BIO102 General Biology II

COURSE
GUIDE
BIO102
GENERAL BIOLOGY II
Course Team: Abiodun E. Adams (Course Developer/Writer) -

NOUN
Professor Mohammed Bello Abdullahi (Course
Reviewer) - Federal University, Kashere - Gombe
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

BIO 102 GENERAL BIOLOGY II
@ 2023 by NOUN Press

National Open University of Nigeria
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e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any

form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Published by:
National Open University of Nigeria
Reviewed: 2023
Printed: 2023
ISBN: 978-978-058-995-0
ii
GENERAL BIOLOGY II is a one semester, 18 Units course. It will be

suitable to all students to take towards the core module of B.Sc. (Hons)
Biological Sciences. It will also be suitable as an elective course for any
student in Faculty of Sciences who does not want to complete an NOU
qualification but want to learn about Biology. The course involves the
study of the basic characteristics, identification and classification of
viruses, bacteria and fungi. A generalized survey of the plant and animal
kingdoms based mainly on the study of similarities and differences in
the external features. Ecological adaptations. Briefs on physiology to
include nutrition, respiration, circulatory systems, excretion,
reproduction, growth and development.
Course Competencies
This course aims to enable you to know/understand the basic
characteristics, identification and classification of viruses, bacteria and
fungi. It also includes generalized survey of the plant and animal
kingdoms. It will guide your understanding of the classification,
adaptation and physiology of organisms on the planet earth.
Course Objectives
The Comprehensive Objectives of the Course as a whole are to;
1. List the characteristics, methods of identification and
classification of viruses, bacteria and fungi;
2. State the unique characteristics of plant and animal kingdoms;
3. Explain the diversity in plant and animal kingdoms; and
4. Explain the physiology in plant and animal kingdoms; and
5. Describe ecological adaptations in plant and animal kingdoms;
Working Through this Course

To successfully complete this course, you are required to read each
study unit, read the textbooks and other materials provided.
Reading the reference materials can also be of great assistance. Each
unit has self –assessment exercise which you are advised to do.
There will be a final examination at the end of the course. The course
should take you about 8 weeks to complete.
This course guide provides you with all the components of the course,
how to go about studying and how you should allocate your time to each
unit so as to finish on time and successfully.
iii
Study Units
The study units in this course are given below:
MODULE 1 THE STUDY OF LIVING THINGS

Unit 1 Classification of Living Organisms
Unit 2 Basic Characteristics, Identification and Classification of
Viruses.
Prokaryotes
Unit 4 Eukaryotic Organisms
Unit 5 The Protists
Fungi
MODULE 2 OVERVIEW OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

Unit 1 Kingdom Plantae
Unit 2 The Seedless Plants
Unit 3 Bryophytes
Unit 4 Seedless Vascular Plants
Unit 5 Seed Plant I: Gymnosperms
MODULE 3 OVERVIEW OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM

Unit 1 Diversity of Animal Life
Unit 2 The Simplest Animals
Unit 3 Flatworms, Nematodes, and Arthropods
Unit 4 Mollusk and Annelids
Unit 5 Echinoderms and Chordates
Unit 6 Vertebrates I: Fishes and Amphibians
Unit 7 Vertebrates II: Reptiles, Birds and Mammals
References and Further Readings
You would be required to read the recommended references and

textbooks as provided in each unit of the course.
Presentation Schedule
There is a time-table prepared for the early and timely completion and
submissions of your TMAs as well as attending the tutorial classes. You
are required to submit all your assignments by the stipulated date and
time. Avoid falling behind the schedule time.
Assessment
There are three aspects to the assessment of this course. The first one is
the in-text questions and the second is self-assessment exercises, while
iv
the third is the written examination or the examination to be taken at the

end of the course. Review the exercises or activities in the unit by
applying the information and knowledge you acquired during the course.
The work submitted to your tutor for assessment will account for 30% of
your total work. At the end of this course you will have to sit for a final
or end of course examination of about a two hour duration and this will
account for 70% of your total course mark.
How to get the Most from the Course
In this course, you have the course units and a course guide. The course
guide will tell you briefly what the course is all about. It is a general
overview of the course materials you will be using and how to use those
materials. It also helps you to allocate the appropriate time to each unit
so that you can successfully complete the course within the stipulated
time limit.
The course guide also helps you to know how to go about your in-text
questions and Self-assessment questions which will form part of your
overall assessment at the end of the course. Also, there will be tutorial
classes that are related to this course, where you can interact with your
facilitators and other students. Please I encourage you to attend these
tutorial classes.
This course exposes you to General Biology II, a sub-discipline and very
interesting field of Biological Sciences.
Online Facilitation
Eight weeks are provided for tutorials for this course. You will be
notified of the dates, times and location for these tutorial classes. As
soon as you are allocated a tutorial group, the name and phone number
of your facilitator will be given to you. The duties of your facilitator is
to monitor your progress and provide any necessary assistance you need.
Do not delay to contact your facilitator by telephone or e-mail for

necessary assistance if
1. You do not understand any part of the study in the course
material.
2. You have difficulty with the self-assessment activities.
3. You have a problem or question with an assignment or with the
grading of the assignment.
It is important and necessary you attend the tutorial classes because this
is the only chance to have face to face contact with your facilitator and
to ask questions which will be answered instantly. It is also a period
v
where you can point out any problem encountered in the course of your
study.
Course Information
Course Code: BIO 102
Course Title: GENERAL BIOLOGY II
Credit Unit: 2
Course Status: Compulsory
Semester: 2 SEMESTERS
Course Duration: EIGHT WEEKS
Required Hours for Study: One hour
Ice Breaker
Dr. Mohammed Bello Abdullahi is a Professor of Biology (Biodiversity
and Environmental Management) in the Department of Biological
Sciences, Federal University, Kashere-Gombe. He has been briefly in
the Department of Biological Sciences, National Open University of
Nigeria from 2017-2021 participating in examining, moderating and
facilitating courses such as; BIO 101; 102; 202; 204; 304 and 412, and
research, seminars and practicals.
Dr. Abdullahi's research interest covers phytosociology, climate change,

ecological economics, ethnobotany, plant physiology, biodiversity and
environmental management and toxicology.
vi
MODULE 1 THE STUDY OF LIVING THINGS
Module Structure
In this module we will discuss about the diversity of life, basic

characteristics, identification and classification of viruses. bacteria and
fungi:
Unit 1 Classification of Living Organisms

Viruses
Prokaryotes
Unit 4 Eukaryotic Organisms
Unit 5 The Protists
Fungi
Glossary
End of the module Questions
Module 1 THE STUDY OF LIVING THINGS
UNIT 1 CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS
Unit Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
1.3 Main Contents
1.3.1 Classifications of Living Organisms
1.3.2 Modern Biological Classification
1.3.3 Binomial Nomenclature
1.4 Summary
1.5 References/Further Readings/Web Sources
1.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises
1.1 Introduction
The quantity of living organisms in the planet is enormous, they have a
long history, and their diversity is intricate. Numerous fields within the
science of biology work to provide us a complete understanding of the
nature of living things. Anywhere you go, a casual examination of the
living things around you will reveal a broad diversity of plants and
animals that differ in terms of their sizes, forms, colors, rates of
locomotion, etc. Additionally, they share a few traits or behaviors. As a
1
result, we will examine the numerous classification schemes for living

things as well as the traits that distinguish each category in this unit.
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. List the different groups of living organisms

2. Explain the modern biological classification of organisms
3. List the five–kingdom classification of organisms with examples
4. Mention the characteristics of the major groups of plants and
animals.
1.3 Main Contents
1.3.1 Classifications of Living Organisms
Over 1.8 million different species of living things have been studied and
described. We need a useful system for classifying, naming, and
identifying the many more that are still to be found and documented. We
all learnt the distinction between plants and animals at a young age, but
it was probably not until a few years later that we realized there are
several kinds of animals and plants; despite some similarities, they are
completely different. Animals and plants were the two main categories
of living things centuries ago. We can now better grasp the world we
live in, our relationship to other living things, and biology as a whole
thanks to the taxonomy of living things. You probably already have
some knowledge of taxonomy, another name for the classification of
biological things. The fundamentals of taxonomy are taught to many
children in primary school, but unless you spend a lot of time
concentrating on Biology, the specifics may have faded over time. Carl
Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist, is credited with establishing classification
for all living things. His first classification manual, Systema Naturae,
which was released in 1735, was inspired by his interest in both plants
and animals. The classification scheme developed by Linnaeus,
frequently referred to as the "Father of Taxonomy," is still in use today.
Linnaeus will always play a crucial role in how we name, rank, and
categorize plants and animals even as the classification system develops.
In this concept, a genus is a collection of the species that are most
similar to one another. Additionally, within a family, comparable genera
(the plural of genus) are grouped together. The level at which all
creatures are gathered together into groups is reached at the end of this
grouping. From lowest to highest, the eight levels of the present
2
taxonomic hierarchy are: species, genus, family, order, class, phylum,

kingdom, and domain. As a result, species are organized into genera,
which are then divided into families, which are then divided into orders,
and so on.
Self-Assessment Exercises 1
1. Describe the hierarchical system of classification

currently being followed.
1.3.2 Modern biological classification1.
Most scientists think that all living things can be classified in three
domains: Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. These domains are compared
in Table 1 below. The Archaea Domain includes only the Archaea
Kingdom, and the Bacteria Domain includes only the Bacteria Kingdom.
The Eukarya Domain includes the Animal, Plant, Fungus, and Protist
Kingdoms.
Table 1. Comparison of the three domains of life

Trait Archaea Bacteria Eukarya
Yes except
Multicellularity No No for many
protists
Yes for
plants,
fungi, and
Yes Yes some
Cell Wall Without With protists
peptidoglycan peptidoglycan No for
animals and
other
protists
Cell Nucleus (DNA

No No Yes
inside a membrane)
Cell Organelles
(other structures No No Yes
inside membranes)
3
There are only single-celled creatures in the Bacteria and Archaea

domains. Both Archaea and Bacteria have cell walls, however the
composition of the walls varies. Bacteria and Archaea have nuclei-free
cells. DNA is stored in a nucleus, a membrane-enclosed structure, in a
cell. Although many Eukarya are multicellular, some are single-celled as
well. Others lack a cell wall, while some do. All Eukarya have nuclei
and other organelles in their cells, though. Bacteria and Archaea may
appear to be more alike than either is to Eukarya. Scientists believe that
Bacteria are more distantly connected to Eukarya than Archaea,
nevertheless. Their shared DNA serves as the foundation for this
opinion. What are the three domains of life?
1. Who developed the three-domain system?
2. Which organisms are contained within the Eukaryota domain?
3.
1.3.3 Binomial Nomenclature
Though we are familiar with common names for living things like
Mango, Goat, Pawpaw, Lion, etc., this is the usage of a systematic
system to name living things. The way that Linnaeus named species is
very well-known and is still in use today. It is known as binomial
nomenclature. Each species has its own distinctive two-word moniker. It
usually begins with the genus name and ends with the species name and
is written in Latin. The genus name is usually capitalized, and both
names are always written in italics. Homo sapiens, for instance, is the
name of the human species. The family dog belongs to the Canis
familiaris genus. It may not seem difficult to develop a scientific naming
method, but it is. There wasn't a standard way to name species before
Linnaeus. Scientists named species with lengthy, complicated names.
The same species has frequently been given numerous names by various
biologists. Common names varied as well, usually from one location to
another. Each species should have a single, concise scientific name to
reduce errors and misunderstandings. What was the major challenge to
naming of organisms before the work of Linnaeus?
1. Which two levels of classification are included in the
binomial system?
2. What does the Binomial nomenclature stands for?
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1.4 Summary
All life is categorized according to a scale that you have learned:

Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species.
In order to organize similar organisms into taxonomic categories,
Carolus Linnaeus created the taxonomic system. Binomial nomenclature
gives organisms Latinized scientific names that include genus and
species designations. You also discovered that there were five kingdoms
in Robert Whittaker's tree: Animalia, Plantae, Protista, Fungi, and
Monera.
Henderson's dictionary of biology (2011). / edited by Eleanor Lawrence.
ISBN:9781408234303 (pbk.), 1408234300 (pbk.). Edition:15th ed.

Published/Created:Harlow, Essex ; New York : Benjamin
Cummings/Pearson, 2011.
Roth, Wolff-Michael, (2009)-. Science education from people for people

: taking a stand(point) / edited by Wolff-Michael Roth.
Publisher: New York : Routledge, 2009. ISBN:9780415995542 (hbk)
Kuhn, Thomas S. (2012).The structure of scientific revolutions /

Publisher:Chicago ; London : The University of Chicago Press,
ISBN:9780226458113 (cloth : alkaline paper)
Susan Randel (2017). Principles of Biology Salem Press Publisher

s,ISBN-10: 1682173240 pp400
https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Prince_Georges_Community_College/
PGCC_Microbiology/04%3A_Microscopy_Staining_and_Classification
/4.03%3A_Classification_and_Identification/4.3.01%3A_Kingdom_Cla
ssification_According_to_Whittaker
https://biologyjunction.com/classification-of-living-things/
https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Lumen_Learning/Biology_for_Non_M
ajors_I_(Lumen)/01%3A_Introduction_to_Biology/1.15%3A_Taxonom
y
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/biology_part2/biology_classification_of
_organisms.htm
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFMv7Gdryc0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lnvlMlopu2A
5
Answers to SAE 1
1. Domain- Broadest level covering similar Kingdoms together.
Kingdom- Placing similar Phylum together with similar characters.
Phylum/ Division- Placing similar Class together with similar characters
(In animal it is Phylum and in plant it is Division).
Class-Placing similar order together with similar characters.
Order-Placing similar family together with similar characters.
Family-Placing similar Genus together with similar characters.
Genus-Placing similar Species together with similar characters.
Species-Placing similar individuals together with similar characters
which can interbreed.
Answers to SAE 2
1. Carl Linnaeus
2. Protists, fungi, plants and animals
Answers to SAE 3
1. Genus and species
2. Binomial nomenclature is the biological system of naming the
organisms in which the name is composed of two terms, where,
the first term indicates the genus and the second term indicates
the species of the organism
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UNIT 2 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS, IDENTIFICATION

AND CLASSIFICATION OF VIRUSES
Unit Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.3 Main Contents
2.3.1 The study of Viruses
2.3.1.1 Basic Characteristics of Viruses
2.3.1.2 Structure of a Virus
2.3.2 Classification of Viruses
2.3.3 Identification of viruses
2.3.4 Cultivation of Viruses
2.4 Summary
2.1 Introduction
Viruses are diverse entities: They vary in structure, methods of

replication, and the hosts they infect. Nearly all forms of life—from
prokaryotic bacteria and archaeans, to eukaryotes such as plants,
animals, and fungi—have viruses that infect them. While most
biological diversity can be understood through evolutionary history
(such as how species have adapted to changing environmental
conditions and how different species are related to one another through
common descent), much about virus origins and evolution remains
unknown.

• Define Viruses
• Explain the basic characteristics of viruses
• Describe the structure of a Virus
• Identification of viruses
• Describe the method of hemagglutination assay
• Explain the process of nucleic acid amplification test
• Descibe enzyme immunoassay
• Explain the various classification of viruses
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2.3 Main Centents
2.3.1 The Study of Viruses
Do any of the three realms of life include viruses? Do viruses have life?
We must first define and understand these questions in order to consider
them. Microscopically small infectious organisms known as viruses can
only replicate inside the cells of their hosts. Biologically speaking,
viruses cannot be categorized as either living things or non-living things.
A virus is a type of infectious agent that can only reproduce inside of its
host organism. This is because they have specific distinguishing
characteristics of both living and non-living things. A virus, in its
simplest form, is an infectious, non-cellular organism consisting of
genetic material and protein that can only enter and reproduce inside the
living cells of bacteria, plants, and animals. For example, a virus is
unable to replicate outside of the host cell. This is due to the absence of
the necessary cellular machinery in viruses. As a result, it enters and
binds to a particular host cell, injects its genetic material, reproduces
using the genetic material of the host, and then the host cell ruptures,
releasing the new viruses. Additionally, viruses can crystallize,
something that no other living thing can achieve. These elements are
what cause viruses to be categorized as existing in a gray area between
living things and non-living things.
2.3.1.1Basic Characteristics of Viruses

1. A virus is nothing more than some DNA or RNA surrounded by
a coat of proteins.
2. A virus is not a cell.
3. A virus cannot use energy, respond to stimuli, grow, or maintain
homeostasis.
4. A virus cannot reproduce on its own. However, a virus can
reproduce by infecting the cell of a living host. Inside the host
cell, the virus uses the cell’s structures, materials, and energy to
make copies of itself.
5. Because they have genetic material and can reproduce, viruses
can evolve. Their DNA or RNA can change through time. The
ability to evolve is a very lifelike attribute.
Based on their characteristics, many scientists think that viruses should

not be classified as living things because they lack most of the defining
traits of living things. Other scientists aren’t so sure. They think that the
ability of viruses to evolve and interact with living cells earns them
special consideration. Perhaps a new category of life should be created
for viruses. What do you think?
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2.3.1.2 Structure of a Virus
Viruses are extremely small, with sizes between 30 and 50 nm. In

contrast to having no cells and frequently having no cell wall, viruses
are encased in a layer of protective protein called a capsid. It has a
genetic component and is distinguished by the coevolution of the host
and the virus. The genetic material in them is either DNA or RNA. In
order to spread, viruses primarily rely on hosts to provide the
sophisticated metabolic machinery of prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells.
The virus's primary function is to deliver its DNA or RNA genome to
the host cell, where the host cell can then transpose it. A symmetric
protein that has been capsuled contains the viral genome structure. The
protein associated with nucleic acid (also known as nucleoprotein)
produces the nucleocapsid with the genome.
Figure1.1 Viruses can be either complex in shape or relatively simple.

This figure shows three relatively complex virions: the bacteriophage
T4, with its DNA-containing head group and tail fibers that attach to
host cells; adenovirus, which uses spikes from its capsid to bind to host
cells; and HIV, which uses glycoproteins embedded in its envelope to
bind to host cells. Notice that HIV has proteins called matrix proteins,
internal to the envelope, which help stabilize virion shape. Source:
http://library.open.oregonstate.edu/microbiology/
These microorganisms belong to the virus genus and the viridae family.
Because they essentially exist in a state beyond living entities and
inanimate objects, viruses cannot be sorted into any of the established
kingdoms. The term "virus" was coined by Dutch microbiologist
Martinus Willem Beijerinck in 1897. Its etymology traces back to Latin,
where it signifies a toxic or harmful substance. Following infection of a
9
susceptible cell, a virus can activate the cell's mechanisms to generate

additional virus particles. Viruses consist of a DNA or RNA core
enveloped by a protein coat. Their dimensions range from 20
nanometers to 250 nanometers, an extraordinarily minute scale.
Detection typically requires an electron microscope due to their size.
Numerous viruses possess either DNA or RNA as their genetic material,
often in single or double strands. A complete infectious virus, known as
a virion, comprises genetic material and an outer protein shell. The
complexity of viruses varies, with the simplest encoding around four
proteins in their DNA or RNA, while the most intricate viruses encode
100 to 200 proteins. The study of virus is known as virology. Why is it
that viruses could not be placed in any of the kingdoms?
1. What is a Virus?
2. Why are viruses neither considered living, nor non-living?
3.
2.3.2 Classification of Viruses
The primary elements utilized for the classification of viruses

encompass their observable characteristics, core composition, chemical
constitution, capsid structure, size, shape, replication mechanisms, and
other structures within their genetic makeup. The Baltimore
classification system is the predominant method employed for studying
virus classification. This system was formulated by American biologist
David Baltimore during the 1970s, leading to his receipt of the Nobel
Prize. The subsequent content delves into the categorization of viruses
according to diverse criteria.
The conventional methods devised by scientists for categorizing

prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells prove to be of limited utility since
viruses are likely to have originated from varied sources. Genomic or
protein analysis also holds minimal value if viruses are remnants of
other life forms. This is due to the absence of a shared genomic
sequence across all viruses. For instance, the commonly employed 16S
rRNA sequence in constructing prokaryotic phylogenies becomes
irrelevant for entities lacking ribosomes, like viruses. Biologists have
employed multiple classification systems in the past. Initially, viruses
were grouped based on shared morphology. Subsequently, different
subsets of viruses were categorized based on the presence of DNA or
RNA, as well as the single-stranded or double-stranded nature of their
nucleic acids. Yet, these older classification schemes divided viruses
into separate groups due to reliance on diverse virus characteristics. The
Baltimore classification system, currently the predominant approach,
10
hinges on how messenger RNA (mRNA) is generated in distinct types

of viruses.
1. Classification based on the presence of nucleic acid
1. DNA: The virus, having DNA as its genetic material. There are
two different types of DNA virus. Single-stranded (ss) DNA
virus: e.g. Picornaviruses, Parvovirus etc. Double-stranded (ds)
DNA virus: e.g. Adenovirus, Herpes virus, etc.
2. RNA virus: The virus, having RNA as its genetic material. There
are two different types of RNA virus. Double-stranded (ds) RNA
virus: e.g. Reovirus, etc. Single-stranded (ss) RNA virus. It is
further classified into two Positive sense RNA (+RNA) and
negative sense RNA (-RNA). Poliovirus, Hepatitis A, Rabies
virus, Influenza virus are examples of single-stranded RNA virus.
3. Classification based on the structure or symmetry
Viruses come in different shapes, from basic helical and
icosahedral shapes to more intricate ones. The classification
based on different shapes and symmetry of viruses are as follows:
1. Complex virus. E.g Poxvirus
2. Radial symmetry virus. E.g.Bacteriophage
3. Cubical or icosahedral symmetry shaped virus. E.g. Reovirus,
Picornavirus
4. Rod or Spiral shaped or helical symmetry virus. E.g.
Paramyxovirus, orthomyxovirus
5. Classification based on the replication properties and site of
replication
Here, viruses invade into the host cell, where it replicates and assembly
within the cell organelles.
1. Replication within the cytoplasm of the host cell.
E.g. All RNA viruses except the Influenza virus.
2. Replication within the nucleus and the cytoplasm of the host cell.
E.g. Influenza virus, Poxvirus, etc.
3. Replication within the nucleus of the host cell.
All DNA viruses except Pox virus.
4. Replication of the virus through the double-stranded DNA
intermediate.
E.g. All DNA viruses, Retrovirus and some tumour causing RNA virus.
5. Replication of the virus through a single-stranded RNA
intermediate.
E.g. All RNA viruses except Reovirus and tumour-causing RNA
viruses.
6. Classification based on the host range
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Based on the type of host, there are four different types of viruses:
1. Animal viruses
These viruses infect by invading the cells of animals, including humans.
Prominent examples of animal viruses include the influenza virus,
mumps virus, rabies virus, poliovirus, Herpes virus, etc.
2. Plant viruses
These viruses infect plants by invading the plant cells. Replication of
plant viruses is obligate and does not happen without a host. Well-
known examples of plant virus include the potato virus, tobacco mosaic
virus (TMV), beet yellow virus, and turnip yellow virus, cauliflower
mosaic virus, etc.
3. Bacteriophage
The virus which infects bacterial cells is known as bacteriophage. There
are many varieties of bacteriophages, such as DNA virus, MV-11, RNA
virus, λ page, etc.
4. Insect virus
The virus which infects insects is known as Insect virus, also called the
viral pathogen of insects. These viruses are considered as a powerful
biocontrol agent in the landscape of modern agriculture.
Ascovirus virions and Entomopox virus, are best examples for insect
virus.
5. Classification based on the mode of transmission

1. Airborne infections – Transmission of the virus through the air
into the respiratory tract. E.g. Swine flu, and Rhinovirus.
2. Fecal oral route – Transmission of the virus through the
contaminated water or food.
E.g. Hepatitis A virus, Poliovirus, Rotavirus.
3. Sexually transmitted diseases – Transmission of the virus through

sexual contacts with the infected person. E.g. Retrovirus, human
papillomavirus, etc.
4. Transfusion-transmitted infections- Transmission of the virus
through the blood transfusion.
E.g. Hepatitis B virus, Human Immunodeficiency Virus, etc.

5. Zoonoses -Transmission of the virus through the biting of
infected animals, birds, and insects to human. E.g. Rabies virus,
Alpha virus, Flavivirus, Ebola virus, etc.
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What is the name of the virus that infects bacterial cell?
1. 1. List the different types of viruses based on their host.

2. List the classification of viruses based on their shapes and
symmetry
2.3.3 Identification of Viruses
Regardless of the method of cultivation, once a virus has been

introduced into a whole host organism, embryo, or tissue-culture cell, a
sample can be prepared from the infected host, embryo, or cell line for
further analysis under a brightfield, electron, or fluorescent
microscope. Methods in identification of plant viruses.
1. Viruses are inoculated into indicator plants which develop typical
symptoms when infected by specific viruses and in virus assay.
2. Serological tests are carried out using antisera of known viruses.
3. Transmission aspects of the virus are considered: whether by sap
inoculation, and the vectors, if any, involved; whether the virus is
persistent or non-persistent in the vector; whether stylet borne,
circulative or propagative, and other aspects of its transmission.
4. Such properties as the thermal inactivation point, the dilution end
point, and survival outside the plant can be used to characterize
viruses.
5. Interaction with other viruses is considered, notably cross-
protection.
6. Host range and symptoms are studied.
7. Study of morphology and chemical constitution of the virus
particle.
2.3.4 Cultivation of Viruses
Viruses cannot be grown in standard microbiological culture: e.g. broth

and agar - They need to be cultured in the presence of a suitable host
such as: prokaryotes (easiest to grow in the lab), plants and animals
because they are unable to reproduce independently of living cells.
Methods used include the following: - Use of embryonated eggs - Tissue
culture - Culturing viruses in plants and animals - Culturing viruses in
bacteria.
1. Culturing Viruses in Bacteria
1. Viruses can be grown in cultures maintained in either liquid or
agar plates - Bacteria and phages are mixed with warm nutrient
agar and poured on a thin layer on the surface of an agar plate
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2. During incubation: - Bacterial cells infected by phages are lysed

and release new phages that infect the nearby bacterial cells - The
uninfected bacterial cells grow and reproduce normally
3. Appearance of plate after incubation: - The plate has a uniform
bacterial lawn interrupted by clear zones - The clear zones are
known as plaques
4. Estimation of phage numbers - This is done by using the plaque
assay - Each plaque corresponds to a single phage in the original
bacterium or virus mixture
2. Cell Culture
Cell culture is aseptically removing tissue fragments in order to cultivate
multicellular eukaryotic cells, particularly animal cells. It is a helpful
technique for growing clinical samples that may include viruses. It aids
in the laboratory detection, characterisation, and identification of
viruses. Because cell material is always available, cell lines make it easy
to study viruses. Treatment of the tissues with an enzyme that dissolves
the intracellular cement causes the tissues to become dissociated. A flat
surface, such as the bottom of a culture flask or a Petri dish, is used to
disperse the resulting suspension. A monolayer is the term used to
describe the thin layer of cells that eventually appears on the plate's
surface. This is incubated at the appropriate temperature and covered
with an appropriate culture medium. Some cell cultures can be
maintained as permanent cell lines and cultivated indefinitely. However,
a culture won't always continue to grow indefinitely; instead, it may
exist for a few days. These cultures are referred to as primary cell lines.
Despite the necessity to occasionally prepare new viruses from different
sources, these cells may still be useful for developing viruses.
Procedure
1. A layer of animal cells is covered with a virus inoculums and
viruses are allowed time to settle and attach to the cells
2. Plates are usually incubated at 37°C in the presence of 5%CO2
3. Localised areas of destruction and lysis called plaques are often
formed and may be detected if stained with dyes such as tryptan
blue or neutral red that are used to distinguish live cells from
dead ones
4. In some cases virus growth may cause microscopic or
macroscopic degenerative changes or abnormalities in host cells
and tissues known as cytopathic effects
5. Cytopathic effects may be lethal
Disadvantages
1. Expensive and time consuming method used to cultivate viruses
2. Cells are grown under controlled conditions outside their natural
environment
14
Components of medium used in tissue culture

1. Amino acids, vitamins, salts, glucose, bicarbonate buffer system
2. Blood serum is usually added to obtain best growth
3. Antibiotics are added to prevent bacterial and fungal
contamination
3. Use of whole organs or part of organs of animals
In some cases, whole organs or pieces of animal organs may be used for
successful replication of viruses - Involves use of less-controlled
laboratory environment because part of animal is used - Animals used
include: monkeys, rabbits, guinea pigs, rats, hamsters, and mice - Live
inoculation of human volunteers was first used for the of yellow fever.
4. Culturing viruses in embryonated chicken eggs
1. Inexpensive method to culture viruses
2. The yolk is nourishing and this is a suitable environment for
viruses to grow in
3. Fertilized chicken eggs incubated for 6-8 days after laying are
used
Procedure
1. The egg shell surface is disinfected with iodine and a small sterile
drill is used to create a hole.
2. Viruses are then inoculated into the embryo either on the
chloriallantoic membrane or on the allantoic cavity (these are the
sites often used to grow animal viruses)
3. The hole is then sealed with gelatine and the eggs are incubated.
4. Viruses may be able to reproduce only in certain parts of the
embryo and thus should be injected onto the proper region.
5. Examples of viruses grown in this manner include: mumps virus
(prefers the allantoic cavity), myxoma virus (prefers
chloriallantoic membrane).
6. Infection may be characterised by local tissue lesion known as a
pock whose appearance often is characteristic of the virus
5. Cultivation of plant viruses
a) Cultivated in a variety of ways o Use of plant tissue
culture o or Cultures of separated cells o or cultures of
protoplasts o or use of Whole plants
b) Leaves are mechanically inoculated when rubbed with a
mixture of viruses and an abrasive such as
carborandum
c) When the cell walls are broken by an abrasive, viruses
directly contact the plasma membrane and infect the
exposed host cells
d) Insects may also fill the role of an abrasive by sucking or
crushing the plant leaves and thus transmitting
viruses
e) A localized necrotic lesion often develops due to rapid
death of cells in the infected area
15
f) Infected plants may show symptoms such as changes in

pigmentation or leaf shape
g) Some plant viruses can be transmitted only if a diseased part is
grafted onto a healthy plant
1. What is the full meaning of EIAs?

2. Why are Nucleic acid amplification tests (NAAT) carried out?
2.4 Summary
Scientists classify living things to make sense of biodiversity and who

how living things are related. There are three widely recognized
domains: Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. Viruses lack many traits of
living things so the majority of scientists do not classify them as living
organisms.
Roossinck, M. J. (2016). Virus. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Widmaier, E. P., Raff, H., & Strang, K. T. (2008). Vander’s Human

Physiology: The Mechanisms of Body Function (11th ed.).
Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
http://cnx.org/contents/185cbf87-c72e-48f5-b51e-f14f21b5eabd@11.6.
https://youtu.be/0h5Jd7sgQWY?t=3
https://youtu.be/papt5kGxStc?t=1
https://youtu.be/jX3MhWWi6n4
16
Answers to SAE 1
1. A virus is a biological entity that can only reproduce within a
host. Anatomically, viruses possess nucleic acids (DNA or RNA)
which are encased within a protective protein coat. These entities
are able to infect all forms of life, ranging from bacteria to
humans, and consequently, they bring about a multitude of
diseases in their host.
2. Viruses possess trademark characteristics of both living and non-
living entities. For instance, they can only reproduce within a
host, just like a parasite. But unlike parasites or any other living
organisms, viruses can be crystallized. During this stage, they
remain dormant, until they enter another host, restarting the cycle
all over.
Answers to SAE 2
1. There are four different types of viruses based on their host,
namely, animal viruses, plant viruses, and bacteriophages and
insect viruses
2. Classification of viruses based on their shapes and symmetry is as
follows:
1. Complex virus, eg. Poxvirus
2. Radial symmetry virus, eg. Bacteriophage
3. Cubical or icosahedral symmetry shaped virus, eg. Reovirus,
Picornavirus
4. Rod or Spiral shaped or helical symmetry virus, eg.
Paramyxovirus, orthomyxovirus
Answers to SAE 3
1. Enzyme immunoassays
2. Nucleic acid amplification tests (NAAT) are used in molecular
biology to detect unique nucleic acid sequences of viruses in
patient samples.
17
UNIT 3 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS,

IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION
OF PROKARYOTES
Unit Structure
3.1 Introduction to the study of Bacteria

3.3 Main Contents
3.3.1 The Evolution and ultrastructure of a Bacteria cell.
3.3.2 General Characteristics of Bacteria
3.3.3 Classification in Bacteria
3.3.3.1 Relationship between Bacteria and Archaea
3.3.4 Reproduction in Bacteria
3.4 Summary
3.1 Introduction to the study of Bacteria
Bacteria, a type of microorganisms, possess less complex cell structures

compared to various other life forms. Their command center consists of
a single DNA loop containing all genetic information. Bacteria can be
categorized into five groups based on their basic shapes: spherical
(cocci), rod-shaped (bacilli), spiral-shaped (spirilla), comma-shaped
(vibrios), or corkscrew-shaped (spirochaetes). They exist as solitary
cells, pairs, chains, clusters, or interconnected chains. Bacteria are
ubiquitous, thriving in every Earth ecosystem such as soil, oceans,
rocks, and even arctic snow. Some organisms inhabit or reside on other
living entities like plants, animals, and humans. Within the human body,
bacterial cells outnumber human cells by about tenfold, with a
significant concentration within the digestive system's lining. Certain
bacteria are present in soil or on decomposing plant material,
contributing significantly to the nutrient cycle. They play a vital role in
the production of fermented foods like yogurt and soy sauce, while
certain strains can spoil food and damage crops. A relatively small
fraction of bacteria act as pathogens or parasites, causing diseases in
plants and animals.

