mutations that are passed on to offspring are referred to as inherited
mutations. Majority of mutations have little impact on the gene's subsequent copies. The majority
of mutations have little impact on the gene's subsequent copies. The mutation could modify the
amino acid sequence in a protein or reduce the amount of protein generated, depending on its size
and position. A protein may operate differently or not at all if it has a different amino acid
sequence. Proteins that are missing or dysfunctional are frequently damaging or lethal. For
example, phenylalanine hydroxylase is deficient or absent in phenylketonuria due to a mutation.
This defect enables the body to accumulate the amino acid phenylalanine, which is consumed
through food, leading to severe intellectual impairment. Rarely does a mutation bring about a
beneficial alteration. For example, if a person receives two copies of the defective sickle cell genes,
he would experience sickle cell disease. However, a person who has only one copy of the sickle
cell gene (a carrier) obtains some immunity against malaria. Sickle cell disease generates
symptoms and problems that may limit life span, even though the immunity against malaria can
help a carrier survive.
According to the theory of natural selection, mutations that reduce survival in a particular
environment are less likely to be passed on to children (and thus reduce in frequency in the
population), but mutations that increase survival gradually increase the frequency. Thus, beneficial
mutations, although initially rare, eventually become common. The slow changes that occur over
time caused by mutations and natural selection in an interbreeding population collectively are
called evolution.
1. What is Transcription?
2. What are the factors controlling gene expression?
5.5 General Reproduction

In general, reproduction is one of the most important concepts in biology: it means making a copy,
a likeness, and thereby providing for the continued existence of species. Although reproduction is
often considered solely in terms of the production of offspring in animals and plants, the more
general meaning has far greater significance to living organisms. To appreciate this fact, the origin
of life and the evolution of organisms must be considered. One of the first characteristics of life
that emerged in primeval times must have been the ability of some primitive chemical systems to
make copies of themselves, thus its lowest level, reproduction is chemical replication. As evolution
progressed, cells of successively higher levels of complexity must have arisen, and it was
absolutely essential that they had the ability to make likenesses of themselves. In unicellular
organisms, the ability of one cell to reproduce itself means the reproduction of a new individual;
in multicellular organisms, however, it means growth and regeneration. Multicellular organisms
also reproduce in the strict sense of the term—that is, they make copies of themselves in the form
of offspring—but they do so in a variety of ways, many involving complex organs and elaborate
hormonal mechanisms. There are several levels of reproduction: Molecular replication and
reproduction, Cell Reproduction, Reproduction of organisms, Life cycle Reproduction.
93
5.3.1 Molecular replication and reproduction
The characteristics that an organism inherits are largely stored in cells as genetic information in
very long molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). In 1953 it was established that DNA
molecules consist of two complementary strands, each of which can make copies of the other. The
strands are like two sides of a ladder that has been twisted along its length in the shape of a double
helix (spring). The rungs, which join the two sides of the ladder, are made up of two terminal
bases. There are four bases in DNA: thymine, cytosine, adenine, and guanine. In the middle of
each rung a base from one strand of DNA is linked by a hydrogen bond to a base of the other
strand. However, they can pair only in certain ways: adenine always pairs with thymine, and
guanine with cytosine. This is why one strand of DNA is considered complementary to the other.
The double helices duplicate themselves by separating at one place between the two strands and
becoming progressively unattached. As one strand separates from the other, each acquires new
complementary bases until eventually each strand becomes a new double helix with a new
complementary strand to replace the original one. Because adenine always falls in place opposite
thymine and guanine opposite cytosine, the process is called a template replication—one strand
serves as the mold for the other. The steps involving the duplication of DNA thus do not occur
spontaneously; they require catalysts in the form of enzymes that promote the replication process.
In Molecular reproduction, the sequence of bases in a DNA molecule serves as a code by
which genetic information is stored. Using this code, the DNA synthesizes one strand of
ribonucleic acid (RNA), a substance that is so similar structurally to DNA that it is also formed by
template replication of DNA. mRNA serves as a messenger for carrying the genetic code to those
places in the cell where proteins are synthesized. The way by which the mRNA is translated into
specific proteins is a remarkable and complex process. For more detailed information concerning
DNA, RNA, and the genetic code, see the articles nucleic acid and heredity: Chromosomes and
genes. The ability to synthesize enzymes and other proteins enables the organism to make any
substance that existed in a previous generation. Proteins are reproduced directly; however, other
substances such as carbohydrates, fats, and other organic molecules found in cells are produced by
a series of enzyme-controlled chemical reactions, each enzyme being derived originally from DNA
through mRNA. It is because all the organic constituents made by organisms are derived ultimately
from DNA that molecules in organisms are reproduced exactly by each successive generation.
5.3.2 Cell Reproduction
The chemical constituents of the cytoplasm are not resynthesized from DNA every time a cell
divides. This is because each of the two daughter cells formed during cell division usually inherits
about half of the cellular material from the mother cell, and is important because the presence of
essential enzymes enables DNA to replicate even before it has made the enzymes necessary to do
so. Cells of higher organisms contain complex structures, and each time a cell divides the structures
must be duplicated. The method of duplication varies for each structure, and in some cases the
mechanism is still uncertain. One striking and important phenomenon is the formation of a
new membrane. Cell membranes, although they are very thin and appear to have a simple form
and structure, contain many enzymes and are sites of great metabolic activity. This applies not
only to the membrane that surrounds the cell but to all the membranes within the cell. New
membranes, which seem to form rapidly, are indistinguishable from old ones. Thus, the formation
of a new cell involves the further synthesis of many constituents that were present in the parent
cell. This means that all of the information and materials necessary for a cell to reproduce itself
must be supplied by the cellular constituents and the DNA inherited from the parent cell.
94
Binary fission
Of the various kinds of cell division, the most common mode is binary fission, the division of
a cell into two separate and similar parts. In bacteria (prokaryotes) the chromosome (the body that
contains the DNA and associated proteins) replicates and then divides in two, after which a cell
wall forms across the elongated parent cell. In higher organisms (eukaryotes) there is first an
elaborate duplication and then a separation of the chromosomes (mitosis), after which
the cytoplasm divides in two. In the hard-walled cells of higher plants, a median plate forms and
divides the mother cell into two compartments; in animal cells, which do not have a hard wall, a
delicate membrane pinches the cell in two, much like the separation of two liquid
drops. Budding yeast cells provide an interesting exception. In these fungi the cell wall forms a
bubble that becomes engorged with cytoplasm until it is ultimately the size of the original cell.
The nucleus then divides, one of the daughter nuclei passes into the bud, and ultimately the two
cells separate.
In some cases of binary fission, there may be an unequal cytoplasmic division with an equal
division of the chromosomes. This occurs in a large number of higher organisms during meiosis—
the process by which sex cells (gametes) are formed: originally, each chromosome of the cell is in
a pair (diploid); during meiosis these diploid pairs of chromosomes are separated so that each sex
cell has only one of each pair of chromosomes (haploid). During the two successive meiotic
divisions involved in the production of eggs, a primordial diploid egg cell is converted into a
haploid egg and three small haploid polar bodies (minute cells). In this instance the egg receives
far more cytoplasm than the polar bodies.
Multiple fission
Some algae, protozoans, and true slime molds (Myxomycetes) regularly divide by multiple fission.
In such cases the nucleus undergoes several mitotic divisions, producing a number of nuclei. When
the nuclear divisions are complete, the cytoplasm separates, and each nucleus becomes encased in
its own membrane to form an individual cell. In the Myxomycetes, the fusion of two haploid
gametes or the fusion of two or more diploid zygotes (the structures that result from the union of
two sex cells) results in the formation of a plasmodium—a motile, multinucleate mass of
cytoplasm. The nuclei are in a syncytium, that is, there are no cell boundaries, and the nuclei flow
freely in the motile plasmodium. As it feeds, the plasmodium enlarges, and the nuclei divide
synchronously about once every 24 hours. The plasmodium may become very large, with millions
of nuclei, but, ultimately, when conditions are right, it forms a series of small bumps, each of
which becomes a small, fruiting body (a structure that bears the spores). During this process the
nuclei undergo meiosis, and the final haploid nuclei are then isolated into uninucleate spores
(reproductive bodies).
Many algae (eg. the Siphonales and related groups) are multinucleate. In most cases, the nuclei are
in one common cytoplasm within a large and elaborate organism surrounded by a hard cell wall.
As the wall becomes extended, the nuclei, which wander freely in the central cavity, undergo
repeated mitoses. Again, either during the formation of zoospores (asexual reproductive cells) or
after meiosis (gamete formation), a massive progressive division occurs. The most unusual of such
organisms is the marine alga, Acetabularia; many nuclei stay clumped together in
one compound nucleus in the rootlike base, which often is as much as two inches (five centimetres)
away from the tip of the plant. The compound nucleus breaks up just before gamete formation,
and the minute individual nuclei undergo meiosis and wander to the elaborate tip structures, where
they are released as uninucleate gametes.
95
Syncytial organisms raise the question of whether or not cells, in the strict sense, are necessary for
the development of large organisms. Syncytia are also found in animals—e.g., in the early stages
of development of fishes and insects, and in the voluntary muscles of man. The proposal of the
19th-century botanist Julius von Sachs is generally considered a satisfactory answer to this
question; he suggested that the important matter was the existence not of a cell membrane but of a
certain amount of cytoplasm surrounding a nucleus and acting as a unit of metabolism, which he
called an energid. Cell reproduction, therefore, might be considered a special case of energid
reproduction. What is the role of the sequence of bases in a DNA molecule?
1. What is Binary fission?
2. Why is it that the chemical constituents of cytoplasm are not resynthesized
from DNA every time a cell divides?
5.6 Summary
You must have learned about the meaning and significance of genes and chromosomes in the body
of organisms. The contribution of proteins and DNA in heredity, and process of synthesizing
proteins was explained. You have also learned about the structure of DNA, the process of gene
replication and mutations, coding, transcription and translation, and the control of gene expression
in organisms.

495-55795-1, 383pp
6948-6, eBook ISBN978-94- 011-6948-6. 388pp
https://www.britannica.com/science/taxonomy/A-classification-of-living-organisms
https://www.nust.na/sites/default/files/documents/classification%20of%20living%20things.pdf
https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/genes-and-genetics
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R61GoO8j048
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFMv7Gdryc0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z8znhBuIwr4

Answers to SAE 1
1. Genes are segments of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that contain the code for a specific
protein that functions in one or more types of cells in the body hormosomes
2. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the cell’s genetic material, contained in chromosomes
within the cell nucleus and mitochondria.
Answers to SAE 2
1. Transcription is the process in which information coded in DNA is transferred (transcribed)
to ribonucleic acid (RNA)
96
2. Gene expression depends on the type of tissue, the age of the person, the presence of
specific chemical signals, and numerous other factors and mechanisms.
Answers to SAE 3
1. Of the various kinds of cell division, the most common mode is binary fission, the division
of a cell into two separate and similar parts.
2. This is because each of the two daughter cells formed during cell division usually inherits
about half of the cellular material from the mother cell, and is important because the presence of
essential enzymes enables DNA to replicate even before it has made the enzymes necessary to do
so.
Unit Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.3 Reproduction Process and Molecular Replication
6.4 Cell reproduction
6.5 Life cycles
6.6 Summary
6.1 Introduction
In this unit you will learn about reproduction, a process by which organisms replicate themselves
in both unicellular and multicellular organisms, study about the differences in reproduction
between organisms. You will learn about cell reproduction and life cycles
You will also learn about the number of cells in our bodies in this unit, and the two ways in which
cells divide—mitosis and meiosis, and cell cycles. In addition, you will learn how cells regulate
their division by communicating.

• Explain and describe the meaning and process of reproduction in both unicellular and
multicellular organisms.
• Differentiate between Binary fission and Multiple fission
• Describe the cell reproduction and life cycles
• Describe animal and plant life cycles
• Explain the meaning of natural selection
• Illustrate and describe the Mitosis and Meiosis divisions and Cell Cycles
• Recognize the function and products of mitosis and meiosis
• Compare and contrast the behaviors of chromosomes in mitosis and meiosis
97
• Recognize when cells are diploid vs. haploid
• Predict DNA content of cells in different phases of mitosis and meiosis
• Recall and describe the phases of the cell cycle
6.3 Reproduction of organisms

In single-celled organisms (e.g., bacteria, protozoans, many algae, and some fungi), organismic
and cell reproduction are synonymous, for the cell is the whole organism. Details of the process
differ greatly from one form to another and, if the higher ciliate protozoans are included, can be
extraordinarily complex. It is possible for reproduction to be asexual, by simple division, or sexual.
In sexual unicellular organisms the gametes can be produced by division (often multiple fission,
as in numerous algae) or, as in yeasts, by the organism turning itself into a gamete and fusing its
nucleus with that of a neighbour of the opposite sex, a process that is called conjugation. In ciliate
protozoans (eg., Paramecium), the conjugation process involves the exchange of haploid nuclei;
each partner acquires a new nuclear apparatus, half of which is genetically derived from its mate.
The parent cells separate and subsequently reproduce by binary fission. Sexuality is present even
in primitive bacteria, in which parts of the chromosome of one cell can be transferred to another
during mating.
Multicellular organisms also reproduce asexually and sexually; asexual, or vegetative,
reproduction can take a great variety of forms. Many multicellular lower plants give off asexual
spores, either aerial, motile or aquatic (zoospores), which may be uninucleate or multinucleate. In
some cases, the reproductive body is multicellular, as in the soredia of lichens and the gemmae of
liverworts. Frequently, whole fragments of the vegetative part of the organism can bud off and
form a new individual, a phenomenon found in most plant groups. In many cases a spreading
rhizoid (rootlike filament) or, in higher plants, a rhizome (underground stem) gives off new
sprouts. Sometimes, other parts of the plant have the capacity to form new individuals; for
example, buds of potentially new plants may form in the leaves; even some shoots that bend over
and touch the ground can give rise to new plants at the point of contact.
Among animals, many invertebrates are equally well endowed with means of asexual
reproduction. Numerous species of sponges produce gemmules, masses of cells enclosed in
resistant cases, that can become new sponges. There are many examples of budding among
coelenterates, the best known of which occurs in freshwater Hydra. In some species of flatworms,
the individual worm can duplicate by pinching in two, each half then regenerating the missing half;
this is a large task for the posterior portion, which lacks most of the major organs; brain, eyes, and
pharynx. The largest animals that exhibit vegetative reproduction are the
colonial tunicates (e.g., sea squirts), which, just like plants, send out runners in the form of stolons,
small parts of which form buds that develop into new individuals. Vertebrates have lost the ability
to reproduce vegetatively; their only form of organismic reproduction is sexual. In the sexual
reproduction of all organisms except bacteria, there is one common feature: haploid, uninucleate
gametes are produced that join in fertilization to form a diploid, uninucleate zygote. At some later
stage in the life cycle of the organism, the chromosome number is again reduced by meiosis to
form the next generation of gametes. The gametes may be equal in size (isogamy), or one may be
slightly larger than the other (anisogamy); the majority of forms have a large egg and a
minute sperm (oogamy). The sperm are usually motile and the egg passive, except in higher plants,
in which the sperm nuclei are carried in pollen grains that attach to the stigma (a female structure)
of the flower and send out germ tubes that grow down to the egg nucleus in the ovary. Some
organisms, like most flowering plants, earthworms, and tunicates, are bisexual (hermaphroditic, or
98
monoecious)—i.e., both male and female gametes are produced by the same individual. All other
organisms, including some plants (eg., holly and the ginkgo tree) and all vertebrates, are unisexual
(dioecious): the male and female gametes are produced by separate individuals. Some sexual
organisms partially revert to the asexual mode by a periodic degeneration of the sexual process.
For example, in aphids and in many higher plants the egg nucleus can develop into a new individual
without fertilization, a kind of asexual reproduction that is called parthenogenesis.
1. How is sexuality in primitive bacteria?
2. Give example of a condition where some sexual organisms
partially revert to the asexual mode by a periodic degeneration of
the sexual process.
6.4 Life Cycle of Organisms

A series of changes that members of a species undergo as they pass from the beginning of a given
developmental stage to the inception of that same developmental stage in a subsequent generation
is called life cycle.
1. Animals Life Cycle
Invertebrate animals have a rich variety of life cycles, especially among those forms that
undergo metamorphosis, a radical physical change. Butterflies, for eg. have a caterpillar stage
(larva), a dormant chrysalis stage (pupa), and an adult stage (imago). One remarkable aspect of
this development is that, during the transition from caterpillar to adult, most of the
caterpillar tissues disintegrate and are used as food, thereby providing energy for the next stage of
development, which begins when certain small structures (imaginal disks) in the larva start
growing into the adult form. Thus, the butterfly undergoes essentially two periods of growth and
development (larva and pupa–adult) and two periods of small size (fertilized egg and imaginal
disks). A somewhat similar phenomenon is found in sea urchins; the larva, which is called
a pluteus, has a small, wartlike bud that grows into the adult while the pluteus tissue disintegrates.
In both examples it is as if the organism has two life histories, one built on the ruins of another.
Another life-cycle pattern found among certain invertebrates illustrates the principle that major
differences between organisms are not always found in the physical appearance of the adult but in
the differences of the whole life cycle. In the coelenterate Obelia, for example, the egg develops
into a colonial hydroid consisting of a series of branching Hydra-like organisms called polyps.
Certain of these polyps become specialized (reproductive polyps) and bud off from the colony as
free-swimming jellyfish (medusae) that bear eggs and sperm. As with caterpillars and sea urchins,
two distinct phases occur in the life cycle of Obelia: the sessile (anchored), branched polyps and
the motile medusae. In some related coelenterates the medusa form has been totally lost, leaving
only the polyp stage to bear eggs and sperm directly. In still other coelenterates the polyp stage
has been lost, and the medusae produce other medusae directly, without the sessile stage. There
are furthermore, intermediate forms between the extremes.
2. Plants Life Cycle
Most life cycles, except perhaps for the simplest and smallest organisms, consist of different
epochs. A large tree has a period of seed formation that involves many cell divisions
after fertilization and the laying down of a small embryo in a hard resistant shell, or seed coat.
There then follows a period of dormancy, sometimes prolonged, after which the seed germinates,
and the adult form slowly emerges as the shoots and roots grow at the tips and the stem thickens.
99
In some trees, the leaves of the juvenile plant have a shape that is quite different from that of the
taller, more mature individuals. Thus, even the growth phase may be subdivided into epochs, the
final one being the flowering or gamete bearing period. Some of the parasitic fungi have much
more complex life cycles. The wheat rust parasite, for example, has alternate hosts. While living
on wheat, it produces two kinds of spores; it produces a third kind of spore when it invades its
other host, the barberry, on which it winters and undergoes the sexual part of its life cycle.
In plants, variations in the epochs of the life cycle are often centred around the times of fertilization
and meiosis. After fertilization, the organism has the diploid number of chromosomes
(diplophase); after meiosis it is haploid (haplophase). The two events vary in time with respect to
each other. In some simple algae eg. Chlamydomonas, most of the cycle is haploid; meiosis occurs
immediately after fertilization. Yet in other algae, such as the sea lettuce (Ulva), two equal haploid
and diploid cycles alternate. The outward morphological structures of mature Ulva are
indistinguishable; the two cycles can be differentiated only by the size of the cell or nucleus, those
of the haploid stage being half the size of those of the diploid stage.
In many of the higher algae, there is a progressive diminution of the haplophase and an increase
in the importance of the diplophase, a trend that is especially noticeable in the evolution of the
vascular plants (e.g., ferns, conifers, and flowering plants). In mosses, the haplophase, or
gametophyte, is the main part of the green plant; the diplophase, or sporophyte, usually is a
sporebearing spike that grows from the top of the plant. In ferns, the haplophase is reduced to a
small, inconspicuous structure (prothallus) that grows in the damp soil; the large spore-bearing
fern itself is entirely diploid. Finally, in higher plants the haploid tissue is confined to the ovary of
the large diploid organism, a condition that is also prevalent in most animals.
3. Natural selection and reproduction
The significance of biological reproduction can be explained entirely by natural selection. In
formulating his theory of natural selection, Charles Darwin realized that, in order for evolution to
occur, not only must living organisms be able to reproduce themselves but the copies must not all
be identical; that is, they must show some variation. In this way the more successful variants would
make a greater contribution to subsequent generations in the number of offspring. For such
selection to act continuously in successive generations, Darwin also recognized that the variations
had to be inherited, although he failed to fathom the mechanism of heredity. Moreover, the amount
of variation is particularly important. According to what has been called the principle of
compromise, which itself has been shaped by natural selection, there must not be too little or too
much variation: too little produces no change; too much scrambles the benefit of any particular
combination of inherited traits.
Of the numerous mechanisms for controlling variation, all of which involve a combination
of checks and balances that work together, the most successful is that found in the large majority
of all plants and animals—ie., sexual reproduction. During the evolution of reproduction and
variation, which are the two basic properties of organisms that not only are required for natural
selection but are also subject to it, sexual reproduction has become ideally adapted to produce the
right amount of variation and to allow new combinations of traits to be rapidly incorporated into
an individual.
4. The Evolution of Reproduction
An examination of the way in which organisms have changed since their initial unicellular
condition in primeval times shows an increase in multicellularity and therefore an increase in the
size of both plants and animals. After cell reproduction evolved into multicellular growth,
the multicellular organism evolved a means of reproducing itself that is best described as life-cycle
100
reproduction. Size increase has been accompanied by many mechanical requirements that have
necessitated a selection for increased efficiency; the result has been a great increase in the
complexity of organisms. This means a great increase in the permutations of cell reproduction
during the process of evolutionary development.
Size increase also means a longer life cycle, and with it a great diversity of patterns at different
stages of the cycle. This is because each part of the life cycle is adaptive in that, through natural
selection, certain characteristics have evolved for each stage that enable the organism to survive.
The most extreme examples are those forms with two or more separate phases of their life cycle
separated by a metamorphosis, as in caterpillars and butterflies; these phases may be shortened or
extended by natural selection, as has occurred in different species of coelenterates.
To reproduce efficiently in order to contribute effectively to subsequent generations is another
factor that has evolved through natural selection. For example, an organism can produce vast
quantities of eggs of which, possibly by neglect, only a small percent will survive. On the other
hand, an organism can produce very few or perhaps one egg, which, as it develops, will be cared
for, thereby greatly increasing its chances for survival. These are two strategies of reproduction;
each has its advantages and disadvantages. Many other considerations of the natural history and
structure of the organism determine, through natural selection, the strategy that is best for a
particular species; one of these is that any species must not produce too few offspring (for it will
become extinct) or too many (for it may also become extinct by overpopulation and disease). The
numbers of some organisms fluctuate cyclically but always remain between upper and lower
limits. The question of how, through natural selection, numbers of individuals are controlled is a
matter of great interest; clearly, it involves factors that influence the rate of reproduction.
1. What is an organism’s life cycle?
2. What are the main stages of the life cycle of a typical plant?
6.5 Body Cells

You and I began as a single cell, or what you would call an egg. By the time you are an adult, you
will have trillions of cells. That number depends on the size of the person, but biologists put that
number around 37 trillion cells. Yes, that is trillion with a "T." In cell division, the cell that is
dividing is called the "parent" cell. The parent cell divides into two "daughter" cells. The process
then repeats in what is called the cell cycle.
101
Figure 6.1 Cell division of cancerous lung cell
Source: https://askabiologist.asu.edu/cell-division
Cells regulate their division by communicating with each other using chemical signals from special
proteins called cyclins. These signals act like switches to tell cells when to start dividing and later
when to stop dividing. It is important for cells to divide so you can grow and your cuts heal. It is
also important for cells to stop dividing at the right time. If a cell cannot stop dividing when it is
supposed to stop, this can lead to a disease called cancer. Some cells, like skin cells, are constantly
dividing. We need to continuously make new skin cells to replace the skin cells we lose. Did you
know we lose 30,000 to 40,000 dead skin cells every minute? That means we lose around 50
million cells every day. This is a lot of skin cells to replace, making cell division in skin cells so
important. Other cells, like nerve and brain cells, divide much less often.
Depending on the type of cell, there are two ways cells divide—mitosis and meiosis. Each of these
methods of cell division has special characteristics. One of the key differences in mitosis is a single
cell divides into two cells that are replicas of each other and have the same number of
chromosomes. This type of cell division is good for basic growth, repair, and maintenance. In
meiosis a cell divides into four cells that have half the number of chromosomes. Reducing the
number of chromosomes by half is important for sexual reproduction and provides for genetic
diversity.
6.5.1 Mitosis Cell Division

Mitosis is how somatic—or non-reproductive cells—divide. Somatic cells make up most of your
body's tissues and organs, including skin, muscles, lungs, gut, and hair cells. Reproductive cells
(like eggs) are not somatic cells. In mitosis, the important thing to remember is that the daughter
cells each have the same chromosomes and DNA as the parent cell. The daughter cells from
mitosis are called diploid cells. Diploid cells have two complete sets of chromosomes. Since the
daughter cells have exact copies of their parent cell's DNA, no genetic diversity is created through
mitosis in normal healthy cells.
102
Figure 6.2. Mitosis cell division creates two genetically identical daughter diploid cells. The major
steps of mitosis are shown here.
The Mitosis Cell Cycle

Interphase is the period when a cell is getting ready to divide and start the cell cycle. During this
time, cells are gathering nutrients and energy. The parent cell is also making a copy of its DNA to
share equally between the two daughter cells. The mitosis division process has several steps or
phases of the cell cycle—interphase, prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase,
and cytokinesis—to successfully make the new diploid cells.
Figure 6.3 The mitosis cell cycle includes several phases that result in two new diploid daughter cells. Each phase is
highlighted here and shown by light microscopy with fluorescence. Click on the image to learn more about each phase.
When a cell divides during mitosis, some organelles are divided between the two daughter cells.
For example, mitochondria are capable of growing and dividing during the interphase, so the
daughter cells each have enough mitochondria. The Golgi apparatus, however, breaks down
103
before mitosis and reassembles in each of the new daughter cells. Many of the specifics about what
happens to organelles before, during and after cell division are currently being researched.
6.5.2 Meiosis Cell Division