3. Describe the evolution of a bacteria cell
4. Describe the ultrastructure of a bacteria cell
5. Describe the general characteristics of bacteria Classification in
Bacteria
18
3.3 Main Contents
3.3.1 The Evolution and Ultrastructure of a Bacteria Cell
Prokaryotes are found everywhere, occupying virtually every surface

with enough moisture, including living within other organisms. In the
human body alone, prokaryotic cells outnumber human cells by
approximately ten to one. They constitute the majority of life forms
across all ecosystems. Certain prokaryotes flourish in environments that
most other organisms would find inhospitable. Prokaryotes play a vital
role in recycling essential nutrients like carbon and nitrogen,
contributing to the development of new ecosystems, both natural and
man-made. They have existed on Earth long before the emergence of
multicellular life. Bacteria, characterized by their simple prokaryotic
cells lacking organelles and a true nucleus, are single-celled
microorganisms. They are one of the three domains of life, along with
Archaea and Eukaryota, the latter two of which also consist of single-
celled organisms possessing prokaryotic cells. The sheer number of
bacteria contributes to their total biomass on Earth exceeding that of all
plants and animals combined. The earliest life forms on our planet were
bacteria, originating around 4 billion years ago. Bacteria and archaea
dominated Earth's living landscape for about 3 billion years. It wasn't
until 1.6 to 2 billion years ago that multicellular eukaryotes emerged.
Eukaryotic cells, forming the foundation of protists, fungi, animals, and
plants, also harbor remnants of bacteria. The relatively simple body
design of bacteria is well-known. These single-celled microorganisms
possess prokaryotic characteristics, including the absence of a nucleus
and other cell organelles. They demonstrate remarkable adaptability,
thriving in extreme and challenging conditions—organisms with such
capabilities are known as extremophiles. Extremophiles are further
categorized based on the types of extreme environments they inhabit:
1. Thermophiles
2. Acidophiles
3. Alkaliphiles
4. Osmophiles
5. Barophiles
6. Cryophiles
Bacteria possess a captivating feature in their protective cell wall,

comprised of a distinctive protein called peptidoglycan. This cell wall
plays a pivotal role in facilitating bacterial division and serves as a
foundational structure. The exceptional nature of this protein is that it's
exclusively present in bacterial cell walls, making them distinct.
Nonetheless, only a minority of bacteria lack this cell wall, and certain
types bolster their defenses with an additional layer referred to as a
capsule. Embedded within the outer layer, one or more flagella or pili
19
function as locomotory structures. Some bacteria employ pili to

facilitate adhesion to host cells. While lacking the organelles typically
seen in animal or plant cells, bacteria do have ribosomes responsible for
protein synthesis. Additionally, bacteria possess an extra circular DNA
known as plasmid, in addition to their main DNA. These plasmids make
some strains of bacteria resistant to antibiotics. What are the different
types of bacteria?
Figure 3.1 The features of a typical prokaryotic cell. Flagella,

capsules, and pili are not found in all prokaryotes. Source:
1. The study of bacteria is called?
2. How do you define bacteria?
3.3.2 General Characteristics of Bacteria
Bacteria represent prokaryotic microorganisms composed of a single

cell. The majority of bacterial species exhibit a highly pathogenic
nature, contributing to diseases in both humans and animals. They
possess fundamental components including a cell membrane, a nuclear
region, a rigid cell wall, and ribosomes classified as the 70S subtype.
Bacteria constitute a diverse group often considered among the simplest
life forms. Their diversity has led to their categorization into the
domains of life known as Eubacteria and Archaea. Despite this wide-
ranging diversity, certain common characteristics unite bacteria,
primarily their possession of prokaryotic cells. Additionally, shared
attributes such as cell wall composition can be found between eubacteria
and archaeans. Nonetheless, the extensive variety within the bacterial
20
realm is further evidenced by the presence of exceptions that lack these

nearly universal traits.
1. Single-Celled
Perhaps the most straightforward characteristic of bacteria is their
existence as single-celled organisms. While most bacteria, archaeans
and eubacteria alike, spend their entire microscopic life cycle as
independent single cells, some such as the soil-dwelling myxobacteria
will form multicellular fruiting bodies as part of their life cycle.
2. Absent Organelles
Eukaryotic cells, found in organisms like plants, animals, and fungi,
contain a nucleus enclosed by a membrane, which separates the cell's
DNA from the surrounding cytoplasm. These cells also have distinct
organelles enclosed by membranes that facilitate various cellular
functions, such as mitochondria for cellular respiration and chloroplasts
for photosynthesis. In contrast, bacterial cells lack a nucleus and
complex membrane-bound organelles. Nonetheless, it's important to
acknowledge that bacteria do exhibit internal organization, with their
DNA often localized to a specific area within the bacterial cell called the
nucleoid. However, it's worth noting that the nucleoid is not physically
segregated from the rest of the cell by a membrane.
3. Plasma Membrane
While plasma membranes are prevalent in various other living cells,
they are not characteristic of bacteria. The lack of internal organelles in
bacteria means that numerous functions typically found in eukaryotic
cells take place on the plasma membrane of bacteria. As an illustration,
specific invaginations of the plasma membrane enable photosynthetic
bacteria to carry out the light-dependent stages of photosynthesis, a
process akin to what photosynthetic eukaryotes accomplish on the
thylakoid membranes within their chloroplasts.
4. Cell Walls
The Gram stain, a fundamental technique in bacterial identification,
categorizes eubacteria into two groups: Gram-positive or Gram-
negative, determined by their cell wall's ability to retain crystal violet
dye. The cell wall is a focal point for antibiotics like penicillin and its
variants. Eubacteria known as penicilli share a common trait of having a
peptidoglycan cell wall, which surrounds and reinforces the bacterial
cell, offering stability and safeguarding against rupture in varying
conditions. Archaeans also possess a cell wall, although their
composition differs from that of peptidoglycan.
21
5. DNA
The distinctive multiple linear chromosomes frequently depicted in
biology textbooks are a characteristic specific to eukaryotic cells. On the
contrary, both archaeans and eubacteria possess a single, circular
chromosome and a DNA sequence that is notably shorter than that
present in eukaryotes. This reduced DNA length can be attributed partly
to the comparatively simpler nature of bacterial cells, as well as to the
lower occurrence of introns – segments of a gene that are excised during
DNA translation into protein. Bacterial genomes are augmented by
smaller DNA fragments referred to as plasmids, although these are not
exclusive to bacteria and are also found in eukaryotes. Plasmids
replicate within bacterial cells independently from the bacterial
chromosome and can be transferred between different bacterial entities.
Plasmids can confer characteristics to the host cell, such as antibiotic
resistance. What are the three most notable characteristics of bacteria?
1. What are the examples of acidophilic bacteria?
2. What are the main characteristic features of bacteria?
3.5 Classification of Bacteria
Recall that prokaryotes are divided into two different domains, Bacteria
and Archaea, which together with Eukarya, comprise the three domains
of life (Figure 3.2). Major bacterial phyla include the Proteobacteria, the
Chlamydias, the Spirochaetes, the photosynthetic Cyanobacteria, and the
Gram-positive bacteria. The Proteobacteria are in turn subdivided into
several classes, from the Alpha- to the Epsilon proteobacteria.
Eukaryotic mitochondria are thought to be the descendants of
alphaproteobacteria, while eukaryotic chloroplasts are derived from
cyanobacteria. Archaeal phyla are described in figure 3.3 below:
22
Figure 3.2: The three domains of living organisms. Source:

Most bacterial classification systems rely on key characteristics like cell

shape, reaction to Gram staining, and the ability to produce spores for
primary grouping. The technique of Gram staining involves using
crystal violet dye, iodine, and safranin as a counterstain to differentiate
bacteria. This method divides many bacteria into two groups: gram-
positive bacteria, which retain the stain and appear violet under a
microscope, and gram-negative bacteria, which only retain the
counterstain and appear red. Gram-positive bacteria possess thick cell
walls that capture the violet-iodine complex, leading to their violet
coloration, whereas the delicate cell walls of gram-negative bacteria
retain safranin but not the violet-iodine complex, causing them to appear
red when Gram stained.
Gram staining serves for general bacterial identification or detection of

specific bacteria, but not for precise species-level identification.
Illustrations of gram-positive bacteria comprise genera such as Listeria,
Streptococcus, and Bacillus, while gram-negative bacteria include
Proteobacteria, green sulfur bacteria, and cyanobacteria.
In essence, bacteria exhibit an array of shapes. The three principal
bacterial shapes are coccus (spherical or ovoid), spiral, and bacillus
(rod-shaped).
1. Cocci are round or oval bacteria. Some cocci stay attached after
binary fission, forming pairs known as diplococci, chains referred
to as streptococci, and clusters called staphylococci. Tetrads
consist of four cocci in a square arrangement, and sarcinae are
eight cocci forming a cube.
23
2. Spiral bacteria possess a spiral form. Spirillums are robust spirals,

whereas spirochetes are thin and flexible spirals. Vibrios are
comma-shaped rods with a slight twist.
3. Bacilli are rod-shaped bacteria. Like cocci, bacilli can exist
individually or in arrangements. Diplobacilli represent two
adjacent bacilli, and streptobacilli form chains of bacilli.
Bacteria can also take on other shapes such as filamentous (long and
thin), square, star-shaped, and stalked. This diagram depicts the diverse
array of bacterial shapes.
Figure 3.2 Different bacterial shapes.

Souce:https://gpatindia.com/classification-and-characteristics-of-
bacteria/3.8
1. Classification of bacteria based on Shape
Type of Classification Examples
Bacillus (Rod-shaped) Escherichia coli (E. coli)
Spirilla or spirochete (Spiral) Spirillum volutans
Streptococcus
Coccus (Sphere)
pneumoniae
Vibrio (Comma-shaped) Vibrio cholera
2. Classification of bacteria based on the Composition of the Cell
Wall
Peptidoglycan cell wall Gram-positive bacteria
Lipopolysaccharide cell wall Gram-negative bacteria
3. Classification of bacteria based on the Mode of Nutrition
Autotrophic Bacteria Cyanobacteria
Heterotrophic Bacteria All disease-causing
24
bacteria
4. Classification of bacteria based on the Mode of Respiration
Anaerobic Bacteria Actinomyces
Aerobic Bacteria Mycobacterium
3.3.3.1Relationship between Bacteria and Archaea
Differences and Similarities between Bacteria and Archaea

Structural Bacteria Archaea
Characteristic
Cell type Prokaryotic Prokaryotic
Cell morphology Variable Variable
Cell wall Contains Does not contain
peptidoglycan peptidoglycan
Cell membrane Lipid bilayer Lipid bilayer or lipid
type monolayer
Plasma membrane Fatty acids-glycerol Phytanyl-glycerol ethers
lipids ester
Chromosome Typically circular Typically circular
Replication origins Single Multiple
RNA polymerase Single Multiple
Initiator tRNA Formyl-methionine Methionine
Streptomycin Sensitive Resistant
inhibition
Calvin cycle Yes No
3.3.4 Reproduction in Bacteria
Prokaryotic reproduction occurs asexually and is mainly achieved

through a process called binary fission. In this process, which occurs
because prokaryotes have a single circular chromosome for DNA, the
chromosome is duplicated, and the resulting copies move apart as the
cell grows. Once the cell has expanded, it undergoes constriction at its
midpoint, leading to the separation of the two identical offspring cells.
Although binary fission doesn't introduce genetic diversity, prokaryotes
can exchange genes through alternative mechanisms.
Transformation involves a prokaryote absorbing DNA that other

prokaryotes release into the environment. For instance, if a harmless
bacterium acquires DNA carrying a toxin gene from a pathogen and
integrates it into its own chromosome, it might also become pathogenic.
25
In transduction, bacteriophages, viruses that infect bacteria, may transfer

small sections of chromosomal DNA from one bacterium to another.
This process leads to the creation of a recombinant organism. Archaea
also possess viruses that can transfer genetic material between
individuals. In conjugation, DNA is passed from one prokaryote to
another using a pilus, a structure that brings the cells into contact and
provides a conduit for DNA transfer. The DNA shared could be in the
form of a plasmid or a combined molecule comprising both plasmid and
chromosomal DNA. These three DNA exchange processes are depicted
in Figure 3.3.
Prokaryotic reproduction can be incredibly rapid, with some species

having a generation time of just a few minutes. This swift rate of
reproduction, in combination with genetic recombination mechanisms
and a high mutation rate, results in the swift evolution of prokaryotes.
This adaptability enables them to respond promptly to changes in their
environment, such as the introduction of antibiotics.
Gene transfer mechanisms in prokaryotes. There are three mechanisms

by which prokaryotes can exchange DNA. In (a) transformation, the cell
takes up prokaryotic DNA directly from the environment. The DNA
may remain separate as plasmid DNA or be incorporated into the host
genome. In (b) transduction, a bacteriophage injects DNA into the cell
that contains a small fragment of DNA from a different prokaryote. In
(c) conjugation, DNA is transferred from one cell to another via a
mating bridge, or pilus, that connects the two cells after the sex pilus
draws the two bacteria close enough to form the bridge. Source;
1. List the three main shapes of bacteria.

2. What are Monococcus bacteria?
26
3.4 Summary
Prokaryotes (domains Archaea and Bacteria) are single-celled organisms

that lack a nucleus. They have a single piece of circular DNA in the
nucleoid area of the cell. Most prokaryotes have a cell wall that lies
outside the boundary of the plasma membrane. Some prokaryotes may
have additional structures such as a capsule, flagella, and pili. Bacteria
and Archaea differ in the lipid composition of their cell membranes and
the characteristics of the cell wall. In archaeal membranes, phytanyl
units, rather than fatty acids, are linked to glycerol. Some archaeal
membranes are lipid monolayers instead of bilayers.
Trivedi, P.C., Pandey, S. and Bhadauria, S. (2010). Textbook of

Microbiology. Pointer Publishers; First edition
Tortora, Gerard J., Funke, Berdell, R. Case, Christine, L.

(2013) Microbiology:an introduction Boston: Pearson,
Madigan, M., Martinko, J. and Parker, J. 2003. Brock Biology of

Microorganism, 10th ed., Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ
https://www.slideshare.net/mylittlestobsession/the-bases-for-classifying-
bacteria
https://sciencing.com/characteristics-common-bacteria-11367849.html
https://microbiologysociety.org/why-microbiology-matters/what-is-
microbiology/bacteria.html
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-eubacteria-definition-
characteristics-examples.html
https://gpatindia.com/classification-and-characteristics-of-bacteria/3.8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8IJRzcPC9wg
https://youtu.be/SI-rU5UbXaw
https://youtu.be/xPGZMUZWEmg
https://youtu.be/KXWurAmtf78
27
Answers to SAE 1
1. The study of bacteria is called bacteriology.
2. Bacteria are prokaryotic unicellular organisms. They have a
relatively simple cell structure compared to eukaryotic cells.
They also do not possess any membrane-bound organelles such as a

nucleus. However, do they possess genetic material (DNA or RNA) in
the intracellular space called the nucleoid
Answers to SAE 2
1. Acetobacter aceti and Alicyclobacillus acidiphilus are two
examples of acidophilic bacteria.
2. The characteristic features of Bacteria are as follows:
1. Bacteria are unicellular and prokaryotic organisms.
2. They may be spherical, comma-shaped, rod-like, elliptical, or
even occur as a cluster.
3. They reproduce quickly by means of Binary fission.
4. Some Bacteria are very useful for humans for example in curd
making and some cause diseases like Typhoid, Cholera.
Answers to SAE 3
1. The three main shapes of bacteria are coccus, spiral, and bacillus.
2. These are also called micrococcus and represented by single,
discrete round Example: Micrococcus flavus.
28
UNIT 4 EUKARYOTIC ORGANISMS
Unit Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.3 Main Contents
4.3.1 Eukaryotic Organisms
4.3.1.1 Characteristics of Eukaryotes
4.3.1.2 The Endosymbiotic Theory
4.3.1.3 Lynn Margulis and the Endosymbiotic Theory
4.3.2 Secondary Endosymbiosis
4.4 Summary
4.1 Introduction
Living things fall into three large groups: Archaea, Bacteria, and
Eukarya. The first two have prokaryotic cells, and the third contains all
eukaryotes. A relatively sparse fossil record is available to help discern
what the first members of each of these lineages looked like, so it is
possible that all the events that led to the last common ancestor of extant
eukaryotes will remain unknown. However, comparative biology of
extant organisms and the limited fossil record provide some insight into
the history of Eukarya. Data from these fossils have led comparative
biologists to the conclusion that living eukaryotes are all descendants of
a single common ancestor
4.2 Intended Learning Objectives (ILOs)
By the end of this section, you will be able to:

1. Define and describe the key characteristics of eukaryotes
2. Describe the endosymbiotic theory
3. Explain the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts
4.3 Main Contents
4.3.1 The Eukaryotes
Eukaryotic organisms that didn't conform to the characteristics of the

Animalia, Fungi, or Plantae kingdoms were historically referred to as
protists and were grouped under the Protista kingdom. Protists
encompass single-celled eukaryotes found in pond water, although they
inhabit various aquatic and terrestrial environments, occupying diverse
niches. It's important to note that protists aren't exclusively microscopic
29
and single-celled; some larger multicellular species like kelps also fall
under this category. Over the last couple of decades, advancements in
molecular genetics have revealed that certain protists share closer
evolutionary relationships with animals, plants, or fungi than with other
protists. As a result, some protist lineages initially categorized within the
Protista kingdom have been reassigned to new kingdoms or existing
ones. The exploration of protist evolutionary lineages remains an
ongoing subject of investigation and discussion. Nonetheless, the term
"protist" is still informally used to encompass this immensely diverse
array of eukaryotic life forms. As a collective, protists showcase a
remarkable assortment of shapes, physiological traits, and ecological
roles. What are Protist organisms? Eukaryotic organisms that did not fit
the criteria for the kingdoms Animalia, Fungi, or Plantae historically
were called protists and were classified into the kingdom Protista. Most
protists are microscopic, unicellular organisms that are abundant in soil,
freshwater, brackish, and marine environments. They are also common
in the digestive tracts of animals and in the vascular tissues of plants.
Others invade the cells of other protists, animals, and plants. Not all
protists are microscopic. Some have huge, macroscopic cells, such as the
plasmodia (giant amoebae) of myxomycete slime molds or the marine
green alga Caulerpa, which can have single cells that can be several
meters in size. Some protists are multicellular, such as the red, green,
and brown seaweeds. It is among the protists that one finds the wealth of
ways that organisms can grow.
The volume of a typical eukaryotic cell is some 1000 times that of a

typical bacterial cell. Imagine a bacterium as a 100 square foot room
(the size of a small bedroom, or a large walk-in closet!) with one door.
Now imagine a room 1000 times as big.That is, imagine a 100,000
square foot ‘room’. You might expect many smaller rooms inside this
room for such a large space to be functional. The eukaryotic cell is a lot
like that large space, with lots of interior rooms (i.e., organelles) with
their own entryways and exits. In fact, eukaryotic life would not even be
possible without a division of labor of eukaryotic cells among
different organelles (the equivalence to the small rooms in our
metaphor). The smaller prokaryotic “room” has a much larger plasma
membrane surface area-to-volume ratio than a typical eukaryotic cell.
This enables required environmental chemicals to enter and quickly
diffuse throughout the cytoplasm of e.g., an E. coli cell. The
communication between chemicals and structures in a small cell is
therefore rapid. In contrast, the communication over a larger expanse of
cytoplasm inside a eukaryotic cell requires the coordinated (not to
mention regulated!) activities of subcellular components and
compartments. Such communication can be relatively slow in a large
space. In fact, eukaryotic cells have lower rates of metabolism, growth,
and reproduction than prokaryotic cells. Thus, the existence of large
30
cells required the evolution of divided labors supported

by compartmentalization.
Fungi, more closely related to animal than plant cells, are a curious beast
for several reasons! For one thing, the organization of fungi and fungal
cells is somewhat less defined than animal cells. Structures between
cells called septa separate fungal hyphae, allow passage of cytoplasm
and even organelles between cells. Some primitive fungi have few or no
septa, in effect creating coenocytes, which are single giant cell with
multiple nuclei. Fungal cells are surrounded by a wall,whose principal
component is chitin. Chitin is the same material that makes up the
exoskeleton of arthropods (which includes insects and lobsters!).
Typical animal and plant cells with organelles and other structures are
illustrated below, in Figure 1.9 and in Figure 1.10)
Figure4.1 Labeled drawing of the structural components of a typical

animal cell.
Source: https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/history_24
31
Figure 4.2 Labeled drawing of the structural components of a typical

plant cell.
Source: https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/history_24
The eukaryotes constitute the domain of Eukaryota , organisms whose
cells have a nucleus. All animals, plants, fungi, and many unicellular
organisms are eukaryotes. They constitute a major group of life forms,
alongside the two groups of prokaryotes, the Bacteria and the Archaea.
1. What is the diversity of eukaryotes?

2. What are eukaryotic cells?
4.3.1.1
3. Characteritics of Eukaryotes
Mapping the characteristics found in all major groups of eukaryotes

reveals that the following characteristics must have been present in the
last common ancestor because these characteristics are present in at least
some of the members of each major lineage. Some characteristics have
been lost in some lineages over time.
1. Cells with nuclei surrounded by a nuclear envelope with nuclear
pores.
2. Mitochondria. Some extant eukaryotes have very reduced
remnants of mitochondria in their cells, whereas other members
of their lineages have “typical” mitochondria.
3. A cytoskeleton containing the structural and motility components
called actin microfilaments and microtubules.
32
4. Flagella and cilia, organelles associated with cell motility. Some

extant eukaryotes lack flagella and/or cilia, but they are
descended from ancestors that possessed them.
5. Chromosomes, each consisting of a linear DNA molecule coiled
around basic (alkaline) proteins called histones. The few
eukaryotes with chromosomes lacking histones clearly evolved
from ancestors that had them.
6. Mitosis, a process of nuclear division wherein replicated
chromosomes are divided and separated using elements of the
cytoskeleton. Mitosis is universally present in eukaryotes. 7. Sex,
a process of genetic recombination unique to eukaryotes in which
diploid nuclei at one stage of the life cycle undergo meiosis to
yield haploid nuclei and a subsequent stage where two haploid
nuclei fuse together to create a diploid zygote nucleus.
4.3.1.2 The Endosymbiotic Theory
Eukaryotic cells are distinguished from prokaryotic cells through

various characteristics, including the presence of internal membrane-
bound structures like the nucleus, mitochondria, and chloroplasts. The
evolutionary origins of these internal structures are a topic of interest.
However, before delving into that, a discussion on energy is essential.
Energy plays a fundamental role in life processes, and understanding
energy metabolism differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is
crucial.
Numerous significant metabolic processes originated in prokaryotic

cells. Some of these, like nitrogen fixation, are exclusive to prokaryotes
and not found in eukaryotes. In contrast, aerobic respiration, a process
present across major eukaryotic lineages, takes place within
mitochondria. While many prokaryotic lineages also engage in aerobic
respiration, not all of them do. Several lines of evidence suggest that
certain anaerobic prokaryotes and their ancestors never engaged in
aerobic respiration. This relates to the fact that the Earth's early
atmosphere lacked oxygen (O2), making aerobic respiration unlikely.
Instead, organisms likely relied on fermentation in the absence of
oxygen.
Around 3.5 billion years ago, some prokaryotes began utilizing sunlight
to facilitate anabolic processes, converting carbon dioxide into organic
compounds through photosynthesis. This marked the evolution of
photosynthesis. Hydrogen, sourced from various origins, was harnessed
using light-driven reactions in the Calvin cycle to reduce fixed carbon
dioxide. A group of Gram-negative bacteria, which eventually gave rise
to cyanobacteria, used water as a hydrogen source, releasing oxygen as a
byproduct. However, the accumulating oxygen levels posed risks as it
33
could damage organic compounds. This prompted the development of

various protective metabolic processes, including aerobic respiration,
which also generated substantial ATP.
Aerobic respiration became widespread among prokaryotes, including

the group known as alpha-proteobacteria. Organisms without this
metabolic capability had to inhabit oxygen-depleted environments.
Initially, oxygen-rich environments were likely confined to regions with
active cyanobacteria. Over time, geological evidence indicates that
atmospheric oxygen levels increased around 2 billion years ago. Oxygen
levels comparable to today's atmosphere only emerged within the last
700 million years. Notably, the earliest eukaryotic fossils date back
around 2 billion years, coinciding with rising oxygen levels.
Additionally, all existing eukaryotes trace their origins back to an
ancestor with mitochondria.
The discovery of mitochondria, initially observed by light microscopists

in the late 1800s, revealed worm-like structures with apparent motion
within cells. Some early hypotheses suggested these structures might be
bacteria living within host cells, although these ideas were largely
unknown or rejected by the scientific community. Some people refute
the theory that similar DNA is due to common descent, a cornerstone of
endosymbiotic theory. They say that similar sequences of DNA can arise
through convergent evolution, or pressure from similar sources. Why is
this improbable?
4.3.1.3 Lynn Margulis and the Endosymbiotic Theory
In the late 1960s, Lynn Margulis studied the structure of cells.

Mitochondria, for example, are bodies within the cell that generate the
energy required for metabolism. To Margulis, they looked remarkably
like bacteria. She knew that scientists had been struck by the similarity
ever since the discovery of mitochondria at the end of the 1800s. Some
even suggested that mitochondria began from bacteria that lived in a
permanent symbiosis within the cells of animals and plants. There were
parallel examples in all plant cells. Algae and plant cells have a second
set of bodies (chloroplasts) that they use to carry out photosynthesis.
These structures capture incoming sunlight energy and use the energy to
drive biochemical reactions including the combination of water and
carbon dioxide to make organic matter. Chloroplasts, like mitochondria,
bear a striking resemblance to bacteria. Scientists, and Margulis in
particular, became convinced that chloroplasts, like mitochondria,
evolved from symbiotic bacteria — specifically, that they descended
from cyanobacteria, the light-harnessing small organisms that abound in
oceans and freshwater (Figure 4.1).
34
Figure 4.3 The first eukaryote may have originated from an ancestral
prokaryote that had undergone membrane proliferation,
compartmentalization of cellular function (into a nucleus, lysosomes,
and an endoplasmic reticulum), and the establishment of endosymbiotic
relationships with an aerobic prokaryote and, in some cases, a
photosynthetic prokaryote to form mitochondria and chloroplasts,
respectively. Source:
https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/history_24
This once-revolutionary hypothesis is now widely (but not completely)

accepted, with work progressing on uncovering the steps involved in
this evolutionary process and the key players involved. Much still
remains to be discovered about the origins of the cells that now make up
the cells in all living eukaryotes. Broadly, it has become clear that many
of our nuclear genes and the molecular machinery responsible for
replication and expression appear closely related to those in Archaea. On
the other hand, the metabolic organelles and genes responsible for many
energyharvesting processes had their origins in bacteria. Much remains
to be clarified about how this relationship occurred; this continues to be
an exciting field of discovery in biology. For instance, it is not known
whether the endosymbiotic event that led to mitochondria occurred
before or after the host cell had a nucleus. Such organisms would be
among the extinct precursors of the last common ancestor of eukaryotes.
What is Endosymbiotic Theory?
1. What is an endosymbiont?
2. What is Primary endosymbiosis?
35
4.3.2 Secondary Endosymbiosis
Endosymbiosis involves one cell engulfing another to produce, over

time, a co-evolved relationship in which neither cell could survive alone.
The chloroplasts of red and green algae, for instance, are derived from
the engulfment of a photosynthetic cyanobacterium by an early
prokaryote. This leads to the question of the possibility of a cell
containing an endosymbiont itself becoming engulfed, resulting in a
secondary endosymbiosis. Molecular and morphological evidence
suggest that the chlorarachniophyte protists are derived from a
secondary endosymbiotic event. Chlorarachniophytes are rare algae
indigenous to tropical seas and sand that can be classified into the
rhizarian supergroup. Chlorarachniophytes extend thin cytoplasmic
strands, interconnecting themselves with other chlorarachniophytes, in a
cytoplasmic network. These protists are thought to have originated when
a eukaryote engulfed a green alga, the latter of which had already
established an endosymbiotic relationship with a photosynthetic
cyanobacterium.
Figure 4.4 Secondary endosymbiosis in which a cell with an

endosymbiont is engulfed by another cell. Source:
Multiple pieces of evidence bolster the idea that chlorarachniophytes

emerged from a secondary endosymbiotic process. The chloroplasts
found within the internalized green algal symbionts retain their
photosynthetic capabilities, rendering chlorarachniophytes capable of
photosynthesis. The green algal symbiont also exhibits a reduced and
non-functional nucleus. In fact, it seems that chlorarachniophytes have
arisen relatively recently through a secondary endosymbiotic occurrence
in their evolutionary history. The plastids in chlorarachniophytes are
36
encompassed by four membranes. The initial two membranes

correspond to the inner and outer membranes of the photosynthetic
cyanobacterium, the third originates from the green alga, and the fourth
arises from the vacuole that enclosed the green alga during its
engulfment by the ancestor of the chlorarachniophyte. In other lineages
that have undergone secondary endosymbiosis, only three membranes
encase the plastids. This is interpreted as a progressive loss of one
membrane over the course of evolution. The phenomenon of secondary
endosymbiosis isn't exclusive to chlorarachniophytes. In fact, secondary
endosymbiosis involving green algae also led to the emergence of
euglenid protists. Similarly, secondary endosymbiosis with red algae
gave rise to the evolution of dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, and
stramenopiles.
1. What is secondary endosymbiosis?

2. What is the main difference between primary and secondary
endosymbiosis?
4.4 Summary
The earliest fossil evidence of eukaryotes dates back approximately 2

billion years. Fossils older than this primarily exhibit characteristics of
prokaryotes. It is likely that modern eukaryotes are descended from an
ancestor with a prokaryotic structure. The most recent shared ancestor of
present-day Eukarya possessed several distinctive features. These
included cells containing nuclei that underwent mitotic division and
featured linear chromosomes bound to histones. Additionally, this
ancestor possessed a cytoskeleton, an endomembrane system, and the
capability to produce cilia/flagella during specific stages of its life cycle.
Its aerobic nature stemmed from the presence of mitochondria, which
originated from an aerobic alphaproteobacterium residing within a host
cell. The presence of a nucleus in the host cell during the initial
symbiotic event remains uncertain. While the last common ancestor
might have had a cell wall during some phases of its life cycle, further
evidence is required to validate this hypothesis. Present-day eukaryotes
exhibit a wide array of variations in terms of their shapes, structures, life
cycles, and the number of cells per individual.
37
Fenchel, T., Finlay, B. J., and Esteban, G. F. (2019). Cosmopolitan

Metapopulations?.Protist, 170(3), 314–318.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.protis.
Finlay B. J. (2004). Protist taxonomy: an ecological perspective.
Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B,
Biological sciences, 359(1444), 599–610.
https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2003.1450
http://cnx.org/ contents/185cbf87-c72e-48f5-b51e-
f14f21b5eabd@11.6. 23.1 Eukaryotic Origins
https://youtu.be/FGnS-Xk0ZqU
https://youtu.be/eCWwKrJyKxA
https://youtu.be/xTnNv7YplSo
https://youtu.be/7FN1NBoV2u0
https://youtu.be/8deF3Rw4ti4
38
Answers to SAE 1
1. Eukaryotes are organisms that range from microscopic single

cells, such as picozoans under 3 micrometres across, to animals
like the blue whale, weighing up to 190 tonnes and measuring up
to 33.6 metres (110 ft) long,
2. The eukaryotes constitute the domain of Eukaryota, organisms
whose Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus enclosed within the
nuclear membrane and form large and complex organisms. All
animals, plants, fungi, and many unicellular organisms are
eukaryotes. They constitute a major group of life forms,
alongside the two groups of prokaryotes, the Bacteria and the
Archaea.
Answers to SAE 2
1. An organism that lives with another organism, cause both
organisms to receive benefits.
2. Primary endosymbiosis is when a prokaryotic cell is engulfed by
a eukaryotic cell and becomes a symbiotic organelle. Secondary
endosymbiosis results in the loss of independence of the engulfed
cell and the formation of complex plastids. Secondary
endosymbiosis occurred more frequently than primary
endosymbiosis in evolutionary history.
Answers to SAE 3
1. Secondary endosymbiosis is a process of eukaryotic evolution in
which a eukaryotic cell engulfs another eukaryotic cell that has
already undergone primary endosymbiosis.
2. The main difference between primary and secondary

endosymbiosis is that primary endosymbiosis is the engulfing and
absorbing a prokaryotic cell by a eukaryotic cell, whereas
secondary endosymbiosis is the engulfing and absorbing of a
eukaryotic cell by another eukaryotic cell that has already
undergone primary endosymbiosis.
39
Unit 5 The Protists
Unit Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.3 Main Contents
5.3.1 Kingdom Protists
5.3.2 Protists Diversity
5.3.2.1 Animal-like protists:
5.3.2.2 Plant-like protists
5.3.2.3 Fungi like protists:
5.3.3 Habitat and Adaptation
5.4 Summary
5.1 Introduction
Eukaryotic organisms that did not meet the criteria for classification into
the Animalia, Fungi, or Plantae kingdoms were historically referred to
as protists and grouped within the Protista kingdom. This category
encompasses single-celled eukaryotes commonly found in pond water,
although protist species inhabit various aquatic and terrestrial
environments, occupying diverse niches. It's worth noting that not all
protists are microscopic or single-celled; some large multicellular
species, like kelps, also fall under this category. Advancements in
molecular genetics over the past two decades have revealed that certain
protists share closer genetic relationships with animals, plants, or fungi
than with other protists. As a result, some protist lineages originally
placed within the Protista kingdom have been reclassified into new
kingdoms or existing ones. The evolutionary origins of protist lineages
continue to be subject to examination and debate. Nonetheless, the term
"protist" is still informally used to describe this highly diverse group of
eukaryotes. Collectively, protists exhibit an astonishing array of
variations in terms of their shapes, physiological traits, and ecological
roles.
By the end of this unit, you will be able to do the following:
1. Define and describe the cell structure characteristics of protists

2. Describe the metabolic diversity of protists
3. Describe the life cycle diversity of protists
4. Describe the adaptation of protists
40
5.3 Main Contents
5.3.1 Kingdom Protists
Protists are a group of loosely connected, mostly unicellular eukaryotic

organisms that are not plants, animals or fungi. There is no single
feature such as evolutionary history or morphology common to all these
organisms and they are unofficially placed under a separate kingdom
called Protista. Therefore, protists are no longer a formal classification,
and different members show varying degrees of homology with species
belonging to all five eukaryotic kingdoms. However, it is still used as a
term of convenience to describe eukaryotic microscopic organisms.
Initially this group included bacteria and fungi, but now it is comprised
exclusively of organisms having a fully defined nucleus, with complex
cellular structure but lacking tissue-level organization.
There are over 100,000 described living species of protists, and it is

unclear how many undescribed species may exist. Since many protists
live as commensals or parasites in other organisms and these
relationships are often species-specific, there is a huge potential for
protist diversity that matches the diversity of their hosts. Because the
name "protist" serves as a catchall term for eukaryotic organisms that
are not animal, plant, or fungi, it is not surprising that very few
characteristics are common to all protists. On the other hand, familiar
characteristics of plants and animals are foreshadowed in various
protists.
1. Cell Structure
The cells of protists are among the most elaborate of all cells.
Multicellular plants, animals, and fungi are embedded among the
protists in eukaryotic phylogeny. In most plants and animals and some
fungi, complexity arises out of multicellularity, tissue specialization, and
subsequent interaction because of these features. Although a
rudimentary form of multicellularity exists among some of the
organisms labelled as “protists,” those that have remained unicellular
show how complexity can evolve in the absence of true multicellularity,
with the differentiation of cellular morphology and function. A few
protists live as colonies that behave in some ways as a group of free-
living cells and in other ways as a multicellular organism. Some protists
are composed of enormous, multinucleate, single cells that look like
amorphous blobs of slime, or in other cases, like ferns. In some species
of protists, the nuclei are different sizes and have distinct roles in protist
cell function. Single protist cells range in size from less than a
micrometer to three meters in length to hectares! Protist cells may be
enveloped by animal-like cell membranes or plant-like cell walls. Others
are encased in glassy silica-based shells or wound with pellicles of
41
interlocking protein strips. The pellicle functions like a flexible coat of

armor, preventing the protist from being torn or pierced without
compromising its range of motion.
2. Metabolism
Protists exhibit many forms of nutrition and may be aerobic or
anaerobic. Those that store energy by photosynthesis belong to a group
of photoautotrophs and are characterized by the presence of
chloroplasts. Other protists are heterotrophic and consume organic
materials (such as other organisms) to obtain nutrition. Amoebas and
some other heterotrophic protist species ingest particles by a process
called phagocytosis, in which the cell membrane engulfs a food particle
and brings it inward, pinching off an intracellular membranous sac, or
vesicle, called a food vacuole. In some protists, food vacuoles can be
formed anywhere on the body surface, whereas in others, they may be
restricted to the base of a specialized feeding structure. The vesicle
containing the ingested particle, the phagosome, then fuses with a
lysosome containing hydrolytic enzymes to produce a phagolysosome,
and the food particle is broken down into small molecules that can
diffuse into the cytoplasm and be used in cellular metabolism.
Undigested remains ultimately are expelled from the cell via exocytosis.
Figure 5.1 Phagocytosis. The stages of phagocytosis include the

engulfment of a food particle, the digestion of the particle using
hydrolytic enzymes contained within a lysosome, and the expulsion of
undigested materials from the cell. Source:
42
Subtypes of heterotrophs, called saprobes, absorb nutrients from dead

organisms or their organic wastes. Some protists can function
as mixotrophs, obtaining nutrition by photoautotrophic or heterotrophic
routes, depending on whether sunlight or organic nutrients are available.
3. Motility
The majority of protists are motile, but different types of protists have
evolved varied modes of movement. Some protists have one or more
flagella, which they rotate or whip. Others are covered in rows or tufts
of tiny cilia that they beat in a coordinated manner to swim. Still others
form cytoplasmic extensions called pseudopodia anywhere on the cell,
anchor the pseudopodia to a substrate, and pull themselves forward.
Some protists can move toward or away from a stimulus, a movement
referred to as taxis. For example, movement toward light, termed
phototaxis, is accomplished by coupling their locomotion strategy with a
light-sensing organ.
Figure 5.2 Locomotor organelles in protists. Protists use various

methods for transportation. (a) Paramecium waves hair-like appendages
called cilia to propel itself. (b) Amoeba uses lobe-like pseudopodia to
anchor itself to a solid surface and pull itself forward. (c) Euglena uses a
whip-like tail called a flagellum to propel itself. Source:
4. Life Cycles
Protists engage in a variety of reproduction methods. Most of them
undergo a form of asexual reproduction, such as binary fission, which
yields two daughter cells. In the case of protists, binary fission can be
categorized as transverse or longitudinal based on the orientation axis.
An example of this method is seen in Paramecium. Certain protists like
true slime molds utilize multiple fission, dividing into multiple daughter
cells simultaneously. Alternatively, some protists produce small buds
that eventually divide and grow to match the size of the parent protist.
Sexual reproduction, involving meiosis and fertilization, is widespread
among protists. Many protist species can transition from asexual to
sexual reproduction as required. Sexual reproduction often becomes
43
prominent when nutrients become scarce or environmental shifts occur.

This process allows protists to mix genes and generate new variations of
offspring, some of which might be better suited to surviving alterations
in their environment. However, sexual reproduction is often associated
with the development of resistant cysts, which serve as protective resting
stages. Depending on the species' habitat, these cysts can be remarkably
resilient against factors like extreme temperatures, desiccation, or low
pH levels. This strategy permits certain protists to endure stressors until
their surroundings become more conducive to survival or until they are
transported (by means like wind, water, or other organisms) to different
environments, as cysts show minimal cellular metabolism. Protist life
cycles exhibit a wide spectrum, ranging from uncomplicated to
extremely intricate. Certain parasitic protists possess complex life
cycles, necessitating infection of different host species during distinct
developmental stages to complete their life cycle. Some protists exist as
unicellular entities in their haploid form and transform into multicellular
forms in the diploid state, a strategy reminiscent of animals. Other
protists display multicellular phases in both haploid and diploid forms, a
phenomenon known as alternation of generations, analogous to the
strategy employed by plants.
5. Habitats
Nearly all protists exist in some type of aquatic environment, including
freshwater and marine environments, damp soil, and even snow. Several
protist species are parasites that infect animals or plants. A few protist
species live on dead organisms or their wastes, and contribute to their
decay. What is the majoe feature of group
of photoautotrophs eukaryotes?
1. What are Protists organisms?

2. What are the locomotor organelles in the three major
protists?
5.3.2 Protists Diversity
Protists are small, single-celled eukaryotic organisms that serve as a

bridge between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. These microorganisms are
typically found in aquatic habitats and play a significant role in the food
chain of aquatic and marine ecosystems. They encompass a wide
spectrum, ranging from autotrophic diatoms to heterotrophic amoebas.
They are broadly categorized into three distinct groups: animal-like
protists, plant-like protists, and fungi-like protists. In Whittaker's five-
kingdom classification system, the second group consists of unicellular
44
primitive forms as well as some that are multicellular. Their sources of

nourishment and reproductive methods display notable diversity due to
their wide-ranging characteristics. Protists predominantly inhabit moist
environments, such as aquatic settings like lakes, oceans, rivers,
marshes, as well as damp soil and puddles. They can exist as
independent entities or engage in symbiotic relationships. To facilitate
movement, they utilize specialized extensions like flagella, cilia, or
pseudopods. While some are capable of active movement, others can be
stationary and drift passively with the flow of water currents.
5.3.2.1Animal-like protists:
They are also known as protozoa. What makes them reminiscent of

animals is their capacity for movement and their method of obtaining
nourishment. These are single-celled organisms with the ability to move,
relying on specialized extensions like whip-like flagella or hair-like
cilia. In certain organisms, there might be one or two flagella that act
like oars, propelling the protist forward. Conversely, cilia are present in
larger numbers on the surface of protists, and their beating motion
propels the protists between locations. Similar to animals relying on
plants and other autotrophs for sustenance, animal-like protists are
heterotrophic, depending on other microorganisms as their source of
nutrients. It's largely due to these characteristics that these protists are
considered ancestral to the animal kingdom.
However, there are differences between protists and animals. Protists

have simpler body organization compared to the more complex
multicellular higher animals. These protists obtain sustenance through
various methods, such as preying on other microorganisms like bacteria
(acting as predators, as seen in paramecium), consuming photosynthetic
algae (acting as herbivores), extracting nutrients from decaying matter in
their environment (acting as saprophytes), or feeding on live hosts
(acting as parasites, as seen in malarial plasmodium). The protozoa are
further classified into four groups depending on the mode of locomotion
that they possess:
1. Amoeboid
It moves via the formation of the false foot that encircles the prey and
engulfs the prey by the formation of vesicles. For example, Amoeba.
1. Ciliate
They move with the help of the numerous hair-like structures on their
outer surface called the cilia. The beating of the cilia in a pattered form
helps the protozoa to move ahead. For example, Paramecium.
1. Flagellate
They move with the whip-like long structure whose oar like movement
helps in the propelling of the organism ahead. Mostly, there are two
flagella present, one long and one short. For example, Giardia.
45
1. Sporozoan
They are non-motile protozoans that do not move and reside in one
given place only. For example, Plasmodium.
5.3.2.2Plant-like protists
Algae comprise a group of protists that serve as a link connecting plants

and prokaryotes. These organisms are autotrophic, capable of generating
their own sustenance through the synthesis of nutrients from sunlight
and diverse chemicals. Algae play a crucial role as primary producers
within aquatic and marine ecosystems. They play a role in converting
atmospheric oxygen into water and are responsible for utilizing
approximately half of the Earth's carbon dioxide. Algae exhibit a
spectrum of forms, ranging from single-celled varieties like diatoms to
multicellular types like seaweed. What unites these protists with plants
is their ability to produce their own nourishment, eliminating the need
for external nutrient sources. They possess chloroplasts akin to plants.
However, a notable distinction between the two lies in the less advanced
nature of algae; they lack specialized structures such as roots, stems, and
leaves that are characteristic of plants. Some algal cells, such as those in
Chlamydomonas, exhibit mobility, while others, like kelps, are non-
motile. The division of the plant-like protists is done into four main
groups:
1. Red algae
Procured their chloroplast from the cyanobacteria (prokaryotes). They
have a red pigment called the xanthophyll that helps them to absorb a
specific range of light that helps them to prepare their food. They are
also called the Rhodophyceae. For example, Porphyra and Gelidium.
2. Green algae
They also procured their chloroplast from the cyanobacteria and contain
a pigment called chlorophyll. Examples are Volvox and Ulva.
3. Euglenoids
Their chloroplast originated from the green algae and they also have
chlorophyll. For example, Euglena.
4. Dinoflagellates
They are characterized by the presence of two flagella, passing through
their body perpendicular to each other. Their chloroplast was derived
from the red algae. Examples are Noctiluca and Gonyaulax.
5.3.2.3 Fungi like protists
Molds that feed on the dead and decaying matter are grouped into this
category. They have the same mode of nutrition as the fungi and also,
they form spores like the fungi. However, they are different concerning
the fungi as they are motile and have a complex mode of reproduction.
These protists are divided into two groups”
46
1. Slime molds
Commonly found in rotting logs and compost. Examples
are Myxogastria and Physarum.
2. Water molds
Commonly found in, moist swamp and water. Examples
are Leptolegnia and Saprolegnia.
What are the four major divisions of the plant-like protists?
1. What do you referthe animal like protists and into howmany groups
were they classified?
2. What are the diferent groups of protozoans based on their mode of
locomotion?
3. Habitat and Adaptation
5.3.3
The majority of the protists thrive in the aquatic environment, e.g.

freshwater, marine milieu, damp soil, and some are even found in the
snow. The common and classic example of aquatic protists is Paramecia.
Paramecium is one of the most commonly used research organisms,
especially in classrooms and laboratories. This is due to the ease and
abundance of their availability. Some of the protists are parasitic and
therefore they reside in host cells or organisms. Amoeba is a human
parasite that can result in dysentery in the host human. Some of the
protists thrive on the dead organisms or their wastes and are important
scavengers of the ecology. Slime molds are the protists that live on
bacteria and fungi found in rotting trees and forests.
While, in general, protists are typical eukaryotic cells and follow the
same principles of physiology and biochemistry described for those cells
within the "higher" eukaryotes (animals, fungi or plants), they have
evolved a variety of unique physiological adaptations that do not appear
in those eukaryotes.
1. Osmoregulation. Freshwater protists without cell walls are able
to regulate their osmosis through contractile vacuoles,
specialized organelles that periodically excrete fluid high
in potassium and sodium through a cycle of diastole and systole. The
cycle stops when the cells are placed in a medium with different salinity,
until the cell adapts.
2. Energetic adaptations. The last eukaryotic common

ancestor was aerobic, bearing mitochondria for oxidative metabolism.
Many lineages of free-living and parasitic protists have independently
evolved and adapted to inhabit anaerobic or microaerophilic habitats, by
47
modifying the early mitochondria into hydrogenosomes, organelles that

generate ATP anaerobically through fermentation of pyruvate. In a
parallel manner, in the microaerophilic trypanosomatid protists, the
fermentative glycosome evolved from the peroxisome.[74]
3. Sensory adaptations. Many flagellates and probably all motile

algae exhibit a positive phototaxis (i.e. they swim or glide toward a
source of light). For this purpose, they exhibit three kinds
of photoreceptors or "eyespots": (1) receptors with light antennae, found
in many green algae, dinoflagellates and cryptophytes; (2) receptors
with opaque screens; and (3) complex ocelloids with intracellular lenses,
found in one group of predatory dinoflagellates, the Warnowiaceae.
Additionally, some ciliates orient themselves in relation to the
Earth's gravitational field while moving (geotaxis), and others swim in
relation to the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the water.[74]
4. Endosymbiosis. Protists have an accentuated tendency to

include endosymbionts in their cells, and these have produced new
physiological opportunities. Some associations are more permanent,
such as Paramecium bursaria and its endosymbiont Chlorella; others
more transient. Many protists contain captured chloroplasts, chloroplast-
mitochondrial complexes, and even eyespots from algae.
The xenosomes are bacterial endosymbionts found in ciliates, sometimes

with a methanogenic role inside anaerobic ciliates.
Other adaptations of protists include:
1. Parasitic protozoans live in a fairly constant environment, while
free-living protists face short- or long-term changes in
temperature, aquatic acidity, food supply, moisture, and light.
2. Capture of living prey by the use of encircling pseudopodial
extensions (in certain amoeboids).
3. Trapping of particles of food in water currents by filters formed
of specialized compound buccal organelles (in ciliates).
4. Simple diffusion of dissolved organic material through the cell
membrane.
5. Sucking out of the cytoplasm of certain host cells (as in many
parasitic protists).
6. Adaptations to particular habitats over prolonged periods of time
have resulted in both intracellular and extracellular elaborations
seldom, if ever, found at the cellular level in higher eukaryotic
species
48
1. How does the protists without cell walls regulate their osmosis?
2. What is the adaptation for protists that exhibit a positive phototaxis?
1.
5.4 Summary
The fact that protists are an artificial collection of phylogenetically

unrelated organisms contributes significantly to their extraordinary
biological and ecological diversity. Protists exhibit a wide range of cell
types, reproduction methods, almost every conceivable form of
nourishment, and habitats. The majority of single-celled protists are
movable, although they do so by use of a variety of different
structures.Although the task of dividing protists into meaningful groups
is still underway, genomic data have revealed many linkages that were
previously ambiguous or incorrect. Currently, placing all eukaryotes into
six supergroups is the prevailing theory. This system of classification
aims to group species into groups that share a common ancestor.
Caron, David A. "Towards a molecular taxonomy for protists: benefits,

risks, and applications in plankton ecology." Journal of
Eukaryotic Microbiology 60.4 (2013): 407-413.
Foissner, W. (2007). "Protist diversity and distribution: some basic

considerations." Protist diversity and geographical distribution.
Springer, Dordrecht, pp1-8.
Gooday, A. J., Schoenle, A., Dolan, J. R., & Arndt, H. (2020). Protist
diversity and function in the dark ocean – Challenging the
paradigms of deep-sea ecology with special emphasis on
foraminiferans and naked protists. European journal of
protistology, 75, 125721.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejop.2020.125721
https://biologydictionary.net/protist/.
http://cnx.org/contents/185cbf87-c72e-48f5-b51e-
f14f21b5eabd@11.6. 23.1
https://youtu.be/UOfY26qdbU0
https://youtu.be/8deF3Rw4ti4
https://youtu.be/0-6dzU4gOJo
https://youtu.be/-zsdYOgTbOk
49
Answers to SAE 1
1. Protists are a group of loosely connected, mostly unicellular
eukaryotic organisms that are not plants, animals or fungi.
2. Protists use various methods for transportation:
(a) Paramecium waves hair-like appendages called cilia to
propel itself.
(b) Amoeba uses lobe-like pseudopodia to anchor itself to a
solid surface and pull itself forward.
(c) Euglena uses a whip-like tail called a flagellum to propel
itself.
Answers to SAE 2
3. The Protozoa, they are classified into four groups depending on
the mode of locomotion that they possess.
4. The protozoa are classified into four groups depending on the
mode of locomotion that they possess as follows: Amoeboid;
Ciliate; Flagellate and Sporozoan
Answers to SAE 3
1. Freshwater protists without cell walls are able to regulate their
osmosis through contractile vacuoles, specialized organelles that
periodically excrete fluid high in potassium and sodium through a
cycle of diastole and systole.
2. Many flagellates in response, exhibit three kinds
of photoreceptors or "eyespots": (i) receptors with light antennae,
found in many green algae, dinoflagellates and cryptophytes; (ii)
receptors with opaque screens; and (iii) complex ocelloids with
intracellular lenses, found in one group of
predatory dinoflagellates, the Warnowiaceae.
50
UNIT 6 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS, IDENTIFICATION

AND CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI
Unit Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.3 Main Contents
6.3.1 The Study of Fungi
6.3.1.1 Cell Structure and Function
6.3.1.2 Growth and Reproduction
6.3.1.3 How Fungi Obtain Nutrition
6.3.2 Fungal Diversity
6.3.2.1 Pathogenic Fungi
6.3.3.2 Animal and Human Parasites and Pathogens
6.3.4 Beneficial Fungi
6.4 Summary
6.1 Introduction
The word fungus comes from the Latin word for mushrooms. Indeed,
the familiar mushroom is a reproductive structure used by many types of
fungi. However, there are also many fungus species that don't produce
mushrooms at all. Being eukaryotes, a typical fungal cell contains a true
nucleus and many membrane-bound organelles. The kingdom Fungi
includes an enormous variety of living organisms collectively referred to
as Eumycota, or true Fungi. While scientists have identified about
100,000 species of fungi, this is only a fraction of the 1.5 million species
of fungus likely present on Earth. Edible mushrooms, yeasts, black
mold, and the producer of the antibiotic penicillin, Penicillium notatum,
are all members of the kingdom Fungi, which belongs to the domain
Eukarya.
6.2 Intended Learning Objectives (ILO)

1. Explain what a fungi is.
2. List the characteristics of fungi
3. Describe fungal parasites and pathogens of plants and infections
in humans
4. Describe the importance of fungi to the environment
5. Summarize the beneficial role of fungi in food and beverage
preparation and in the chemical and pharmaceutical industry
51
6.3 Main Contents
6.3.1 The Study of Fungi
The term "fungus" originates from the Latin word for mushroom. While
the familiar mushrooms indeed fall under the category of fungi, there
exists a diverse range of other fungal types as well (as depicted in Figure
6.1). The kingdom Fungi encompasses an immense variety of living
organisms. Although scientists have identified around 135,000 fungal
species, this accounts for just a fraction of the likely over 1.5 million
fungal species present on Earth. Members of the kingdom Fungi,
situated within the domain Eukarya, encompass edible mushrooms,
yeasts, black mold, and Penicillium notatum (the producer of the
antibiotic penicillin). As eukaryotes, typical fungal cells possess a
genuine nucleus and numerous membrane-bound organelles.
In the past, fungi were perceived as plant-like entities; however, DNA

comparisons have revealed that fungi share a closer genetic connection
with animals than with plants. Fungi are incapable of photosynthesis,
relying instead on complex organic compounds as their energy and
carbon sources. The reproduction strategies of fungal organisms vary,
with some exclusively reproducing asexually and others engaging in
both asexual and sexual reproduction. The majority of fungi generate a
multitude of spores that are dispersed by the wind. Analogous to
bacteria, fungi play a vital role in ecosystems by acting as decomposers
and participating in nutrient cycling through the breakdown of organic
materials into simpler molecules.
Fungi often interact with other organisms, forming mutualistic

relationships that are beneficial to both parties. However, fungi can also
cause severe infections in plants and animals. For instance, Dutch elm
disease, an extremely destructive fungal infection, targets many native
elm species (Ulmus spp.). This fungus invades the tree's vascular system
and was unintentionally introduced to North America in the 1900s,
resulting in the widespread devastation of elm trees. The cause of Dutch
elm disease is the fungus Ophiostoma ulmi, which is transmitted by the
elm bark beetle from one tree to another. While European and Asiatic
elms are generally less vulnerable, American elms are more susceptible.
In the context of humans, fungal infections pose a significant challenge
to treat because, unlike bacteria, they do not respond to conventional
antibiotic therapy due to their shared eukaryotic nature. Such infections
can be especially dangerous for individuals with compromised immune
systems. Fungi have diverse commercial applications: the food industry
employs yeasts in baking, brewing, and winemaking, and various
industrial compounds result from fungal fermentation. Moreover, many
commercial enzymes and antibiotics originate from fungi.
52
6.3.1.1Cell Structure and Function
Because they are eukaryotes, fungi have a sophisticated cellular

structure. Fungal cells are eukaryotes and have a membrane-bound
nucleus. Some varieties of fungi have structures resembling the plasmids
(DNA loops) found in bacteria. Additionally, mitochondria and a
sophisticated network of internal membranes, including the endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi apparatus, are found in fungus cells.Chloroplasts do
not exist in fungus cells. Despite lacking the pigment necessary for
photosynthetic life, chlorophyll, many fungi exhibit vibrant hues, from
red to green to black. Fly agaric, a deadly Amanita muscaria, can be
identified by its brilliant red crown with white patches (Figure 6.1).
Fungi have pigments that are connected to their cell walls and act as a
UV radiation shield. Some colors are poisonous.
Figure 6.1 Amanita muscaria, a poisonous species of mushroom

Source: http://openstaxcollege.org/l/fungi_kingdom
The stiff layers of the fungal cell wall are thick, like those of plant cells,
but instead of cellulose, which is what plant cells employ, they are made
of the complex polysaccharides chitin and glucan. The cell walls of
fungi are strengthened structurally by chitin, which is also present in the
exoskeleton of insects. The wall supports the cell's structural integrity
and shields it from some predators and desiccation. Fungi have plasma
membranes that are comparable to those of other eukaryotes, with the
exception that ergosterol, a steroid molecule that performs similarly to
the cholesterol present in animal cell membranes, stabilizes the
structure. most people living in the kingdom Fungi do not move. Only
the gametes in the archaic division Chytridiomycota may form flagella.
53
6.3.1.2Growth and Reproduction
The fungal body, referred to as a thallus, can exist as either a single cell
or as a collection of multiple cells. Some fungi exhibit a dual nature
known as dimorphism, where they can transition from a single-celled to
a multicellular state based on environmental conditions. Yeasts are the
common designation for unicellular fungi. Examples of unicellular fungi
include Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker’s yeast) and Candida species
(responsible for thrush, a common fungal infection). The majority of
fungi are multicellular entities that manifest two distinct morphological
phases: vegetative and reproductive. The vegetative phase is
characterized by an interweaving network of slender thread-like
structures called hyphae (singular: hypha). In contrast, the reproductive
phase tends to be more visibly prominent. A collection of hyphae is
known as a mycelium (depicted in Figure 6.2). Mycelium can develop
on surfaces, within soil or decaying matter, in liquids, or even within or
on living tissues. While individual hyphae necessitate observation under
a microscope, the mycelium of a fungus can grow to significant sizes,
with certain species achieving monumental proportions. The Armillaria
ostoyae, a massive honey mushroom, holds the distinction of being
considered the largest organism on the planet. It spans more than 2,000
acres of subterranean soil in eastern Oregon and is estimated to be at
least 2,400 years old.
Figure 6.2 The mycelium of the fungus Neotestudina rosati

Source: http://openstaxcollege.org/l/fungi_kingdom
The majority of fungal hyphae are segmented into distinct cells through
end walls known as septa (singular: septum). In most fungal divisions
(referred to as divisions, analogous to plant phyla by convention), these
septa feature small openings that enable rapid nutrient and small
54
molecule movement between cells along the hyphae. These are termed
perforated septa. However, the hyphae in bread molds (classified under
the Zygomycota division) lack septa and are composed of large cells
containing multiple nuclei. This arrangement is termed coenocytic
hyphae. Fungi thrive in environments characterized by moisture and
slightly acidic conditions. They can flourish in both dark and well-lit
settings. Their oxygen requirements vary: the majority are obligate
aerobes, relying on oxygen for survival. On the other hand, certain
species like Chytridiomycota found in cattle rumens are obligate
anaerobes, unable to thrive and reproduce in oxygen-rich environments.
Yeasts fall in between, thriving in oxygen-rich conditions but also
capable of fermentation when oxygen is scarce. Yeast fermentation
produces alcohol used in the production of wine and beer, and the
carbon dioxide they generate adds carbonation to beer and sparkling
wine while making bread dough rise. The reproductive stage of fungi
can take either sexual or asexual forms. In both cases, fungi generate
spores that disperse from the parent organism either by floating in the
wind or hitching rides on animals. Although fungal spores are smaller
and lighter than plant seeds, they typically don't disperse as high in the
air. The giant puffball mushroom, for example, bursts open to release
trillions of spores, maximizing the chances of these spores landing in
environments conducive to growth (Figure 6.3).
Figure 6.3 The (a) giant puffball mushroom releases (b) a cloud of
spores when it reaches maturity. Source:
http://openstaxcollege.org/l/fungi_kingdom
6.3.1.3 How Fungi Obtain Nutrition
Like animals, fungi are heterotrophic organisms. Instead of fixing

carbon dioxide from the atmosphere like certain bacteria and most
plants, fungi rely on intricate organic compounds as their source of
carbon. Furthermore, fungi do not engage in nitrogen fixation from the
55
atmosphere and, akin to animals, they must acquire nitrogen from their
diet. However, unlike the majority of animals that ingest food and then
internally digest it within specialized organs, fungi reverse this process.
Digestion precedes ingestion. Initially, exoenzymes – enzymes that
catalyze reactions on substances external to the cell – are secreted from
the hyphae to break down nutrients in the surrounding environment.
Subsequently, the smaller molecules resulting from this external
digestion are absorbed through the expansive surface areas of the
mycelium. Analogous to animal cells, fungi store their polysaccharides
as glycogen rather than starch, as is found in plants.
Predominantly, fungi are saprobes, organisms that extract nutrients from

decaying organic matter. They primarily derive their nourishment from
deceased or decomposing organic material, largely plant-based. Fungal
exoenzymes possess the capability to break down insoluble
polysaccharides, such as cellulose and lignin found in decaying wood,
into glucose molecules that can be easily absorbed. Decomposers, a vital
component of ecosystems, play a critical role in releasing nutrients from
deceased organisms, rendering them usable for other life forms. This
ecological function is explored in more detail later. With their diverse
metabolic pathways, fungi fulfill crucial ecological functions and are
being explored as potential tools for bioremediation. For instance,
certain fungal species can be harnessed to degrade diesel oil and
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, while others are capable of absorbing
heavy metals like cadmium and lead. What does the Latin word for
mushroom called?
1. Why are Fungi no more considered plant-like organisms
2. What is the prepared habitat for Fungi?
6.3.2 Fungal Diversity
The kingdom Fungi is comprised of four primary divisions established

based on their method of sexual reproduction. Additionally, for
convenience, fungi that reproduce asexually and are unrelated are placed
into a fifth division, and a sixth major fungal category that doesn't neatly
fit into any of the preceding five has been recently described. It's worth
noting that not all experts in the field of mycology universally agree
with this classification system. Ongoing advancements in molecular
biology and the sequencing of 18S rRNA, a component of ribosomes,
consistently unveil novel and divergent connections between various
fungal categories. The classical divisions within the Fungi realm
encompass the Chytridiomycota (chytrids), Zygomycota (conjugated
fungi), Ascomycota (sac fungi), and Basidiomycota (club fungi). A
56
previous classification scheme had placed fungi that solely engaged in

asexual reproduction under the Deuteromycota label, although this
group is no longer widely utilized. The Glomeromycota belong to a
newly described group (Figure 6.4).
Figure 6.4 Divisions of fungi include (a) chytrids, (b) conjugated fungi,
(c) sac fungi, and (d) club fungi. Source:
6.3.2.1Pathogenic Fungi
Numerous fungi exert adverse effects on various species, encompassing

humans and the organisms vital for their sustenance. Fungi can function
as parasites, pathogens, and, although quite rarely, predators. Ensuring
the production of ample and high-quality crops is pivotal for our
survival. The devastation of crops due to plant diseases has led to severe
famine incidents. A significant portion of plant pathogens are fungi,
which incite the decay of tissues and ultimately bring about the death of
the host organism (illustrated in Figure 6.5). Beyond direct destruction
of plant tissue, certain plant pathogens taint crops by producing potent
toxins. Fungi are additionally accountable for the spoilage of food and
the decomposition of stored crops. As an instance, the fungus Claviceps
purpurea triggers ergot, a disease affecting cereal crops, particularly rye.
While the fungus indeed diminishes cereal yields, the ramifications of
ergot's alkaloid toxins on humans and animals are of even greater
importance: among animals, the ailment is known as ergotism.
Manifestations commonly involve convulsions, hallucinations,
57
gangrene, and a decline in milk production in cattle. The central

component of ergot is lysergic acid, which serves as a precursor to the
drug LSD. Further instances of frequent fungal pathogens influencing
crops comprise smuts, rusts, and powdery or downy mildews.
Figure 6.5 Some fungal pathogens include (a) green mold on grapefruit,
(b) fungus on grapes, (c) powdery mildew on a zinnia, and (d) stem rust
on a sheaf of barley. Notice the brownish color of the fungus in
(b) Botrytis cinerea, also referred to as the “noble rot,” which grows on
grapes and other fruit. Controlled infection of grapes by Botrytis is used
to produce strong and much-prized dessert wines. Source:
Aflatoxins are toxic and carcinogenic compounds released by fungi of

the genus Aspergillus. Periodically, harvests of nuts and grains are
tainted by aflatoxins, leading to massive recall of produce, sometimes
ruining producers, and causing food shortages in developing countries.
6.3.3.2Animal and Human Parasites and Pathogens
Fungi can impact animals, humans included, through various avenues.

They directly assault animals by invading and damaging tissues. Toxic
mushrooms or food contaminated with fungi can poison humans and
other animals. Moreover, individuals who exhibit heightened sensitivity
to molds and spores experience intense and perilous allergic responses.
Treating fungal infections is generally challenging due to the fact that
fungi are eukaryotic, in contrast to bacteria. Antibiotics exclusively
target prokaryotic cells, whereas compounds that eliminate fungi also
harm the eukaryotic host.
Numerous fungal infections (referred to as mycoses) are superficial and

classified as cutaneous mycoses, which primarily affect the skin's
surface. They are typically visible on the animal's skin. Fungi causing
these superficial mycoses of the epidermis, hair, and nails seldom
infiltrate the underlying tissue (as depicted in Figure 6.6). These fungi
are sometimes mistakenly termed "dermatophytes" (from the Greek
words dermis for skin and phyte for plant), even though they aren't
plants. Also known as "ringworms," they trigger the characteristic red
58
ring on the skin (although it's fungi causing the ring, not a worm). These
fungi release external enzymes that degrade keratin, a protein present in
hair, skin, and nails. This leads to conditions such as athlete's foot, jock
itch, and other skin-related fungal infections. Typically, these ailments
can be easily treated with over-the-counter topical creams and powders.
Yet, persistent superficial mycoses might necessitate oral medications
prescribed by a healthcare professional.
Figure 6.6 (a) Ringworm presents as a red ring on the skin.

(b) Trichophyton violaceum is a fungus that causes superficial mycoses
on the scalp. (c) Histoplasma capsulatum, seen in this X-ray as speckling
of light areas in the lung, is a species of Ascomycota that infects airways
and causes symptoms similar to the flu. Source:
Systemic mycoses disseminate to internal organs, often infiltrating the

body through the respiratory system. A prime example is
coccidioidomycosis, commonly known as valley fever, where the fungus
is present in dust. Upon inhalation, the spores develop within the lungs
and induce symptoms akin to tuberculosis. Histoplasmosis, caused by
the dimorphic fungus Histoplasma capsulatum (depicted in Figure 6.6c),
leads to pulmonary infections and, in rare instances, inflammation of the
brain and spinal cord membranes. Treating numerous fungal illnesses
necessitates antifungal medications, which can entail severe side effects.
Opportunistic mycoses involve fungal infections prevalent in all
environments or a typical part of the natural biota. They predominantly
impact individuals with compromised immune systems. Patients in the
advanced stages of AIDS often encounter opportunistic mycoses, like
Pneumocystis, which can pose life-threatening risks. The yeast Candida
59
spp., a regular component of the natural biota, can proliferate

uncontrollably if pH levels, immune defenses, or the usual bacterial
population are disrupted, resulting in yeast infections such as vaginal or
oral thrush.
Fungi can even adopt a predatory lifestyle. Within nitrogen-poor soil
environments, certain fungi resort to preying on nematodes, tiny
roundworms. Species of Arthrobotrys fungi employ diverse mechanisms
to ensnare nematodes. For instance, they possess constricting rings
within their network of hyphae. When a nematode comes into contact
with these rings, they expand and close around the nematode's body,
entrapping it. The fungus extends specialized hyphae that infiltrate the
worm's body and gradually digest the unsuspecting prey. What are
Deuteromycota fungi?
1. What are the four traditional divisions of Fungi?
2. What are opportunistic mycoses?
6.3.4 Beneficial Fungi
Fungi play a crucial role in the balance of ecosystems. They colonize

most habitats on Earth, preferring dark, moist conditions. They can
thrive in seemingly hostile environments, such as the tundra, thanks to a
most successful symbiosis with photosynthetic organisms, like lichens.
Fungi are not obvious in the way that large animals or tall trees are. Yet,
like bacteria, they are major decomposers of nature. With their versatile
metabolism, fungi break down organic matter that is insoluble and
would not be recycled otherwise.
1. Importance to Ecosystems
Fungi play essential roles in food webs by participating in the
decomposition of organic matter. This process is crucial for the
recycling of nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus, allowing
them to re-enter the environment and become available to living
organisms rather than remaining trapped in deceased organisms. Fungi
are especially significant due to their evolution of enzymes capable of
breaking down cellulose and lignin, components of plant cell walls that
are challenging for many other organisms to digest, thus releasing their
carbon content.
Fungi are also integral to ecologically vital symbiotic relationships,

ranging from mutualistic to pathogenic interactions with organisms from
different kingdoms. Mycorrhiza, a term derived from the Greek words
"myco" meaning fungus and "rhizo" meaning root, describes the
connection between vascular plant roots and their symbiotic fungi. The
60
majority of plant species, around 80-90 percent, engage in mycorrhizal

partnerships. Within these associations, fungal mycelia use their
extensive hyphal network and substantial surface area to transport water
and minerals from the soil to the plant. In return, the plant supplies the
products of photosynthesis to fuel the fungus's metabolism.
Ectomycorrhizae encompass fungi encasing roots in a mantle sheath and
hyphal net, while Glomeromycota fungi create arbuscular mycorrhiza
where specialized hyphae penetrate root cells, facilitating metabolic
exchanges. Orchids rely on yet another type, forming a partnership with
Basidiomycota for essential nutrients to sustain their growth.
Lichens, found on rocks and tree bark, encompass a diverse range of

colors and textures. They serve as pioneer organisms, colonizing barren
rock surfaces in environments created by glacial recession. Lichens
extract nutrients from rocks, initiating soil formation. They also inhabit
mature habitats on rocks and tree trunks, serving as a vital food source
for caribou. Lichens comprise both a fungal component (usually
Ascomycota or Basidiomycota) and a photosynthetic organism (an alga
or cyanobacterium). The thallus, the body of a lichen, is composed of
hyphae enveloping the photosynthetic partner. The photosynthetic
organism provides energy and carbon, while the fungal partner offers
protection and essential minerals.
Fungi have also established mutualistic partnerships with various

arthropods. An example is the association between Basidiomycota
species and scale insects. The fungal mycelium shields and supports
insect colonies, with the insects channeling nutrients from plants to the
fungus. Another instance involves leaf-cutting ants in Central and South
America, which cultivate fungi by farming leaves. The ants use the fungi
to break down cellulose in the leaves they collect, creating smaller sugar
molecules for consumption. The ants, in turn, feed on the fungi and
protect their gardens by eliminating competing fungi. This association
benefits both the ants and the cultivated fungi by providing a continuous
supply of resources and eliminating competition.
2. Importance to Humans
While fungi are commonly associated with causing diseases and food
spoilage, they hold significant importance for human life across various
aspects. Their influence extends to the well-being of human populations
on a larger scale as they play a crucial role in nutrient cycling within
ecosystems. Fungi also fulfill other roles within ecosystems, such as
acting as pathogens for animals, which aids in controlling populations of
harmful pests. These fungal pathogens are highly specialized for the
insects they target and do not infect other organisms like animals or
plants. Researchers are exploring the potential of using fungi as
microbial insecticides, and some species are already available in the
61
market for this purpose. For instance, Beauveria bassiana, a fungus, is

being tested as a potential solution to manage the emerald ash borer's
recent proliferation. The mycorrhizal association between fungi and
plant roots is vital for maintaining the productivity of farmland. The
presence of these fungi in root systems is crucial for the survival of 80-
90% of trees and grasses. Mycorrhizal fungal inoculants are sold as soil
amendments in gardening supply stores and are advocated by
proponents of organic farming, although evidence regarding their
effectiveness remains limited. Fungi also contribute to our diets, with
mushrooms being a notable example. Mushrooms like morels, shiitake
mushrooms, chanterelles, and truffles are considered delicacies and find
their place in various culinary creations. The common meadow
mushroom, Agaricus campestris, is a staple ingredient in numerous
dishes. Certain cheeses owe their distinct characteristics to molds from
the Penicillium genus. These molds originate from natural
environments, such as the caves of Roquefort, France, where they infuse
sheep milk cheese with the blue veins and strong flavor that define the
cheese's profile.
.
Figure 6.7 The morel mushroom is an ascomycete that is much
appreciated for its delicate taste. Source:
Humans have been practicing the ancient skill of fermentation for

thousands of years, using grains to make beer and fruits to make wine.
Under anaerobic conditions, wild yeasts are obtained from the
environment and used to ferment carbohydrates into CO2 and ethyl
alcohol. Wild yeast isolated strains from several wine-making regions
can now be bought. Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a dependable strain of
brewer's yeast created for the French brewing business in the late 1850s,
was made possible in large part by Pasteur. One of the earliest instances
62
of biotechnology patenting was this one. Breads that rise are also made
with yeast. The bubbles that form in the dough and turn into the air
pockets of the cooked bread are caused by the carbon dioxide they
release.Many secondary metabolites of fungi are of great commercial
importance. Antibiotics are naturally produced by fungi to kill or inhibit
the growth of bacteria, and limit competition in the natural environment.
Valuable drugs isolated from fungi include the immunosuppressant drug
cyclosporine (which reduces the risk of rejection after organ transplant),
the precursors of steroid hormones, and ergot alkaloids used to stop
bleeding. In addition, as easily cultured eukaryotic organisms, some
fungi are important model research organisms including the red bread
mold Neurospora crassa and the yeast, S. cerevisiae. IN-TEXT
QUESTION (ITQ): Example of some fungi that are important model
research organisms include? The red bread mold Neurospora crassa and
the yeast, S. cerevisiae.
1. What is mycorrhizal association?