Meiosis is the other main way cells divide. Meiosis is cell division that creates sex cells, like female
egg cells or male sperm cells. What is important to remember about meiosis? In meiosis, each
new cell contains a unique set of genetic information. After meiosis, the sperm and egg cells can
join to create a new organism. Meiosis is why we have genetic diversity in all sexually reproducing
organisms. During meiosis, a small portion of each chromosome breaks off and reattaches to
another chromosome. This process is called "crossing over" or "genetic recombination." Genetic
recombination is the reason full siblings made from egg and sperm cells from the same two parents
can look very different from one another.
Figure 6.4 The meiosis cell cycle has two main stages of division -- Meiosis I and Meiosis II. The end result of meiosis
is four haploid daughter cells that each contain different genetic information from each other and the parent cell.
The Meiosis Cell Cycle

Meiosis has two cycles of cell division, conveniently called Meiosis I and Meiosis II. Meiosis I
halves the number of chromosomes and is also when crossing over happens. Meiosis II halves the
amount of genetic information in each chromosome of each cell. The end result is four haploid
daughter cells. Haploid cells only have one set of chromosomes - half the number of chromosomes
as the parent cell. Before meiosis I starts, the cell goes through interphase. Just like in mitosis, the
parent cell uses this time to prepare for cell division by gathering nutrients and energy and making
a copy of its DNA. During the next stages of meiosis, this DNA will be switched around during
genetic recombination and then divided between four haploid cells. So remember, Mitosis is what
helps us grow and Meiosis is why we are all unique!
1. Depending on the type of cell, what are the two ways cells divides?
2. How do cells regulate their division?
104
6.6 Summary
You have learned about the meaning and process of reproduction in both unicellular and
multicellular organisms, which at the lowest level, is a chemical replication and in multicellular
organisms, however, means growth and regeneration. You have studied about the differences
between Binary fission and Multiple fission. The life cycles of animals and plants has also been
highlighted as invertebrate animals have a rich variety of life cycles, especially among those forms
that undergo metamorphosis, a radical physical change and in vascular plants , they have a period
of seed formation that involves many cell divisions after fertilization and the laying down of a
small embryo in a hard resistant shell or seed coat. You have also learned about the chromosomal
makeup of a cell using the terms chromosome, sister chromatid, homologous chromosome,
diploid, haploid, and tetrad. The unit also highlighted the function and products of mitosis and
meiosis, this has enabled for the comparison of the behaviors of chromosomes.

495-55795-1, 383pp
Thomas, S. and Robert, S. (2018). Elements of Ecology 9th Edition, Pearson
https://www.genome.gov/genetics-
glossary/Mutation#:~:text=A%20mutation%20is%20a%20change,mutagens%20or%20a%20vira
l%20infection.
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/natural-selection/
https://bioprinciples.biosci.gatech.edu/module-4-genes-and-genomes/4-1-cell-division-mitosis-
and-meiosis/
Wikimedia. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Movie_4._Cell_division.ogv(link is
external)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BBI7GoIyoog
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k-4nrrMmNfI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yRLQKZzFb68
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w7vp_uRA8kw
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/heredity/meiosis-and-genetic-
diversity/v/phases-of-meiosis-ii
Answers to SAE 1
1. Sexuality is present even in primitive bacteria, in which parts of the chromosome of one
cell can be transferred to another during mating.
2. Some sexual organisms such as in aphids and in many higher plants partially revert to the
asexual mode by a periodic degeneration of the sexual process where the egg nucleus develops
into a new individual without fertilization, a kind of asexual reproduction that is
called parthenogenesis.
105
Answers to SAE 2
1. Organisms Life cycle is the series of changes that the members of a species undergo as
they pass from the beginning of a given developmental stage to the inception of that same
developmental stage in a subsequent generation.
2. A large tree has a period of seed formation that involves many cell divisions
after fertilization and the laying down of a small embryo in a hard resistant shell, or seed
coat. There then follows a period of dormancy, sometimes prolonged, after which the seed
germinates, and the adult form slowly emerges as the shoots and roots grow at the tips and
the stem thickens.
Answers to SAE 3
1. mitosis and meiosis
2. Cells regulate their division by communicating with each other using chemical signals from
special proteins called cyclins.
Glossary
Anaphase - a stage in mitosis where chromosomes begin moving to opposite ends (poles) of
the cell.
Animal Cells - eukaryotic cells that contain various membrane-bound organelles.
Allele - an alternative form of a gene (one member of a pair) that is located at a
specific position on a specific chromosome.
Biology - the study of living organisms.
Cell - the fundamental unit of life.
Cell Biology - the subdiscipline of biology that focuses on the study of the basic unit of life,
the cell.
Cell Cycle - the life cycle of a dividing cell, including Interphase and the M phase or Mitotic
phase (mitosis and cytokinesis).
Cell Membrane - a thin semi-permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell.
Cell Theory - one of the five basic principles of biology, stating that the cell is the basic unit of
life.
Centrioles - cylindrical structures that are composed of groupings of microtubules arranged in a 9
+ 3 pattern.
Centromere - a region on a chromosome that joins two sister chromatids.
Chromatid - one of two identical copies of a replicated chromosome.
Chromatin - the mass of genetic material composed of DNA and proteins that condense to
form chromosomes during eukaryotic cell division.
Chromosome - a long, stringy aggregate of genes that carries heredity information (DNA) and is
formed from condensed chromatin.
Cilia and Flagella - protrusions from some cells that aid in cellular locomotion.
Cytokinesis - the division of the cytoplasm that produces distinct daughter cells.
Cytoplasm - all of the contents outside of the nucleus and enclosed within the cell
membrane of a cell.
Cytoskeleton - a network of fibers throughout the cell's cytoplasm that helps the cell maintain its
shape and gives support to the cell.
106
Cytosol - semi-fluid component of a cell's cytoplasm.
Daughter Cell - a cell resulting from the replication and division of a single parent cell.
Diploid Cell - a cell that contains two sets of chromosomes—one set of chromosomes is donated
from each parent.
Endoplasmic Reticulum - a network of tubules and flattened sacs that serve a variety of functions
in the cell.
Gametes - reproductive cells that unite during sexual reproduction to form a new cell called
a zygote.
Genes - segments of DNA located on chromosomes that exist in alternative forms
called alleles.
Golgi Complex - the cell organelle that is responsible for manufacturing, warehousing, and
shipping certain cellular products.
Haploid Cell - a cell that contains one complete set of chromosomes.
Interphase - the stage in the cell cycle where a cell doubles in size and synthesizes DNA in
preparation for cell division.
Lysosomes - the membranous sacs of enzymes that can digest cellular macromolecules.
Meiosis - a two-part cell division process in organisms that sexually reproduce, resulting in
gametes with one-half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell.
Metaphase - the stage in cell division where chromosomes align along the metaphase plate in
the center of the cell.
Microtubules - fibrous, hollow rods that function primarily to help support and shape the cell.
Mitochondria - cell organelles that convert energy into forms that are usable by the cell.
Mitosis - a phase of the cell cycle that involves the separation of nuclear chromosomes followed
by cytokinesis.
Nucleus - a membrane-bound structure that contains the cell's hereditary information and
controls the cell's growth and reproduction.
Organelles - tiny cellular structures, that carry out specific functions necessary for normal
cellular operation.
Peroxisomes - cell structures that contain enzymes that produce hydrogen peroxide as a by-
product.
Plant Cells - eukaryotic cells that contain various membrane-bound organelles. They are distinct
from animal cells, containing various structures not found in animal cells.
Polar Fibers - spindle fibers that extend from the two poles of a dividing cell.
Prokaryotes - single-celled organisms that are the earliest and most primitive forms of life on
earth.
Prophase - the stage in cell division where chromatin condenses into discrete chromosomes.
Ribosomes - cell organelles that are responsible for assembling proteins.
Sister Chromatids - two identical copies of a single chromosome that are connected by a
centromere.
Spindle Fibers - aggregates of microtubules that move chromosomes during cell division.
Telophase - the stage in cell division when the nucleus of one cell is divided equally into two
nuclei.
End of Module Questions

1. Define a cell.
2. What are tissues? What are the basic tissues in humans?
107
3. Describe organ systems.
4. How many organ systems are in the human body?
5. Organisms can carry out all basic life processes. Explain this sentence.
6. Describe the levels of organization of a complex, multicellular organism
7. What is the cell structure and organization?
8. Outline some examples of cellular organization.
9. What are the types of cell organization?
108
Module 3: Interrelationship between organisms
Module Structure
In this module we will discuss about the interrelationship between organisms and the theories of
evolution and natural selection. We shall also study some basic elements of ecology

Unit 2: Heredity and Variation
Glossary

Unit Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Learning Outcomes
1.3 Concept of Interrelationship
1.4 Interactions Between Organisms
1.5 The Environment and the Organisms
1.6 Summary
1.1 Introduction
You will learn in this unit that every organism is shaped by, and in turn shapes its environment in
its life and reproduction. You will also learn that ecological scientists study organism-environment
interactions across ecosystems of all sizes, ranging from microbial communities to the Earth as a
whole.

• Recognize that every organism is shaped by, and in turn shapes its environment in its life
and reproduction.
• Explain the Concept of Interrelationship
109
• Describe how ecological scientists study organism-environment interactions across
ecosystems of all sizes, ranging from microbial communities to the Earth as a whole.
• Describe the various interactions between organisms
1.3 Concept of Interrelationship
The diversity and scope of life on Earth is astounding, ranging from microscopic viruses and
bacteria that have gone unnoticed for millennia to 200-ton blue whales and fungus that cover
hundreds of hectares underground. Inside a certain geographic area, within an ecological
community, entities reside in an assemblage of populations with at least two different species that
are constantly interacting with one another, either directly or indirectly. Numerous biological
processes in ecosystems, such as the food chain and the nutrient cycle, are based on interactions
between species. These interactions take in many forms depending on their surroundings and
evolutionary history. These interactions, which can be found in various ecosystems, can be
categorised in a number of ways. These interactions can be used as a framework for ecological
community analysis to characterise naturally occurring processes, which can then be used to
forecast human adjustments that may affect the characteristics and processes of ecosystems. These
interactions might be intra-specific or inter-specific (involving distinct species) (interactions
between same species). The environment is in a whirlwind with all living things. The organism
develops a certain kind of relationship with respect to resources; some organisms compete with
one another while others depend on one another for survival. These traits are broken down into
four categories: parasitism, commensalism, predation, and mutualism. Both organisms profit from
a symbiotic connection. With commensalism, one organism gains and the other is, in a sense,
neutrally affected—neither aided nor damaged. There are two forms of parasitic relationships:
ectoparasites and endoparasites, where one organism gains while the other suffers. Predation
occurs when one organism kills and consumes another. Some species have extremely close
symbiotic interactions with one another, meaning that both of them depend on the other to survive.
Inside a certain geological region in a natural network, animals coexist in a variety of populations
that at least have two separate species that are constantly interacting with one another, either
directly or indirectly. Some organic processes in biological systems, such as the cycle of nutrients
and evolved forms of life, are shaped by interactions between species. The concept behind these
interactions depends on the environmental factors and evolutionary perspectives that have led to
their existence. Different contexts have different ways of characterising these interactions. These
interactions can be used as a foundation for breaking down the environmental network to show
patterns that naturally occur, which can then be used to predict changes made by humans that
might affect the characteristics and workings of biological systems. These interactions might be
intraspecific or specific (involving different species) (interactions between same species). We will
acquire in-depth information on the various kinds of partnerships and interactions between species
in this unit. As an illustration, the cat represents the predator and the bird is the prey. The predator
is the cat, one who kills and eats; the target is the bird, one who gets killed and eaten. Any animal
that hunts other organisms down, kills, and eats them for survival is known as a predator. This
process is called predation. What do we refer the interactions between and within species as?
1. What is a predator?
2. Upon what does the idea of species interactions
110 rely on an
ecosystem?
1.4 Interactions Between Organisms
In a symbiotic connection known as parasitism, one organism gains while the other suffers, and in
certain cases, even perishes. Consider a few instances: mosquitoes frequently attend picnics and
consume food at your cost. Some of the deadliest diseases that affect humans are spread by
mosquitoes. Thus, the mosquito eats, and you run the risk of being ill. Ticks will behave similarly
toward you, dogs, and even livestock. When they begin to eat, they latch on to their hosts and
spread a variety of infections, including Lyme disease, to them. Leech, a segmented worm that
attaches to a host like you and feeds on your blood, is one of many parasitic worms; They really
release a chemical that stops the blood from clotting. In addition to being crippling, if present in
large enough numbers, it may also be fatal.
Animals live in spaces known as niches. A niche is the area where an organism lives, how it uses
the resources in that area, and how it interacts with other organisms there. Five different types of
connections can be used to describe how organisms interact inside or between overlapping niches:
parasitism, commensalism, competition, predation, and commensalism. Symbiotic connections are
traditionally classified as the last three kinds, but predation and competition are also examples of
symbiotic relationships. A close relationship in which one or both organisms profit is referred to
as symbiosis.
Competition and Predation
When one organism feeds on another to get nutrients, this is called predation. The prey is the living
thing that is consumed. Predators include owls that consume mice and lions that consume gazelles.
Individuals or communities engaging in competition for the same resource can be between or
within species. Consumptive or exploitative competition occurs when organisms compete for a
resource (such food or building materials). They engage in interference competition when vying
for territory. Preemptive competition is when two parties compete for new territory by showing up
first. The conflict between lions and hyenas over prey is one example.
Commensalism
A relationship known as commensalism occurs when one organism gains while the other is neither
aided nor hurt. Examples are the barnacles that develop on whales and other aquatic creatures. The
barnacle serves no purpose for the whale, but it gives the barnacles greater movement, which
enables them to avoid predators and exposes them to a wider variety of eating options. Commensal
relationships come in four different fundamental varieties. When one bacterium generates a
chemical that supports another bacterium, this is known as chemical commensalism. When one
organism occupies a nest, burrow, or place of residence of another species, this is known as
inquilinism. Commensalism that depends on another species for survival is known as metabiosis.
Phoresy is the temporary attachment of one organism to another for the purpose of transportation.
Parasitism
In a connection known as parasitism, one organism gains and the other is sometimes injured but
not always killed. The parasite is the organism that gains, and the host is the organism that suffers.
When an organism lays its egg inside of another organism, which is later consumed by the
hatchlings, this is known as parasitoidism, which is distinct from parasitism because the host is
111
always destroyed. Ectoparasites reside on the host's surface eg. ticks, fleas, and leeches.
Endoparasites, such as intestinal worms, are another type of parasite that lives inside the host.
Endoparasites can also be divided into intracellular (which live inside cells) and intercellular
(which dwell between cells) parasites. There is also something called hyperparasitism, a situation
where a parasite is infected by another parasite, such as a microorganism living in a flea, which
lives on a dog. Lastly, a relationship called social parasitism is exemplified by an ant species that
does not have worker ants, living among another ant species that do, by using the host species’
workers.
Mutualism
A partnership in which both species profit is known as mutualism. Three types of mutualistic
interaction patterns exist. When one organism cannot thrive without the other, there is obligatory
mutualism. When an organism coexists with multiple partners, this is referred to as diffuse
mutualism. When one species can live on its own in specific circumstances, this is known as
facultative mutualism. Mutualistic interactions also provide three other general goals. Lichens,
which are made up of either algae or cyanobacteria and fungi, are an excellent example of trophic
mutualism. The partners of the fungi produce sugar through photosynthesis, while the fungi
themselves provide nutrition by breaking down rock. Ants and aphids are an example of a
defensive mutualism where one organism provides protection from predators while the other
provides food or refuge. Dispersive mutualism is when one species receives food in return for
transporting the pollen of the other organism, which occurs between bees and flowers.
1. What is parasitism?
2. List the two types of parasites.
1.5 The Environment and the Organisms