2. List any four Mushrooms that figure prominently in the
human diet.
6.4 Summary
Eukaryotic creatures known as fungi first arrived on land more than 450
million years ago. They are heterotrophs and lack organelles like
chloroplasts as well as photosynthetic pigments like chlorophyll. They
are saprobes because they consume decaying and dead stuff. Fungi are
significant decomposers that discharge vital substances into the
environment. External enzymes break down nutrients that are taken in
by the thallus, the fungus's body. The cell is enclosed by a substantial
chitin cell wall. Fungi can grow a network of filaments termed a
mycelium, which is sometimes compared to mold, or they can be
unicellular like yeasts. Most animals reproduce sexually and asexually
in cycles that alternate between generations.
63
1. References/Further Readings
Laakso, M.M., Paliulis, L.V., Croonquist, P., Derr, B., Gracheva, E.,
Hauser, C., Howell, C., Jones, C.J., Kagey, J.D., Kennell, J.,
Silver Key, S.C., Mistry, H., Robic, S., Sanford, J., Santisteban,
M., Small, C., Spokony, R., Stamm, J., Van Stry, M., Leung, W.,
Elgin, S.C.R. 2017. An undergraduate bioinformatics curriculum that

teaches eukaryotic gene structure.
Course Source. https://doi.org/10.24918/cs.2017.13
Prokaryotic Diversity – VCU BIOL 152: Introduction to Biological

Sciences II (pressbooks.pub)
https://biologydictionary.net/protist/.
http://cnx.org/contents/185cbf87-c72e-48f5-b51e-
f14f21b5eabd@11.6. 23.1
http://openstaxcollege.org/l/lichenland
www.umn.edu
64
Answers to SAE 1
1. It was DNA comparisons that shows that fungi are more closely
related to animals than plants.
2. Fungi thrive in environments that are moist and slightly acidic,
and can grow in dark places or places exposed to light.
Answers to SAE 2
1. The traditional divisions of Fungi are
the Chytridiomycota (chytrids), the Zygomycota (conjugated
fungi), the Ascomycota (sac fungi), and the Basidiomycota (club
fungi).
2. Opportunistic mycoses are fungal infections that are either
common in all environments or part of the normal biota. They
affect mainly individuals who have a compromised immune
system. Patients in the late stages of AIDS suffer from
opportunistic mycoses, such as Pneumocystis, which can be life
threatening.
Answers to SAE 3
1. Mycorrhiza, a term combining the Greek roots myco meaning
fungus and rhizo meaning root, refers to the association between
vascular plant roots and their symbiotic fungi.
2. Mushrooms that figure prominently in the human diet include;
Morels, shiitake mushrooms, chanterelles, and truffles
Glossary
Antarctica: an extremely cold continent at the south pole almost
entirely below the Antarctic Circle: covered by an ice
cap up to 13,000 feet deep
archaebacteria: considered ancient life forms that evolved
separately from bacteria and blue-green algaebasexual
reproduction: reproduction without the fusion of gametes
bacterial: relating to single-celled microorganisms
bacterium: a single-celled or noncellular organism lacking
chlorophyll
building block: a block of material used in construction work
cell nucleus: a part of the cell containing DNA and RNA and
responsible for growth and reproduction
cell death: the normal degeneration and death of living cells
chemotaxis: movement by a cell or organism in reaction to a
chemical stimulus
chloroplast: organelle in which photosynthesis takes place
conjugation: the state of being joined together
contemporaneously: during the same period of time
65
Cytosol: the aqueous part of the cytoplasm within which various

particles and organelles are suspended
Cytoskeleton: a microscopic network of actin filaments and
microtubules in the cytoplasm of many living cells that
gives the cell shape and coherence
discrete: constituting a separate entity or part
Eubacteria: a large group of bacteria having rigid cell walls
Eukaryotic: having cells with `good' or membrane-bound nuclei
eukaryote: an organism of one or more cells with membrane-bound
nuclei
flagellum: a lash-like appendage used for locomotion
fossilized: set in a rigidly conventional pattern of behavior, habits, or
beliefs
genetics: the study of heredity and variation in organisms
Genus Mycoplasma: type and sole genus of the family
Mycoplasmataceae
hydrogen sulfide: a sulfide having the unpleasant smell of rotten eggs
intracellular: located or occurring within a cell or cells
mitochondrion: part of a cell involved in energy production
membranous: characterized by formation of a membrane
metabolic: of or relating to metabolism
multicellular: consisting of many basic structural and functional units
morphology: the study of the structure of animals and plants
mycoplasma: any of a group of small parasitic bacteria that
lack cell walls and can survive without oxygen; can cause
pneumonia and urinary tract infection
Myxobacteria: bacteria that form colonies in self-produced slime
organelle: a specialized part of a cell; analogous to an organ
oxidative: taking place in the presence of oxygen
prokaryote: a unicellular organism lacking a membrane-bound
nucleus
phenotypic: of or relating to or constituting a phenotype
plankton: aggregate of small organisms that float or drift in
water
Plasma membrane: a thin membrane enclosing the cytoplasm of a cell
plasmid: a small cellular inclusion consisting of a ring of
DNA that is not in a chromosome but is capable of
autonomous replication
polymer: a naturally occurring or synthetic compound
recombination: the rearrangement of genes (by crossing over) in
offspring
relatedness: a particular manner of connectedness
ribosome: a particle in a cell that helps synthesize proteins
signaling: any nonverbal action or gesture that encodes a
message
66
symbiotic: of organisms living together, especially to mutual

advantage
vacuole: a tiny cavity filled with fluid in the cytoplasm of a
cell
End of module questions

Historically, artisanal breads were produced by capturing wild yeasts
from the air. Prior to the development of modern yeast strains, the
production of artisanal breads was long and laborious because many
batches of dough ended up being discarded. Can you explain this fact?
Compare the body structure and features, and provide an example of

each of the four groups of perfect fungi
Describe each phylum in terms of major representative species and

patterns of reproduction
Describe the similarities and differences in bacterial and archaeal
structures
Explain differences between the plasma membranes of archaea and
bacteria
Differentiate between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria
Describe the types of cell walls and cell wall components that exist
in Archaea
67
MODULE 2 SURVEY OF THE PLANT KINGDOM
Module Structure
In this module we will discuss about the cellular organization, structure

and functions
Unit 2 The Seedless Plants
Unit 3 Bryophytes
Unit 4 Seedless Vascular Plants
Unit 5 Seed Plant I: Gymnosperms
MODULE 2 OVERVIEW OF THE PLANT KINGDOM
1.1 Introduction
1.3 Main Contents
1.3.1 The Plant Kingdom
1.3.1.1 Clasification of the Plant Kingdom
1.3.1.2 The Diversity of Land Plants
1.3.2 Seedless Vascular plants
1.3.2.1 Algae and Evolutionary Paths to Photosynthesis
1.3.2.2 Plant Adaptations to Life on Land
1.3.3 Alternation of Generations
1.3.3.1 Sporangia in Seedless Plants
1.3.3.2 Gametangia in Seedless Plants
1.4.3.3 Apical Meristems
1.4 Summary
1.1 Introduction
A diverse array of non-seed-bearing plants graces the terrestrial
landscape. Mosses might find their place on a tree trunk, and horsetails
may stretch their segmented stems and delicate leaves across the forest
floor. Although seedless plants constitute a small portion of our present-
day plant life, about 300 million years ago, they dominated the scenery,
thriving within the vast, marshy forests of the Carboniferous epoch.
Their decomposition contributed to the formation of substantial coal
deposits that we now extract. Contemporary evolutionary theory asserts
that all plants, including certain types of green algae along with
terrestrial plants, share a common ancestor—a monophyletic origin. The
transition from aquatic to terrestrial environments presented significant
68
challenges for plants. They needed to develop mechanisms to prevent

desiccation, disperse reproductive cells in the air, provide structural
support, and efficiently harness sunlight. While seed plants have evolved
adaptations enabling them to inhabit even the most parched habitats on
Earth, complete emancipation from water was not universally achieved
among all plants. The majority of seedless plants still rely on a moist
environment for their reproductive processes.
1. Describe the characteristics features of the plant kingdom

2. Describe the criteria and the classification of the plant kingdom
3. Explain the diversity of the plant kingdom
4. Discuss the challenges to plant life on land
5. Describe the adaptations that allowed plants to colonize the land
6. Describe the timeline of plant evolution and the impact of land
plants on other living things
1.3 Main Contents
1.3.1 The Plant Kingdom
All the plant life present on our planet falls under the classification of
Kingdom Plantae. This kingdom encompasses autotrophic,
multicellular, photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. These entities are
primarily non-mobile, capable of forming embryos, and serve as the
primary producers in ecosystems due to their capacity to convert solar
energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis. They possess a
firm cell wall composed largely of cellulose. The Kingdom Plantae
encompasses a diverse array of organisms, with over 300,000
documented species. Among these, more than 260,000 are categorized
as seed plants. Mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants all belong to
the plant kingdom. The emergence of land plants occurred within the
larger Archaeplastida group, which also includes red algae
(Rhodophyta) and two categories of green algae: Chlorophyta and
Charophyta. While some biologists consider certain green algae as part
of the plant kingdom, there is debate over this classification. This
divergence in opinion arises from the fact that only specific green algae,
the Chlorophytes and Charophytes, share key traits with land plants,
such as utilizing chlorophyll a and b alongside carotene in the same
proportions as plants. These attributes are absent in other types of algae.
69
1.3.1.1 Clasification of the Plant Kingdom
Kingdom Plantae is also referred to as the Kingdom of Plants. The five

kingdoms—Monera, Protista, Fungi, Animalia, and Plantae—that
Whittaker proposed as a general classification of living things in his
system from 1969. The kingdom of Plantae includes all living things.
All living things are multicellular, autotrophic eukaryotic creatures.
Cell walls are one of the primary properties of plants. The cell wall
gives the cell rigidity and structural stability. A stiff cell wall is present
in each plant cell. Chloroplasts and the pigment chlorophyll are present
in plants, which are necessary for photosynthesis. Subgroups are used
to further categorize the plant kingdom. Classification is based on the
following criteria:
1. Plant body: Presence or absence of a well-differentiated plant
body. E.g. Root, Stem and Leaves.
2. Vascular system: Presence or absence of a vascular system for
the transportation of water and other substances. E.g. Phloem and
Xylem.
3. Seed formation: Presence or absence of flowers and seeds and if
the seeds are naked or enclosed in a fruit.
Each subgroup of plants has a unique collection of identifying traits that

are unique to that subgroup. The angiosperms are plants with a
complicated assembly, a circulatory system, and a reproductive system
that are well-established in their own families, whereas thallophytes are
the greenest of the plants. The plant world has been classified into five
groups by taking into account all of these traits. They go by the
following names: The first of these is the Thallophyta, followed by the
groups of organisms Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, and Gymnosperms and
Angiosperms, which are all types of flowering plants. IN-TEXT
QUESTION (ITQ): Which members of the plant kingdom are the
greenest? The thallophytes are the greenest of the plants.
1.3.1.2 The Diversity of Land Plants
Land plants are categorized into two primary divisions based on the
presence or absence of vascular tissue, as outlined in Figure 1.4. Plants
that lack specialized cells for transporting water and nutrients,
collectively known as vascular tissue, are classified as nonvascular
plants. Examples of these are bryophytes, including liverworts, mosses,
and hornworts, which are seedless and devoid of vascular tissue. These
plants are believed to have emerged early in the evolutionary timeline of
land plants. Vascular plants, on the other hand, possess a system of cells
designed to transport water and solutes throughout their structures. The
initial vascular plants likely appeared during the late Ordovician period
(461–444 million years ago) and were possibly similar to lycophytes,
70
which encompass club mosses (distinct from actual mosses) and

pterophytes such as ferns, horsetails, and whisk ferns. Lycophytes and
pterophytes are collectively referred to as seedless vascular plants,
signifying their lack of seed production. Seeds are embryonic structures
protected by a tough covering and containing stored nutrients. Among
all plant groups, seed plants constitute the largest, dominating the
landscape. This category includes gymnosperms, notably conifers that
produce "naked seeds," and the highly successful flowering plants, or
angiosperms, which safeguard their seeds within chambers located
within flowers. Over time, the walls of these chambers evolve into
fruits.
Figure 1.1 Diversity of Kingdom Plantae: Source:

https://www.studocu.com/
1. What is the diversity of plants?
2. What is the most diverse group of the land plants?
1.3.2 Seedless Vascular plants
There are numerous and diverse groups of organisms in the kingdom

Plantae. The number of cataloged plant species exceeds 300,000. More
than 260,000 of these are seedlings. The plant kingdom includes ferns,
conifers, flowering plants, and mosses. The Archaeplastida, which also
71
includes the red algae Rhodophyta and the two classes of green algae
Chlorophyta and Charaphyta, is where land plants first appeared. Most
biologists agree that at least some green algae are plants, however some
do not consider any algae to be part of the plant family. The only green
algae, the Chlorophytes and Charophytes, share traits with land plants,
such as utilising chlorophyll a and b plus carotene in the same
proportion as plants, which is the basis for this argument. These
characteristics are absent from other types of algae.
1.3.2.1Algae and Evolutionary Paths to Photosynthesis
There are differing opinions among scientists regarding the

classification of algae within the kingdom Plantae. Some argue that all
algae should be considered plants, while others contend that the Plantae
kingdom should encompass only green algae. Another perspective is to
include only Charophytes as plants. These contrasting viewpoints stem
from the diverse evolutionary pathways that different forms of algae
have taken to achieve photosynthesis. Despite all algae being
photosynthetic, possessing some form of chloroplast, the development
of this capability varied. Approximately 1.65 billion years ago, the
ancestors of the Archaeplastida engaged in an endosymbiotic
relationship with a green, photosynthetic bacterium. The subsequent
descendants from this lineage, such as red and green algae, ultimately
gave rise to present-day mosses, ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms.
This evolutionary trajectory followed a mostly linear and monophyletic
path. On the other hand, brown and golden algae within the
stramenopiles group, along with other algae beyond the Archaeplastida,
acquired photosynthetic abilities through secondary or even tertiary
endosymbiotic events. This involved the incorporation of cells that
already contained endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. While these latecomers
to photosynthesis are similar to the Archaeplastida in terms of
autotrophy, they did not colonize or spread across the Earth to the same
extent.
In summary, the classification of algae as plants is a subject of debate

due to the various ways in which different types of algae have evolved
photosynthetic processes. This diversity is linked to the manner in which
their ancestral lineages acquired photosynthesis-related traits.
1.3.2.2Plant Adaptations to Life on Land
The transition to terrestrial life posed numerous challenges for

organisms, necessitating adaptations to cope with the new environment.
Water, vital for life, becomes scarce on land, leading to the risk of
desiccation. Even in proximity to water, aerial plant parts are vulnerable
to dehydration. Buoyancy is absent, prompting the need for structural
72
support. Additionally, the lack of water as a filter exposes organisms to

harmful radiation, including ultraviolet rays. Reproduction faced
hurdles, requiring novel strategies for male gametes to reach females
without water assistance. This shift demanded protection against
desiccation for both gametes and zygotes. Land plants devised strategies
to tackle these challenges, although not all adaptations emerged
simultaneously.
Despite these difficulties, terrestrial life offers advantages. Sunlight is

abundant, offering energy for photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide diffuses
faster in air, providing a ready source. The absence of land animals
initially spared plants from predation, but defensive mechanisms like
thorns and toxins evolved as animals adapted. Early land plants and
animals, staying close to water, developed strategies like tolerance to
drying. Others colonized humid environments or used desiccation
resistance.
Successful land adaptation involved developing advantageous structures.

Four key adaptations facilitated plant success on land. Alternation of
generations, involving sporophyte and gametophyte stages, was present
in all land plants. Apical meristems in roots and shoots enabled
continual growth. A waxy cuticle resisted desiccation, while cell walls
with lignin provided support. These adaptations contributed to land plant
success, prompting debates on the placement of closely related green
algae within the plant kingdom. Mosses, lacking some adaptations,
represent an intermediate stage in land colonization. What are the 4 land
plants?
1. What is the meaning of land plants?

2. What are the two main groups of land plants?
1.3.3 Alternation of Generations
All sexually reproducing organisms have both haploid and diploid cells
in their life cycles. In organisms with haplontic life cycles, the haploid
stage is dominant, while in organisms with a diplontic life cycle, the
diploid stage is the dominant life stage. Dominant in this context means
both the stage in which the organism spends most of its time, and the
stage in which most mitotic cell reproduction occurs—the multicellular
stage. In haplontic life cycles, the only diploid cell is the zygote, which
undergoes immediate meiosis to restore the haploid state. In diplontic
life cycles, the only haploid cells are the gametes, which combine to
restore the diploid state at their earliest convenience. Humans, for
73
example, are diplontic. Alternation of generations describes a life cycle

in which an organism has both haploid and diploid multicellular stages.
This type of life cycle, which is found in all plants, is described
as haplodiplontic.
Figure 1.2 Alternation of generations between the 1n gametophyte and

2n sporophyte. Mitosis occurs in both gametophyte and sporophyte
generations. Diploid sporophytes produce haploid spores by meiosis,
while haploid gametophytes produce gametes by mitosis. Source:
https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/14-1-the-plant-
kingdom
The developmental sequence is followed by a multicellular diploid form

called a sporophyte after the multicellular haploid form known as a
gametophyte. The gametophyte undergoes mitosis to produce the
gametes (reproductive cells). This stage of the plant's life cycle can be
the most visible, as it is in the case of mosses, or it can take place in a
tiny structure, like a pollen grain, as is the case with seed plants. The
sporophyte generation has become more prominent as terrestrial plants
have evolved. When it comes to non-vascular plants, which include
mosses and liverworts, the sporophyte stage is seldom evident. The
sporophyte phase in seed plants can develop into a massive tree, as in
the case of sequoias and pines. Protection of the embryo is a major
requirement for land plants. The vulnerable embryo must be sheltered
from desiccation and other environmental hazards. In both seedless and
seed plants, the female gametophyte provides protection and nutrients to
the embryo as it develops into the new sporophyte. This distinguishing
feature of land plants gave the group its alternate name
of embryophytes.
1.3.3.1 Sporangia in Seedless Plants
74
The seedless plant's sporophyte, which is diploid and created by the

syngamy (fusing) of two gametes, lacks seeds. The sporangia (plural:
sporangium) are carried by the sporophyte. The word "sporangia"
literally translates to "a vessel for spores," since it refers to the
reproductive sac in which spores are produced. It is important to note
that in many plants, polyploidy causes chromosome number to be
complicated; for instance, durum wheat is tetraploid, bread wheat is
hexaploid, and some ferns are 1000-ploid. In the multicellular sporangia,
the diploid sporocytes, or mother cells, produce haploid spores by
meiosis, during which the 2n chromosome number is reduced to 1n.
Later, the sporangia release the spores, which disperse throughout the
environment. The haploid spore undergoes mitosis to produce a
multicellular gametophyte when it germinates in a favorable
environment. The gametophyte supports the zygote formed from the
fusion of gametes and the resulting young sporophyte (vegetative form).
The cycle then begins anew.
Figure 1.3 Sporangia. Spore-producing sacs called sporangia grow at the

ends of long, thin stalks in this photo of the moss Esporangios bryum.
Source: https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/14-1-the-
plant-kingdom
Plants that generate only one type of spore are termed homosporous,
resulting in a gametophyte that produces both male and female gametes,
typically on the same organism. This is observed in non-vascular plants
where the gametophyte stage dominates the life cycle. Conversely,
plants that yield two types of spores are referred to as heterosporous.
The smaller male spores, known as microspores, develop into the male
gametophyte, while the larger megaspores transform into the female
gametophyte. Heterospory is observed in a few seedless vascular plants
and all seed plants, with the sporophyte phase being dominant. The
spores of seedless plants are encased in robust cell walls containing the
75
resilient polymer sporopollenin, which is also present in pollen grain

walls. This intricate substance is recognized by its elongated chains of
organic molecules resembling fatty acids and carotenoids, giving pollen
its yellow hue. Notably resistant to chemical and biological breakdown,
sporopollenin's durability accounts for well-preserved pollen fossils in
seed plants, where pollen functions as the male gametophyte. Previously
attributed to land plants, sporopollenin is also found in the charophyte
Coleochaetes.
1.3.3.2 Gametangia in Seedless Plants
Multicellular haploid gametophytes have structures called gametangia

(plural: gametangium). Precursor cells undergo mitosis to produce
gametes in the gametangia. Sperm are released from the male
gametangium (antheridium). Seedless plants create sperm with flagella
that can swim to the female gametangium, the archegonium, in a moist
environment. As the sporophyte, the embryo grows inside the
archegonium. In contrast to seed plants, which lack or have rudimentary
gametangia, seed plants are dominated by them.
1.3.3.3 Apical Meristems

In a region known as the apical meristem, a small mitotically active zone
of cells present at the tip of the shoot or root, plants' shoots and roots
grow longer by fast cell division (Figure 1.4). Undifferentiated cells that
continue to divide throughout the plant's lifetime make up the apical
meristem. All of the organelle's specialized tissues are derived from
meristematic cells. A plant can access more area and resources by
growing its shoots and roots longer, including light in the case of the
shoot and water and minerals in the case of the roots. Tree trunk
diameter-increasing cells are produced by a distinct meristem known as
the lateral meristem.
76
Figure 1.4 Apical meristem at a root tip. Source:

kingdom
Addition of new cells in a root occurs at the apical meristem.

Subsequent enlargement of these cells causes the organ to grow and
elongate. The root cap protects the fragile apical meristem as the root tip
is pushed through the soil by cell elongation. What is haplodiplontic in
the life cycle of a plant?
1. What is Alternation of generations?
2. What is apical meristem?
1.4 Summary
The terrestrial realm showcases a remarkable diversity of non-

reproductive plants. Mosses can be found on tree trunks, and horsetails
may spread across the forest floor with their segmented stems and thin
leaves. However, around 300 million years ago, the landscape was
dominated by seedless plants, flourishing in the expansive swampy
forests of the Carboniferous era. Today, seedless plants constitute a
smaller portion of the plant population in our surroundings. These plants
significantly contributed to the formation of substantial coal deposits
that we extract today. Contemporary evolutionary theory asserts that all
plants, encompassing specific green algae and land plants, share a
common ancestry, forming a monophyletic group. The transition from
aquatic to terrestrial life posed significant challenges for plants. To
combat desiccation, disperse reproductive cells through the air, provide
structural support, and effectively capture sunlight, plants had to develop
innovative strategies. While adaptations have enabled seed plants to
thrive in even the driest conditions on Earth, not all plants have attained
complete independence from water. Although many seedless plants still
require moisture for reproduction, their adaptations have allowed them
to survive and flourish in diverse environments.
77
A.D. Chapman (2009) Numbers of Living Species in Australia and the

World. 2nd edition. A Report for the Australian Biological
Resources Study. Australian Biodiversity Information Services,
Toowoomba, Australia. Available online at
http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/publications/other/spe
cies-numbers/2009/04-03-groups-plants.html.
Steidinger, K.A. and Tangen, K. (1997), Dinoflagellates. In Tomas, C.R.

(ed.), Identifying Marine Diatoms and Dinoflagellates.
(Academic Press, San Diego). pp. 387–589.
Throndsen, J. (1997), The planktonic marine flagellates. In Tomas, C.R.

kingdom
https://opened.cuny.edu/courseware/6
https://byjus.com/biology/plant-kingdom-plantae/
https://youtu.be/hqH-n-OrUaA
https://youtu.be/os5mZQLpe98
https://youtu.be/sYdq1LOHKxs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hqH-n-OrUaA
78
Answers to SAE 1
1. Plant diversity refers to the existence of wide variety of plant
species in their natural environments. There are around 300,000-
500,000 species of vascular plants that exist on earth
2. Angiosperms: Flowering plants (angiosperms) are by far the
largest, most diverse, and most important group of land plants,
with over 250,000 species and a dominating presence in most
terrestrial ecosystems.
Answers to SAE 2
1. The embryophytes are informally called land plants because
they live primarily in terrestrial habitats (with exceptional
members who evolved to live once again in aquatic habitats),
while the related green algae are primarily aquatic.
2. Vascular plants are subdivided into two classes: seedless plants,
which probably evolved first (including lycophytes and
pterophytes), and seed plants. Seed-producing plants include
gymnosperms, which produce “naked” seeds, and angiosperms,
which reproduce by flowering.8 Jun 2022
Answers to SAE 3
1. Alternation of generations describes a life cycle in which an
organism has both haploid and diploid multicellular stages. This
type of life cycle, which is found in all plants, is described
as haplodiplontic.
2. Apical meristem, is a small mitotically active zone of cells found
at the shoot tip or root tip, it is made of undifferentiated cells that
continue to proliferate throughout the life of the plant
79
UNIT 2 THE SEEDLESS PLANTS
2.1 Introduction
2.3 Main Contents
2.3.1 The Major Divisions of Land Plants
2.3.2 The Diversity of the Green Algae
2.3.2 Ecological Adaptation of Algae
2.4 Summary
2.1 Introduction
Vascular plants are small and seedless, and the gametophyte stage of
their life cycle dominates them. They don't have roots or a circulatory
system, so they absorb nutrients and water from all of their exposed
surfaces. The three main groups, collectively referred to as bryophytes,
are liverworts, hornworts, and mosses. The oldest plants are liverworts,
which were among the first plants to appear on land. Hornworts have
developed stomata and one chloroplast per cell. Mosses have simple
conductive cells and are connected to the substrate by rhizoids. After
drying out, they may rehydrate and colonize hostile settings. Spore
discharge from the parent plant is made possible by the complex
structure of the moss sporangium.
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

1. Describe the traits shared by green algae and land plants
2. Explain why charophytes are considered the closest algal relative
to land plants
3. Explain how current phylogenetic relationships are reshaped by
comparative analysis of DNA sequences
4. Discuss the ecological adaptations of the algae
2.3 Main Contents
2.3.1 The Major Divisions of Land Plants
Streptophytes collectively refer to the green algae and land plants

encompassing the Streptophyta subphylum. Within the realm of land
plants, a fundamental division is based on the presence or absence of
vascular tissue, as depicted in the diagram. Non-vascular plants, lacking
specialized cells for water and nutrient transport, include liverworts,
mosses, and hornworts. These seedless plants are likely among the
80
earliest terrestrial plants. Vascular plants have evolved a network of

cells to facilitate solute and water movement. The initial vascular plants
likely resembled lycophytes such as club mosses, emerging in the late
Ordovician period (500 to 435 MYA), along with pterophytes like ferns,
horsetails, and whisk ferns. As they lack seed formation, lycophytes and
pterophytes are termed "seedless vascular plants." However, seed plants,
known as spermatophytes, dominate the plant kingdom and the
landscape. Among them, gymnosperms, particularly conifers with their
exposed seeds, and angiosperms, the flowering plants with the highest
reproductive success, are prominent examples. Angiosperms encase
their seeds within protective chambers at the flower's core, with these
chambers eventually developing into fruits. The diversity of
Embryopyhtes can be shown in the figure below:
Figure 2.1 Major divisions of green plants (Streptophytes). Source:

Biology 2e, Biological Diversity, Seedless Plants, Early Plant Life |
OpenEd CUNY
1. Characteristic Forms of Algae

Plants and animals share specific general properties of algae. Eukaryotic
cells make up algae. Algae, for example, may photosynthesize like
plants and have specialized cell organelles like centrioles and flagella
that are exclusively found in animals. Mannans, cellulose, and Galatians
make up the algal cell walls. Listed below are some of the general
characteristics of algae.
1. Algae are photosynthetic organisms
2. Algae can be either unicellular or multicellular organisms
3. Algae lack a well-defined body, so, structures like roots, stems or
leaves are absent
4. Algae are found where there is adequate moisture, with a few on
damp soils and shady places examples are spirogyra, anabaena
and Sargassum
5. Reproduction in algae occurs in both asexual and sexual forms.
6. Asexual reproduction occurs by spore formation.
81
7. Algae are free-living, although some can form a symbiotic

relationship with other organisms.
8. The cell wall of algae is composed of a true celloulose.
9. Reserve carbohydrates are usually starch and not glycogen as in
fungi.
2. Classification of Algae
Grouping creatures based on the traits they simulate is known as
classification. From an evolutionary perspective, it is not improbable but
true that animals with comparable morphology, life cycles, physiologies,
and biochemistry are genetically related. Therefore, nine large
taxonomic groups known as Divisions are recognized in the
categorization of algae. These are:
1. Chlorophycophyta (green algae) eg. Chlamydomonas, Spirogyra,
Chlorella
2. Xanthophycophyta (yellow-green algae) eg. Vaucheria,
Botrydium
3. Bacillariophycophyta (diatoms) eg. Diatoma, fragilaria.
4. Phaeophycophyta (brown algae) eg. Fucus, Sargassum, laminaria.
5. Rhodophycophyta (red algae) eg. Plumaria elegans.
6. Chrysophycophyta (golden algae) eg. Synura, Mallomonas,
Chromalina.
7. Euglenophycophyta (euglenoids) eg. Euglena, Trachelommas.
8. Cryptophycophyta (cryptomonads) eg. Crytomones,
Chroomonas.
9. Pyrrophycophyta (dinoflagellates) eg. Ceratium, Peridinum.
What is the striking difference between algae and protists?
1. What is the meaning of land plant?
2. What is another name for land plants?
2.3.2 The Diversity of the Green Algae
Algae, referred to as alga in singular form, constitute a diverse group of

primarily aquatic photosynthetic organisms within the Protista kingdom.
Algae exhibit a wide range of life cycles and vary in size from tiny
Micromonas species to enormous kelps that can extend up to 60 meters
(200 feet). These organisms possess a greater variety of photosynthetic
pigments compared to plants and display unique cellular characteristics
distinct from both plants and animals. Besides their essential roles in
generating oxygen and serving as a fundamental food source for aquatic
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life, algae hold economic significance as sources of crude oil, food,

pharmaceuticals, and various industrial products for humans.
The classification of algae is subject to ongoing debates and swift
changes as new molecular insights emerge. The field dedicated to
studying algae is termed phycology, and individuals who specialize in
this area are known as phycologists. Evolutionarily, algae do not share
close relationships, and the exact evolutionary lineage of the group
remains to be fully elucidated. Certain algae share attributes with
protozoa and fungi, which makes differentiation from these organisms
challenging when chloroplasts and photosynthesis are not distinct
defining features. In some cases, certain algae seem to share a closer
evolutionary connection with protozoa or fungi than with other algae. In
this context, we will explore the two primary categories of green algae.
1. Streptophytes
Until recently, all eukaryotic organisms capable of photosynthesis were
categorized within the Plantae kingdom. Nevertheless, the brown and
golden algae have been recently reclassified into the Chromalveolata
supergroup of protists. This reclassification is due to their divergence
from plants in terms of structural and biochemical characteristics,
despite sharing the capacity to harness light energy and fix CO2. The
current classification designates plants, along with red and green algae,
under the Archaeplastida supergroup of protists. Green algae exhibit
similar carotenoids, chlorophyll a and b, and starch storage as land
plants. Their cells possess chloroplasts with diverse shapes, and their
cell walls contain cellulose, mirroring features found in land plants. The
exact inclusion of specific green algae within the plant category remains
unresolved from a phylogenetic perspective.
Green algae can be broadly divided into two main groups: chlorophytes
and charophytes. Chlorophytes encompass genera like Chlorella,
Chlamydomonas, the seaweed "sea lettuce" Ulva, and the colonial alga
Volvox. Charophytes encompass desmids, along with genera like
Spirogyra, Coleochaete, and Chara. Notably, recognizable green algae
exist within both groups. Some green algae, such as Chlamydomonas
and desmids, consist of single cells, adding complexity to their
classification due to the multicellular nature of plants. Conversely, other
green algae, like Volvox, form colonies, while organisms like Ulva are
multicellular entities. Spirogyra, characterized by long filaments of
colonial cells, primarily inhabit freshwater, brackish water, seawater, or
even snowy patches. A few green algae can even survive on soil,
provided a thin layer of moisture covers it, allowing them to endure dry
periods.
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Figure 2.2 Green algae. Charophyta include (a) Spirogyra and (b)
desmids. Chlorophyta include (c) Chlamydomonas, and (d) Ulva.
Desmids and Chlamydomonas are single-celled
organisms, Spirogyra forms chains of cells, and Ulva forms multicellular
structures resembling leaves, although the cells are not differentiated as
they are in higher plants. Source: https://openstax.org/books/concepts-
biology/pages/14-1-the-plant-kingdom
Differences between chlorophytes and charophytes provide insight,

along with molecular analysis, into the relationship between land plants
and charophytes. Charophytes and land plants share specific
characteristics that place them as sister groups. Firstly, cell division in
charophytes and land plants occurs through phragmoplasts, where
microtubules parallel to the spindle guide forming cell plates. On the
other hand, chlorophytes use phycoplasts with perpendicular
microtubules for cell plate organization. Secondly, only charophytes and
land plants possess plasmodesmata, facilitating material transfer
between cells. Such intercellular connections do not persist in mature
multicellular chlorophyte forms. Lastly, both charophytes and land
plants exhibit apical growth—growth from plant tips instead of
throughout the plant body. Consequently, land plants and charophytes
constitute a newly identified monophyletic group called Streptophyta.
Green algae undergo both asexual and sexual reproduction. Asexual

methods involve spore dispersal or fragmentation, while sexual
reproduction entails the fusion of gametes. In single-celled organisms
like Chlamydomonas, fertilization lacks subsequent mitosis. In the
multicellular Ulva, a sporophyte develops through mitosis after
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fertilization, showcasing alternation of generations. Both

Chlamydomonas and Ulva produce flagellated gametes.
2. Charophytes
Among the charophytes, several distinct algal orders have been
proposed as the closest relatives of land plants: the Charales,
Zygnematales, and Coleochaetales. The Charales, with a history dating
back 420 million years, inhabit diverse freshwater environments and
range from a few millimeters to a meter in length. The prominent genus
Chara, also known as muskgrass or skunkweed due to its unpleasant
odor, represents this group. The thallus, or main stem, consists of large
cells, while branches emerging from nodes consist of smaller cells.
Reproductive structures of both sexes are located on nodes, with
flagellated sperm. Despite superficial resemblances to some land plants,
a notable distinction is the absence of supportive tissue in the stem of
Chara. However, Charales possess key traits relevant to adapting to
terrestrial life, including the production of lignin and sporopollenin
compounds, along with plasmodesmata connecting adjacent cells.
Despite their haplontic life cycle (with the main form being haploid and
short-lived diploid zygotes formed), eggs and later zygotes develop
within a sheltered chamber on the haploid parent plant.
Figure 2.3 Chara. The representative alga, Chara, is a noxious weed in

Florida, where it clogs waterways. Source:
kingdom
The multicellular forms known as coleochaetes are branching or disc-

shaped. Although they are capable of both sexual and asexual
reproduction, their life cycle is essentially haplontic. The Zygnematales
are more closely connected to the embryophytes than the Charales or the
Coleochaetales, according to a recent in-depth DNA sequence analysis
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of charophytes. The desmids and the well-known genus Spirogyra both

belong to the Zygnematales. The study of the evolutionary relationships
between charophytes and land plants will continue as DNA analysis
methods advance and new knowledge on comparative genomics
emerges in order to provide an acceptable answer to the question of
where land plants came from. How do algae produces sexually?
1. What are the Streptophytes?