The environment is dynamic because physical processes drive change in Earth's attributes over
time. However, research demonstrates that life itself drives equally important environmental
changes. Other organisms being part of each individual’s environment, changes in species
distributions can profoundly alter ecological interactions within communities. In some cases, the
loss of a native species, or introduction of a non-native one, can threaten the survival of other
organisms. For this reason, conservation of endangered organisms and control of invasive species
are of broad concern. Organisms inhabit nearly every environment on Earth, from hot vents deep
in the ocean floor to the icy reaches of the Arctic. Each environment offers both resources and
constraints that shape the appearance of the species that inhabit it, and the strategies these species
use to survive and reproduce. Some of the broadest patterns of environmental difference arise from
the way our planet orbits the Sun and the resulting global distribution of sunlight. In the tropics,
where solar radiation is plentiful year-round, temperatures are warm, and plants may
photosynthesize continuously as long as water and nutrients are available. In polar regions, where
solar radiation is seasonally limited, mean temperatures are much lower, and organisms must cope
with extended periods when photosynthesis ceases.
Across ecosystems, environmental resources and constraints shape the structure and physiology of
organisms. One of Earth’s oldest environmental legacies is the array of chemical elements it
112
contains. At its birth, Earth inherited carbon atoms produced by stars that burned out long before
our sun was formed. These carbon atoms, with their unique capacity to build chains and four-way
links with other elements, provide the backbone of all the organic molecules that make up life
today. Nitrogen and phosphorus are also essential elements in living organisms, where they play
central roles in the makeup of proteins, nucleic acids, and energetic compounds. These elements
are not always readily available to organisms, so nutrient limitations can powerfully constrain
biological strategies. For example, inert nitrogen gas makes up 78% of Earth’s atmosphere, but
nitrogen forms readily useable by organisms are typically much scarcer in terrestrial ecosystems.
Over evolutionary time, symbioses that developed between nitrogen-fixing bacteria and plants
helped increase the availability of nitrogen in many ecosystems. Nonetheless, given strong
competition for nitrogen and other elements, ecologists find that nutrient limitations constrain life
in many environments. Organisms are shaped further by the physical properties of the media in
which they live, including the media’s densities and temperatures. For example, marine mammals
like Stellar sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) have developed streamlined bodies that move
efficiently through water, which is more than 700 times denser than air, but that slow them down
on land. As a result, sea lions sleep on shore, but hunt for food primarily in the water, where their
speed is optimized.
Ecologists have found that interactions among organisms come in several different forms. In
antagonistic relationships, organisms compete for resources, spread disease to their neighbors, or
consume each other. In more mutualistic associations, one organism shelters another, two
organisms exchange resources, or tighter dependencies evolve, such as coevolved relationships
between specialized pollinators and flowers. In some cases, species even cultivate others. For
example, ecologists recently found that coral reef damselfish tend underwater algal gardens, where
they remove less desirable algae species and chase away predators. In other cases, species with
large structures become habitat for smaller organisms. For example, the human digestive tract
harbors so many bacteria that they outnumber the cells in the human body by tenfold. Investigating
how digestive tract microbes influence their hosts is now a promising area of microbial ecology
and medicine. At a bigger scale, the evolutionary rise of flowering plants (angiosperms) and the
development of extensive rainforest canopies produced novel environments in which animals
tested new ecological strategies. Scientists suggest that evolution of the open branch structure of
rainforest trees helped drive the evolution of forelimb structure in apes, permitting tree-to-tree
swinging, and bequeathing manual dexterity to humans.
1. Over evolutionary time, what helped increase the availability of
nitrogen in ecosystems?
2. Why may plants photosynthesize continuously as long as water and
nutrients are available in the tropics?
1.6 Summary
The species interactions discussed above are only some of the known interactions that occur in
nature and can be difficult to identify because they can directly or indirectly influence other intra-
specific and inter-specific interactions. In addition, the role of abiotic factors adds complexity to
species interactions and how we understand them. That is to say, species interactions are part of
the framework that forms the complexity of ecological communities.
113
eBook Packages Springer Book Archive, DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1007, /978-94-011-
6948-6, eBook ISBN978-94- 011-6948-6. 388pp
Sharma, P. D. (2017). Ecology and Environment Thirteenth Edition, Rastogi Publications, ISBN:
9789350781227, 9350781220. 776pgs
Yousaf, Z. (2017). Plant Ecology - Traditional Approaches to Recent Trends. ISBN 978-953-51-
3340-7. pp200
https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/ecologists-study-the-interactions-of-
organisms-and-13235586/
https://encrypted-
vtbn0.gstatic.com/video?q=tbn:ANd9GcTA24j6jJzeGHurKRJtdNwDsreYnPqpoRkqDg
Video Link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dKGNsye4HV8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4n03ImI5_T8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YFW55_diHzU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q2zdiLn3gSE&vl=en

Answers to SAE 1
1. Any animal that hunts other organisms down, kills, and eats them for survival is known as
a predator.
2. Species interactions relied on the environmental conditions and evolutionary angles
wherein they exist
1. Any animal that hunts other organisms down, kills, and eats them for survival is known as
a predator.
2. Species interactions relied on the environmental conditions and evolutionary angles
wherein they exist
Answers to SAE 2
1. Parasitism is a relationship in which one organism benefits and the other organism is
harmed, but not always killed.
2. Parasites can be ectoparasites -- such as ticks, fleas, and leeches -- that live on the surface
of the host. Parasites can also be endoparasites -- such as intestinal worms – that live inside the
host.
Answers to SAE 3
1. Over evolutionary time, symbioses that developed between nitrogen-fixing bacteria and
plants helped increase the availability of nitrogen in many ecosystems.
2. Solar radiation is plentiful year-round, temperatures are warm
Unit 2: Genetics and Evolution
Unit Structure
2.1 Introduction
114
2.3 Heredity
2.3.1 Contribution of Gregor Johann Mendel to the Study of Genetics
2.3.2 Principle of segregation and independent assortment
2.4 Variation and its importance
2.5 How characteristics are inherited
2.5.1 Dominant and recessive genes
2.5.2 Gene changes and Co-dominant genes
2.6 Summary
2.1 Introduction
In this unit you shall learn some fundamental aspects of genetics such as Mendel’s laws,
chromosomes, genes, how DNA duplicates, what makes a fertilized egg male or female and about
dominant and recessive genes, and gene changes and co-dominant genes

• define the term heredity and variation;
• state pattern of Mendelian inheritance;

• describe the location, structure and function of chromosomes and genes
• give an account of the four blood groups in humans and the manner of their
inheritance;
• explain the chromosomal basis of sex determination in humans;
2.3 Heredity
Why does a baby who looks like a human also resemble its parents, grandparents, or even distant
cousins, uncles, or aunts? Why does a kitten look like a tiny cat to you? Why do a seedling's leaves,
stems, or flowers develop similarly to those of its parents' plants? Why, in addition, do all
organisms share their parents' structural characteristics? Heredity is the scientific term for the
transmission of traits from one generation to the next. The phenomenon of passing on
characteristics or qualities from one set of parents to another is known as heredity. Any quality
that is passed down from parent to child is referred to as a trait. The fertilised egg or zygote has
characteristics that carry over from one generation to the next. That zygote grows into a certain
kind of organism. Genes are in charge of heredity. Even among members of the same family,
variances or differences result from different gene combinations. Genetics is the study of heredity
and genetic variation. Many scientists in the past were fascinated by the topic of heredity. A monk
from Austria named Gregor Johann Mendel (1822–1884) undertook the arduous process of doing
so. He chose a few pea plants, raised them year after year, gathered a lot of data, examined it, and
for the first time theorised a few inheritance laws. His remarkable work, however, got recognized
years after his death when
115
Correns, Tschermak and Hugo de Vries came to the same conclusions as Mendel did, after
independently carrying out experiments in their own countries.
2.3.1 Contribution of Gregor Johann Mendel to the Study of Genetics
Mendel established that certain qualities appear in offspring without any mixing of parent
characteristics through the selective cross-breeding of common pea plants (Pisum sativum) over
many generations. For example, the pea bloom is either purple or white; cross-pollinated pea plants
do not produce offspring with intermediate colours. Mendel identified seven features that are
instantly recognisable and seem to only exist in two forms:
1. flower color is purple or white 5. seed color is yellow or green

2. flower position is axil or terminal 6. pod shape is inflated or constricted
3. stem length is long or short 7. pod color is yellow or green
4. seed shape is round or wrinkled
Mendel picked common garden pea plants for the focus of his research because they can be grown
easily in large numbers and their reproduction can be manipulated. Pea plants have both male and
female reproductive organs. As a result, they can either self-pollinate themselves or cross-
pollinate with another plant. In his experiments, Mendel was able to selectively cross-
pollinate purebred plants with particular traits and observe the outcome over many
generations. This was the basis for his conclusions about the nature of genetic inheritance.
Reproductive
structures of
flowers
Figure 1.1 Reproductive structures of flowers. Source:www.byjus.om
In cross-pollinating plants that either produce yellow or green pea seeds exclusively, Mendel found
that the first offspring generation (f1) always has yellow seeds. However, the following
generation (f2) consistently has a 3:1 ratio of yellow to green.
This 3:1 ratio occurs in later generations as well. Mendel realized that this underlying regularity
was the key to understanding the basic mechanisms of inheritance.
116
He came to three important conclusions from these experimental results:
1. that the inheritance of each trait is determined by "units" or "factors"
that are passed on to descendents unchanged (these units are now
called genes )
2. that an individual inherits one such unit from each parent for each trait
3. that a trait may not show up in an individual but can still be passed on
to the next generation.
It is important to realize that, in this experiment, the starting parent plants were homozygous for
pea seed color. That is to say, they each had two identical forms (or alleles) of the gene for this
trait--2 yellows or 2 greens. The plants in the f1 generation were all heterozygous. In other
words, they each had inherited two different alleles--one from each parent plant. It becomes
clearer when we look at the actual genetic makeup, or genotype of the pea plants instead of only
the phenotype, or observable physical characteristics.
Note that each of the f1 generation plants (shown above) inherited a Y allele from one parent and
a G allele from the other. When the f1 plants breed, each has an equal chance of passing on either
Y or G alleles to each offspring.
With all of the seven pea plant traits that Mendel examined, one form appeared dominant over
the other, which is to say it masked the presence of the other allele. For example, when the
genotype for pea seed color is YG (heterozygous), the phenotype is yellow. However, the
dominant yellow allele does not alter the recessive green one in any way. Both alleles can be
passed on to the next generation unchanged.
2.3.2 Principle of Segregation and Independent Assortment
Mendel's observations from his pea plant experiments lead to the principles of segregation and
principle of independent assortment. According to the principle of segregation, for any particular
trait, the pair of alleles of each parent separate and only one allele passes from each parent on to
an offspring. Which allele in a parent's pair of alleles is inherited is a matter of chance. We now
117
know that this segregation of alleles occurs during the process of sex cell formation (i.e.,
meiosis ).
Figure 1.2. Segregation of alleles in the production of sex cells

According to the principle of independent assortment, different pairs of alleles are passed to
offspring independently of each other. The result is that new combinations of genes present in
neither parent are possible. For example, a pea plant's inheritance of the ability to produce purple
flowers instead of white ones does not make it more likely that it will also inherit the ability to
produce yellow pea seeds in contrast to green ones. Likewise, the principle of independent
assortment explains why the human inheritance of a particular eye color does not increase or
decrease the likelihood of having 6 fingers on each hand. Today, we know this is due to the fact
that the genes for independently assorted traits are located on different chromosomes .
Five parts of Mendel's discoveries were an important divergence from the common theories at the
time and were the prerequisite for the establishment of his rules.
1. Characters are unitary. That is, they are discrete (purple vs. white, tall vs. dwarf).
2. Genetic characteristics have alternate forms, each inherited from one of two parents. Today, we
call these alleles.
3. One allele is dominant over the other. The phenotype reflects the dominant allele.
4. Gametes are created by random segregation. Heterozygotic individuals produce gametes with
an equal frequency of the two alleles.
5. Different traits have independent assortment. In modern terms, genes are unlinked
What are the alternate forms of Genetic characteristic inherited from one of two parents referred?
1. What is heredity?
2. What were the prerequisite for the establishment of Mendel's rules
from his discoveries?
2.4 Genetic Variation and its Importance
118
Genetic variety describes variations in the genomes of individuals within the same species. All an
organism's genes and genetic material are contained in its genome. For example, there are around
20.000–25000 genes in the human genome. Genes are inherited informational units that contain
the blueprints for making proteins. Cells can operate because of the genes that are encoded in these
proteins. Because each parent cell or organism gives one copy of its genes to its offspring, most
sexually reproducing organisms have two copies of each gene. Genetic variation can also be further
increased by the existence of alleles, which are slightly different versions of genes. The genotype
for a given attribute, such as hair texture, is determined by the mixture of alleles of a gene that an
individual receives from both parents. The phenotype—the observable characteristics—that an
individual has for a trait, such as whether they truly have straight, wavy, or curly hair, is determined
by the genotype that person carries for that feature.
Multiple factors can cause genetic variation within a species. Genetic diversity can come from
various sources, one of which being mutations, or alterations in the DNA's gene sequences. Gene
flow, or the transfer of genes between several groups of organisms, is another source. The
development of new gene combinations through sexual reproduction can also result in genetic
variety. Some animals in a group can survive in their environment more successfully than others
thanks to genetic variety. Even among members of a small population, the degree to which an
organism is adapted to a given environment might vary noticeably. Moths of the same species with
variously coloured wings serve as an illustration. Moths of a different hue are less effective at
concealing themselves than those with wings that resemble tree bark. The tree-colored moths have
a higher chance of surviving, procreating, and passing on their genes as a result, a process known
as natural selection, and it is the primary driver behind evolution. The importance of variation can
be outlined as follows:
1. They enable the organism to adapt in a changing environment.

2. Variation forms the basis of heredity
3. They form raw material for evolution and development of new species.
Variations may or may not help organisms to survive:

a) Some variations help organisms to survive: Green bushes are homes to several beetles. They
multiply, which increases their population. The red beetles are easily spotted by crows, who then
consume them. Due to some fluctuation, some green beetles rather than red beetles are produced
during reproduction. Crows cannot see the green bugs and do not consume them. The population
of red beetles then progressively declines while the population of green beetles gradually rises.
The organisms' ability to live is due to this variation.
b) Some variations do not help organisms to survive: Red beetles undergo a colour change during
sexual reproduction, and some blue beetles are produced in place of red beetles. Crows can see the
red and blue insects, and they consume them both. The population of red and blue beetles then
starts to decline. The organisms have not fared better as a result of this modification.
c) Acquired traits cannot be passed from one generation to the next: Beetle population growth and
plant disease both result in a reduction in the amount of food accessible to them, which also affects
their body weight. The body weight of the beetles will also increase if, after a few years, there is
more food available. Since their genetic makeup has not changed, this acquired trait cannot be
passed from one generation to another.
119
1. What is genetic variation?

2. How
2.5 Outline the importanceare
Characteristics of Inherited
variation?
Parents pass on traits or characteristics, such as eye colour and blood type, to their children through
their genes. Some health conditions and diseases can be passed on genetically too. Sometimes, one
characteristic has many different forms. For example, blood type can be A, B, AB or O. Changes
(or variations) in the gene for that characteristic cause these different forms. Each variation of a
gene is called an allele (pronounced ‘AL-eel’). These two copies of the gene contained in your
chromosomes influence the way your cells work. The two alleles in a gene pair are inherited, one
from each parent. Alleles interact with each other in different ways called inheritance patterns.
Examples of inheritance patterns include:
• autosomal dominant – where the gene for a trait or condition is dominant, and is on a non-
sex chromosome
• autosomal recessive – where the gene for a trait or condition is recessive, and is on a non-
sex chromosome
• X-linked dominant – where the gene for a trait or condition is dominant, and is on the X-
chromosome
• X-linked recessive – where the gene for a trait or condition is recessive, and is on the X-
chromosome
• Y-linked – where the gene for a trait or condition is on the Y-chromosome
• co-dominant – where each allele in a gene pair carries equal weight and produces a
combined physical characteristic
• mitochondrial – where the gene for a trait or condition is in your mitochondrial DNA,
which sits in the mitochondria (powerhouse) of your cells.
2.5.1 Dominant and recessive genes
The most common interaction between alleles is a dominant/recessive relationship. An allele of a
gene is said to be dominant when it effectively overrules the other (recessive) allele. Eye colour
and blood groups are both examples of dominant/recessive gene relationships.
1. Eye colour
The allele for brown eyes (B) is dominant over the allele for blue eyes (b). So, if you have one
allele for brown eyes and one allele for blue eyes (Bb), your eyes will be brown. (This is also the
case if you have two alleles for brown eyes, (BB). However, if both alleles are for the recessive
trait (bb) you will inherit blue eyes.
2. Blood groups
For blood groups, the alleles are A, B and O. The A allele is dominant over the O allele. So, a
person with one A allele and one O allele (AO) has blood group A. Blood group A is said to have
a dominant inheritance pattern over blood group O. If a mother has the alleles A and O (AO), her
blood group will be A because the A allele is dominant. If the father has two O alleles (OO), he
has the blood group O. For each child that couple has, each parent will pass on one or the other of
those two alleles. This is shown in figure 2.1. This means that each one of their children has a 50
per cent chance of having blood group A (AO) and a 50 per cent chance of having blood group O
(OO), depending on which alleles they inherit.
O O
Mother’s blood group A AO AO
120
(group A) (group A)
(AO, group A) O OO OO
(group O) (group O)
Figure 2.1: Father’s blood group (OO, group O)
The combination of alleles that you have is called your genotype (eg. AO). The observable trait
that you have – in this case blood group A – is your phenotype.
Recessive genetic conditions
If a person has one changed (q) and one unchanged (Q) copy of a gene, and they do not have the
condition associated with that gene change, they are said to be a carrier of that condition. The
condition is said to have a recessive inheritance pattern – it is not expressed if there is a functioning
copy of the gene present. If two people are carriers (Qq) of the same recessive genetic condition,
there is a 25 per cent (or one in four) chance that they may both pass the changed copy of the gene
on to their child (qq, see figure 2.2). As the child then do not have an unchanged, fully functioning
copy of the gene, they will develop the condition. There is also a 25 per cent chance that each child
of the same parents may be unaffected, and a 50 per cent chance that they may be carriers of the
condition.
Q P
Mother (carrier) Q QQ Qq
(unaffected) (carrier)
q Qq qq
(carrier) (affected)
Figure 2.2: Father (carrier)
Recessive genetic conditions are more likely to arise if two parents are related, although they are
still quite rare. Examples of autosomal recessive genetic conditions include cystic
fibrosis and phenylketonuria (PKU).
2.5.2 Gene changes and Co-dominant genes
A cell reproduces by copying its genetic information then splitting in half, forming two individual
cells. Occasionally, an alteration occurs in this process, causing a genetic change. When this
happens, chemical messages sent to the cell may also change. This spontaneous genetic change
can cause issues in the way the person’s body functions. Sperm and egg cells are known as ‘germ’
cells. Every other cell in the body is called ‘somatic’ (meaning ‘relating to the body’).
If a change in a gene happens spontaneously in a person’s somatic cells, they may develop the
condition related to that gene change, but won’t pass it on to their children. For example, skin
cancer can be caused by a build-up of spontaneous changes in genes in the skin cells caused by
damage from UV radiation. Other causes of spontaneous gene changes in somatic cells include
exposure to chemicals and cigarette smoke. However, if the gene change occurs in a person’s germ
cells, that person’s children have a chance of inheriting the altered gene.
Not all genes are either dominant or recessive. Sometimes, each allele in the gene pair carries equal
weight and will show up as a combined physical characteristic. For example, with blood groups,
the A allele is as ‘strong’ as the B allele. The A and B alleles are said to be co-dominant. Someone
with one copy of A and one copy of B has the blood group AB. The inheritance pattern of children
from parents with blood groups B (BO) and A (AO) is given in figure 2.3. Each one of their
children has a 25 per cent chance of having blood group AB (AB), A (AO), B (BO) or O (OO),
depending on which alleles they inherit.
121
B O
Mother’s blood group A AB AO
(group AB) (group A)
(group A) O OB OO
(group B) (group O)
Figure 2.3: Father’s blood group - (group B)

Differentiate between X-linked dominant and X-linked recessive characters.
1. When is an allele of a gene is said to be dominant?

2. Distinguish between autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive
2.6 Summary
In this unit you have learned some fundamental aspects of genetics such as Mendel’s laws,
chromosomes, genes, how DNA duplicates, what makes a fertilized egg male or female and about
dominant and recessive genes, and gene changes and co-dominant genes.

Resources
495-55795-1, 383pp
https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/heredity-and-evolution/heredity/
https://byjus.com/biology/heredity-and-evolution/
https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/jesc109.pdf
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vj1k3fya0zw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cBOlcV0EuOk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AsDMi3-k6gI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NSgT01BPnoo

Answers to SAE 1
1. Heredity is known as the phenomena of inheritance of traits or features of parents to
offspring or progeny. A trait is any characteristic that is transferred from parent to offspring.
2. Five parts of Mendel's discoveries were an important divergence from the common theories
at the time and were the prerequisite for the establishment of his rules.
i. Characters are unitary. That is, they are discrete (purple vs. white, tall vs. dwarf).
ii. Genetic characteristics have alternate forms, each inherited from one of two parents. Today, we
call these alleles.
iii. One allele is dominant over the other. The phenotype reflects the dominant allele.
122
iv. Gametes are created by random segregation. Heterozygotic individuals produce gametes with
an equal frequency of the two alleles.
v. Different traits have independent assortment. In modern terms, genes are unlinked
Answers to SAE 2
1. The differences in the DNA sequences among every organism leading to the diverse gene pool
are called genetic variations.
2. The importance of variation can be outlined:
i. They enable the organism to adapt them in changing environment.
ii. Variation forms the basis of heredity
iii. They form raw material for evolution and development of new species
Answers to SAE 3
1. An allele of a gene is said to be dominant when it effectively overrules the other (recessive)
allele.
2. Autosomal dominant – where the gene for a trait or condition is dominant, and is on a non-
sex chromosome and Autosomal recessive – where the gene for a trait or condition is recessive,
and is on a non-sex chromosome

Unit Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.3 Introduction to Evolution
3.4 Theories of Evolution
3.5 Encapsulating the concepts of Heredity and Evolution
3.6 Summary
3.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercise
3.1 Introduction
You will learn about evolution as the gradual change of organisms on the earth over long periods,
with new forms replacing old ones. The unit will explain the various theories of evolution, namely
the theories of Special creationism, evolutionary creationism, spontaneous generation, eternity of
life, Cosmozoan, and Biochemical theory

• Explain the meaning of evolution as the gradual change of organisms on the earth over
long periods, with new forms replacing old ones.
• Explain the various theories of evolution, namely the theories of Special creationism,
evolutionary creationism, spontaneous generation, eternity of life, Cosmozoan, and
Biochemical theory
• You will also study how evidences of evolutionist theory support the process of evolution
123
3.3 Introduction to Evolution
Evolution is the long-term, gradual replacement of previous forms by new ones in all living things
on Earth. Larger, more complex animals have replaced smaller ones as evolution has proceeded,
expanding the diversity of the earth. Some species have also gone extinct. Another definition of
evolution is the shift in a population's genetic make-up through time, which can be brought about
by meiosis, hybridization, natural selection, or mutation. As a result, the population begins to
diverge from other populations of the same species, which may result in the emergence of a new
species. theories concerning how life came to be on Earth. The theory of evolution describes how
the various forms of life on earth (including humans) emerged and developed. There are five main
theories of the origin of life on Earth:
• special creationism
• spontaneous generation
• eternity of life
• cosmozoan theory
• biochemical origin
a) Special creationism
According to the special creation idea, a Supreme Being/God created all of the different types of
life on Earth simultaneously over the course of six days. Special creativity is always associated
with religion and mostly concentrated on spiritual issues that cannot be adequately felt, touched,
or quantified. There are two perspectives on how life came to be various creationist theories
Gap creation – talks about the significant time lag between the earth's origin and the emergence
of all the creatures and vegetation. The difference could amount to billions or millions of years.
Progressive creation acknowledges the Big Bangs as the universe's point of beginning. It
acknowledges that all living things have a history of creation as evidenced by their fossil records,
but it rejects the idea that this process is ongoing (each is seen as unique creation).
Evolutionary creationism (Theistic evolution)
This view of evolution maintains that God ‘invented‟ evolution and takes some form of an active
part in the ongoing process of evolution.
Intelligent design – states that life developed (formed) from a combination of natural forces and
the intervention of a supernatural being.
b) Spontaneous generation theory
Suggests that life can evolve 'spontaneously' from non-living objects. Eg. people believed that
rotting meat turned into flies.
c) Eternity of life
The theory of eternity of life states that the universe has always existed and that there has always
been life in the universe. There is no beginning and no end to life on earth and so life is neither
created nor generated from non-living matters
d) Cosmozoan Theory
According to this, life on Earth first evolved elsewhere in the universe (possibly from another
planet). For example, meteorites introduced bacteria and other pathogens to the earth. However,
because it lacks proof and is closely related to the "eternity of life" explanation of the genesis of
life, this theory did not get much favour.
e) Biochemical theory
124
This suggests that life on earth originated as a result of a number of biochemical reactions
producing organic molecules, which combined (associated) to form cells. This theory is also called
abiogenesis; states that life originated from chemical inanimate (abiotic substances). The two
scientists (biologists) who developed the theory of abiogenesis (origin of life from chemicals)
were- Aleksander Oparin (1924) and John Haldane (1929).
What does the Cosmozoan Theory postulates?
1. State the theory of Special creationism in evolution
2.Who are the two scientist that develop the theory of abiogenesis?
3.4 Theories of Evolution