2. What are the two majorgroups of the green algae?
2.3.3 Ecological Adaptation of Algae
Aquatic algae are one of the simplest plant organisms on our planet. If
life evolved from bacteria to plants, from sea creatures to land creatures,
algae is likely one of the primal stepping stones in the evolutionary
process. Aquatic algae demonstrate properties which are found in animal
life and plant life, including the ability to adapt to its surroundings.
1. Interaction with Competition
Like chameleon lizards that change colour to blend in with their
surroundings, individual algae strains have demonstrated the ability to
uniquely adapt to individual environments in order to blend in with, or
overcome the challenges of, their environment. In a coral reef setting,
algae become highly regenerative.
2. Reproductive Adaptation
Asexual reproduction allows a plant or animal species to procreate
independently and endure in a hostile environment. A male and a female
of the species are required for sexual reproduction in order to supply all
of the components for a full regeneration phase. Mammals, for instance,
need a male sperm to fertilize a female egg in order to produce a new
life. Algae that live in water have evolved the capacity for both asexual
and sexual reproduction. Fragmentation is the method used for asexual
reproduction. The plant releases spores that have the ability to germinate
and thrive. When gametes from two species come together to form a
spore known as a syngamy, sexual reproduction takes place. This spore
then develops and releases algal seeds, mature cells that can grow or
reproduce. Asexual reproduction enables a plant or animal species to
reproduce on its own and survive in a highly competitive surrounding.
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3. Environmental Adaptation
Aquatic algae demonstrate photosensitive and cosmetic adaptation
throughout the ocean. If algae originated from a single strain,
environmental evolutions have forced the adaptation into red, brown,
yellow and green colour algae which each blend in with their
environmental surroundings. This adaptation helps algae avoid being
completely consumed by the local fish species.
4. Internal Chemical Adaptation

In a research experiment conducted in the San Francisco Bay area,
multiple samples of several algae species were taken from polluted and
non-polluted waters. Tests demonstrated that the algae residing in
polluted waters had internally adapted, and produced chemical variances
as part of the adaptation process. These plants physically and chemically
changed their composition in order to adapt to the pollutants in the
water.
1. Are algae plants or bacteria?
2. What is the purpose of algae?
2.4 Summary
Charophytes share more traits with land plants than do other algae,
according to structural features and DNA analysis. Within the
charophytes, the Charales, the Coleochaetales, and the Zygnematales
have been each considered as sharing the closest common ancestry with
the land plants. Charophytes form sporopollenin and precursors of
lignin, phragmoplasts, and have flagellated sperm. They do not exhibit
alternation of generations.

World. 2nd edition. A Report for the Australian Biological
Resources Study. Australian Biodiversity Information Services,
Toowoomba, Australia. Available online at
Steidinger, K.A. and Tangen, K. (1997), Dinoflagellates. In Tomas, C.R.

(ed.), Identifying Marine Diatoms and Dinoflagellates. (Academic
Press, San Diego). pp. 387–589.
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Throndsen, J. (1997), The planktonic marine flagellates. In Tomas, C.R.

kingdom
https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.308.5723.769c
https://www.clickview.com.au/curriculum-libraries/video-
details/?id=52533480&cat=3705579&library=primary
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0-6dzU4gOJo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kQdRVq0b9Bk
Answers to SAE 1
The embryophytes are informally called land plants because they live
primarily in terrestrial habitats (with exceptional members who evolved
to live once again in aquatic habitats), while the related green algae are
primarily aquatic.
EMBRYOPHYTA – LAND PLANTS. The Embryophyta, or

embryophytes (commonly known as land plants), are a monophyletic
assemblage within the green plants
Answers to SAE 2
Streptophytes are the collective name for the green algae and land plants
that make up the Streptophyta subphylum.
Green algae fall into two major groups, the chlorophytes and the
charophytes.
Answers to SAE 3
1. Algae are sometimes considered plants and sometimes considered

"protists" (a grab-bag category of generally distantly related
organisms that are grouped on the basis of not being animals,
plants, fungi, bacteria, or archaeans).
2. All algae contain chlorophyll but most lack leaves, roots, vascular
tissue, and stems. They play a vital role in aquatic ecosystems
by forming the energy base of the food web for all aquatic
organisms. As autotrophic organisms, algae convert water and
carbon dioxide to sugar through the process of photosynthesis.
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UNIT 3 BRYOPHYTES
3.1 Introduction
3.3 main Contents
3.3.1 The Bryophytes
3.3.2 Diversity of Bryopyta
3.3.2.1 Hepaticopsida (Liverworts)
3.3.2.2 Anthocerotopsida (Hornworts)
3.3.2.3 Bryopsida (Mosses)
3.3.3 Adaptation of Bryophytes
3.3.3.1Habitat of Bryophyte
3.3.3.2Comparison of gametophytic and sporophytic
phases of bryophytes
3.4 Summary
3.1 Introduction
During the course of evolution, a change from aquatic habitat to

terrestrial habitat occurred and the only primitive land plants evolved.
These are known as bryophytes. Although bryophytes colonize
terrestrial habitats but they are still dependent on water for completion
of their life cycle. They produce motile male gametes which require a
thin film of water for their motility to reach the non-motile female
gamete to accomplish fertilization.
3.2 Intended Learning Objectives

1. Identify the main characteristics of bryophytes
2. Describe the distinguishing traits of liverworts, hornworts, and
mosses
3. Chart the development of land adaptations in the bryophytes
4. Describe the events in the bryophyte lifecycle
5. Describe the major classes of seedless vascular plants
3.3 Main Contents
3.3.1 The Bryophytes
The earliest terrestrial plants, which are most closely related to

bryophytes, likely emerged around 450 million years ago during the
Ordovician epoch. Bryophytes are believed to have originated during
this time, but their lack of durable components like lignin makes them
89
unlikely to leave fossils. Some spores protected by early bryophytes

have managed to survive. By the Silurian epoch (around 435 million
years ago), vascular plants had already spread across all continents. This
supports the idea that non-vascular plants existed before the Silurian
epoch. Although over 25,000 types of bryophytes flourish mainly in
moist environments, some also survive in deserts. In challenging
environments like the tundra, where their small size and resistance to
drying out provide significant benefits, they dominate the flora.
Bryophytes are often called non-vascular plants, even though the term
non-tracheophyte is more precise. Key vegetative structures of
bryophytes, such as photosynthetic leaf-like parts, stems, rhizoids, and
thalli (the "plant body"), belong to the haploid organism, or
gametophyte. Bryophyte male gametes possess a flagellum for
swimming, necessitating water for fertilization. Moreover, the bryophyte
embryo remains attached to the parent plant, which nurtures and
nourishes it. The sporophyte that emerges from the embryo is not very
visible. The multicellular sexual reproductive structure called the
sporangium, responsible for producing haploid spores through meiosis,
exists in bryophytes and is absent in most algae. This feature is also
shared among land plants. Why are plants called bryophytes?
The general characteristics of Bryophytes can be outlined as follows:

1. Bryophytes are amphibians of plant kingdom as they complete
their life cycle in both water and on land.
2. Plants occur in damp and shaded areas.
3. The plant body is thallus-like, ie. prostrate or erect.
4. It is attached to the substratum by rhizoids, which are unicellular
or multicellular.
5. They have a root-like, stem-like, and leaf-like structure and lack
true vegetative structure.
6. Plants lack the vascular system (xylem, phloem).
7. The dominant part of the plant body is the gametophyte which is
a haploid.
8. The thalloid gametophyte is divided into rhizoids, axis, and
leaves.
9. The gametophyte bears multicellular sex organs and is
photosynthetic.
10. The antheridium produces antherozoids, which are flagellated.
11. The shape of an archegonium is a sort of a flask and produces one
egg.
12. The antherozoids fuse with an egg to make a zygote.
13. The zygote develops into a multicellular sporophyte.
14. The sporophyte is semi-parasitic and dependent on the
gametophyte for its nutrition.
15. Cells of sporophyte undergo meiosis to form haploid gametes
which form a gametophyte.
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16. The juvenile gametophyte is known as protonema.

17. The sporophyte is differentiated into foot seta and capsule.
1. Which plants are bryophytes?

2. What is the main plant of bryophyte?
1. Diversity of Bryopytes
The bryophytes are divided into three divisions (in plants, the taxonomic
level “division” is used instead of phylum):
1. Hepaticopsida (Liverworts): Flat, ribbon-like – Liverworts
(Marchantia).
2. Anthocerotopsida (Hornworts): Flat, thalloid plant body bearing a
horn-like sporophyte – Hornworts or Anthoceros
3. Bryopsida (Mosses): Small, leafy plant body – Mosses (Funaria)
3.3.2.1Hepaticopsida (Liverworts)
Liverworts (Marchantiophyta) are considered the plants most closely

resembling the ancestor that transitioned to land. They have successfully
established themselves in diverse habitats worldwide, with over 6,000
extant species. Certain gametophytes take on a lobate green structure
resembling the lobes of the liver, which is the origin of their common
name. Liverworts belong to the class Hepaticopsida, and they are a
subset of bryophytes, with around 900 species. Liverworts are among
the most primitive bryophytes and are often found in damp
environments like moist rocks and wet soil, reducing their risk of
desiccation due to their proximity to water.
Gametophytes, a plant type, can exhibit a flat thalloid or ribbon-like

morphology, often showing dichotomous branching. For instance,
Marchantia is anchored to the soil by rhizoids. On the other hand,
species like Porella grow upright and appear leafy, with differentiated
fake stems and leaves. The gametophyte provides nourishment and
shelter for the sporophyte. The reproductive organs are typically located
at the tips of branches on the upper surface of the thallus. In cases like
Marchantia, separate branches called antheridiophores and
archegoniophores may develop on gametophytes to host sex organs.
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Figure 3.1 (a) A 1904 drawing of liverworts shows the variety of their
forms. (b) A liverwort, Lunularia cruciata, displays its lobate, flat
thallus. The organism in the photograph is in the gametophyte stage.
plant-kingdom
3.3.2.2Anthocerotopsida (Hornworts)
Hornworts (Anthocerotophyta) have successfully inhabited a range of

terrestrial environments, although they always remain in close proximity
to a moisture source. Approximately 100 hornwort species have been
identified. They fall under a single order, Anthocerotales, and include
genera like Anthoceros, Megaceros, and Notothylas. In comparison to
Bryopsida and Hepaticopsida, this category of bryophytes displays a
slightly more advanced nature in various aspects.
On a broader scale, the gametophyte of hornworts is characterized by

pronounced lobes and irregularities. Unlike the early developmental
stages, the sporophyte does not rely on the gametophyte for sustenance
or protection. Antheridia and archegonia are partially submerged within
the gametophytic tissue. The most prominent phase of the hornwort life
cycle is the brief blue-green gametophyte stage. The distinctive feature
of the group is the sporophyte, a slender, pipe-like structure that emerges
from the parental gametophyte and continues to grow throughout the
plant's life (Figure 3.2).
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Figure 3.2 Hornworts grow a tall and slender sporophyte. (credit:

modification of work by Jason Hollinger) Source:
kingdom
3.3.2.3 Bryopsida (Mosses)
With about 1400 species, it is a significant class of the Bryophyta. They

are often referred to as mosses. Like liverworts, most mosses like moist
surroundings. Unlike other bryophytes, they thrive in moderately dry
settings. While mosses require water to proliferate, which is why they
typically develop into cushions or mats. Examples include Sphagnum,
Funaria, and Polytrichum. Their habitats range from the understory of
tropical forests to the tundra, where they serve as the primary vegetation.
Their short rhizoids enable them to attach to a substrate in the tundra
without digging into the frozen ground. They prevent erosion, hold onto
moisture and soil minerals, offer food for larger herbivores like the
musk ox and shelter for lesser animals. Mosses are very sensitive to air
pollution and are used to monitor the quality of air. The sensitivity of
mosses to copper salts makes these salts a common ingredient of
compounds marketed to eliminate mosses in lawns (Figure 3.3). Are
bryophytes unicellular or multicellular?
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Figure 3.3 This green feathery moss has reddish-brown sporophytes

growing upward.
plant-kingdom
1. What is the classification of bryophytes?
2. What are the main groups of bryophytes?
3.3.3 Adaptation of Bryophytes
Bryophytes possess remarkable resilience and unique abilities to survive

in harsh environmental conditions. They demonstrate high phenotypic
plasticity and the capacity to undergo photosynthesis when conditions
are favorable, particularly enabling their survival in cold regions.
Bryophytes can endure drought by entering a metabolic shutdown and
later recovering under suitable conditions. Anchored to soil by rhizoids,
small thread-like structures, they absorb water and nutrients. In mosses,
rhizoids are multicellular and branched, while liverworts and hornworts
have unicellular or multicellular rhizoids. Water distribution is
facilitated by hydroids and leptoids in various bryophytes, and mosses
possess an external capillary system for this purpose.
The dominant gametophyte phase of bryophytes is photosynthetically

active and bears the sex organs, with antheridia as male and archegonia
as female. After fusion, gametes develop into a zygote and then a
sporophyte, which remains attached to the gametophyte and relies on it
for nutrients. The sporophyte's sporogenous tissue undergoes meiosis to
produce haploid spores. Upon dispersal, these spores germinate into new
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gametophytes, completing the alternation of generations life cycle seen

in all three bryophyte types (mosses, liverworts, and hornworts).
3.3.3.1Habitat of Bryophyte
Bryophytes—the group of seedless plants containing mosses, hornworts,

and liverworts—often live in wetter habitats. They do not have to search
far for water and nutrients, so they do not need very complex roots.
Water loss does not present a large problem, so they do not need a waxy
surface to retain water.
3.3.3.2Comparison of gametophytic and sporophytic phases of
bryophytes
__________________________________________________________
Gametophytic phase Sporophytic phase
__________________________________________________________
1. Haploid phase, generally autotrophic Diploid phase, heterotrophic or
partially autotrophic
2. Has multicellular sex organs called Has spore-producing structure
antheridia and archegonia
bearing sterile jacket
surrounding the gametes
3. Produces gametes Produces spores
4. Gametes are produced by mitosis Spores are produced by
meiosis
5. Dominant phase occupies most of the Short-lived phase which
remains life period
attached to the gametophyte
1. What are the adaptations of bryophytes?

2. What is the habitat of bryophytes?
3.4 Summary
A category of plant species known as bryophytes reproduce by spores

rather than flowers or seeds. The three non-vascular land plant kinds that
make up the majority of bryophytes are mosses, hornworts, and
liverworts. They are typically found in moist conditions. While any of
the several plants with specialized vascular tissue is considered a
vascular plant. The movement of water, nutrients, and the byproducts of
photosynthesis throughout the plant is accomplished by the two forms of
vascular tissue, xylem and phloem.
95

World. 2nd edition. A Report for the Australian Biological Resources
Study. Australian Biodiversity Information Services, Toowoomba,
Australia. Available online at
kingdom
https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.308.5723.769c
Biology 2e, Biological Diversity, Seedless Plants, Bryophytes | OpenEd
CUNY
Answers to SAE 1
1. Bryophytes is the informal group name for mosses, liverworts
and hornworts. They are non-vascular plants, which means they have
no roots or vascular tissue, but instead absorb water and nutrients
from the air through their surface (e.g., their leaves).
2. The main plant body in Bryophyte is a haploid gametophyte.
Answers to SAE 2
1. The Greek words 'Bryon' for mosses and 'phyton' for plants are
combined to form the term 'Bryophyta. ' The Bryophyta family
includes mosses, hornworts, and liverworts, among others. These
are small plants that flourish in damp, shady areas.
2. Bryophytes are a group of land plants, sometimes treated as a
taxonomic division, that contains three groups of non-vascular
land plants (embryophytes): the liverworts, hornworts and
mosses. In the strict sense, Bryophyta consists of the mosses only.
Answers to SAE 3
1. Although bryophytes have simple structures morphologically,
they already possess the key innovations of land plants for the early
adaptations to terrestrial habitats, namely a multicellular embryo,
cuticle, stomata, water-conducting cells (WCCs), and a rooting
system
2. Bryophytes grow densely in moist and shady places and form
thick carpets or mats on damp soils, rocks, bark of trees especially
during rainy season. Majority of the species are terrestrial but a
few species grow in fresh water (aquatic) e.g., Riccia fluitans,
Ricciocarpos natans, Riella etc.
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UNIT 4 SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS
Unit Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.3 Main Contents
4.3.1 Seedless Vascular Plants
4.3.1.1 Diversity of Seedless Vascular Plant Groups
4.3.1.2 General Characteristics
4.3.2 The Life Cycle of Seedless Vascular Plants
4.3.2.1 Fern life cycle
4.3.2.2 Homospory versus heterospory
4.3.3 Ecological Adaptation
4.3.3.1 Relationship of Seedless with Bryophytes
4.3.3.2 The Importance of Seedless Plants
4.4 Summary
4.1 Introduction
The vascular plants are the dominant and most conspicuous group of
land plants. There are about 275,000 species of vascular plants, which
represent more than 90 percent of Earth’s vegetation. Several
evolutionary innovations explain their success and their spread to so
many habitats.
1. Identify the new traits that first appear in seedless tracheophytes

2. Discuss how each trait is important for adaptation to life on land
3. Identify the classes of seedless tracheophytes
4. Describe the life cycle of a fern
5. Explain the role of seedless plants in the ecosystem
4.3 Main Contents
4.3.1 Seedless Vascular Plants
Vascular plants, also known as tracheophytes, constitute the prominent

group of land plants, accounting for over 260,000 species, which form
more than 90 percent of terrestrial vegetation. Their success in
occupying diverse habitats can be attributed to evolutionary innovations.
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While bryophytes were capable of transitioning from water to land, their

reliance on water for reproduction and limited ability to absorb nutrients
through the gametophyte surface restricted their size and habitat range.
Vascular plants, in contrast, have developed roots for water and mineral
absorption from the soil, along with specialized conducting tissues that
facilitate the transport of water, minerals, and nutrients throughout the
plant's structure. This adaptation enables vascular plants to attain
significant heights, effectively competing for sunlight.
Across the course of plant evolution, the sporophyte generation's

dominance has progressively increased. In seedless vascular plants, such
as ferns, the diploid sporophyte phase takes precedence in the life cycle,
while the gametophyte, although less conspicuous, remains independent
of the sporophyte. However, water dependence persists during
fertilization in seedless vascular plants, as flagellated sperm require
moisture to reach the egg. Consequently, ferns and related species thrive
primarily in moist environments due to this reproductive limitation.
1. Vascular Tissue: Xylem and Phloem

The Silurian period, which began roughly 430 million years ago, is
when the earliest fossils with evidence of vascular tissue were
discovered. The simplest configuration of conductive cells displays a
pattern with xylem at the center and phloem on either side. The tissue
known as xylem is in charge of carrying water and minerals over long
distances, moving water-soluble growth factors from organs of synthesis
to target organs, and storing water and nutrients.
Phloem, a different kind of vascular tissue, moves carbohydrates,

proteins, and other solutes throughout the plant. Sieve components, also
known as conducting cells, and supporting tissue are two categories of
phloem cells. The vascular system of plants is composed of both xylem
and phloem components.
2. Roots: Support for the Plant

Roots, although not well-preserved in the fossil record, seem to have
emerged later in evolution compared to vascular tissue. The
development of an intricate root system marked a significant
advancement in vascular plants. Unlike the delicate filaments called
rhizoids in bryophytes, which only loosely anchored the plant and didn't
absorb water and nutrients effectively, roots with their robust vascular
tissue system serve as a conduit for transporting water and minerals
from the soil throughout the plant. This extensive network of roots not
only ensures access to water sources deep in the ground but also
provides stability to trees, acting as both ballast and an anchor.
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Most roots establish a mutually beneficial relationship with fungi,

forming mycorrhizae. In this symbiotic interaction, fungal hyphae grow
around the root, penetrating the root cells or even residing within them.
This relationship significantly enhances the plant's absorption
capabilities by greatly increasing the surface area available for nutrient
uptake.
3. Leaves, Sporophylls, and Strobili

A third adaptation marks seedless vascular plants. Accompanying the
prominence of the sporophyte and the development of vascular tissue,
the appearance of true leaves improved photosynthetic efficiency.
Leaves capture more sunlight with their increased surface area. In
addition to photosynthesis, leaves play another role in the life of the
plants. Pinecones, mature fronds of ferns, and flowers are
all sporophylls—leaves that were modified structurally to bear
sporangia. Strobili are structures that contain the sporangia. They are
prominent in conifers and are known commonly as cones: for example,
the pine cones of pine trees. In the evolution andadaptation of seedless
vascular plants what does the appearance of true leaves signifies?
4.3.1.1 Diversity of Seedless Vascular Plant Groups
Seedless vascular plants are mainly split into two groups,

the lycophytes and the monilophytes. These aren’t common names,
however, and might be a little confusing to remember. Below we go
over what each of these names means and some examples of seedless
vascular plants.
1. The Lycophytes
This group includes quillworts, spike mosses, and club mosses. Despite
the term "moss" in their names, they are not true nonvascular mosses, as
they possess vascular systems. Lycophytes differ from monilophytes in
their leaf-like structures known as "microphylls," which have a single
vein of vascular tissue and lack branching. Lycophytes exhibit
alternation of generations similar to bryophytes, but with the sporophyte
as the predominant life stage. Gametophytes in lycophytes are
independent of the sporophyte for nutrients and may form mycorrhizal
associations. In club mosses, the sporophyte develops sporophylls
arranged in strobili, cone-like structures. Lycophytes can be either
homosporous or heterosporous.
An example within this group is the club moss. These plants, dominant
during the Carboniferous period, were sizable trees forming extensive
swamp forests. Present-day club mosses are small evergreen plants with
stems and microphylls. The Lycophyta division comprises nearly 1,000
species, encompassing quillworts, club mosses, and spike mosses. These
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plants produce spores within cone-like strobili for the development of

haploid gametophytes, except for quillworts and silver mosses which
bear spores on their microphylls.
Figure 4.1 Lycopodium clavatum is a club moss. Source:

kingdom
2. The Monilophytes
The "euphylls" or real leaves, the plant parts we today specifically think
of as leaves, distinguish the monilophytes from the lycophytes. These
"euphylls" are wide and lacerated with numerous veins. The ferns and
horsetails are two of the plants in this class that you may be familiar
with by their popular names. Ferns contain large leaves and sori, which
are spore-bearing structures, under their leaves.
i. Horsetails
Horsetails possess "euphylls," which are actual leaves that have been
minimized, resulting in their slender and non-wide structure, unlike the
broader leaves of ferns. These horsetail leaves are positioned in a
circular arrangement, known as a "whorl," along the stem. Nevertheless,
the shared characteristic connecting club mosses, spike mosses,
quillworts, ferns, and horsetails is their existence prior to the
development of seeds. Instead of seeds, these lineages propagate their
gametophyte phase using spores. Ferns and whisk ferns are categorized
within the Pterophyta division. Among the plant groups in the
Pterophyta, horsetails, forming a distinct category from ferns at times,
belong here. Horsetails are represented by a sole genus, Equisetum.
They endure as the remnants of a once-extensive plant category referred
to as Arthrophyta, which once gave rise to towering trees and entire
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swamp forests during the Carboniferous period. Typically favoring

damp habitats and marshy environments, these plants can be found
(Figure 4.2).
Figure 4.2 Horsetails thrive in a marsh. Source:

kingdom
The stem of a horsetail is characterized by the presence of joints, or

nodes: hence the name Arthrophyta, which means “jointed plant”.
Leaves and branches come out as whorls from the evenly spaced rings.
The needle-shaped leaves do not contribute greatly to photosynthesis,
the majority of which takes place in the green stem (Figure 4.3).
Figure 4.3 Thin leaves originating at the joints are noticeable on the
horsetail plant. Source: https://openstax.org/books/concepts-
biology/pages/14-1-the-plant-kingdom
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ii. Ferns and Whisk Ferns

Ferns are advanced seedless vascular plants that exhibit characteristics
commonly found in seed plants. They possess large leaves and
branching roots. In contrast, whisk ferns (psilophytes) lack roots and
leaves due to evolutionary reduction, a process driven by natural
selection in response to changing environments. Whisk ferns perform
photosynthesis in their green stems, with sporangia-containing yellow
knobs at the branch tip. While traditionally classified apart from true
ferns, recent DNA analysis suggests that whisk ferns might have lost
vascular tissue and roots through evolution, actually being closely
related to ferns. Ferns are easily recognizable due to their sizable fronds
and represent the most prominent seedless vascular plants.
Approximately 12,000 fern species inhabit diverse environments from
tropics to temperate forests. While some tolerate arid conditions, most
ferns prefer moist and shaded habitats. Their fossil record dates back to
the Devonian period (416–359 million years ago), and they flourished
during the Carboniferous period (359–299 million years ago) (Figure
4.5).
Figure 4.4 Some specimens of this short tree-fern species can grow very
tall. Source: https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/14-1-
the-plant-kingdom
4.3.1.2General Characteristics
1. Pteridophytes are considered as the first plants to be evolved on

land: It is speculated that life began in the oceans, and through
millions of years of evolution, life slowly adapted on to dry land.
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And among the first of the plants to truly live on land were the
Pteridophytes.
2. They are cryptogams, seedless and vascular: Pteridophytes are
seedless, and they reproduce through spores. They contain
vascular tissues but lack xylem vessels and phloem companion
cells.
3. The plant body has true roots, stem and leaves: They have well-
differentiated plant body into root, stem and leaves.
4. Spores develop in sporangia: The sporangium is the structures in
which spores are formed. They are usually homosporous
(meaning: one type of spore is produced) and are also
heterosporous, (meaning: two kinds of spores are produced.)
5. Sporangia are produced in groups on sporophylls: Leaves that
bear the sporangia are termed as sporophylls. The tip of the leaves
tends to curl inwards to protect the vulnerable growing parts.
6. Sex organs are multicellular: The male sex organs are called
antheridia, while the female sex organs are called archegonia.
7. They show true alternation of generations: The sporophyte
generation and the gametophyte generation are observed in
Pteridophytes. The diploid sporophyte is the main plant body.
Why are the monilophytes separated from the lycophytes?
1. What are the characteristics feature of the plant body of a
seedless vascular plant?
2. What is the most common seedless vascular plants?
4.3.2 The Life Cycle of Seedless Vascular Plants
The seedless vascular plants go through an alternation of generations

just as the nonvascular plants and other vascular plants do. The diploid
sporophyte, however, is the more prevalent, noticeable generation. Both
the diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte are independent of each
other in the seedless vascular plant.
4.3.2.1 Fern life cycle
The life cycle of a fern, for example, follows these steps.

1. The mature haploid gametophyte stage has both male and female
sex organs- or antheridium and archegonium, respectively.
2. The antheridium and archegonium both produce sperm and eggs
via mitosis, as they are already haploid.
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3. The sperm must swim from the antheridium to the archegonium

to fertilize the egg, meaning the fern depends on water for
fertilization.
4. Once fertilization happens, the zygote will grow into the
independent diploid sporophyte.
5. The diploid sporophyte has sporangia, which is where the spores
are produced via meiosis.
6. On the fern, the underside of the leaves have clusters known
as sori, which are groups of sporangia. The sori will release
spores when they mature, and the cycle will restart.
Notice that in the fern life cycle, although the gametophyte is reduced
and the sporophyte is more prevalent, the sperm still relies on water to
reach the egg in the archegonium. This means that ferns and other
seedless vascular plants must live in damp environments to reproduce.
4.3.2.2 Homospory versus heterospory
The majority of vascular seedless plants are homosporous, meaning they

only generate one type of spore, which develops into a gametophyte
with both male and female sex organs. Some, however, are
heterosporous, which means they produce both megaspores and
microspores. Megaspores develop into a gametophyte with exclusively
female sex organs. A male gametophyte with only male sex organs
develops from microspores. Although heterospory is not widespread in
all vascular plants that produce seeds, it is common in those that do.
Given that many plants that produce seeds have this adaptation,
evolutionary biologists think that the development of heterospory in
seedless vascular plants was a significant step in the evolution and
diversification of plants. The sexuality of
pteridophytic gametophytes can be classified as follows:
1. Dioicous: the individual gametophyte is either a male producing
antheridia and sperm or a female producing archegonia and egg
cells.
2. Monoicous: every individual gametophyte may produce both
antheridia and archegonia and it can function both as a male as
well as a female.
3. Protandrous: the antheridia matures before the archegonia.
4. Protogynous: the archegonia matures before the antheridia.
Pteridophyta is one of the older groups of plants present in the Plant

kingdom. They have evolved much earlier than the angiosperms. They
are one of the very first “true” plants to adapt to life on land.
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1. What is Homospory?
2. Name the male and female reproductive organs in
pteridophytes?
4.3.3 Ecological Adaptation
Seedless vascular plants are early vascular plants that contain a number
of adaptations that helped them survive life on land. You will notice that
a lot of the characteristics that developed in the seedless vascular plants
are not shared with nonvascular plants.
1. Vascular tissue
This is a novel adaptation. The development of the tracheid, a type of
elongated cell that makes up the xylem, in early land plants led to the
adaptation of vascular tissue. Xylem tissue contains
tracheid cells fortified by lignin, a strong protein, that provides support
and structure to vascular plants. The vascular tissue includes the xylem,
which transports water, and the phloem, which transports sugars from
the source (where they are made) to sink (where they are used).
2. True roots, stems, and leaves

The introduction of the vascular system in lineages of seedless vascular
plants marked a significant advancement, leading to the emergence of
genuine roots, stems, and leaves. This transformation revolutionized
how plants engaged with their environment, enabling them to achieve
larger sizes and inhabit new terrains. Following the establishment of
vascular tissue, true roots emerged, capable of delving deeper into the
soil for stability and nutrient absorption. These roots often form
mycorrhizal associations, connecting with fungi to trade sugars for soil-
extracted nutrients. Through mycorrhizae and expansive root systems,
vascular plants enhance their soil interface, facilitating rapid water and
nutrient uptake.
The vascular tissue enabled water transport from roots to stems and
leaves, essential for photosynthesis. Moreover, it facilitated the
distribution of sugars generated in photosynthesis to non-photosynthetic
parts. The development of vascular stems centralizes the plant body,
enabling substantial growth. Microphylls, found in lycophytes like club
mosses, represent the earliest leaf-like structures in vascular plants,
characterized by a single vein of vascular tissue. On the other hand,
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euphylls, found in ferns, horsetails, and other vascular plants, are

genuine leaves with multiple veins and interveinal photosynthetic tissue.
3. A dominant sporophyte generation
Unlike the nonvascular plants, the early vascular plants developed a
dominant diploid sporophyte generation, independent of the haploid
gametophyte. Seedless vascular plants also have a haploid gametophyte
generation, but it is independent and reduced in size compared to
nonvascular plants.
4.3.3.1Relationship of Seedless with Bryophytes

a). Similarities
1. Both are land plants.
2. Both possess distinct Gametophytic and Sporophytic generations.
3. Both groups show heteromorphic alternation of generation.
4. Rhizoids are present in both Bryophytes and Pteridophytes.
5. Sexual reproduction is oogamous.
6. Both consist of multicellular sporangia.
7. The cuticle is present in both plants.
8. Both groups have members with terrestrial mode of life.
9. Formation of spores is the same in both groups.
10. Like Bryophytes, many seedless plants are homosporous.
b). Differences
Following are the major differences between bryophytes and seedless
plants:
Bryophytes Seedless plants
Bryophytes are non-vascular
Are vascular plants.
plants.
The plant body is leafy or The plant body is differentiated into
thalloid. roots, stem and leaves.
No vascular tissues. Vascular tissues are present.
Rhizoids are present for
Roots are present for anchoring.
anchorage.
The gametophyte is
The sporophyte is dominating.
dominating.
Anthredium is stalked. Anthredium is sessile.
Cells are haploid. Cells are diploid.

E: Mosses, liverworts,
Eg: Spikemosses, ferns, quillworts, etc.
hornworts, etc.
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4.3.3.2The Importance of Seedless Plants
Mosses and liverworts are pioneering organisms that often colonize

areas during primary or secondary successions. Their spores are
dispersed by various means. Once established, they provide nourishment
and shelter for other plants. In harsh environments like frozen tundras,
bryophytes thrive due to their adaptability. Mosses, foundational in
tundra food chains, sustain a variety of species. Bryophytes can enhance
soil for other plants by forming symbiotic relationships with nitrogen-
fixing cyanobacteria, replenishing soil nitrogen. Urbanization led to
moss and lichen decline, indicating pollution susceptibility. Mosses are
sensitive to pollutants due to their direct absorption of rainwater-borne
substances. Their disappearance serves as a pollution indicator. Ferns
play roles in weathering, soil formation, and erosion control. Water ferns
like Azolla restore nitrogen in aquatic habitats via cyanobacteria.
Historically, seedless plants were used as tools, fuel, and medicine.

Sphagnum moss, used for fuel and soil conditioning, is renewable. Ferns
are popular ornamentals and houseplants. Bracken fern fiddleheads are a
Native American spring delicacy. Licorice fern serves as food and
medicine for Pacific Northwest tribes due to its sweetness. These
seedless plants have intertwined with human life for various purposes.
What are the first leaf-like structures that evolved in vascular plants?
Microphylls. These are small leaf-like structures, with only a single vein
of vascular tissue running through them. Lycophytes (e.g., club mosses)
have these microphylls.
1. What are the seedless vascular plants?
2. What is the striking difference between the non-vascular and
vascular plant groups?
4.4 Summary
Seedless nonvascular plants are small. The dominant stage of the life
cycle is the gametophyte. Without a vascular system and roots, they
absorb water and nutrients through all of their exposed surfaces. There
are three main groups: the liverworts, the hornworts, and the mosses.
They are collectively known as bryophytes.
Vascular systems consist of xylem tissue, which transports water and

minerals, and phloem tissue, which transports sugars and proteins. With
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the vascular system, there appeared leaves—large photosynthetic

organs—and roots to absorb water from the ground. The seedless
vascular plants include club mosses, which are the most primitive;
whisk ferns, which lost leaves and roots by reductive evolution;
horsetails, and ferns.
kingdom
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biolog
y/Seedless_Vascular_Plants
https://viva.pressbooks.pub/introbio2/chapter/8-4-seedless-vascular-
plants-2/
Biology 2e, Biological Diversity, Seedless Plants, Seedless Vascular
Plants | OpenEd CUNY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4IcbmEnxe8g
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=37hEIJXRyFM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7uEtXyjsItM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p7xu7jt8k8w
Answers to SAE 1
1. The vascular plants, or tracheophytes, are the dominant and most
conspicuous group of land plants.
2. The seedless plants do not have seed, but seed-bearing plants
do. The seedless plants produces spores, and seed-bearing plants
produce seeds. The seedless plants don't have the ability to
produce flowers, but seed-bearing plants do. The seedless plants
can be vascular or nonvascular, but all seed plants are vascular.
Answers to SAE 2
1. Most seedless vascular plants are homosporous, which
means they produce only one type of spore, and that spore will
grow into a gametophyte that has both male and female sex
organs.
2. Male sex organs are called antheridia, and female sex organs are
called archegonia. The male gametes discharged by the antheridia
are known as antherozoids. 5. Write the name of gametophyte of
fern. The prothallus is the fern gametophyte.
Answers to SAE 3
1. Seedless vascular plants are a group of early land plants that have
vascular systems but lack seeds, and instead, disperse spores for their
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haploid gametophyte stage. They include ferns, horsetails, club

mosses, spike mosses, and quillworts.
2. Unlike the nonvascular plants, the early vascular plants
developed a dominant diploid sporophyte generation, independent of
the haploid gametophyte.
UNIT 5 SEED PLANT I: GYMNOSPERMS
Unit Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.3 Main Contents
5.3.1 The Evolution of Seed Plants
5.3.2 The Gymnosperms
5.3.2.2 Diversity of Gymnosperms
5.3.2.3 Life Cycle of a Conifer
5.3.2.4 Ecological Adaptation of Gymnosperms
5.4 Summary
5.1 Introduction
The first plants to colonize land were most likely closely related to
modern-day mosses (bryophytes) and are thought to have appeared
about 500 million years ago. They were followed by liverworts (also
bryophytes) and primitive vascular plants, the pterophytes, from which
modern ferns are derived. The life cycle of bryophytes and pterophytes
is characterized by the alternation of generations. The completion of the
life cycle requires water, as the male gametes must swim to the female
gametes. The male gametophyte releases sperm, which must swim—
propelled by their flagella—to reach and fertilize the female gamete or
egg. After fertilization, the zygote matures and grows into a sporophyte,
which in turn will form sporangia, or "spore vessels,” in which mother
cells undergo meiosis and produce haploid spores. The release of spores
in a suitable environment will lead to germination and a new generation
of gametophytes.