There have been many theories of evolution that have explained how does evolution occur, and
what drives the population to become a new species?
A. Lamarck Theory of evolution: In the 19th century (1809), Lamarck published a paper entitled
Philosophic ‘Zoologique‟ in which he described the two-part mechanism by which change was
gradually introduced into the species and passed down through the generations. This theory is also
called ‘theory of transformation‟ or Lamarckism. The two parts of Lamarck theory are:
i). Use and disuse: Lamarck suggested that a structure or process in organism that can be used
continuously will become enlarged or more developed than any structure that is not. Example,
According Lamarck, giraffe had short neck but they stretched their neck to reach high branches,
an elongated neck use theory. The wings of penguins would have become smaller than those of
other birds because penguins do not use their wings to fly, disuse theory.
ii). Inheritance acquired traits: Lamarck believed that traits changed (acquired) during an
organism’s lifetime could be passed on to its offspring. Example: - Giraffes that had acquired long
necks would have offspring with long necks.
However, nowadays, Lamarck’s theories are not accepted because the environmental changes that
were believed by Lamarck have brought about the changes in the phenotypes (Physical
appearance) of the organisms have no effect on their gametes and hence their heredity.
B. Charles Darwin and Natural Selection: In 1858, both Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace
jointly published a scientific paper that proposed species were modified by natural selection.
Darwin visited five of the Galapagos Islands, made drawings, and collected species. In particular,
Darwin studied the finches found on the different islands and noted there were many similarities
between them but they have some obvious differences. Darwin concluded that an “ancestral finch”
had colonized the Islands from mainland and been able to adapt to the different conditions on the
islands and evolve into different species. Eg. He suggested that some finches had evolved into
insect eaters (pointed peak), others into seedeaters (crushing peak). Darwin summarized his
observations in two main ideas:
• all species tend to produce more offspring than can possibly survive (Fecundity)
• there is a variation among the offspring.
From these observation Darwin deduced (concluded) that:
• There will be a “struggle for existence” between members of a species because they are over –
125
reproduced and resources are limited.
• Some members of a species will be better adapted than others to the environment because there
is a variation in the offspring. Darwin proposed that hose members of a species, which are best
adapted to their environment, will survive and reproduce in greater number than other less adapted
(died out).
C. Neo – Darwinism Theory Charles Darwin knew very little about genetics and did not propose
how variations in the population was passed to the next generation. Nowadays, genes and gene
action are the driving force of evolution in the theory of Natural selection. A Gene pool is all the
alleles in the population. It might be evolving a population into a new species. Suppose an allele
determines a feature that gives an organism an advantage in its environment. The following will
happen:
• Those individuals with the advantageous allele of a gene will survive to reproduce in greater
number than other types
• Advantageous allele pass to their offspring in greater numbers than other genes (alleles).
• The frequency of the advantageous allele will be higher in the next generation of a population.
Mutations are important in introducing variation into population. Any mutation could produce an
allele which:
• Increase in frequency if they are beneficial in their effect, may increase slowly, stable or decrease
if they are neutral and decrease and could disappear if they are harmful (disadvantages) in their
effects. Neo-Darwinism is a modification of Darwin’s original theory that takes into account:-
genetics and ethology (behavioural pattens can also be advantageous or not). Eg. Young geese
‘imprint‟ upon the first moving object after they are hatched. State the Lamarck’s theory of Use
and disuse.
1. State the theory of Inheritance acquired traits.
2. Why is Lamarck’s theories are not accepted nowadays?
3.5 Encapsulating the concepts of Heredity and Evolution
126
Figure 3.1 Encapsulating the concepts of Heredity and Evolution
What are the features of acquired traits in Heredity?
1. What are the key factors in modern concept of evolution?
2. What are inherited traits?
127
3.6 Summary
You must have learned the meaning of evolution as the gradual change of organisms on the earth
over long periods, with new forms replacing old ones. The unit also highlighted the various
theories of evolution, namely the theories of Special creationism, evolutionary creationism,
spontaneous generation, eternity of life, Cosmozoan, and Biochemical theory. The evidences of
evolutionist theory that supports the process of evolution was also explained.

Resources
495-55795-1, 383pp
https://cdn.kastatic.org/ka-youtube-converted/GcjgWov7mTM.mp4/GcjgWov7mTM.mp4#t=0
https://www.britannica.com/science/natural-selection
https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/natural-selection
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EG3FuQ6xL3I
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rF8nhLJ0iV8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vj1k3fya0zw

Answers to SAE 1
1. Special creation theory states that the different forms of life on earth were created by a
Supreme Being/ God/ at once with six days.
2. The scientists who developed the theory of abiogenesis were:- Aleksander Oparin (1924)
and John Haldane (1929).
Answers to SAE 2
1. Lamarck believed that traits changed, acquired during an organism’s lifetime could be
passed on to its offspring's.
2. Lamarck’s theories are not accepted because the environmental changes that were believed
by Lamarck have brought about the changes in the phenotypes (Physical appearance) of the
organisms have no effect on their gametes and hence their heredity.
Answers to SAE 3
1. Factors in modern concept of evolution

i. Genetic variation
ii. Natural selections and
iii. Reproductive isolation
128
2. They are traits controlled by specific genes passed on from one generation to another
Unit Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.3 Natural Selection
4.3.1 The Process of Natural Selection
4.3.2 Natural Selection and the Evolution of Populations
4.4 Evolutionary Adaptation
4.5 The Concept of the Survival of the Fittest
4.6 Summary
4.1 Introduction
You will learn about the Natural Selection as a mechanism of evolution. You will equally study
about the concept of the 'survival of the fittest' and the process of natural selection.

By the end of this unit, you shall be able to:
• Explain the meaning of natural selection as a mechanism of evolution.

• Describe the process of natural selection
• Explain the concept of the 'survival of the fittest'
4.3 Natural Selection

English naturalist Charles Darwin developed the idea of natural selection after a five-year voyage
to study plants, animals, and fossils in South America and on islands in the Pacific. In 1859, he
brought the idea of natural selection to the attention of the world in his best-selling book, On the
Origin of Species. Natural selection is the process through which populations of living
organisms adapt and change. Individuals in a population are naturally variable, meaning that they
are all different in some ways. This variation means that some individuals have traits better suited
to the environment than others. Individuals with adaptive traits—traits that give them some
advantage—are more likely to survive and reproduce. These individuals then pass
the adaptive traits on to their offspring. Over time, these advantageous traits become more
common in the population. Through this process of natural selection, favorable traits are
transmitted through generations. Natural selection can lead to speciation, where one species gives
rise to a new and distinctly different species. It is one of the processes that drives evolution and
helps to explain the diversity of life on Earth.
Darwin chose the name natural selection to contrast with “artificial selection,” or selective
breeding that is controlled by humans. He pointed to the pastime of pigeon breeding, a popular
hobby in his day, as an example of artificial selection. By choosing which pigeons mated with
129
others, hobbyists created distinct pigeon breeds, with fancy feathers or acrobatic flight, that were
different from wild pigeons. Darwin and other scientists of his days argued that a process much
like artificial selection happened in nature, without any human intervention. He argued that natural
selection explained how a wide variety of life forms developed over time from a single common
ancestor. Darwin did not know that genes existed, but he could see that many traits are heritable—
passed from parents to offspring.
Mutations are changes in the structure of the molecules called DNA that make up genes.
The mutation of genes is an important source of genetic variation within a
population. Mutations can be random (for example, when replicating cells make an error while
copying DNA), or happen as a result of exposure to something in the environment, like harmful
chemicals or radiation. Mutations can be harmful, neutral, or sometimes helpful, resulting in a
new, advantageous trait. When mutations occur in germ cells (eggs and sperm), they can be passed
on to offspring. If the environment changes rapidly, some species may not be able to adapt fast
enough through natural selection. Through studying the fossil record, we know that many of the
organisms that once lived on Earth are now extinct eg. Dinosaurs. An invasive species, a disease
organism, a catastrophic environmental change, or a highly successful predator can all contribute
to the extinction of species.
Today, human actions such as overhunting and the destruction of habitats are the main cause of
extinctions. Extinctions seem to be occurring at a much faster rate today than they did in the past,
as shown in the fossil record.
4.3.1 The Process of Natural Selection
Darwin’s process of natural selection has four components.
1. Variation: Organisms (within populations) exhibit individual variation in appearance and

behavior. These variations may involve body size, hair color, facial markings, voice
properties, or number of offspring. On the other hand, some traits show little to no
variation among individuals—for example, number of eyes in vertebrates.
2. Inheritance: Some traits are consistently passed on from parents to offspring. Such traits
are heritable, whereas other traits are strongly influenced by environmental conditions and
show weak heritability.
3. High rate of population growth: Most populations have more offspring each year than local
resources can support leading to a struggle for resources. Each generation experiences
substantial mortality.
4. Differential survival and reproduction: Individuals possessing traits well suited for the
struggle for local resources will contribute more offspring to the next generation.
From one generation to the next, the struggle for resources (what Darwin called the “struggle for
existence”) will favor individuals with some variations over others and thereby change the
frequency of traits within the population. This process is natural selection. The traits that confer
an advantage to those individuals who leave more offspring are called adaptations.
In order for natural selection to operate on a trait, the trait must possess heritable variation and
must confer an advantage in the competition for resources. If one of these requirements does not
130
occur, then the trait does not experience natural selection. (We now know that such traits may
change by other evolutionary mechanisms that have been discovered since Darwin’s time.)
Natural selection operates by comparative advantage, not an absolute standard of design. “…as
natural selection acts by competition for resources, it adapts the inhabitants of each country only
in relation to the degree of perfection of their associates” (Charles Darwin, On the Origin of
Species, 1859).
During the twentieth century, genetics was integrated with Darwin’s mechanism, allowing us to
evaluate natural selection as the differential survival and reproduction of genotypes, corresponding
to particular phenotypes. Natural selection can only work on existing variation within a
population. Such variations arise by mutation, a change in some part of the genetic code for a
trait. Mutations arise by chance and without foresight for the potential advantage or disadvantage
of the mutation. In other words, variations do not arise because they are needed.
4.3.2 Natural Selection and the Evolution of Populations