1. Discuss the type of seeds produced by gymnosperms, as well as
other characteristics of gymnosperms
2. List the four groups of modern-day gymnosperms and provide
examples of each
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3. list out general characteristics of seed plants outline the specific

characteristics features of gymnosperms
4. highlight morphological characteristic of a named gymnosperm
5. classify gymnosperms and highlight the terrestrial (ecological) of
seed plants.
5.3 Main Contents
5.3.1 The Evolution of Seed Plants
The evolutionary progression in seed plants led to a dominant

sporophyte generation, where the diploid plant is ecologically more
significant. Simultaneously, gametophytes became smaller, transitioning
from prominent structures to microscopic cell clusters within sporophyte
tissues. Lower vascular plants are mostly homosporous, while seed
plants are heterosporous, forming male microspores and female
megaspores. Gametophytes in seed plants rely on sporophyte tissue for
nutrients and water, differing from the free-living gametophytes in
seedless vascular plants, indicating an evolutionary connection.
Two key adaptations—seeds and pollen—set seed plants apart from

seedless vascular plants and enabled their land colonization. Fossils date
distinct seed plants back around 350 million years, with gymnosperms
emerging during the Carboniferous period. Gymnosperms transitioned
from progymnosperms and dominated during the Mesozoic era, with
angiosperms taking over in the Cretaceous period, becoming the most
abundant plant group in terrestrial ecosystems.
The introduction of pollen and seeds freed seed plants from water-
dependent reproduction and allowed them to thrive on land. Pollen,
containing male gametes, is protected from desiccation and damage,
aiding in long-distance gene dispersal. Seeds safeguard embryos, offer
nourishment, and maintain dormancy, promoting survival in harsh
conditions and ensuring optimal germination. This advancement
facilitates both spatial and temporal dispersal, leading to the remarkable
success of seed plants as the most prosperous and recognizable plant
group. How seeds are evolved?
1. What is a seed plant?
2. What are 2 types of seed plants?
5.3.2 The Gymnosperms
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Gymnosperms (“naked seed”) are a diverse group of seed plants and

are paraphyletic. Paraphyletic groups do not include descendants of a
single common ancestor. Gymnosperm characteristics include naked
seeds, separate female and male gametes, pollination by wind, and
tracheids, which transport water and solutes in the vascular system.
The general characteristics of gymnosperms include:

1. The adult plant (sporophyte) is a tall, woody, perennial tree or
shrub mostly evergreen. The stem is usually branched, but rarely
unbranched as in, Cycas.
2. Leaves may be simple (as in Pinus) or compound.
3. Leaves may be dimorphic or of one kind only. Foliage leaves are
large green simple or pinnately compound, needle-like and grow
on dwarf shoot as in, Pinus, or directly borne on the main trunk as
in Cycas. Scale leaves are brown and simple.
4. Vascular bundles in stem are arranged in a ring and show
secondary growth.
5 Gymnosperms bear cones which are usually unisexual (either
male or female, rarely bisexual as in Gnetum.
6. Pollen grains are haploid produced in microsporangia of the male
cones. In Pinus, each pollen grain has two large sacs, called
wings to help in the dispersal by wind. Pollen grains produce two male
gametes.
7. Ovules are not enclosed in ovary as in Angiosperms, but are
borne naked on leafy megasporophylls of female cone, so the term
gynmosperms or ‘naked seeds’ for this group. Ovules are
produced side by side, inside which female gamete or egg is
produced. The male gamete fuses with female gamete in the ovule.
The fertilised ovule then develops into a seed (winged in case of
Pinus). Examples
5.3.2.2 Diversity of Gymnosperms
About 1,000 known species make up the four main divisions of modern
gymnosperms. Coniferophyta, Cycadophyta, and Ginkgophyta are not
closely connected phylogenetically, but they do produce secondary
cambium (cells that create the vascular system of the trunk or stem) and
have comparable seed formation patterns. Because they produce true
xylem tissue that includes both tracheids and vessel components,
gnetophyta are regarded as being the most closely related group to
angiosperms.
1. Conifers (Coniferophyta)
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With the greatest variety of species, conifers constitute the dominant

phylum of gymnosperms. Most are tall trees with leaves that resemble
scales or needles. The needles' thin structure and waxy coating prevent
excessive water loss through transpiration. Snow keeps the burden light
and lessens branch breaking by easily sliding off needle-shaped leaves.
The dominance of conifers at high altitudes and in cold climates can be
attributed to these adaptations to cold and dry conditions. Conifers
include well-known evergreen trees including yews, pines, spruces, firs,
cedars, and sequoias. (Figure 5.2). A few species are deciduous and lose
their leaves all at once in fall. The European larch and the tamarack are
examples of deciduous conifers. Many coniferous trees are harvested for
paper pulp and timber. The wood of conifers is more primitive than the
wood of angiosperms; it contains tracheids, but no vessel elements, and
is referred to as “soft wood.”
Figure 5.2 Conifers are the dominant form of vegetation in cold or arid
environments and at high altitudes. Shown here are the (a) evergreen
spruce, (b) sequoia, (c) juniper, and (d) a deciduous gymnosperm: the
tamarack Larix laricina. Notice the yellow leaves of the tamarack.
Source: https://viva.pressbooks.pub/introbio2/chapter/8-5-seed-
plants-gymnosperms/
2. Cycads
Cycads thrive in mild climates and are often mistaken for palms because
of the shape of their large, compound leaves. They bear large cones, and
unusually for gymnosperms, may be pollinated by beetles, rather than
wind. They dominated the landscape during the age of dinosaurs in the
Mesozoic era (251–65.5 million years ago). Only a hundred or so cycad
species persisted to modern times. They face possible extinction, and
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several species are protected through international conventions. Because

of their attractive shape, they are often used as ornamental plants in
gardens (Figure 5.3).
Figure 5.3 This Encephalartos ferox cycad exhibits large cones. Source:
https://viva.pressbooks.pub/introbio2/chapter/8-5-seed-plants-
gymnosperms/
3. Gingkophytes
The single surviving species of ginkgophyte is the Ginkgo
biloba (Figure 14.22). Its fan-shaped leaves, unique among seed plants
because they feature a dichotomous venation pattern, turn yellow in
autumn and fall from the plant. For centuries, Buddhist monks
cultivated Ginkgo biloba, ensuring its preservation. It is planted in
public spaces because it is unusually resistant to pollution. Male and
female organs are found on separate plants. Usually, only male trees are
planted by gardeners because the seeds produced by the female plant
have an off-putting smell of rancid butter.
Figure 5.4 This plate from the 1870 book Flora Japonica, Sectio Prima
(Tafelband) depicts the leaves and fruit of Gingko biloba, Source:
113
gymnosperms/
4. Gnetophytes
The three distinct plant genera in the genus Gnetophytes are the
angiosperms' nearest relatives. They have broad leaves, just like
angiosperms. In tropical and subtropical regions, Gnetum species are
primarily vines. The deserts of Namibia and Angola are home to the
unique, low-growing Welwitschia species. It could survive for as long as
2000 years. In dry regions of Mexico and the southwestern United
States, the genus Ephedra is present in North America (Figure 5.5). The
chemical ephedrine, a strong decongestant used in medicine, is derived
from the tiny, scale-like leaves of ephedra. Ephedrine is only used in
prescription medications because of its similarity to amphetamines in
both chemical structure and neurological effects. What are the major
groups modern gymnosperms are classified into? Modern gymnosperms
are classified into four major divisions namely; Coniferophyta,
Cycadophyta, Ginkgophyta and gnetophytes.
Figure 5.5 Ephedra viridis, known by the common name Mormon

tea.Source: https://viva.pressbooks.pub/introbio2/chapter/8-5-seed-
plants-gymnosperms/
5.3.2.3Life Cycle of a Conifer
Pine trees, classified as conifers, bear both male and female sporophylls
on the same plant. Like all gymnosperms, pines are heterosporous,
producing male microspores and female megaspores. Within the male
cones or staminate cones, microsporocytes undergo meiosis to generate
microspores, which later mature into pollen grains. Each pollen grain
contains two cells: a generative cell that will divide into two sperm cells,
and another cell that will develop into a pollen tube cell. During spring,
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pine trees release abundant yellow pollen carried by the wind. Some
pollen grains land on female cones. Gradually, the pollen tube grows
from the pollen grain, and the generative cell within the pollen divides
mitotically into two sperm cells. Eventually, one sperm cell fertilizes an
egg cell, merging their haploid nuclei.
Female cones, also known as ovulate cones, possess two ovules per
scale. In each ovule, a single megasporocyte undergoes meiosis. Only
one surviving haploid cell proceeds to develop into a female
multicellular gametophyte, encapsulating an egg. Upon fertilization, the
zygote matures into the embryo, enclosed by a seed coat originating
from parent plant tissue. Fertilization and seed development in pine trees
are prolonged, sometimes taking up to two years after pollination. The
resultant seed comprises three tissue generations: the seed coat derived
from parent plant tissue, the female gametophyte supplying nutrients,
and the embryo itself. The life cycle of a conifer is depicted in Figure
5.1.
.
Figure 5.1 This image shows the lifecycle of a conifer.
Source:https://viva.pressbooks.pub/introbio2/chapter/8-5-seed-
plants-gymnosperms/
115
1. Into how many major groups are modern gymnosperms

classified?
2. Which group of plants is referred to as Paraphyletic?
5.3.2.4Ecological Adaptation of Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms are seed plants adapted to life on land. They have several
adaptations that make survival in diverse land habitats possible. These
adaptations include:
1. Retention of the megagametophyte within a protective coating to
form a seed on the parent sporophyte
2. Dissemination of the microgametophyte in durable pollen
3. Production of complex root systems
4. Extensive development of secondary xylem in the stem
Gymnosperms are adapted to live where fresh water is scarce during part
of the year, or in the nitrogen-poor soil of a bog. They are found in
colder regions where snowfall occurs. They are not differentiated into
ovary, style and stigma, and are pollinated directly by the wind
1. They produce seeds that are not enclosed by a fruit, which allows
them to disperse their seeds in dry and cold environments.
2. They have a vascular system that transports water and nutrients
throughout the plant and provides structural support.
3. They maintain high rates of photosynthesis at relatively low
temperature.
4. Their needles (leaves) have thick warty coatings and sunken
stomatas which prevent excessive loss.
The seedless vascular plants have many adaptations helping them to

survive in the conditions such as dry land and to grow in a much greater
amount than non-vascular plants that are ferns, bryophytes, club mosses,
and horsetails. How do gymnosperms adapt to their environment?
1. What are the characteristics of gymnosperms that help them survive?

2. What are adaptations that gymnosperms have to survive in dry
environments?
5.4 Summary
Seed plants are vascular plants that produce seeds. They go by the name
Spermatophyte as well. Their leaves, stems, and roots are all fully
grown. The fertilized egg of a very little gametophyte, which is entirely
dependent on the sporophytes, the plant forms we see around us, grows
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into the seeds that contain the embryo. The persistence and broad
occurrence of seed plants are due to their effective seed dissemination.
The male gamete, which is carried to the egg via pollination, fertilizes it.
Next, the pollen tube that takes the male gamete to the egg grows. Since
water is not required throughout this process, seed plants are actually
terrestrial plants. Gymnosperms and Angiosperms, the seed plants, will
be the focus of this subject.

gymnosperms/
https://bio.libretexts.org/Seedless_Vascular_Plants
https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/biology/chapter/seedless-
vascular-plants/
y/Seed_Vascular_Plants
https://youtu.be/PVLACJsoGjk
https://youtu.be/FjisWvYO9pQ
Answers to SAE 1
1. Seeds are an important feature of the spermatophytes, or seed
plants, which are subdivided into gymnosperms, or “naked-
seeded” plants such as conifers and cycads, and
angiosperms, flowering plants with seeds enclosed in ovaries.
Examples of plants that lack seeds are ferns and mosses
2. The seed plants are often divided arbitrarily into two groups: the
gymnosperms and the angiosperms. The basis for this distinction
is that angiosperms produce flowers, while the gymnosperms do
not.
Answers to SAE 2
1. Modern gymnosperms are classified into four major divisions
2. Paraphyletic groups are groups that do not include descendants of
a single common ancestor. eg gymnosperms.
Answers to SAE 3
1. Gymnosperms have features that help them survive in dry and
cold conditions. These include needle-like leaves which help in
preventing the loss of moisture. They also have naked seeds
which allow them to reproduce better. Beside above, what are the main
characteristics of gymnosperms?
2. Compared to ferns, gymnosperms have three additional
adaptations that make survival in diverse land habitats possible.
These adaptations include an even smaller gametophyte, pollen, and the
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seed. Gymnosperms are plants that bear seeds that are “naked,” meaning
not enclosed in an ovary.
UNIT 6 SEED PLANTS II; ANGIOSPERMS
Unit Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.3 Main Contents
6.3.1 The Angiosperms
6.3.2 The Life Cycle of an Angiosperm
6.3.2.1 Flowers and Fruits as an Evolutionary Adaptation
6.3.3 Diversity of Angiosperms
6.3.3.1 Basal Angiosperms
6.3.3.2Monocots
6.3.3.3Eudicots
6.3.4 The Role of Seed Plants
6.4 Summary
6.1 Introduction
From their humble and still obscure beginning during the early Jurassic
period (202–145.5 MYA), the angiosperms, or flowering plants, have
successfully evolved to dominate most terrestrial ecosystems.
Angiosperms include a staggering number of genera and species; with
more than 260,000 species, the division is second only to insects in
terms of diversification.
1. Explain why angiosperms are the dominant form of plant life in

most terrestrial ecosystems
2. Describe the main parts of a flower and their purposes
3. Detail the life cycle of an angiosperm
4. Discuss the two main groups of flowering plants
6.3 Main Contents
6.3.1 The Angiosperms
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Angiosperms, a significant plant division, constitute the majority of

Earth's plant life. They are vascular seed plants where fertilization of the
ovule results in seed development within a enclosed, hollow ovary.
Typically found within flowers, the ovary is enveloped by male or
female reproductive organs, or both. These plants, also referred to as
flowering plants, inhabit all habitats except extreme conditions. They
exist as epiphytes (living on other plants), as rooted and floating
aquatics in both freshwater and marine environments, and as terrestrial
plants with varying sizes, lifespans, and forms. Their diversity includes
small herbs, parasitic plants, shrubs, vines, and towering trees.
Additionally, they provide essential resources like medicine and timber.
Familiar plants such as peas, mangos, coconuts, wheat, and rice are
categorized as angiosperms. Their seeds are consistently enclosed within
mature, fertilized ovaries known as fruits.
Figure 6.1. Phylogenetic tree of land plants indicating key evolutionary

adaptations to life on land. Source:
angiosperms /
While various explanations have been proposed to account for the

sudden proliferation and diversity of flowering plants, none have
achieved the consensus of paleobotanists—scientists studying ancient
plants. Nevertheless, new comparative genomic data has illuminated the
evolution of angiosperms. Contrary to deriving from gymnosperms,
angiosperms are a parallel sister clade to gymnosperms, evolving
independently. From their modest and still not fully understood origins
in the early Jurassic era, flowering plants, or angiosperms, have evolved
to become dominant in terrestrial ecosystems. With over 250,000
species, the angiosperm group (Anthophyta) ranks second only to
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insects in terms of diversity. Their success is attributed to two

innovative reproductive structures: flowers and fruits. Flowers serve to
ensure pollination and protect the ovule and developing embryo within a
receptacle. Fruits, on the other hand, aid in seed dispersal and safeguard
the growing seed. Variations in fruit structures, like sweet flesh, wings,
parachutes, or spines, reflect different seed dispersal strategies. Modern
angiosperms are commonly classified as either monocots or eudicots,
based on leaf and embryo structure. Basal angiosperms like water lilies
are considered more primitive as they exhibit morphological traits
shared by both monocots and eudicots.
1. What is the definition of an angiosperm?

2. What is difference between gymnosperm and angiosperm?
6.3.2 The Life Cycle of an Angiosperm
The main stage of an angiosperm's life cycle is the adult, or sporophyte,

phase (Fig. 6.3). Angiosperms are heterosporous, just as gymnosperms.
As a result, they produce megaspores, which create an ovule containing
female gametophytes, and microspores, which produce pollen grains as
the male gametophytes. Male gametophytes divide within the
microsporangia of the anthers through meiosis to produce haploid
microspores, which then go through mitosis to produce pollen grains.
One generative cell that will divide into two sperm and one other cell
that will become the pollen tube cell are both present in each pollen
grain.
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Figure 6.3. The life cycle of a typical Angiosperm: Source:

angiosperms /
In a flower lacking a megasporangium, the formation of female gametes
(egg cells) would not occur. If the flower lacked a microsporangium, the
formation of male gametes (sperm cells) would not take place. Within
the ovule enclosed by the carpel's ovary, the megasporangium resides,
protected by integument layers and the ovary wall. Meiosis in the
megasporocyte within the megasporangium yields four megaspores, of
which the larger one survives to develop into the female gametophyte
called the embryo sac. This megaspore undergoes divisions to form an
eight-cell stage, with specific cells becoming egg, synergids, antipodals,
and polar nuclei.
Upon pollen grain arrival at the stigma, a pollen tube grows from it,
traversing the style and entering the ovule via the micropyle. The pollen
tube delivers two sperm cells to the embryo sac. A double fertilization
occurs: one sperm unites with the egg to form a diploid zygote (future
embryo), while the other fuses with 2n polar nuclei, creating a triploid
cell that becomes endosperm, a nutrient store. The zygote develops into
an embryo with a radicle (small root) and one or two cotyledons (leaf-
like structures). Monocots have one cotyledon, while dicots have two,
differentiating the major angiosperm groups. Seed food reserves are
outside the embryo, and cotyledons transport these reserves to the
developing embryo. A seed consists of integument layers forming the
coat, endosperm with nutrients, and a well-guarded embryo at the center.
Most flowers are monoecious (bisexual), containing both stamens and
carpels, while a few self-pollinate. Monoecious flowers are referred to
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as "perfect" since they possess both sex organs, or as hermaphroditic in

botanical terms. Dioecious plants have male and female flowers on
separate individuals, facilitating cross-pollination. Double fertilization is
a fertilization mechanism of flowering plants (angiosperms) that
involves the joining of two male gametes (sperm) with two female
gametes (egg and central cell). One sperm fuses with the egg to form a
zygote, which develops into the embryo. The other sperm fuses with the
central cell to form a triploid primary endosperm nucleus, which
develops into the endosperm. This process is unique to angiosperms.
Both anatomical and environmental barriers promote cross-pollination

mediated by a physical agent (wind or water), or an animal, such as an
insect or bird. Cross-pollination increases genetic diversity in a species.
Figure 6.4 Double fertilization occurs only in angiosperms. Source:

angiosperms /
This process is unique to angiosperms
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Figure 6.5 Monoecious plants have both male and female reproductive
structures on the same flower or plant. In dioecious plants, males and
females reproductive structures are on separate plants. Source:
angiosperms /
6.3.2.1Flowers and Fruits as an Evolutionary Adaptation
Angiosperms, or flowering plants, produce their gametes within separate

structures often found within a flower. This flower serves as a stable
environment for fertilization and embryo development, sheltered from
environmental fluctuations. As the second most diverse phylum after
insects, flowering plants exhibit an astonishing range of sizes, shapes,
colors, scents, and arrangements in their flowers. Most flowers engage
in mutualistic relationships with pollinators, and the diverse flower traits
often mirror the nature of these pollination agents, showcasing
coevolution.
Flowers are modified sporophylls, resembling organized leaves

clustered around a central stalk. Despite their varying appearances, all
flowers share common structures: sepals, petals, carpels, and stamens.
The peduncle attaches the flower to the plant, and sepals (collectively
known as the calyx) form a base layer around the unopened bud. Sepals,
usually photosynthetic, sometimes differ, as seen in lilies and tulips
where petals and sepals seem identical. Petals, forming the corolla, are
situated within the sepal whorl and often display vibrant hues to attract
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pollinators. Wind-pollinated flowers tend to be smaller, feathery, and

less visually conspicuous. Sepals and petals collectively constitute the
perianth. The central sexual organs—carpels and stamens—are located
at the core of the flower.
Figure 6.6. Diagram of a typical flower containing both male and female
reproductive tissues.
Source:https://viva.pressbooks.pub/introbio2/chapter/8-5-seed-
plants- angiosperms /
The female reproductive organ in a flower is the gynoecium or carpel,

consisting of styles, stigmas, and ovules. Flowers vary greatly in
structure, with carpels existing as singular, multiple, or fused units.
When multiple carpels are fused, they create a pistil. Carpel tissues offer
protection to the megaspores and female gametophytes. A style, a
lengthy and slender structure, extends from the sticky stigma (where
pollen is received) to the ovary enclosed within the carpel. The ovary
contains one or more ovules, which develop into seeds after fertilization.
Surrounding the central carpel are the male reproductive organs,
collectively known as the androecium or stamens. Stamens comprise a
thin stalk called a filament and a sac-like structure known as the anther.
The filament supports the anther, within which microspores are
produced through meiosis, eventually developing into pollen grains.
After fertilization of the egg, the ovule transforms into a seed. The
tissues surrounding the ovary thicken, developing into a fruit that
safeguards the seed and facilitates its dispersal over wider areas. Not all
fruits originate from ovaries; some structures termed "false fruits." Fruit
appearance, size, smell, and taste can vary greatly, with examples
including tomatoes, walnut shells, and avocados. Fruits, similar to
pollen and seeds, play roles in dispersal. Wind can carry certain fruits
away, while others attract animals that eat the fruit, subsequently
transporting the seeds through their digestive systems and depositing
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them elsewhere. Cockleburs, equipped with hooked spines, cling to fur

or clothing and can travel long distances. These inspired the invention of
Velcro by George de Mestral, who encountered them on his hike. As the
seed develops, the ovary's walls thicken, forming the fruit. In botanical
terms, a ripened ovary containing seeds becomes a fruit. Some foods
called vegetables are technically fruit, like eggplants, zucchinis, and bell
peppers, as they contain seeds and arise from thick ovary tissue. Acorns
are nuts, and winged maple whirligigs (samara) also qualify as fruit.
Botanists classify fruit into numerous categories, with only a few being
fleshy and sweet.
125
Figure 6.7. Fruits develop from the ovary which surrounds the seed.
Some fruits also encase the pericarp and receptacle of the floral
structure.Source: https://viva.pressbooks.pub/introbio2/chapter/8-5-
seed-plants- angiosperms /
Mature fruits can be categorized as fleshy or dry. Fleshy fruits

encompass well-known examples like berries, peaches, apples, grapes,
and tomatoes. On the other hand, dry fruits include rice, wheat, and nuts.
Another distinction lies in the fact that not all fruits originate from
ovaries; for instance, strawberries develop from the receptacle, and
apples from the pericarp or hypanthium. Some fruits arise from multiple
ovaries within a single flower, such as raspberries, while others, like
pineapples, emerge from clusters of flowers. Certain fruits, like
watermelons and oranges, possess rinds.
Despite their origins, fruits play a crucial role in seed dispersal. Their
diverse shapes and characteristics are adapted for various modes of
dispersal. Wind carries lightweight, dry fruits like those of trees and
dandelions, while water transports floating coconuts. Some fruits attract
herbivores through color, fragrance, or as food. Once ingested,
undigested seeds pass through the herbivore's feces, contributing to
dispersal. Other fruits have mechanisms like burs and hooks that cling to
fur, allowing them to hitch rides on animals.
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6.3.3 Diversity of Angiosperms
The Anthophyta is the only phylum in which angiosperms are

categorized. It appears that modern angiosperms are a monophyletic
group, which denotes that they have a single common ancestor.
According to the structure of the cotyledons, pollen grains, and other
components, flowering plants can be categorized into two main
groupings. Grass and lilies are examples of monocots, whereas eudicots
or dicots make up a polyphyletic group (Fig. 6.2). Because they have
characteristics from both groups, basal angiosperms are a class of plants
that are thought to have split off before the division into monocots and
eudicots. They fall under different categories in various classification
systems.
Figure 6.2. Key characteristics that separate monocots and dicots.

Source: https://viva.pressbooks.pub/introbio2/chapter/8-5-seed-
plants- angiosperms /
1. Basal Angiosperms
The Magnoliidae category encompasses distinctive plant groups.
Magnolias, tall trees with fragrant, multipart flowers, are considered
ancient. Laurel trees yield aromatic leaves and inconspicuous flowers.
Laurales, typically small trees and shrubs, thrive in warmer climates.
Notable examples include bay laurel, cinnamon, spicebush, and avocado
trees. Nymphaeales comprise water lilies, lotus, and similar aquatic
plants. Flourishing in freshwater habitats, these species have floating or
submerged leaves. Water lilies, prized for their beauty, have adorned
ponds for millennia. Piperales encompass herbs, shrubs, and small trees
127
in tropical regions. They feature small, petal-less flowers arranged in

long spikes. Many species offer valued fragrances or spices, like the
black peppercorns from Piper nigrum, enhancing various dishes.
2. Monocots
Monocot plants are primarily characterized by having a single cotyledon
in their seedlings. They also share anatomical traits like leaves with
veins running parallel to their length and flowers exhibiting three- or
six-fold symmetrical arrangements. Monocots typically lack true woody
tissue, though exceptions like palm trees form trunks from vascular and
parenchyma tissues. The pollen of the earliest angiosperms had a single
furrow, a feature still present in contemporary monocots. The stem's
vascular tissue lacks a specific arrangement, and the root system is often
adventitious with no prominent taproot. Well-known monocot plants
include true lilies, orchids, grasses, and palms. Many vital crops belong
to this group, including rice, corn, sugar cane, bananas, and pineapples.
3. Eudicots
True dicots, or eudicots, are distinguished by having two cotyledons in
the growing shoot. In leaves, veins create a network, and flower parts
have four, five, or more whorls. In dicots, the vascular tissue is
dispersed throughout the stem, forming a ring in the stem. Eudicots can
generate woody tissues or be herbaceous (like grasses). The majority of
eudicots generate trisulcate or triporate pollen, which has three furrows
or pores. One major root that originated from the embryonic radicle
often serves as the anchor for the root system. Two-thirds of all
blooming plants are eudicots. Because many species have traits common
to both groups, it is not always easy to determine if a plant is a monocot
or a eudicot.
Comparison of Structural Characteristics of Monocots and

Eudicots
Characteristic Monocot Eudicot
Cotyledon One Two
Veins in Leaves Parallel Network (branched)
Stem Vascular Scattered Arranged in ring pattern
Tissue
Roots Network of fibrous Tap root with many lateral
roots roots
Pollen Monosulcate Trisulcate
Flower Parts Three or multiple Four, five, multiple of four
of three or five and whorls
What are Eudicots? Eudicots or true dicots, are characterized by the
presence of two cotyledons.
128
1. What is the diversity of angiosperms?

2. What are the divisions in angiosperms?
6.3.4 The Role of Seed Plants
Mosses and liverworts are often the first organisms to colonize new
areas, whether in primary successions or after catastrophic events. Their
spores are dispersed by wind, birds, or insects. Once established, they
offer food and shelter for other plants. In harsh environments like the
tundra, bryophytes thrive due to their rootless nature and ability to
quickly rehydrate. They form the base of the tundra's food chain,
providing sustenance for various species. Bryophytes also enhance soil
conditions for other plants, thanks to their relationships with nitrogen-
fixing cyanobacteria that enrich the soil.
Urban pollution impacts mosses due to their lack of protective features,

like a cuticle. Their decline serves as an indicator of environmental
pollution. Ferns contribute by aiding rock weathering, soil creation, and
erosion prevention. Water ferns restore vital nitrogen to aquatic habitats
through symbiosis. Seedless plants, like peat moss, have had historical
uses as tools, fuel, and medicine. Plants overall maintain ecosystems by
stabilizing soils, carbon cycling, and climate moderation. They provide
habitat, food, and resources for various life forms, including humans.
Plants are essential to the balance of terrestrial ecosystems and human
life.
Some of the roles of seeds and plants include:
1. Providing shelter to many lives forms
2. Providing food for herbivores, thereby indirectly feeding
carnivores
3. Providing plant secondary metabolites for medicinal purposes
and industrial production
4. Providing wood, paper, textiles, and dyes for human use
5. Providing ornamental species for decorations and inspiration in
the arts
1. Why are angiosperms called flowering plants?
2. What are the major groups in the classification of angiosperms?
129
6.4 Summary
In this Unit, you have learnt that gymnosperms and angiosperms are
seed producing vascular plants. The efficient seed dispersal of seed
plants accounts for their continued existence and widespread occurrence.
The distinguish features of Angiosperm in the possession of flower and
fruits. Gymnosperms are mostly woody plants. Conifers are of immense
economic value primary for timber and paper production. Seed plants do
not need immediate aquatic habitat. Seed Plants
Baskin, C. and Baskin, J.M. 2014. Seed Ecology, Biogeography, and

Evolution of Dormancy and Germination. 2nd Edition. Academic
Press, Cambridge.
Angulo, J.C. Book Review: Vascular Plant Taxonomy, 7th edition. By

Zack E. Murrell and Emily L. Gillepsie. Brittonia 74, 320 (2022).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12228-022-09713-z
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_tissue
angiosperms/
Biology 2e, Biological Diversity, Seed Plants, Angiosperms | OpenEd
CUNY
https://youtu.be/PVLACJsoGjk
https://youtu.be/KPKM2uc2VNo
https://youtu.be/2SBVz4MgeIE
https://youtu.be/JSe_VUMymjo
https://youtu.be/V4IK6B_y0yk
https://youtu.be/WqgVks9NViQ
130
Answers to SAE 1
1. Angiosperms are plants that produce flowers and bear their seeds
in fruits. They are the largest and most diverse group within the
kingdom Plantae, with about 300,000 species. Angiosperms
represent approximately 80 percent of all known living green
plants.
2. 1. Gymnosperms do not form fruit, angiosperm form fruit. 2.
Gymnosperms have naked seeds, angiosperms have enclosed
seeds.
Answers to SAE 2
1. The diversity that the angiosperms display is very wide. There
are many plants that are tall woody trees, shrubs, and even
herbaceous plants. These plants also have many adaptations in the
roots, stems and leaves depending on the habitat that they grow in. In
Angiosperms the flower is the reproductive organ.
2. Angiosperms are classified in a single division, the Anthophyta.
Modern angiosperms appear to be a monophyletic group, which
means that they originate from a single ancestor.
Answers to SAE 3
1. Angiosperms are also known as “flowering plants”

because flowers are a characteristic part of their reproductive
structure – though again, you may not always recognize their
flowers as the pretty, colorful petaled things you think of when
you hear the word. Angiosperms evolved between 250-200 million
years ago.
2. Angiosperms are generally classified into two (2). These are:
Monocotyledons (Monocots) Dicotyledons (Dicots).

1). Describe the characteristics features of the plant kingdom
2). Describe the criteria and the classification of the plant kingdom
3). Describe the adaptations that allowed plants to colonize the land
4). Describe the timeline of plant evolution and the impact of land
plants on other living things
5). Discuss the ecological adaptations of the algae
6). Chart the development of land adaptations in the bryophytes
7). Identify the new traits that first appear in seedless tracheophytes
8). Explain the role of seedless plants in the ecosystem
131
MODULE 3 SURVEY OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM
Unit 1 Diversity of Animal Life
Unit structure
1.1 Introduction
1.3 Main Contents
1.3.1 Complex Tissue Structure
1.3.2 Animal Reproduction and Development
1.3.3 Diversity of Animal Life
1.3.3.1 Animal Characterization Based on Body Symmetry
1.3.3.2 Animal Characterization Based on Features of
Embryological Development
1.4 Summary
1.1 Introduction
Animal evolution began more than 600 million years ago in the ocean,
originating from small organisms unlike present-day creatures. The
animal kingdom has evolved into a highly diverse group, with over one
million identified species and ongoing discoveries. Estimates place the
number of extant species between 3 and 30 million. Defining what
constitutes an animal can be challenging, as organisms like corals and
sponges are less straightforward to classify compared to familiar animals
like dogs or birds. Animals encompass a wide range of complexity, and
scientists classify them based on shared traits, anatomy, morphology,
evolutionary history, embryological development, and genetics. This
classification system evolves with new species knowledge. Accurately
categorizing diverse species enhances our comprehension of life's
variety and aids in conserving Earth's biodiversity.

1. List the features that distinguish the kingdom Animalia from
other kingdom
2. Explain the processes of animal reproduction and embryonic
development
3. Explain the differences in animal body plans that support basic
animal classification
4. Compare and contrast the embryonic development of protostomes
and deuterostomes
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1.3 Main Contents
1.3.1 Complex Tissue Structure
Specialized animal tissues have evolved to fulfill specific functions

related to finding and processing food, responding to the environment,
movement, and communication. Sensory structures aid navigation and
detecting food, while complex digestive systems are supported by
accessory organs. Muscle tissues, along with nerve tissues, allow
animals to rapidly sense and respond to changes, enabling survival and
competition. Unlike plant and fungi cells, animal cells lack cell walls but
may be surrounded by an extracellular matrix. Vertebrates have unique
supportive tissues like bone. Epithelial tissues cover and protect
surfaces, including skin and linings of organs. Animal tissues'
differentiation and specialization drive their incredible diversity. The
animal kingdom is divided into five monophyletic clades: Porifera
(sponges), Placozoa, Cnidaria (jellyfish and relatives), Ctenophora
(comb jellies), and Bilateria (all other animals). Placozoa and Porifera
lack specialized tissues from germ layers but have cells resembling
tissues. Ctenophores are distantly related to Cnidarians and Bilateria in
the Eumetazoa ("true animals"). Most animals belong to Eumetazoa,
showcasing the diversity of multicellular animals and their distinct
tissues derived from germ layers. Evolution of which two tissues
resulted in nimals’ unique ability to rapidly sense and respond to
changes?
1. How does the tissue of animals differ from those of the other
major multicellular eukaryotes, plants and fungi?
2. How movement is driven in the body of animals?
1.3.2
3. Animal Reproduction and Development
The majority of animals are diploid creatures, which means that their
somatic (body) cells are diploid and their gametes are created by
meiosis. There are certain outliers, such as the male bees, wasps, and
ants, which originate from unfertilized eggs and are haploid. The
majority of animals reproduce sexually. However, several species,
including cnidarians, flatworms, and roundworms, are capable of
asexual reproduction, in which the progeny derive from a portion of the
parent species.
1. Processes of Animal Reproduction and Embryonic Development

Animal reproduction involves sexual and asexual methods. Sexual
reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes through
133
fertilization, forming a diploid zygote. Some aquatic animals reproduce

asexually through budding or fragmentation. Parthenogenesis, occurring
in insects and some vertebrates, results in offspring from unfertilized
eggs. In parthenogenesis, offspring are genetically identical to the
parent. Development begins with cleavage, a series of mitotic divisions,
resulting in blastomeres. This leads to the formation of a morula,
followed by a blastula in some animals. Gastrulation follows, forming
the primitive gut and germ layers (endoderm, ectoderm, and in
triploblastic animals, mesoderm), which specialize into various tissues,
organs, and systems through organogenesis. Diploblastic animals have
two germ layers, while triploblastic animals have three. These processes
dictate the development of animal morphology and physiology.
Figure 1.1 Embryonic development. Source:

https://openstax.org/books/biology/pages/1-introduction.
2. Development of a simple embryo.

Embryonic development involves cleavages, where the zygote divides
into smaller blastomeres. The blastula, a hollow structure, forms, with
cells often arranged as a single layer. Gastrulation follows, involving
cells moving inward to create an inner cavity, the primitive gut. The
opening, the blastopore, may become the mouth in some invertebrates.
Some animals have larval forms distinct from adults. Insects with
incomplete metamorphosis, like grasshoppers, resemble adults but grow
wings gradually. Others undergo complete metamorphosis, with
embryos developing into diverse larval stages before forming adult
structures. The series of embryonic developmental stages is relatively
consistent across the animal kingdom.
1. What does it meant to say animals are diploid organisms?

2. Briefly describe the processes of animal reproduction and
embryonic Development
1.3.3 Diversity of Animal Life
134
All animals in the animal kingdom are categorized by scientists, while

there are several deviations to the majority of the "rules" regulating
animal classification. Animals have historically been categorized based
on two traits: body layout and developmental pathway. The body plan's
symmetry, or how the body parts are placed along the main body axis, is
its most notable characteristic. Animals that are symmetrical can be split
into about equal halves along at least one axis. The number of germ
tissue layers formed during development, the origin of the mouth and
anus, the presence or absence of an internal body cavity, and other
aspects of embryological development, such as the type of larva or
whether or not growth periods are broken up by molting, are examples
of developmental characteristics.
1.3.3.1Animal Characterization Based on Body Symmetry
True animals can be broadly categorized into three groups based on the
symmetry of their body plans: radially symmetrical, bilaterally
symmetrical, and asymmetrical, at the most fundamental level of
classification. Two contemporary clades, the Parazoa and Placozoa,
exhibit asymmetry. (However, it should be noted that the Parazoa's
ancestors may have shown bilateral symmetry.) Radial or biradial
symmetry is present in one clade, the Cnidaria; ctenophores have
rotational symmetry. The biggest group, the Bilateria, exhibits bilateral
symmetry; however, the Echinodermata are bilateral as larvae and
undergo secondary metamorphosis to become radial adults. Each sort of
symmetry is ideally suited to fit the special requirements of an animal's
lifestyle.
Radial symmetry involves body parts arranged around a central axis,

like a bicycle wheel or pie. Animals with radial symmetry have top and
bottom surfaces but lack left and right sides or front and back. If divided
along the oral/aboral axis, the halves of a radially symmetrical animal
are mirror images. This symmetry is common in Cnidaria, such as
jellyfish and adult sea anemones, aiding creatures that experience their
environment from all directions. Bilateral symmetry, found in animals
like butterflies, has one division plane creating equivalent halves.
Ctenophora, resembling jellyfish, have rotational symmetry, with one
body half rotated 180 degrees.
135
Figure 1.2 Symmetry in animals. The (a) sponge is asymmetrical. The

(b) jellyfish and (c) anemone are radially symmetrical, the (d) butterfly
is bilaterally symmetrical. Rotational symmetry (e) is seen in the
ctenophore Beroe, shown swimming open-mouthed. Source:
Bilateral symmetry involves dividing an animal along a midsagittal

plane, resulting in two mirror image halves (right and left). This
symmetry is present in creatures like butterflies, crabs, and humans.
Animals with bilateral symmetry have distinct anterior and posterior,
dorsal and ventral, and right and left sides. Most animals in the
Eumetazoa group have bilateral symmetry, promoting directional
motion and cephalization (organized nervous system in the anterior
end). This symmetry allowed for active mobility, resource-seeking, and
predator-prey interactions. Some animals like echinoderms display
modified radial symmetry as adults but have a bilateral symmetry during
their larval stages.
1.3.3.2Animal Characterization Based on Features of Embryological

Development
Most animal species undergo embryonic development with germ layers

that give rise to specific tissues and organs. Animals can be classified
into two categories based on the number of germ layers they have:
diploblasts and triploblasts. Diploblasts, which include animals with
radial, biradial, or rotational symmetry, have two germ layers - an inner
endoderm or mesendoderm, and an outer ectoderm. These animals lack
a coherent third layer of tissue. Triploblasts, found in more complex
animals with bilateral symmetry, have three germ layers - endoderm,
ectoderm, and mesoderm. These layers differentiate into various tissues
and organs during development.
136
Figure 1.3 Diploblastic and triploblastic embryos. Source:

Diploblastic and triploblastic embryos.

During embryonic development, diploblasts develop two germ layers: an
ectoderm and an endoderm or mesendoderm. Triploblasts, on the other
hand, have a third layer known as the mesoderm, which arises from
mesendoderm and is situated between the endoderm and ectoderm.
These germ layers have specific roles in forming various body tissues
and organs. The endoderm gives rise to the lining of the digestive and
respiratory tracts, as well as other structures. The ectoderm contributes
to the outer covering of the body, the central nervous system, and more.
The mesoderm, unique to triploblasts, gives rise to muscle tissues,
connective tissues, and visceral organs like the skeleton, blood cells, and
internal organs. Diploblastic animals may have cells that serve multiple
functions, such as covering and contraction.
Presence or Absence of a Coelom

In triploblasts, there is a subdivision between animals that develop an
internal body cavity derived from the mesoderm, known as a coelom,
and those that do not. The coelom is a fluid-filled cavity lined with
epithelial cells that houses various organs like the digestive, urinary, and
reproductive systems, as well as the circulatory system. This coelomic
cavity has functional advantages such as shock absorption, organ
flexibility, and optimal placement. Animals without a coelom are called
acoelomates, while those with a true coelom developed entirely from the
mesoderm are eucoelomates. Pseudocoelomates have a partially
mesoderm- and partially endoderm-lined coelom. The presence and
characteristics of the coelom play a role in the classification and
functional attributes of different animal groups.
137
Figure 1.4 Body cavities. Triploblasts may be (a) acoelomates, (b)

eucoelomates, or (c) pseudocoelomates. Acoelomates have no body
cavity. Eucoelomates have a body cavity within the mesoderm, called a
coelom, in which both the gut and the body wall are lined with
mesoderm. Pseudocoelomates also have a body cavity, but only the
body wall is lined with mesoderm. Source:
Embryonic Development of the Mouth

Bilaterally symmetrical eucoelomates can be categorized into
Protostomes and Deuterostomes based on differences in the origin of the
mouth during embryonic development. In Protostomes, the mouth forms
at the blastopore, while in Deuterostomes, the mouth forms at the
opposite end of the gut and the anus develops at the blastopore. These
classifications also influence the method of coelom formation. In
protostomes, the coelom forms through schizocoely, where specific
blastomeres migrate and create mesodermal tissue clumps that
eventually develop into cavities forming the coelom. In deuterostomes,
coelom formation occurs through enterocoely, as mesoderm pouches
pinch off from the endoderm tissue and expand to create the coelom.
Another distinction lies in cleavage patterns. Protostomes undergo spiral
cleavage, with cells at one pole misaligned with those at the opposite
pole due to oblique cleavage angles. Deuterostomes experience radial
cleavage, where cleavage axes are parallel or perpendicular to the polar
axis, resulting in aligned cells between the poles. These developmental
differences reflect broader distinctions in the organization and
embryonic development of protostomes and deuterostomes.
138
Figure 1.5 Protostomes and deuterostomes. Source:

Eucoelomates can be categorized based on their early embryonic

development. In protostomes, the mouth forms near the blastopore, and
the body cavity originates through the process of schizocoely, where
mesodermal mass splits. Deuterostomes, on the other hand, have the
mouth forming opposite the blastopore, and their coelom develops
through enterocoely, with mesoderm pouches pinching off. Another
distinction lies in the cleavage process. Protostomes undergo
determinate cleavage alongside spiral cleavage, where each embryonic
cell's fate is predetermined. If a blastomere is removed, structures might
be missing, and the embryo might fail to develop. Deuterostomes
experience indeterminate cleavage, where cells are not yet committed to
specific cell types. Removing blastomeres doesn't lead to loss of
structures, and even twins can develop from separated blastomeres.
Deuterostomes can compensate for damaged cells through adjacent
undetermined cells. This characteristic is reflected in embryonic stem
cells, which can develop into various cell types until their fate is
determined later in development. What do we refer to Triploblasts that
do not develop a coelom?
1. What is the difference in organization of protostome and
deuterostome embryos from cleavage point of view?
2. What are the three types of Triploblasts coelomates?
139
1.4 Summary
Animals encompass a vast array of organisms, varying from simple sea

sponges to humans, yet they share fundamental traits. They are
eukaryotic, multicellular, and heterotrophic, obtaining nutrients by
consuming other organisms. Most animals develop mobility and adhere
to a specific body plan. Notably, animals possess specialized tissues like
nerve, muscle, and connective tissues, optimized for specific functions.
Sexual reproduction is common among animals, resulting in similar
embryonic stages across the kingdom. A set of regulatory genes known
as Hox genes plays a pivotal role in shaping major animal body plans,
displaying strong homology throughout the animal kingdom.
1.5 References/Further Readings
Barnes, R.S.K., P. Calow, P. J. W. Olive, D. W. Golding & J. I. Spicer

(2001). The invertebrates—a synthesis. Oxford: Blackwell. 3rd edition
[chapter 3.4.2, p. 54]. ISBN 0-632-04761-5.
Brusca, R.C., G.J. Brusca (2003). Invertebrates. Sunderland, Mass.:
Sinauer Associates. 2nd edition [chapter 8, p. 219]. ISBN 0-87893-097-
3.
http://www.fleabites.net/beneficial-nematodes-for-fleas-how-they-
work/."
https://youtu.be/e-txR1WSPBs
https://youtu.be/ZTYjLFIhQDM
http://openstaxcollege.org/l/symmetry
Answers to SAE 1
1. The tissues of animals differ from those of the other major

multicellular eukaryotes, plants and fungi, because their cells
don't have cell walls.
2. Movement is driven by muscle tissue attached to supportive
structures like bone or chitin, and is coordinated by neural
communication.
Answers to SAE 2
1. Most animals are diploid organisms, meaning that their body
(somatic) cells are diploid and haploid reproductive (gamete)
cells are produced through meiosis.
2. During sexual reproduction, the haploid gametes of the male and
female individuals of a species combine in a process called
fertilization. Typically, both male and female gametes are
140
required: the small, motile male sperm fertilizes the typically

much larger, sessile female egg.
Answers to SAE 3
1. Protostomes undergo spiral cleavage, whereas deuterostome do
not, meaning that the cells of one pole of the embryo are rotated,
and thus misaligned, with respect to the cells of the opposite pole.
2. Triploblasts may be (a) acoelomates, (b) eucoelomates, or (c)
pseudocoelomates
141
UNIT 2 THE SIMPLEST ANIMALS
Unit Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.3 Main Contents
2.3.1 Sponges
2.3.1.1 Characteristics of Sponges
2.3.1.2 Physiological Processes in Sponges
2.3.2 Diversity Sponges
2.3.2.1 Habitat and Adaptation of Sponges
2.3.2.2 Comparison to Other Phyla
2.3.3 Cnidarias
2.3.3.1 Characteristics of Phylum Cnidaria
2.3.3.2 Physiological Processes of Cnidarians
2.3.3.3 Diversity of Cnidaria
2.3.3.4 Habitat and Adaptation
2.4 Summary
2.6 Summary
2.8 Web Sources
2.1 Introduction
The majority of animal species on earth are classified as invertebrates.

They come in a very wide variety, including scorpions, octopuses, and
centipedes. Some of their smallest members are the most fascinating
despite their extreme diversity. The most basic animals are the sponges
and cnidarians. Sponges appear to be the first multicellular organisms in
the animal group. They lack real tissues, in which specialized cells are
grouped according to their functional roles, even if they have cells that
are specialized for specific functions. Sponges resemble the colonial,
flagellated protists that are thought to have existed before mammals.
Despite having only two tissue layers, the cnidarians, or jellyfish and
their relatives, are the most basic animal group to exhibit real tissues.
2.2 Intended Learning Outcomes
1. Describe the organizational features of the simplest multicellular

organisms
2. Explain the various body forms and bodily functions of sponges
3. Identify the common characteristics of phylum Cnidaria
4. Identify common structural and organizational characteristics of
the phylum Cnidaria
142
5. Identify the common characteristics of superphylum

Lophotrochozoa
6. Identify the common characteristics of superphylum Ecdysozoa
7. Identify the common characteristics of superphylum
Deuterostomia
2.3 Main Contents
2.3.1 Sponges
Invertebrates are animals without bony structures like cranium and

vertebrae. The simplest invertebrates, Parazoans, encompass only the
phylum Porifera, which includes sponges. Parazoans lack tissue-level
organization but possess specialized cells for specific functions. While
not having true tissues like more advanced animals, sponges still exhibit
specialized cell groups that function like tissues. Sponges have body
structures designed to facilitate water movement, crucial for functions
such as feeding, excretion, and gas exchange. Despite not forming true
tissues during embryogenesis, sponges have adapted to their aquatic
environments with structures like canals and chambers that allow water
to flow and enable essential exchanges within their bodies.
2.3.1.1Characteristics of Sponges
Sponges, a diverse group of invertebrates, encompass around 5000

species globally, primarily in marine environments with some
freshwater species. They lack true tissues but have specialized cells for
various functions. Water movement in sponges is facilitated by flagella-
bearing choanocytes that create currents through pores and canals. They
can be radially symmetrical or asymmetrical, supported by a protein
collagen and spicule skeleton embedded in a gelatinous matrix. Sponges
capture food via water currents created by choanocytes and digest it
within individual cells. Reproduction occurs sexually and asexually;
gemmules, internal buds, aid survival in unfavorable conditions. In
sexual reproduction, gametes are captured by choanocytes and
transferred to eggs. Sponges exhibit different body plans: asconoid
(simple tube), syconoid (larger tube with canals), and leuconoid
(complex mass with numerous chambers). They are present in various
aquatic habitats, often containing toxic substances for protection and
competition. Sponges have potential pharmaceutical uses due to
beneficial compounds they produce. They form symbiotic relationships
with plants, bacteria, and algae, and some bore into corals and mollusks.
Overall, sponges play important ecological roles in marine ecosystems.
143
2.3.1.1Physiological Processes in Sponges
Sponges, despite being simple organisms, regulate their different

physiological processes through a variety of mechanisms. These
processes regulate their metabolism, reproduction, and locomotion.
Digestion
Sponges lack complex digestive, respiratory, circulatory, and nervous
systems. They feed by trapping food particles as water flows through
their ostia and out the osculum. Choanocytes capture bacteria for
ingestion, while larger particles are taken in by pinacocytes on the
surface. Amoebocytes transport food to cells that haven't ingested any.
Digestion is intracellular, limiting the size of ingested food particles.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange, circulation, and waste excretion
occur through diffusion between sponge cells and surrounding water.
Some sponges host photosynthetic endosymbionts like algae or
cyanobacteria. Around 150 species of carnivorous sponges feed on tiny
crustaceans using sticky threads or spicules. While sponges lack a
dedicated nervous system, intercellular communication regulates actions
like body contraction and choanocyte activity.
Reproduction
Sponges reproduce through both sexual and asexual methods. Asexual
reproduction involves fragmentation (breaking off a piece of the sponge
that develops into a new individual) or budding (an outgrowth growing
from the parent and detaching or forming a colony). Freshwater sponges
exhibit an atypical asexual method using gemmules, resistant structures
containing archeocytes surrounded by cells and spicules. Gemmules
survive harsh environments and later colonize habitats. Sexual
reproduction involves gamete formation. Oocytes develop from
amoebocytes and are retained, while spermatozoa result from
choanocyte differentiation and are expelled. Sponges are monoecious
(hermaphroditic), producing both eggs and sperm. Gamete production
varies with environmental conditions, and some sponges become
sequentially hermaphroditic. Cross-fertilization is encouraged by the
temporal separation of gametes. Spermatozoa from one sponge fertilize
oocytes in others. Early larval development occurs within sponges, with
free-swimming larvae released via the osculum.
Locomotion
As adults, sponges are often sessile and reside linked to a permanent
substrate. They do not exhibit long-distance locomotion like other free-
swimming sea invertebrates do. Sponge cells may, however, saunter
around surfaces because to their organizational flexibility, or ability to
rearrange their cells. Researchers have demonstrated that sponge cells
spread out on a physical substrate have a leading edge for directed
144
movement under experimental circumstances. It has been hypothesized

that this restricted creeping motion aids sponges in adjusting to the
microenvironments close to the attachment point. However, it should be
highlighted that while this pattern of movement has been observed in lab
settings, it has not yet been confirmed in environments where sponges
naturally live. Are porifera only sponges?
1. What is the mode of nutrition in sponges?

2. Why are Poriferans confused to be plants instead of
animals?
2.3.2 Diversity Sponges
Sponges are diverse invertebrates classified into four classes: calcareous

sponges (Calcarea), glass sponges (Hexactinellida), demosponges
(Demospongiae), and encrusting sponges (Homoscleromorpha).
Different classes are distinguished by the presence and composition of
spicules and spongin. Demosponges are the most common, comprising
90% of all sponge species, with variable spicules and spongin.
Calcareous sponges have calcium carbonate spicules or exoskeletons,
and are found in shallow marine waters. Homoscleromorpha sponges are
simple and encrusting, with small, uniform spicules. Hexactinellid
sponges have strong, lattice-like silica skeletons, often with a cup-
shaped form.
Figure 2.1 Sponge Spicule: Sponges are classified based on the presence
and types of spicules they contain. Source:
work/."
145
Figure 2.2 Types of sponges: (a) Clathrina clathrus belongs to class

Calcarea, (b) Staurocalyptus spp. (common name: yellow Picasso
sponge) belongs to class Hexactinellida, and (c) Acarnus
erithacus belongs to class Demospongia.Source:
work/."
Poriferans, or sponges, are multicellular organisms that lack true tissues

and organs, and they do not exhibit body symmetry. They possess
specialized cells that perform specific functions. Their bodies are
adapted for efficient water flow, which is crucial for feeding, gas
exchange, and excretion. They have pores called ostia through which
water enters and canals, chambers, and cavities that enable water to
reach most cells.
Sponges typically reproduce sexually, releasing sperm into the water to

fertilize eggs. Fertilized eggs develop into larvae that search for suitable
settling places. Asexual reproduction occurs through fragment
regeneration, budding, and the formation of gemmules, dormant
structures that allow survival in harsh conditions. Many of the thousands
of sponge species are filter-feeders, consuming bacteria and particles
from the water. Some species are carnivorous, preying on small
crustaceans, while others host photosynthetic microorganisms as
endosymbionts, benefiting from the produced food and oxygen.
2.3.2.1Habitat and Adaptation of Sponges
Sponges have a global distribution, from polar to tropical latitudes, and

can thrive in diverse habitats ranging from deep ocean depths to shallow
rock pools. They are found in marine thermal vents, freezing Arctic
waters, and freshwater environments. While most are in marine habitats,
some occupy brackish water and freshwater. Sponges inhabit a wide
array of ecosystems including reefs, seagrass beds, and ocean trenches,
avoiding areas with strong currents or crashing waves. Their distribution
spans the entire globe, with species inhabiting cold Arctic waters to
warm tropical oceans, as well as various freshwater regions. Sponges
146
have several adaptations that allow them to survive in different

environments.
These adaptations include:

1. Body shapes that are adapted for maximal efficiency of water
flow through the central cavity.
2. Internal skeletons of spongin and/or spicules (skeletal-like
fragments) of calcium carbonate or silicon dioxide.
3. Lack of organs and specialized tissue.
4. Flagellated cells that move water into the central cavity through
the perforations.
5. Individual cells that digest food, excrete waste, and absorb
oxygen.
6. Ability to reproduce asexually or sexually.
7. Larval forms that are free-swimming but all adults are sessile.
8. Skeleton types that allow them to live in either hard or soft
sediments.
9. Pores that allow them to filter the water around them for food.
Sponges are strong animals with dense skeletons that are well adapted to
their environments. They may live almost everywhere and adapt to the
regions and surfaces they grow in. Their skeletal type allows them to
live on hard, rocky surfaces or soft sediments such as sand and
mud. Certain sponge species are adapted to freshwater
environments. Their pores allow them to filter the water around them for
food. Where are Porifera sponges found?
1. Comparison to Other Phyla
Sponges themselves are really distinctive creatures and share few
similarities with organisms in other phyla. They are the only
invertebrates to be asymmetrical and along with cnidarians they are only
classified on the tissue level of organization. In fact, although cnidarians
are dissimilar in appearance, they share many characteristics with
porifera. Both are sessile at one point in their life cycles, which also is
diplontic. Porifera are one of the oldest animal ancestors, which also
leads us to believe that they evolved much earlier than other
invertebrates. These animals truly are remarkable and have evidently
managed to distinguish themselves immensely form other invertebrates
regarding characteristics, adaptations, as well as behaviour. What are the
four types of sponges?
1. Describe the different cell types and their functions in sponges.

2. Describe the feeding mechanism of sponges and identify how it is
different from other animals.
147
2. Cnidarias
Porifera are at a simpler level of organization than cnidarians. They have
a noncellular mesoglea sandwiched between two layers of tissue on the
outside and inside. Cnidarians do extracellular digestion and have a
well-developed digestive system. The cnidocyte is a unique cell that can
both warn off predators and give toxins to prey. A cnidarian's life cycle
includes physically diverse forms, and they have separate sexes. At
different times throughout their lives, these animals also exhibit the two
distinct morphological forms known as polypoid and medusoid.
2.3.3.1Characteristics of Phylum Cnidaria
Phylum Cnidaria consists of diploblastic animals that exhibit radial or

biradial symmetry. Nearly all cnidarians are marine species. These
organisms possess specialized cells called cnidocytes, which contain
stinging organelles called nematocysts. These cells are primarily located
around the mouth and tentacles and are used to immobilize prey or deter
predators. Nematocysts contain coiled threads with barbs and are
activated by touch through hairlike projections called cnidocils. Upon
activation, these cells release toxins into the target, aiding in capturing
prey or deterring predators.
Figure 2.3. Animals from the phylum Cnidaria have stinging cells called
cnidocytes. Cnidocytes contain large organelles called (a) nematocysts
that store a coiled thread and barb. When hairlike projections on the cell
surface are touched, (b) the thread, barb, and a toxin are fired from the
organelle. Source: http://www.fleabites.net/beneficial-nematodes-for-
fleas-how-they-work/."
The polyp or "stalk" and the medusa or "bell" body plans are two unique
cnidarian body types (Figure 2.4). Freshwater Hydra species are
examples of the polyp form; jellies (jellyfish) are probably the best-
known medusoid creatures. As adults, polyps are sessile, with only one
148
digestive system entrance (the mouth), which is surrounded by tentacles.

The mouth and tentacles of a medusa hang from its bell-shaped body,
and it is a moving creature. Other cnidarians have both a polyp and a
medusa form, and these forms alternate throughout the life cycle.
Figure 2.4 Polymorphic cnidarians. Source:

work/."
Some cnidarians exhibit polymorphism, displaying two different body

plans during their life cycle. An example is the colonial hydroid called
Obelia. This hydroid has two types of polyps in its sessile polyp form:
gastrozooids for feeding and gonozooids for asexual reproduction of
medusae. The medusae, which are free-swimming and either male or
female, are produced from reproductive buds on the gonozooids. After
maturing, these medusae release sperm or eggs. Fertilization leads to the
development of a zygote into a blastula, and then into a planula larva.
The larva swims freely for a period before attaching, eventually forming
a new colonial reproductive polyp.
149
Figure 2.5. The sessile form of Obelia geniculate has two types of
polyps: gastrozooids, which are adapted for capturing prey, and
gonozooids, which bud to produce medusae asexually.Click here to
follow the life cycle of the Obelia. Source:
work/."
Cnidarians exhibit a simple body structure with two main tissue layers:
the outer epidermis derived from ectoderm and the inner gastrodermis
derived from endoderm. These layers enclose a jelly-like mesoglea.
While the cellular complexity is present, the development of organs is
limited. Their nervous system is basic, with nerve cells scattered
throughout the body, forming nerve nets, plexi, or cords. Despite its
simplicity, the nervous system coordinates various functions like
tentacle movement and prey capture. Cnidarians perform extracellular
digestion, secreting enzymes into their gastrovascular cavity for nutrient
absorption. They have an incomplete digestive system with a single
opening for both ingestion and egestion. Oxygen and carbon dioxide
exchange occurs through diffusion between cells and the environment.
Cnidarians lack circulatory and excretory systems, and waste
elimination happens through diffusion. Nutrient distribution also relies
on diffusion through the mesoglea between cells.
2.3.3.2Physiological Processes of Cnidarians
Cnidarians possess two tissue layers: the outer epidermis and the inner
gastrodermis, separated by a jelly-like mesoglea. These layers contain
different cell types and intercellular connections. Despite cellular
differentiation, cnidarians lack organs and organ systems. Their basic
nervous system consists of scattered nerve cells forming a network that
transmits signals from sensory to contractile cells. They engage in
extracellular digestion followed by intracellular digestion. Enzymes are
secreted into the gastrovascular cavity, and absorbed nutrients aid
intracellular digestion. The gastrovascular cavity functions as both a
mouth and an anus (incomplete digestive system). Oxygen, carbon
dioxide, and nitrogenous waste exchange occur through diffusion
between cells and the environment.
2.3.3.3 Diversity of Cnidaria
About 10,000 identified species make up the phylum Cnidaria, which is

classified into the Anthozoa, Scyphozoa, Cubozoa, and Hydrozoa
classes. The scyphozoans (jellyfish) and cubozoans (box jellies) are
swimming forms, in contrast to the anthozoans, sea anemones, and
150
corals, which are all sessile species. The hydrozoans include swimming
colonial forms like the Portuguese Man O' War and sessile forms.
1. Class Anthozoa
The class Anthozoa encompasses cnidarians with a solitary polyp body
plan, excluding the medusa stage. This group includes sea anemones,
corals, and sea pens, totaling about 6,100 species. Sea anemones are
cylindrical and attached to substrates, with colorful appearance and
tentacles containing cnidocytes for prey capture. Their mouth is
surrounded by tentacles and a siphonophore-lined pharynx. The
gastrovascular cavity is divided by mesenteries, increasing nutrient
absorption and gas exchange. Sea anemones feed on small fish and
shrimp, using their cnidocytes to immobilize prey. Some establish
symbiotic relationships with hermit crabs and clownfish. Anthozoans
reproduce asexually via budding or fragmentation, or sexually by
producing gametes. Polyps produce both gametes, which can fuse to
generate a planula larva, eventually settling into a sessile polyp form.
Figure 2.6 Cnidaria polyp and medusa forms. Source:

work/."
Class Scyphozoa includes all the jellies and is exclusively a marine class
of animals with about 200 known species. The defining characteristic of
this class is that the medusa is the prominent stage in the life cycle,
although there is a polyp stage present. Members of this species range
from 2 to 40 cm in length but the largest scyphozoan species, Cyanea
capillata, can reach a size of 2 m across. Scyphozoans display a
characteristic bell-like morphology (Figure 2.7).
151
Figure 2.7 A jelly illustrating its morphology. Source:

work/."
Jellyfish belonging to the class Scyphozoa have a mouth opening
surrounded by tentacles bearing nematocysts on their underside. These
solitary carnivores spend most of their life cycle as free-swimming
organisms. The mouth leads to a gastrovascular cavity divided into
interconnected sacs called diverticuli, potentially further branched into
radial canals. This structure enhances nutrient absorption and diffusion
due to increased contact with the gastrovascular cavity. Nerve cells are
scattered throughout the body, and a ring of muscles around the dome
enables swimming. Scyphozoans are dioecious, with separate sexes and
gonads formed from the gastrodermis. Gametes are expelled through the
mouth. They have a polymorphic life cycle, exhibiting both medusal and
polypoid body plans. The life cycle involves planula larvae produced
through external fertilization, which settle as polypoid forms called
scyphistoma. These can give rise to additional polyps through budding
or transform into the medusoid form.
Figure 2.8. The life cycle of a jellyfish includes two stages: the medusa
stage and the polyp stage. The polyp reproduces asexually by budding,
and the medusa reproduces sexually. Source:
152
work/."
Class Cubozoa
The class Cubozoa includes box jellyfish, characterized by their box-
shaped medusa or square bell. These species can reach sizes of 15-25
cm. They share similar morphological and anatomical features with
scyphozoans. A key distinction is in tentacle arrangement. Cubozoans
are highly venomous among cnidarians. They possess muscular pads
called pedalia at the corners of the bell, with tentacles attached to each
pedalium. Tentacles might have nematocysts arranged spirally for
effective prey capture. These creatures are categorized into orders based
on the number of tentacles per pedalium. The digestive system can
extend into the pedalia. Cubozoans have a polypoid form that arises
from a planula larva. These polyps have limited mobility, may bud to
create more polyps for habitat colonization, and eventually transform
into medusoid forms.
Figure 2.9. A tiny cubazoan jelly Malo kingi is thimble shaped and, like
all cubozoan jellies. Source: http://www.fleabites.net/beneficial-
nematodes-for-fleas-how-they-work/."
Class Hydrozoa
The class Hydrozoa comprises around 3,200 species, most of which are
marine, with some freshwater species. Hydrozoans are polymorphic,
often showing both polypoid and medusoid forms in their life cycle. The
polyp form is typically cylindrical, with a central gastrovascular cavity
lined by gastrodermis. Tentacles surround a mouth opening at the oral
end. Many hydrozoans form colonies composed of specialized polyps
sharing a gastrovascular cavity, like in the colonial hydroid Obelia.
Some colonies are free-floating and include both medusoid and polypoid
individuals, as seen in Physalia and Velella. Other species exist as
solitary polyps (Hydra) or solitary medusae (Gonionemus). Notably,
their gonads for sexual reproduction are derived from epidermal tissue,
unlike other cnidarians where they originate from gastrodermal tissue.
153
Explain the function of nematocysts in cnidarians. The nematocysts are

“stinging cells” designed to paralyze prey. The nematocysts contain a
neurotoxin that renders prey immobile.
Figure 2.10 Hydrozoans. The Tubularia indivisa (a), siphonophore

colonies Physalia (b) physalis, known as the Portuguese man o‘war
and Velella bae (c), and the solitary polyp Hydra (d) have different body
shapes but all belong to the family Hydrozoa. Source:
work/."
Cnidarians exhibit a range of adaptations that suit their diverse habitats.

They often attach to solid substrates or burrow into sediments, with
polyps being common in shallow waters and even deep ocean
environments. Medusae are carried by currents and have preferred
depths. Cnidarians are radially symmetrical, lack cephalization, and
have two cell layers instead of three like higher animals. Their activities
154
are coordinated by a decentralized nerve net and simple receptors. Some

free-swimming Cubozoa and Scyphozoa species have balance-sensing
statocysts and simple eyes. Cnidarians were the first animals to possess
muscles and nerves for behavior, and they feature specialized structures
for pumping and circulating water. Other adaptations of cnidarians
include:
1. Gastrovascular cavity (incomplete gut) divided with septa
2. Extracellular digestion
3. Epitheliomuscular cells which help in muscular contractions
4. Well-developed statocysts for balance
5. Ocelli (photosynthetic)
1. Compare the structural differences between Porifera and Cnidaria.
2. Compare the differences in sexual reproduction between Porifera and
Cubozoans. How does the difference in fertilization provide an
evolutionary advantage to the Cubozoans?
3.
2.4 Summary
The sponges and the cnidarians represent the simplest of animals.

Sponges appear to represent an early stage of multicellularity in the
animal clade. Although they have specialized cells for particular
functions, they lack true tissues in which specialized cells are organized
into functional groups.
155
Antcliffe, J.B., Callow, R.H.T., and Brasier, M.D. (2014). Giving the
earliest fossil record of sponges a squeeze. Biological
Reviews, 89, 972-1004.
Barnes, R.S.K., P. Calow, P. J. W. Olive, D. W. Golding and J. I. Spicer

(2001). The invertebrates—a synthesis. Oxford: Blackwell. 3rd
edition [chapter 3.4.2, p. 54]. ISBN 0-632-04761-5.
Brusca, R.C. and G.J. Brusca (2003). Invertebrates. Sunderland, Mass.:

Sinauer Associates. 2nd edition [chapter 8, p. 219]. ISBN 0-
87893-097-3.
Dalby, A. (2003). Food in the Ancient World: from A to Z. London:

Routledge.
Jordan EL and Verma PS. 2018. Invertebrate Zoology. 14th Edition. S

Chand Publishing.
https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth/biological/invertebrates
/phylum-porifera
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sponge
work/."
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CxHgoPx-Go0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=74v498Oqlm8
https://www.shapeoflife.org/video/cnidarian-animation-anemone-body-
plan
https://www.shapeoflife.org/video/cnidarians-deep-sea-research
https://www.shapeoflife.org/video/nematocyst-animation-fighting-
tentacles
https://www.shapeoflife.org/video/cnidarians-anemone-catches-goby
156
Answers to SAE 1
1. Poriferans exhibit holozoic nutrition. They filter the tiny, floating

organic particles and planktons that they feed on, hence called
filter-feeders. They collect the food in specialized cells called
choanocytes which are transported throughout the body by
amoebocytes.
2. Poriferans are attached to the seafloor and cannot move from one
place to the other. Since they share this characteristic with plants,
they are often confused to be plants instead of animals.
Answers to SAE 2
1. Pinacocytes are epithelial-like cells, form the outermost layer of

sponges, and enclose a jelly-like substance called mesohyl. In
some sponges, porocytes form ostia, single tube-shaped cells that
act as valves to regulate the flow of water into the spongocoel.
Choanocytes (“collar cells”) are present at various locations, depending
on the type of sponge, but they always line some space through which
water flows and are used in feeding.
2. The sponges draw water carrying food particles into the
spongocoel using the beating of flagella on the choanocytes. The
food particles are caught by the collar of the choanocyte and are
brought into the cell by phagocytosis. Digestion of the food
particle takes place inside the cell. The difference between this
and the mechanisms of other animals is that digestion takes place
within cells rather than outside of cells. It means that the
organism can feed only on particles smaller than the cells
themselves.
Answers to SAE 3
1. Poriferans do not possess true tissues, while cnidarians do have
tissues. Because of this difference, poriferans do not have a
nervous system or muscles for locomotion, which cnidarians
have.
2. There are two key differences between Porifera (sponges) and
Cubozoans (box jellyfish) – gamete production and fertilization
strategy. Box jellyfish have separate sexes, while a single sponge
can produce both types of gametes. Box jellyfish also undergo
internal fertilization, while sponges reproduce by external
fertilization. Internal fertilization allows box jellyfish to control
which sperm is used for fertilization and increases the likelihood
of ova and spermatozoa meeting.
157
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UNIT 3 FLATWORMS, NEMATODES, AND ARTHROPODS
Unit Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.3 Main Contents
3.3.1 Flatworms
3.3.1.1 Characteristic Features of Flatworms
3.3.1.2 Physiological Processes of Flatworms
3.3.1.3 Diversity of Flatworms
3.3.2 Nematodes
3.4 Summary
3.1 Introduction
The triploblastic animal phyla in this and the following modules have an
embryonic mesoderm in the middle of the ectoderm and endoderm.
Additionally, a longitudinal section of these phyla will separate them
into right and left sides that are mirror reflections of one another because
to their bilateral symmetry. The onset of cephalization, the evolution of
a concentration of neurological systems and sensory organs in the
organism's head, where the creature first interacts with its environment,
is connected to bilateralism.