Though each has been tested and shown to be accurate, none of the observations and inferences
that underlies natural selection is sufficient individually to provide a mechanism for evolutionary
change. Overproduction alone will have no evolutionary consequences if all individuals are
identical. Differences among organisms are not relevant unless they can be inherited. Genetic
variation by itself will not result in natural selection unless it exerts some impact on organisms’
survival and reproduction. However, any time all of Darwin's postulates hold simultaneously—as
they do in most populations—natural selection will occur. The net result in this case is that
certain traits (or, more precisely, genetic variants that specify those traits) will, on average, be
passed on from one generation to the next at a higher rate than existing alternatives in the
population. In other words, when one considers who the parents of the current generation were, it
will be seen that a disproportionate number of them possessed traits beneficial for survival and
reproduction in the particular environment in which they lived.
The important points are that this uneven reproductive success among individuals represents
a process that occurs in each generation and that its effects are cumulative over the span of many
generations. Over time, beneficial traits will become increasingly prevalent in descendant
populations by virtue of the fact that parents with those traits consistently leave more offspring
than individuals lacking those traits. If this process happens to occur in a consistent direction—
say, the largest individuals in each generation tend to leave more offspring than smaller
individuals—then there can be a gradual, generation-by-generation change in the proportion of
traits in the population. This change in proportion and not the modification of organisms
themselves is what leads to changes in the average value of a particular trait in the population.
Organisms do not evolve; populations evolve. How would Genetic variation results in natural
selection?
1. What is meant by natural selection?
2. Outline the four Darwin’s process of natural selection components.
4.4 Evolutionary Adaptation
131
The term “adaptation” derives from ad + aptus, literally meaning “toward + fit”. As the name
implies, this is the process by which populations of organisms evolve in such a way as to become
better suited to their environments as advantageous traits become predominant. The definition
of evolutionary adaptation is the mechanism by which an animal or plant alters itself to
accommodate its changing environment. Organisms can display three types of adaptation, each
of which increase the organism's chance of survival and reproduction, thereby maximizing its
number of descendants across time:
1. Behavioral adaptation: The organism changes how it interacts with its environmental
surroundings as well as other animals and plants.
2. Physiological adaptation: The organism changes how its body functions internally.
3. Structural adaptation: The organism changes at least one of its physical features.
Consider the natural history of emperor penguins in Antarctica. To survive in a frigid

environment, emperor penguins mate in the winter. This breeding schedule lets the chicks have
enough time to mature into independent juveniles before prey become abundant enough for them
to feed on their own. In addition, the males huddle together in tight circles to share body heat
throughout the winter. To accommodate the shortage of prey during the winter season, only
female emperor penguins voyage to the ocean to feed. All three adaptations are the penguin's
behavioral responses to its extremely harsh living environment.
Physiologically, male emperor penguins can live for 100 consecutive days without eating any
food during the winter time. Emperor penguins also can significantly reduce their heart rate so
that they can stay underwater for long periods of time when feeding before resurfacing to
breathe.
In terms of structural adaptations, the emperor penguins have tails that are short and stiff enough
to serve as a prop while they balance on their heels. This standing position minimizes how much
heat is lost from their feet while standing on the snow and ice. In additionally, the bicolor pattern
of penguins serves as a camouflage while swimming in the ocean. The penguins' black back
blends in with the sea when predators, such as leopard seals, look down upon them. Their white
underside blends in with the sky when predators are positioned far below them.
Evolutionary adaptation does not mean that only the best specimens survive or that only the best
genetic traits are passed from one generation to the next. Instead, it means that the organisms better
suited for their environment survive; and that the genetic traits most likely to confer success will
be inherited among their offspring. What do you understand by Evolutionary adaptation?
Outline and define the three types of adaptation that Organisms can
display from evolutionary point of view?
4.5 The Concept of the Survival of the Fittest

In terms of evolution, an animal that is 'fit' is one that is adapted to its environment. This concept
is at the core of natural selection, although the term 'survival of the fittest' has often been
misunderstood and may be best avoided. There is also a degree of randomness to evolution, so the
132
best-adapted animal won't always be the one to survive. Adrian explains, 'If you're going to get hit
by a rock or something, it's just bad luck. But on average and over time, the ones that survive are
the ones that are fittest - the ones that have the best adaptations.' Some important theories of
evolution are as follows:
1. Darwin’s theory: Charles Robert Darwin was a British naturalist who formulated his
hypothesis that evolution took place due to natural selection. Darwin’s theory of evolution tells us
how life evolved from simple to more complex forms.
• Over production.
• Almost constant population.
• Struggle for existence- Intraspecific, Interspecific, Environmental Struggle.
• Variation: Appearance of variation in organisms during struggle for existence.
• Natural selection / Survival of the fittest
• Inheritance of useful variation
2. Lamarckism
Lamarckism is a theory named after French naturalist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829). It
proposes that animals acquire characteristics based on use or disuse during their lives, rather than
through hard-coded genetic changes. In Lamarckian theory, giraffes stretch their necks to make
them longer. These animal's offspring would inherit longer necks as a result of their parents' efforts.
Adrian says, 'If you tried to stretch your neck for 10 minutes each morning, then you would
probably end up with your neck being a few millimetres longer for a few years. However, your
children would not inherit it. That's where this theory fails.'
Lamarck’s theory:
• Organisms and their organs tend to increase their size continuously due to some unknown
forces of life.
• New organs in the organisms are found due to new needs which occur due to change in the
environment.
• Theory of use and disuse of organs.
• Theory of inheritance of acquired character.
3. Mutation Theory: by Hugo de Vries
“A new species is originating from pre-existing species slowly in single step due to genetic
variation called ‘mutation’’. Mutation is sudden inheritable change. It occurs commonly in
naturally breading population. Mutation is directional, less occurring in any direction. It is a subject
for natural selection and most of the mutation is lethal or fatal. Changes in the genetic material,
i.e., mutation, could introduce a wide range of variability in a natural population. With a complex
or shifting environment, a particular variation may give an individual or its offspring a slight edge.
Most mutations are considered deleterious, as they interfere with a genotype that works. However,
occasionally, a mutation arises that increases success. Mutation introduces variability and the
environment determines its value for survival and success. What is the genetic variation that causes
a new species to originate from pre-existing species slowly in a single step?
1.From evolutionary point of view, which organism is being described as 'fit'?
2. What is the thrust of Lamarckism theory in evolution?
133
4.6 Summary
You have learned about natural selection as a mechanism of evolution in this unit. Darwin's theory
of evolution fundamentally changed the direction of future scientific thought, though it was built
on a growing body of thought that began to question prior ideas about the natural world. The core
of Darwin's theory is natural selection, a process that occurs over successive generations and is
defined as the differential reproduction of genotypes. Natural selection requires heritable variation
in a given trait, and differential survival and reproduction associated with possession of that trait.

Resources
495-55795-1, 383pp
https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/natural-selection
https://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/selection/selection.html
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/natural-selection/natural-selection-
ap/a/darwin-evolution-natural-selection
https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolution-101/mechanisms-the-processes-of-evolution/natural-
selection/
https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/what-is-natural-
selection.html#:~:text=Natural%20selection%20is%20a%20mechanism,change%20and%20dive
rge%20over%20time.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0SCjhI86grU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7VM9YxmULuo&vl=en
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WmTlwD2Zd7E&vl=en
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/natural-selection/natural-selection-
ap/v/biodiversity-and-natural-selection-two
Answers to SAE 1
1. The process through which organisms adapt and change themselves in huge populations is
known as natural selection.
2. Darwin’s process of natural selection has four components.
1. Variation.
2. Inheritance.
3. High rate of population growth.
4. Differential survival and reproduction.
Answers to SAE 2
134
1. Behavioral adaptation: The organism changes how it interacts with its environmental
surroundings as well as other animals and plants.
2. Physiological adaptation: The organism changes how its body functions internally.
3. Structural adaptation: The organism changes at least one of its physical features.
Answers to SAE 3
1. In terms of evolution, an organism that is 'fit' is one that is adapted to its environment
2. It proposes that animals acquire characteristics based on use or disuse during their lives,
rather than through hard-coded genetic changes.

Unit Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.3 Defining of Ecology
5.4 Definitions of Ecological Terminologies
5.5 The meaning of Habitat in Ecology
5.5.1 Ecological Niche
5.5.2 Niche Formation and Partitioning
5.6 Summary
5.1 Introduction
You will learn the meaning and elements of ecology in this unit. You will appreciate the
importance of the study of Ecology and understand some basic ecological terms. The various
branches of ecology and the criteria employed for the classification of the various branches will
be highlighted.

By the end of this unit, you shall be able to:
• Define ecology
• Appreciate the importance of the study Ecology
• Understand some basic ecological terms.
• Describe the various branches of ecology
• Explain the criteria employed for the classification of the various branches
• Explain the meaning of habitat and describe the various types
5.3 Defining Ecology
135
The word ‘Ecology‟ was coined from Greek word 'oikos' meaning 'house' or 'a place to live' and
'logos' meaning study. Ecology is the study of the households of the planet earth. Living things
depend on each other and on the non-living components of the environment for survival. Based on
this, it is possible to say ecology is the study of the relationship of living organisms among
themselves and with the non-living components of the environment. Different Authors defined
ecology differently. Some of them are:
• Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their
environments
• The study of the relationships, distribution, and abundance of organisms, or groups of
organisms, in an environment
Ecology studies the interactions of living things with their physical environments, with other
organisms of the same species, different species, and with the movement of matter and energy
within biological systems (Environment includes not only the physical but also the biological
conditions under which an organism lives). Ecologists research these relationships to comprehend
the variety and richness of life throughout the ecosystems on Earth. In other words, why are there
so many different kinds of plants and animals? They may utilise laboratory trials that examine
processes like predation rates in controlled settings, field measures like species counts and
observations of behaviour in their habitats, and other methods to try and find answers to these
problems; or field experiments, such as testing how plants grow in their natural setting but with
different levels of light, water, and other inputs. Information about these interactions is used in
applied ecology to tackle problems like building land and marine conservation areas for threatened
species, managing fisheries without overharvesting, and simulating how natural ecosystems may
react to climate change. Ecosystems are constantly changing due to natural phenomenoa such
climate change, species extinction, and ecological succession. We can better forecast how
ecosystems will react to environmental changes by understanding how they work. However,
because living things in ecosystems are interconnected in complicated ways, it is sometimes
difficult to predict how a decision like introducing a new species would impact the ecosystem as
a whole.
Branches of Ecology
Ecology can be divided depending on the following concepts:
• Hierarchical organization –according to level of organization
• Taxonomic –according to organisms studied
• Time/Place -According to time/place
Many other ways to subdivide ecology:
A) Hierarchic: organism, population, community, ecosystem, biosphere
B) Taxonomic: plant ecology, animal ecology, microbial ecology, avian ecology, etc.
C) Time/Place: marine ecology, tropical ecology, freshwater ecology
Hierarchical structure of ecological systems
1. Organism: fundamental unit of ecology. No smaller unit in biology has an independent life in
the environment.
2. Population: A group of organisms consisting of a number of different populations that live in
defined area and interact with each other.
3. Community: A group of organisms consisting of a number of different species that live in an
area and interact with each other
4. Ecosystem: a biological community plus all of the abiotic factors influencing that community.
5. Biome: A distinct ecological community of plants and animals living together in a particular
136
climate.
6. Biosphere: the aggregation of all ecosystems (the sum of all of the organisms of the earth and
their environment). Biome is the living zone of the planet.
1. Outline the concepts upon which Ecology can be divided
2. What is the Hierarchical level of organization of ecology?
5.4 Definitions of Ecological Terminologies

You are expected to understand the meaning of the following terminologies since they are
important throughout the course to grasp its concept.
1. Abiotic: all non-living components in the biosphere, e.g., air, water, soil, climate.
2. Autotrophic: when an organism is able to produce its own food using abiotic components.
3. Biotic: all the living components in the biosphere: animals, plants, microorganisms, etc.
5. Biomass is the total dry weight of living organisms at a particular tropic level or per unit area
eg. total weight of maize crop per hectare.
6. Carrying Capacity is the maximum number of organisms an area can comfortably support
without depletion of the available resources.
7. Endemic species are found only in a particular area, eg. kangaroos found in Australia
8. Key-stone species is mostly a predator species, which is not present in large number but has a
major influence on the characteristics of a community, eg. lion in the forest.
9. Critical Link species; help other species in the vital activities, e.g. pollinators for plants, parasitic
and symbiotic relationships.
10. Habitat: It is a natural environment of an organism where it grows, lives and reproduces. It is
an ecological area best-suited for an organism. Habitats vary in the physical and chemical
composition. It includes abiotic components like water, temperature, light and soil and biotic
components too, eg. parasites, competitors, pathogens and predators interacting with them
constantly. Life exists not only in the most favourable habitat but also in the most extreme and
harsh environment. Ecology at an organism level tries to understand how different species adapt
to their environments for their survival and reproduction.
11. Niche: includes all the interaction of a species with the biotic and abiotic factors of its
environment. Each species has a defined range of various abiotic factors that it can tolerate, a
number of resources it utilises for survival and performs a specific functional role in an ecosystem,
all these together form a niche, which is unique to a species.
12. Carnivores: animals that eat only meat. They are generally predators, eg. lions, cheetahs etc.,
in a specific environment.
13. Ecosystem: the combined physical and biological components of a specific habitat where
animals and plants are interdependent on each other for survival.
14. Herbivores: animals that only eat plants, eg., buck, cows, goats, sheep, rabbits etc.
15. Heterotrophic: Organisms that are unable to produce their own food, and must eat other
organisms
16. Omnivores: animals that eat both plant and animal matter, eg., humans, pigs, baboons.
17. Saprophytic organisms: organisms that live on dead organic matter because they are able to
decompose (break down) dead plant and animal matter.
137
18. Scavengers: animals that eat what is left over by predators. Examples are hyenas, crayfish and
vultures.
19. Photosynthesis: a process where plants use sunlight energy, water and CO2 from the air, to
produce organic compounds like glucose and inorganic compounds like O2.
20. Vegetation: the plant life that is found in a biome.
Explain what is the meaning of the following ecological terminologies:
1. Autotrophic
2. Biosphere
5.5 The meaning of Habitat in Ecology

Habitat ecology is a fascinating branch of natural science that deepens our comprehension of the
processes that influence the distribution and abundance of species. It can also be described as a
particular natural setting with both physical and biological characteristics where only a few species
of an organism can coexist. A plant, animal, or other organism's natural environment or home is
known as its habitat. It gives the creatures that inhabit the area food, water, shelter, and a place to
live. There are many distinct sorts of habitats, such as those for wildlife, aquatic life, grazing land,
and coastal life, and each one supports a unique ecosystem. Which wildlife species can be found
there depends on the habitat type. Each and every animal has a unique natural habitat in which it
can dwell. Different animals can be found in various habitats. "Habitat" refers to a variety of things.
Ecology refers to either an assembly of living things along with their abiotic environment or the
space and resources utilised by a certain species (the habitat of a species). This introduction's main
concern is the latter. There are various habitat types which include:
1. Aquatic Habitats
The world's lakes, rivers, wetlands, lagoons, and swamps are all considered to be parts of the
aquatic biome. There are mangroves, salt marshes, and mud flats where freshwater and saltwater
mix. These aquatic habitats support aquatic plant and animal lives, where they are safeguarded,
provided with shelter, and provided with a steady supply of food and water. These environments
may house a variety of aquatic ecosystems, including the coral reef ecosystem, which is a
mechanism for producing reefs made up of coral polyps linked together by calcium carbonate. A
wide variety of wildlife species call each of these habitats home. Almost every animal group,
including mammals, bird species, amphibians, reptiles, and invertebrates, can be found in aquatic
settings. The intertidal zone, for example, is a mesmerizing place that is wet during high tide and
dries up as the tide goes out. The organisms that exist in these parts must endure thrashing waves
and survive in both water and air. This is where you will be able to locate mussels and snails as
well as kelp and algae.
2. Desert Habitats
Scrublands and deserts are examples of areas with little rainfall. They are known to be the driest
places on Earth, which makes life there extremely difficult. Desert animals dwell in arid areas and
have unique adaptations that allow them to survive there. Due to their ability to tolerate the intense
heat and inconsistent water supplies, desert animals stand out from other species that inhabit
different ecosystems thanks to their richness. The same idea also applies to desert flora. It is
possible for human activities to push a drier region of land into the classification of the desert
138
biome. This phenomenon is termed desertification, and typically results from agricultural
mismanagement and deforestation.
3. Forest Habitats
Trees cover the forests and woods biomes. There are forests in many places around the world,
covering around one-third of the planet's land area. There is a huge genetic diversity seen in forests.
More bird species are reportedly found there than in any other natural area. There are many
different types of forests, such as temperate, tropical, cloud, coniferous, and boreal types. Each
one of them has a unique range of climatic characteristics, species compositions, and wildlife
groups. For example, the Amazon rain forest is a varied bionetwork and is home to a tenth of all
animal species in the world. It encompasses a substantial section of the Earth's forest biome, at
around three million square miles.
4. Grassland Habitats
Grasslands are environments with a lot of large trees or shrubs but predominantly grasses. Tropical
grassland eg. Savannas, and temperate grassland are the two types of grasslands. The world is
covered in the wild grass biome, which includes the American Midwest grasslands as well as the
African Savanna. There are organisms there that are specific to that type of grassland, but you'll
normally find a lot of hoofed animals and some predators to hunt them. Grasslands have both dry
and rainy seasons. They are susceptible to cyclical flames because of these extremes, and these
fires can quickly spread across the landscape.
5. Tundra Habitats
It's frigid in the tundra. Low temperatures, minimal vegetation, long winters, short growing
seasons, and limited drainage are its defining characteristics. Despite being a severe area, a variety
of species call it home. For example, the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge in Alaska is home to 45
different species, including hardy rodents and bears and whales. Close to the North Pole, Arctic
tundra extends southward to where coniferous trees are found. Alpine tundra can be found on
mountains all over the world, above the tree line. Permafrost is typically located in the tundra
biome. This is known as any rock or soil that remains frozen throughout the year and it can be
unstable ground when it does defrost.
6. Microhabitats
The minimal physical requirements of a particular organism or population are referred to as a
microhabitat. Numerous microhabitats with subtly different exposure to light, moisture,
temperature, air movement, and other factors make up every habitat. The lichens that grow on the
north face of a rock are different from those that grow on the south face, the flat top, and the
neighbouring soil; those that grow in ruts and on elevated surfaces are also distinct from those that
grow on quartz veins. The micro-fauna, various invertebrate species, is present among these tiny
"forests," each of which has specific environmental requirements.
7. Extreme Habitats
Despite the fact that the bulk of life on Earth occurs in mesophyllic (moderate) environments, a
small number of organisms, primarily bacteria, have been able to tolerate hazardous environments
that are inhospitable to more complex life forms. For example, microorganisms can be found in
Lake Whillans in Antarctica, which is half a mile below the ice. Because of the lack of sunlight,
these organisms must obtain their organic material from other sources, such as decomposing matter
from glacier melt water or minerals from the underlying rock.
5.5.1 Ecological Niche
139
An ecological niche refers to the interrelationship of a species with all the biotic and abiotic
factors affecting it. This definition of niche though has changed over time. Joseph Grinnell in 1917
coined the term niche, which he used as mostly equivalent to a species habitat. George Evelyn
Hutchinson used the term niche to describe the multi-dimensional space of resources available to
and used by a species. In niche biology, a niche pertains to any of the following: i). The specific
area where an organism inhabits; ii). The role or function of an organism or species in an
ecosystem; iii). The interrelationship of a species with all the biotic and abiotic factors affecting
it. Despite the fact that niches have been defined differently, it is now generally accepted that it
has to do with how an organism or a population adapts to competition and the distribution of
resources. It specifically indicates the position of a population or an organism in an ecosystem. An
ecosystem's biotic and abiotic variables may have an impact on a niche. However, a species'
ecological niche will influence the characteristics of its surroundings because these characteristics
are essential to its existence. The different ecological niches.
• A fundamental niche is defined as the niche of a species in the absence of competition.

Conversely, a realized niche is the niche that a species occupies due to pressures, eg. the
arrival of a competing species to its habitat.
• Niche overlap is defined as that when two organisms use the same resources or other
environmental variables. Often, niches overlap only partially as the resources are shared.
• A vacant niche is a niche that is yet to be occupied in an environment. However, the
existence of a vacant niche is still a matter of debate. Nevertheless, possible causes of
vacant niches are presumed to be habitat disturbances (eg. forest fires and droughts) and
evolutionary eventualities (ie. when species failed to evolve).
5.5.2 Niche Formation and Partitioning
Both abiotic and biotic factors help shape the niche of an ecosystem. Abiotic factors, such
as temperature, climate, and soil type, of an ecosystem will help form the niches while natural
selection works to set which niches would be favored and not. Through time, the species
eventually develop special features that help them adapt to their environment. If they fit in, they
could thrive and survive in surroundings that match their features. Nevertheless, the extent of
their population may be controlled by biological constraints, such as predation, competition, and
parasitism.
• Competition in a habitat could limit the population of a species as co-habitats could

compete for available nutrients, space, light, and other vital resources.
• Predation could also restrain the species’ population depending on the number of predators
and the extent of predation.
• In parasitism, the presence of parasites that take the species as their host and the
vulnerability to pathogens causing diseases are also factors that can restrain the species
population. The niches in an ecosystem form and evolve as these factors change.
As each niche is occupied by a single species, natural selection will divide up the market for that
species, a process known as niche partitioning. Different species cannot share the same niche.
However, coexistence can enable rival species to carve out distinct ecological niches. To prevent
competing for scarce resources, they must be able to cohabit, perhaps through resource
140
differentiation (or niche partitioning). If not, natural selection will favour one of the two competing
species while eventually eradicating the other.
1. Why Does an Organism Need Habitat?
2. Outline the major types of habitats in ecology
1.6 Summary
You have learned the meaning and elements of ecology in this unit. The importance of the study
Ecology and basic ecological terms were also highlighted. The various branches of ecology and
the criteria employed for the classification of the various branches was also studied. The unit
explained the concept and types of habitats in ecology.

Beerling, D. The Emerald Planet: How Plants Changed Earth's History. Oxford, UK: Oxford
University Press, 2007.
Biro, P. A., Beckmann, C. et al. Small within-day increases in temperature affects boldness and
alters personality in coral reef fish. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences 277, 71-77 (2010).
Gurevitch, J., Scheiner, S. M. and Fox, G.A. (2020). The Ecology of Plants, 3rd Edition,
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/
https://byjus.com/neet/ecology-and-environment/
https://byjus.com/biology/ecology/
https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/health/ephti/library/lecture_notes/env_health_scienc
e_students/ln_ecology_final.pdf
http://unaab.edu.ng/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/472_BIO%20201%20NOTES.pdf
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GlnFylwdYH4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OfV3VNgjpvw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_NEIq-uoBb8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EdKhQVHc3Ao

Answers to SAE 1
1. Ecology can be divided depending on the following concepts:
• Hierarchical organization –according to level of organization

• Taxonomic –according to organisms studied
• Time/Place -According to time/place
2. A way to divide ecology could be Hierarchic:
organism, population, community, ecosystem, biosphere
Answers to SAE 2
1. Autotrophic: when an organism is able to produce its own food using abiotic components.
141
2. Biosphere: it is the global sum of all ecosystems, and is the zone where all living organisms
live on earth.
Answers to SAE 3
1. As a good habitat is a good combination of food, water, cover, and space to survive and
reproduce. All these things are necessary for good habitat and species cannot survive without them.
2. There are different types of Habitats as follows:
a. Aquatic Habitats
b. Desert Habitats
c. Forest Habitats
d. Grassland Habitats
e. Tundra Habitats
f. Microhabitats
g. Extreme Habitats
Glossary
Applied ecology -A branch of ecology which uses ecological principles and insights to
solve environment
Amensalism -An interaction between two organisms, where one suffers a reduction in
resources, or an increase in costs imposed by conditions, due to the
presence of another organism.
Biodiversity -An accepted shortening of the phrase ‘biological diversity’ commonly
used to describe species richness.
Climate Change -Long-term changes in the climatic variables experienced in a defined
spatial area
Commensalism -This refers to the interaction between two species where one organism
gains resources or shelter from conditions, due to the presence of the other
species.
Community -This refers to all species in a defined spatial area or ecosystem, which
interact via trophic, competitive, commensal, amensal or mutualistic
interactions.
Competition -Competition is the process where organisms gain a greater or lesser share
of a limited resource.
Ecological niche -The sum total of all the resources used by, and the biotic and abiotic
conditions suffered by, a species.
Ecology -The scientific study of the distribution, abundance and dynamics of
organisms, their interactions with other organisms and with their physical
environment.
Ecosystem -All organisms and the abiotic environment found in a defined spatial area,
generally assumed to be the collective description of a community and its
physical environment.
Evolution -Change in the relative frequencies of heritable genetic information across
generations of organisms.
142
Mutualism -A biotic interaction between two organisms, where they gain an increase
in resources, or a reduction in stressful conditions, from the presence of
the other organism.
Parasitism -A trophic interaction in which individuals of one species, called the
parasite, feeds upon the tissues of living individuals of another species
called the host.
Predation -A trophic interaction in which individuals of one species (the predator)
kills and eats individuals of the other species (the prey).
climax community -A community of biological species that has reached a stable state,
occurring when the different species are best adapted to average
conditions in a given area.
1. List any five (5) interactions between or within species.

2. Discuss the interrelationships of organisms.
3. Give examples of mutualistic versus antagonistic interactions discuss some ecological
and evolutionary consequences of these interactions.
4. Discuss scenarios where predation plays an important ecological role and others where it
appears to be less important.
5. To what extent are the outcomes of species interactions context-dependent?
6. Which factors drive the variable outcomes of interactions?
7. In which type of interactions, one entity hunts another animal to suffice its nutritional
requirement?
143

BIO101 - General Biology I

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BIO101 - General Biology I

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

BIO101 - General Biology I

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

COURSE CODE: BIO101

COURSE TITLE: GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

Course Reviewer: Prof. Mohammed Bello Abdullahi

Reviewed Content Editor: Dr. Maureen N. Chukwu

Course Coordinator: Dr. Maureen N. Chukwu

National Open University of Nigeria

National Open University of Nigeria

All Rights Reserved

1. Explain cell structure and organizations,

Working Through this Course

BIO 101 GENERAL BIOLOGY I (2 UNITS)

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY

MODULE 2: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL

MODULE 3: INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ORGANISMS

References and Further Readings

Unit 1 Properties of Life

Module 1: Introduction to Biology

1.4 The Origin and Nature of Life

1.5 Properties of Life

Unit 2: The Diversity of life and its organization

• Explain the diversity of life on planet earth.

2.3 The Diversity of Life

2.4 Levels of Organization of Living Things

Explain the meaning of each of the following

2.5 Evolutionary Relationships of Life Forms

How was Woese's tree built using genetic linkages?

The meaning of the following terms:

Unit 3: Introduction to Biological Inquiry

3.3 The Scope of Biology

3.4 Forensic Science and Scientific Ethics

3.5 The Nature of Science

Unit 4: Scientific Inquiry method

• Understand the meaning and method of the scientific inquiry.

4.5 Basic and Applied Science

Unit 5: Microscopy and the Cell Theory

5.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

• Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.

1. How is the unified cell theory stated?

5.4 How Cells Are Studied

5.5 Role of Cell Technologist in the Study of the Cell

5.7 References/Further Readings/Web Sources

5.8 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

1. What process causes the diversity of life?

Module 2: Structure and Functions of the Cell

Unit 1: Cell and Cell Components

Unit 1: Cell and Cell Components

• Illustrate the structure of a prokaryote and eukaryote cells

Feature Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

1.4 The Nature and Function of Cells

1.4.1 The Cell Organelles

Figure 1.8 Microfilaments made of two intertwined strands of actin.

7. Flagella and Cilia

4. The Endoplasmic Reticulum

2. Which form of peroxisomes are responsible for the conversion of

It is useful to start with chromosomes in order to comprehend chromatin. Chromosomes are

membrane and the grana

Separates cell from external environment;

Provides turgor pressure to plant cells as fluid