1. Describe the structure and systems of flatworms
2. Describe the characteristics and physiological processes of
flatworms
3. Describe the structural organization of nematodes
4. Compare the internal systems and the appendage specialization of
arthropods
3.3 Main Contents
3.3.1 Flatworms
Flatworms, or phylum Platyhelminthes, encompass a diverse range of

acoelomate organisms with varying lifestyles, including both free-living
and parasitic forms. Nematodes, or roundworms, are pseudocoelomate
organisms and comprise both free-living and parasitic species.
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Arthropods, a highly successful group, are coelomate organisms

characterized by a rigid exoskeleton and jointed appendages. Nematodes
and arthropods are part of the Ecdysozoa clade, sharing the feature of
periodic molting of their exoskeleton. This clade includes various phyla
with hard cuticles that need to be shed for growth. Flatworms, or
Platyhelminthes, possess three embryonic germ layers that give rise to
different tissue types, including epidermal, mesodermal, and digestive
lining tissues. Their bodies lack a true coelom and are covered by a layer
of circular muscle, longitudinal muscle, and an epidermal layer.
Flatworms have various lifestyles, with many being parasitic, and they
are of medical importance to humans.
3.3.1.1Characteristic Features of Flatworms
They are bilaterally symmetrical Their body are dorsiventrally flattened;

known as flatworms Triploblastic animals – made up of three body
layers They lack body cavity hence called Acoelomate They have
complete reproductive organs Digestive system is absent in some; and
when present has only the mouth but no anus Nervous system are
ladder-like, with simple sense organs They have no respiratory,
circulatory or skeletal system They have a proto-nephridial type of
excretory system.
The phylum platyhelminthes is classified into three main classes. These

are. i. Turbellaria: mostly free-living and aquatic, with soft bodies and
leaf like in form. They have body covered with cilias, some are
terrestrial and confined to humid areas and with only one opening to the
gut. Examples include planaria, etc. ii. Trematoda: They are parasitic;
lacking cilia; cuticle covering leaf like body with one or more suckers.
Examples include faciola hepatica (also known as liver fluke)
schistosoma, also known as blood fluke, etc. iii. Cestoda: They are
endoparasites (internal parasites), having no gut (digestive) system.
There are parasites in the digestive tracts of various vertebrates. They
are Ribbon – like in form made up of many segments (proglottids) with
an anterior scolex carrying suckers and hooks to hest tissues. When
mature, each prolothic has a complete set of reproductive organs of both
sexes. Examples are the Tapeworms like Taenia solium, Taenia saginata
etc.What are the three main classes of members of phylum
platyhelinthes?
3.3.1.2Physiological Processes of Flatworms
Flatworms exhibit diverse feeding strategies depending on their lifestyle.

Free-living species can be predators or scavengers, while parasitic forms
feed on host tissues. Their digestive systems can be incomplete with a
mouth used for both intake and waste expulsion, sometimes
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accompanied by an anal opening. Some flatworms have a simple sac-

like gut, while others possess a more branched structure. Digestion
occurs outside cells, with enzymes secreted into the digestive tract and
absorbed by phagocytosis. Cestodes, a specific group of flatworms, lack
a digestive system due to their parasitic nature within their host's
digestive cavity, where they directly absorb nutrients across their body
wall. Flatworms possess an excretory system consisting of tubules and
flame cells distributed throughout the body. These cells beat cilia to
expel waste fluids, helping regulate salt levels and eliminate nitrogenous
waste. Their nervous system includes paired nerve cords along the body
connected to a ganglion at the anterior end, often with sensory cells
concentrated in this region (Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1 This planarian is a free-living flatworm that has an

incomplete digestive system, an excretory system with a network of
tubules throughout the body, and a nervous system made up of nerve
cords running the length of the body with a concentration of nerves and
photosensory and chemosensory cells at the anterior end. Source:
http://cnx.org/contents/185cbf87-c72e-48f5-b51e-f14f21b5eabd@10.8
Since there is no circulatory or respiratory system, gas and nutrient

exchange is dependent on diffusion and intercellular junctions. This
necessarily limits the thickness of the body in these organisms,
constraining them to be “flat” worms. Most flatworm species are
monoecious (hermaphroditic, possessing both sets of sex organs), and
fertilization is typically internal. Asexual reproduction is common in
some groups in which an entire organism can be regenerated from just a
part of itself.
3.3.1.3Diversity of Flatworms
Flatworms are traditionally divided into four classes: Turbellaria,

Monogenea, Trematoda, and Cestoda (Figure 15.16). The turbellarians
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include mainly free-living marine species, although some species live in

freshwater or moist terrestrial environments. The simple planarians
found in freshwater ponds and aquaria are examples. The epidermal
layer of the underside of turbellarians is ciliated, and this helps them
move. Some turbellarians are capable of remarkable feats of
regeneration in which they may regrow the body, even from a small
fragment.
Figure 3.2 Phylum Platyhelminthes is divided into four classes: (a)

Bedford’s Flatworm (Pseudobiceros bedfordi) and the (b) planarian
belong to class Turbellaria; (c) the Trematoda class includes about
20,000 species, most of which are parasitic; (d) class Cestoda includes
tapeworms such as this Taenia saginata; and the parasitic class
Monogenea (not shown). Source:
Monogeneans are external parasites primarily found on fish, with a

simple life cycle involving attachment to a single fish host. They may
digest host tissues or feed on surface mucus and skin particles. Most are
hermaphroditic, mating between individuals rather than self-fertilizing.
Trematodes, or flukes, are internal parasites with complex life cycles
involving mollusk primary hosts and other secondary hosts. Some cause
serious human diseases like schistosomiasis, infecting millions and
causing organ damage. Cestodes, or tapeworms, are internal parasites of
vertebrates. They live in the host's intestinal tract, anchored by a scolex
and comprising proglottids for reproduction. Tapeworms lack a
digestive system, absorbing nutrients from the host's food. Reproduction
occurs in mature proglottids, which detach and are released in host
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feces. Tapeworms have a cycle involving intermediate hosts and often

infect humans through undercooked meat consumption.
The liver fluke Fasciola hepatica primarily infects sheep and other
vertebrates, residing in their liver and bile passages. It can also infect
other animals like goats, dogs, cows, deer, rabbits, elephants, and even
humans. It has a complex life cycle involving an intermediate mollusk
host and a primary vertebrate host. The adult fluke causes liver damage
in its host and can lead to liver disease. The fluke's body is protected by
a tough cuticle. It possesses a suctorial pharynx for feeding, and its
alimentary canal distributes nutrients using interlinary caeca. The
excretory system is prolonephridial, composed of flame cells that
remove waste via cilia-driven excretory capillaries. Respiration occurs
through the general body surface. The liver fluke is hermaphroditic,
containing both male and female reproductive organs in the same
individual.
1. What are the four traditional classes of flatworms?

2. What are the structural adaptations of the flatworms?
3.3.2 Nematodes
The phylum Nematoda, or roundworms, includes more than 28,000

species with an estimated 16,000 parasitic species. The name Nematoda
is derived from the Greek word “nemos,” which means “thread.”
Nematodes are present in all habitats and are extremely common,
although they are usually not visible (Figure 3.3).
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Figure 3.3 (a) An scanning electron micrograph of the

nematode Heterodera glycines and (b) a schematic representation of the
anatomy of a nematode are shown. Source:
Most nematodes share a similar appearance: elongated tubes with

tapered ends (Figure 3.3). Nematodes belong to the pseudocoelomate
group and possess a complete digestive system with distinct mouth and
anus openings. These organisms are covered by a flexible but sturdy
external skeleton called a cuticle, which provides protection and
structural support. This cuticle contains chitin, a carbohydrate-protein
compound, and it lines both the pharynx and rectum. Although the
cuticle safeguards the nematode, it hinders growth, necessitating regular
shedding and replacement as the organism grows larger. At the front
end, a nematode's mouth is equipped with three or six lips, sometimes
including cuticular extensions that resemble teeth. Additionally, some
species feature a pointed stylet that can extend from the mouth to pierce
prey or plant and animal cells. The mouth leads to a muscular pharynx
and intestine, eventually leading to the rectum and an anal opening at the
rear end.
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3.3.2.1Characteristics of Nematods
The Phylum Nematoda, commonly known as roundworms, encompasses

a diverse group of organisms with approximately 12,000 described
species, though the actual number could be much higher. Nematodes are
abundant in various habitats, including terrestrial, freshwater, and
saltwater environments, as well as within other organisms as parasites.
They display a range of feeding habits and ecological roles, contributing
significantly to decomposition and nutrient cycling.
Nematodes have a slender, unsegmented body that tapers at both ends

and a round cross-section. Their external cuticle provides protection and
support, which is shed periodically during growth. The hypodermis
underneath the cuticle is a syncytium with muscle cells beneath it.
Nematodes lack a true coelom, and their internal cavity isn't lined by
cells derived from the mesoderm.
The nervous system of nematodes consists of a nerve ring around the

pharynx and longitudinal nerve cords along the body. Sensory receptors
are present at both ends, including tactile and chemosensory cells. They
lack complex eyes but may possess light-sensitive organs. Nematodes
have a complete digestive system with a muscular pharynx, and nutrient
absorption occurs in the intestine. Waste elimination and gas exchange
happen through the body surface, which is feasible due to their small
size.
Most nematodes are dioecious, with separate male and female
reproductive organs, while some are hermaphroditic. Mating involves
specialized structures in males, and sperm lacks flagella, moving
through amoeboid motion. Nematodes can be either live-bearing or egg-
laying, with eggs often escaping through a gonopore in females. They
lack a distinct larval stage, with eggs directly developing into juveniles
that closely resemble adults. Nematodes exhibit a unique feature called
"eutely," where individuals of a species have the same number of cells,
achieved during development, leading to growth through cell size
increase rather than cell number increase.
3.3.2.2Physiological Processes of Nematodes
In nematodes, the excretory system is not specialized, and nitrogenous

waste elimination occurs through diffusion. In marine nematodes, water
and salt regulation is achieved by specialized glands that maintain
internal body fluid concentrations by removing unwanted ions.
Nematodes typically have four nerve cords running along their body's
length, which fuse around the pharynx to form a head ganglion (a
rudimentary brain) and at the tail to form the tail ganglion. Beneath the
165
outer layer, there are longitudinal muscles enabling side-to-side body

movement.
Nematodes exhibit various sexual reproductive strategies depending on

the species. They can be monoecious (both sexes in one individual),
dioecious (separate sexes), or reproduce asexually through
parthenogenesis. The species Caenorhabditis elegans is unique with both
self-fertilizing hermaphrodites and a male sex that can mate with the
hermaphrodite.
3.3.2.3 Diversity of Nemadotes
The phylum Aschelminthes is divided into five classes: Rotifera,

Gastrotricha, Echinodera, Priapulide, and Nematode. Rotifers are marine
parasites with a ciliary organ called corona on their anterior end.
Gastrotricha are free-living, unsegmented organisms found in water with
algae and debris, often hermaphroditic. Echinodera are small marine
worm-like animals, generally dioecious. Priapulides are marine animals
with a proboscis and trunk, also dioecious. Nematodes are unsegmented
roundworms with a cylindrical body, having separate sexes, and the
males are smaller than females.
These organisms are bilaterally symmetrical with a radial tendency

along the longitudinal axis. They have circular cross-sections, lack
segmentation and appendages, and possess a complex cuticle. Tissues
and organs are present, and the body has more than two cell layers.
Circular muscles are absent from the body wall, and the body cavity is a
pseudocoel under high pressure. The digestive system extends from the
anterior mouth to the anus. Muscles in the body wall have distinctive
features. There's no circulatory system, flame cells, or nephridia. Cilia
and flagella are absent. Development is direct, involving an increase in
cell size rather than cell number.
1. Habitat and Adaptation

Nematodes can inhabit a wide range of environments, including
cultivated fields, forests, grasslands, deserts, tundras, and ocean beaches.
They can thrive at varying elevations, from high to low. A single square
yard of soil might contain more than a million nematodes, making them
the dominant organisms in many terrestrial ecosystems. These creatures
constitute around 90% of all life forms found on the ocean floor. They
provide benefits to diverse ecosystems for various reasons. Nematodes
possess a remarkable ability to withstand extreme dryness, known as
desiccation, due to their abundance of late embryogenesis proteins. In
soil environments, many nematodes prefer areas rich in nutrients and
bacteria, where they feed on decomposing organic matter. Their wide
range of sizes and uncomplicated body structures enables them to
166
function effectively in virtually every ecosystem. Nematodes are also

widely distributed on the ocean floor, participating in the decomposition
of various substances in aquatic environments. Their small size,
sometimes microscopic, allows them to carry out decomposition
processes throughout the earth's lithosphere, which is the outermost
crust. Nematodes are pivotal in the breakdown of soil nutrients,
contributing significantly to soil fertility.
Figure 3.4 Nematode habittats: Source:

Nematodes are bilaterally symmetrical, elongate, and usually tapered at

both ends. Some species possess a pseudocoel, a fluid-filled body cavity
between the digestive tract and the body Nematodes are a highly
diverse group of organisms that show a variety of adaptations to
extremes in soil and plant environments. Some of the unique adaptations
of nematodes include:
1. Epidermis (skin) is not made of cells, but a mass of cellular
material and nuclei without separate membranes.
2. Muscle cells only run in longitude direction.
3. Nematodas can only bend their body's from side to side, so when
f ree-swimming, it thrashes its body from side to side, trying to
move.
4. You can find 90,000 individual nematodes in a rotting apple.
1. How is nitrogenous wastes removed in nematodes?
2. What are the divisions of phylum Aschelminthes?
3.3.3 Arthropods
The word "arthropoda" literally translates as "jointed legs," which

perfectly sums up each of the countless species that make up this
phylum. With an estimated 85% of known species in the animal
kingdom, including many that are still undiscovered or unrecorded,
arthropods dominate the animal kingdom. The functional segmentation
of the body and the existence of jointed appendages are the defining
167
traits of all the creatures in this class (Figure 3.5). Arthropods, which are
Ecdysozoa, also have an exoskeleton that is primarily formed of chitin.
In terms of species count, Arthropoda is the animal kingdom's greatest
phylum, and insects make up its single largest group. True coelomate
creatures, arthropods display prostostomic development.
3.3.3.1Characteristic features of Arthropods

i
Arthropods, members of the phylum Arthropoda, are a diverse group of
animals including insects, crustaceans, spiders, scorpions and
centipedes. However, the members of this phylum, despite their
incredible diversity and sheer numbers, share a number of important
distinguishing characteristics.
Exoskeleton
Arthropods are invertebrates, which means their bodies do not have
internal bones for support. To compensate for this, they produce a hard
exoskeleton made of chitin, a mixture of lipids, carbohydrates and
protein, which covers and protects their bodies like a suit of armor. As
arthropods grow, they must shed or molt their exoskeletons. They first
produce new, softer exoskeletons underneath the old ones. Once their
hardened, old coverings crack and shed, they sport roomier, albeit soft,
exoskeletons. Arthropods are incredibly vulnerable during the molting
process, and will often hide until their new exoskeletons harden.
Segmented Bodies
Arthropods have bodies that are internally and externally segmented.
The number of segments depends on the individual species; millipedes,
for example, have more segments than lobsters.
Jointed Appendages
The name arthropod actually comes from the Greek “arthro,” meaning
joint, and “pod,” meaning foot. All arthropods have jointed limbs
attached to their hard exoskeletons that allow for flexibility and
movement. The joints generally bend in only one direction but allow for
sufficient predatory and defensive actions.
Bilateral Symmetry
An arthropod's body can be divided vertically into two mirror images.
This is called bilateral symmetry. An arthropod shares this symmetry
with many other animals such as fish, mice and even humans. Other
animals such as the jellyfish and sea star exhibit radial symmetry, while
coral and sea sponge are asymmetrical -- exhibiting no pattern at all.
168
Open Circulatory System

An arthropod has an open circulatory system. This means instead of a
closed circulatory system of interconnected veins and capillaries, an
arthropod’s blood is pumped through open spaces called sinuses in order
to reach tissues. An arthropod does, however, have a heart which pumps
blood into the hemocoel, the cavity where the organs are located, where
it surrounds the organs and tissues.
3.3.3.2Physiological Processes of Arthropods
Arthropods are characterized by their segmented body structure, where

certain segments fuse to form functional units like the head, thorax, and
abdomen or other combinations. They possess a hemocoel (blood
cavity) as their coelom and have an open circulatory system. This
system involves a two-chambered heart that pumps blood, which
directly bathes internal organs instead of flowing through vessels. The
respiratory systems in arthropods vary: insects and myriapods use
tracheae tubes branching throughout their bodies and opening through
spiracles for direct gas exchange with cells. Aquatic crustaceans have
gills, arachnids utilize internal "book lungs" resembling stacked pages,
and aquatic chelicerates employ external "book gills" made of leaf-like
structures for gas exchange with surrounding water (Figure 3.4).
Figure 3.5 The book lungs of (a) arachnids are made up of alternating
air pockets and hemocoel tissue shaped like a stack of books. The book
gills of (b) crustaceans are similar to book lungs but are external so that
gas exchange can occur with the surrounding water. Source:
3.3.3.3Arthropod Diversity
The phylum Arthropoda consists of organisms that have successfully

adapted to various environments including land, water, and air. This
phylum is subdivided into five subphyla: Trilobitomorpha (trilobites),
Hexapoda (insects and their relatives), Myriapoda (millipedes,
centipedes, and similar creatures), Crustacea (crabs, lobsters, etc.), and
Chelicerata (horseshoe crabs, arachnids, etc.). Trilobites, now extinct,
existed from the Cambrian to Permian periods, and are possibly most
169
closely related to Chelicerata. There are around 17,000 identified species

of trilobites through fossils.
Hexapoda, as indicated by their name, possess six legs or three pairs.

Their segments are fused into distinct regions like the head, thorax, and
abdomen. The thorax holds both wings and three pairs of legs. Examples
of Hexapoda include everyday insects such as ants, butterflies, bees, and
cockroaches. What are the classes into which the phylum Arthropoda is
divided? What are the three main classes and some of their
representative species?
Figure 3.6 In this basic anatomy of a hexapod, note that insects have a
developed digestive system (yellow), a respiratory system (blue), a
circulatory system (red), and a nervous system (purple). Source:
Subphylum Myriapoda includes arthropods with legs that may vary in

number from 10 to 750. This subphylum includes 13,000 species; the
most commonly found examples are millipedes and centipedes. All
myriapods are terrestrial animals and prefer a humid environment
(Figure 3.5).
170
Figure 3.7 (a) The centipede Scutigera coleoptrata has up to 15 pairs of

legs. (b) This North American millipede (Narceus americanus) bears
many legs, although not one thousand, as its name might suggest.
Source: http://cnx.org/contents/185cbf87-c72e-48f5-b51e-
f14f21b5eabd@10.8
Aquatic arthropods known as crustaceans, including species like shrimp,

crabs, lobsters, and crayfish, dominate their habitat. A handful of
crustaceans are adapted to live on land, such as pill bugs and sow bugs.
The currently recognized number of crustacean species is around
47,000. While the fundamental body structure of crustaceans resembles
that of Hexapoda, involving a head, thorax, and abdomen, in certain
species, the head and thorax can merge to create a cephalothorax, which
is shielded by a plate called the carapace. Furthermore, the exoskeleton
of many crustaceans is strengthened with calcium carbonate, making it
more robust than that of other arthropods. Crustaceans operate with an
open circulatory system, where blood is pumped into the hemocoel by
the dorsal heart. Although most crustaceans have distinct genders, a few,
like barnacles, may be hermaphroditic. Some crustacean species exhibit
serial hermaphroditism, where their gonads can switch from producing
sperm to producing eggs. Many crustaceans experience larval stages
during their early development. While the majority of crustaceans are
carnivorous, detritivores and filter feeders are also prevalent. What are
the main morphological features of arthropods?
Figure 3.8 The crayfish is an example of a crustacean. It has a carapace

around the cephalothorax and the heart in the dorsal thorax area. Source:
171
Subphylum Chelicerata includes animals such as spiders, scorpions,

horseshoe crabs, and sea spiders. This subphylum is predominantly
terrestrial, although some marine species also exist. An estimated
103,0004 described species are included in subphylum Chelicerata.
The body of chelicerates may be divided into two parts and a distinct
“head” is not always discernible. The phylum derives its name from the
first pair of appendages: the chelicerae (Figure 3.9a), which are
specialized mouthparts. The chelicerae are mostly used for feeding, but
in spiders, they are typically modified to inject venom into their prey
(Figure 3.9b). As in other members of Arthropoda, chelicerates also
utilize an open circulatory system, with a tube-like heart that pumps
blood into the large hemocoel that bathes the internal organs. Aquatic
chelicerates utilize gill respiration, whereas terrestrial species use either
tracheae or book lungs for gaseous exchange. What are the five
subphyla of phylum arthropods?
Figure 3.9 (a) The chelicerae (first set of appendages, circled) are well
developed in the Chelicerata, which includes scorpions (a) and spiders
(b). Source: http://cnx.org/contents/185cbf87-c72e-48f5-b51e-
f14f21b5eabd@10.8
The arthropods are seen from 30,000 feet below to 20,000 feet above the
sea level. These bilaterally symmetrical, jointed-leg invertebrates may
be marine, fresh-water, terrestrial, subterranean and aerial. Some
arthropods like barnacles are sedentary. Innumerable crustaceans which
live as planktons move passively in the current of water. But well-
developed structures are present in many arthropods for moving ef-
fectively by swimming, crawling and flying. Some arthropods live
172
within burrows, some are efficient diggers and many others build well-
designed nests. Certain arthropods like honey-bees, ants and termites are
polymorphic and lead a complicated social life. All the food habits—
herbivorous, carnivorous and omnivorous are seen among arthropods
and various food-getting devices are met within this group.
Large numbers of arthropods live as parasites, and structural changes

occur in them to adjust with the peculiar mode of life. Many arthropods
are well- known for their habit of migration. Some of them can produce
sound and nearly all are equipped with efficient sense organs. Some
forms exhibit a phenomenon—suspended animation, to overcome
unfavourable conditions. Sexual reproduction is often accompanied by
courtship dances. The members may either be oviparous or viviparous or
ovoviviparous and some forms exhibit parental care. Parthenogenesis is
quite common in arthropods.
Arthropods are the largest animal phylum on earth. One million species
of arthropods have been recognized worldwide. They show various
types of adaptation to their environment. They are listed below.
1. Most arthropods are small in size.
2. Arthropods develop a prominent head, which is composed of
pairs of antennae and compound eyes. Arthropoda was the first group
of animals to develop a head.
3. The jointed appendages of arthropods occur in pairs. One or two
pairs of wings occur in aerial arthropods. This facilitates their
propagation.
4. The body of arthropods is covered with a chitinous exoskeleton.
Exoskeleton provides support to the body and sites for the
attachment of muscles. It also prevents water loss from the body.
The process of shedding the exoskeleton is called molting or ecdysis;
this facilitates the growth.
5. Arthropods have a complete digestive system with an anus and
mouth. Mouthparts of them are varied based on the type of diet
they get. Some of them have lapping and chewing, sucking or
siphoning
6. Breathing occurs through gills, trachea or book lungs.
7. The excretion of terrestrial arthropods occurs through Malpighian
tubules. Nitrogenous wastes are excreted as uric acid, reducing
the water loss from the body.
8. Arthropods are unisexual animals.
1. What is the most important unique feature of arthropods?
2. What is the meaning of bilateral symmetry as displayed by
arthropods?
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3.4 Summary
Flatworms are acoelomate organisms with three tissue layers. They lack
circulatory and respiratory systems, and their excretory system is
rudimentary. Their digestive system is often incomplete. There are four
main classes: free-living turbellarians, ectoparasitic monogeneans, and
endoparasitic trematodes and cestodes. Trematodes have complex life
cycles with mollusk and vertebrate hosts, while cestodes infect
vertebrate digestive systems.
Nematodes, within the Ecdysozoa clade, are pseudocoelomates with a

complete digestive system. They include free-living and parasitic
species, with diverse reproductive strategies. Their excretory system is
underdeveloped, and their embryonic development involves external
stages separated by molts.
Arthropods, the most successful animal phylum, exhibit segmented

bodies and jointed appendages. Each body segment usually has a pair of
appendages. Arthropods have a chitinous exoskeleton and use gills,
tracheae, or book lungs for respiration. They're classified based on
mouthparts and appendage modifications. Their embryonic development
often involves multiple larval stages.
Brusca, R.C., G.J. Brusca (2003). Invertebrates. Sunderland, Mass.:

Sinauer Associates. 2nd edition [chapter 8, p. 219]. ISBN 0-
87893-097-3.
Hickman, C.P. and L. S. Roberts. 1994. Animal Diversity. Wm. C.

Brown, Dubuque, IA.
at http://cnx.org/contents/185cbf87-c72...f21b5eabd@10.8
https://youtu.be/_bk2nnDI68g
https://youtu.be/US58f-SwO0k
https://youtu.be/2OJeZ8q75KA
174
Answers to SAE 1
1. Flatworms are traditionally divided into four classes: Turbellaria,
Monogenea, Trematoda, and Cestoda
2. The body-wall of the liver fluke is composed of only cuticle (and
musculature) which covers the body as a thick and tough layer,
proving protection to the fluke against chemicals of the hurt.
Answers to SAE 2
1. Nitrogenous wastes are removed by diffusion.
2. The phylum Aschelminthes is divided into 5 (five) classes These
are: 1. Rotifera; Gastrotricha; Echinodera; Priapulide and.
Nematode.
Answers to SAE 3
1. The unique feature of arthropods is the presence of a segmented
body with fusion of certain sets of segments to give rise to
functional segments
2. An arthropod's body can be divided vertically into two mirror
images. This is called bilateral symmetry.
175
UNIT 4 MOLLUSK AND ANNELIDS
Unit Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.3 Main Contents
4.3.1 Phylum Mollusk
4.3.1.1 Characteristic Features of Mollusk
4.3.1.2 Mollusk Diversity
4.3.2.1 Annelida
4.3.2.2 Characteristic Features of Annelida
4.3.2.3 Physiological Processes of Annelida
4.3.2.4 Annelid Diversity
4.3.3 Similarities and differences between Mollusk and Annelid
4.4 Summary
4.1 Introduction
The mollusks are a diverse group (85,000 described species) of mostly

marine species. They have a variety of forms, ranging from large
predatory squid and octopus, some of which show a high degree of
intelligence, to small grazing forms with elaborately sculpted and
colored shells. The annelids traditionally include the oligochaetes, which
include the earthworms and leeches, the polychaetes, which are a marine
group, and two other smaller classes. The phyla Mollusca and Annelida
belong to a clade called the Lophotrochozoa, which also includes the
phylum Nemertea, or ribbon worms. They are distinct from the
Ecdysozoa (nematodes and arthropods) based on evidence from analysis
of their DNA, which has changed our views of the relationships among
invertebrates.

1. Describe the unique anatomical features of mollusks
2. Describe the characteristic features of Mollusk
3. Describe the diversity in the mollusks
4. Describe the features of an animal classified in phylum Annelida
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4.3 Main Contents
4.3.1 Phylum Mollusk
Mollusca is the predominant phylum in marine environments, where it

is estimated that 23 percent of all known marine species belong to this
phylum. It is the second most diverse phylum of animals with over
75,000 described species. The name “mollusca” signifies a soft body, as
the earliest descriptions of mollusks came from observations of
unshelled, soft-bodied cuttlefish (squid relatives). Although mollusk
body forms vary, they share key characteristics, such as a ventral,
muscular foot that is typically used for locomotion; the visceral mass,
which contains most of the internal organs of the animal; and a dorsal
mantle, which is a flap of tissue over the visceral mass that creates a
space called the mantle cavity. The mantle may or may not secrete a
shell of calcium carbonate. In addition, many mollusks have a scraping
structure at the mouth, called a radula (Figure 4.1).The muscular foot
varies in shape and function, depending on the type of mollusk
(described below in the section on mollusk diversity). It is a retractable
as well as extendable organ, used for locomotion and anchorage.
Mollusks are eucoelomates, but the coelomic cavity is restricted to a
cavity around the heart in adult animals. The mantle cavity, formed
inside the mantle, develops independently of the coelomic cavity. It is a
multi-purpose space, housing the gills, the anus, organs for sensing food
particles in the water, and an outlet for gametes. Most mollusks have an
open circulatory system with a heart that circulates the hemolymph in
open spaces around the organs. The octopuses and squid are an
exception to this and have a closed circulatory system with two hearts
that move blood through the gills and a third, systemic heart that pumps
blood through the rest of the body. What morphological feature gives
the phylum Mollusca its name?
177
Figure 4.1 There are many species and variations of mollusks; the
gastropod mollusk anatomy is shown here, which shares many
characteristics common with other groups. Source:
4.3.1.1Characteristic Features of Mollusk
1. They are mostly marine in water, few freshwater and some

terrestrial form.
2. They can be found inside other animals, as secret parasites.
3. They range in size from giant squids and clams to small snails,
one mm long.
4. They have at least two radula and mantle characters, which are
not found elsewhere.
5. The body is soft, unsegmented, bilateral symmetrical,
coelomates, triploblastic (except in Monoplacophora).
1. Body organization is tissue-systems grade.
1. The body has head, foot, mantle and visceral mass.
2. The body is covered with often ciliated one-layered epidermis.
3. The body is commonly protected by one or more pieces of
exoskeletal calcareous shell secreted by the mantle.
4. Except in pelecypoda and scaphopoda, the head is distinct,
containing the mouth , eyes, tentacles and other sense organs.
5. The ventral body is converted into a muscular plough-like
surface, the foot which is modified in different ways for creeping,
burrowing and swimming.
6. Mantle or pallium is a fold of a wall of the body that leaves the
main body, mantle cavity, within itself.
7. Cavity of the body is hemocoel. The coelom is reduced and
characterized by pericardial cavity, gonadial cavity.
8. Organ rasping, usually occurring radula or in pelecypoda.
9. Except in cephalopods, the circulatory system is open type.
10. There are numerous gills or ctenidia in the respiratory organs
usually provided with osphradium at the base. In terrestrial forms
the lung develops.
11. Respiration in Mollusca is provided by gills or lungs, or both.
12. Their respiratory pigments are haemocyanin;
13. Excretion is achieved by paired metanephridia (kidney).
1. The mollusca nervous system consists of paired prefrontal,
pleural, pedal and visceral ganglia, along with longitudinal and
transverse nervous connections. Usually ganglia form a circumentary
ring.
1. Sense organs are composed of skin, statocysts and touch, smell,
and taste receptors.Sexes are usually separate (dioecious) but
some are monoecious (hermaphroditic).
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1. Development through the trochophore stage called veliger larva

is direct or with metamorphosis.
2. The visceral mass, in its compact form, contains the vital organs
of the body, taking the form of dorsal humps or dome.
4.3.1.2Mollusk Diversity
This phylum is comprised of seven classes: Aplacophora,

Monoplacophora, Polyplacophora, Bivalvia, Gastropoda, Cephalopoda,
and Scaphopoda. Class Aplacophora (“bearing no plates”) includes
worm-like animals living mostly on deep ocean bottoms. These animals
lack a shell but have aragonite spicules on their skin. Members of class
Monoplacophora (“bearing one plate”) have a single, cap-like shell
enclosing the body. The monoplacophorans were believed extinct and
only known as fossils until the discovery of Neopilina galatheae in 1952.
Today, scientists have identified nearly two dozen living species.
Animals in the class Polyplacophora (“bearing many plates”) are

commonly known as “chitons” and bear an armor-like, eight-plated shell
(Figure 4.2). These animals have a broad, ventral foot that is adapted for
attachment to rocks and a mantle that extends beyond the shell in the
form of a girdle. They breathe with ctenidia (gills) present ventrally.
These animals have a radula modified for scraping. A single pair of
nephridia for excretion is present.
Figure 4.2 This chiton from the class Polyplacophora has the eight-
plated shell indicative of its class. Source:
Class Bivalvia (“two shells”) includes clams, oysters, mussels, scallops,

and geoducks. They are found in marine and freshwater habitats. As the
name suggests, bivalves are enclosed in a pair of shells (or valves) that
are hinged at the dorsal side. The body is flattened on the sides. They
179
feed by filtering particles from water and a radula is absent. They

exchange gases using a pair of ctenidia, and excretion and
osmoregulation are carried out by a pair of nephridia. In some species,
the posterior edges of the mantle may fuse to form two siphons that
inhale and exhale water. Some bivalves like oysters and mussels have
the unique ability to secrete and deposit a calcareous nacre or “mother
of pearl” around foreign particles that enter the mantle cavity. This
property is commercially exploited to produce pearls.
Gastropods (“stomach foot”) include well-known mollusks like snails,

slugs, conchs, sea hares, and sea butterflies. Gastropods include shell-
bearing species as well as species with a reduced shell. These animals
are asymmetrical and usually present a coiled shell (Figure 4,3).
Figure 4.3 (a) Like many gastropods, this snail has a stomach foot and a
coiled shell. (b) This slug, which is also a gastropod, lacks a shell.
Source: http://cnx.org/contents/185cbf87-c72e-48f5-b51e-
f14f21b5eabd@10.8
The visceral mass in the shelled species is characteristically twisted and

the foot is modified for crawling. Most gastropods bear a head with
tentacles that support eyes. A complex radula is used to scrape food
particles from the substrate. The mantle cavity encloses the ctenidia as
well as a pair of nephridia. Are mollusks Metameric? Are molluscs
metameric organisms?
The class Cephalopoda (“head foot” animals) includes octopuses,

squids, cuttlefish, and nautilus. Cephalopods include shelled and
reduced-shell groups. They display vivid coloration, typically seen in
squids and octopuses, which is used for camouflage. The ability of some
octopuses to rapidly adjust their colors to mimic a background pattern or
to startle a predator is one of the more awe-inspiring feats of these
animals. All animals in this class are predators and have beak-like jaws.
All cephalopods have a well-developed nervous system, complex eyes,
180
and a closed circulatory system. The foot is lobed and developed into
tentacles and a funnel, which is used for locomotion. Suckers are present
on the tentacles in octopuses and squid. Ctenidia are enclosed in a large
mantle cavity and are serviced by large blood vessels, each with its own
heart.
Cephalopods (Figure 4.3) are able to move quickly via jet propulsion by
contracting the mantle cavity to forcefully eject a stream of water.
Cephalopods have separate sexes, and the females of some species care
for the eggs for an extended period of time. Although the shell is much
reduced and internal in squid and cuttlefish, and absent altogether in
octopus, nautilus live inside a spiral, multi-chambered shell that is filled
with gas or water to regulate buoyancy.
Figure 4.4 The (a) nautilus, (b) giant cuttlefish, (c) reef squid, and (d)
blue-ring octopus are all members of the class Cephalopoda. Source:
Members of the class Scaphopoda (“boat feet”) are known colloquially

as “tusk shells” or “tooth shells.” Tooth shells are open at both ends and
usually lie buried in sand with the front opening exposed to water and
the reduced head end projecting from the back of the shell. Tooth shells
181
have a radula and a foot modified into tentacles, each with a bulbous end
that catches and manipulates prey (Figure 4.5).
Figure 4.5 Antalis vulgaris shows the classic Dentaliidae shape that
gives these animals their common name of “tusk shell.” Source:
4.3.1.3Habitat and Adaptation
Phylum Mollusk is the second largest animal phylum on the

planet. They are mostly marine, but many occur in fresh water and some
even in damp soil. Molluscs have conquered most habitats in the ocean,
with their distributions ranging from the intertidal zone, the open ocean
to the deep sea and extreme environments like hydrothermal vents. They
usually live in the sea shores or in shallow water, and some are pelagic
and can sink down to the depth of about 35,000 feet. Most of the
Molluscs are free-living forms.
Adaptation of a mollusk is the process of adjusting to different habitats

and environmental conditions. Mollusks have adapted to all habitats
except air, and have diverse modes of locomotion and feeding. Some of
the unique adaptations of mollusks include a specialized feeding organ
called a radula, a dorsal layer of tissue called a mantle, and a complex
nervous system. Some mollusks also have highly developed eyes, ink
glands, and skin cells that can change color. Among the adaptations
Mollusks have gained over time, the most obvious, and most important,
is the muscular foot all mollusks possess. This foot adaptation is
also something that differentiates all different species
of Mollusks. There is a lot of variation in this adaptation, so species to
species, Mollusk feet will look different. Are mussels Gastropoda? The
freshwater mollusks include two classes, the Gastropoda (snails and
limpets) and the Bivalvia (clams and mussels). The gastropods
182
constitute the most diverse class of the phylum Mollusca, with about
75,000 species of marine and freshwater snails worldwide.
1. What is the purpose of a radula?
2. How do Gastropods move?
4.3.2 Annelids
Phylum Annelida are segmented worms found in marine, terrestrial, and

freshwater habitats, but the presence of water or humidity is a critical
factor for their survival in terrestrial habitats. The name of the phylum is
derived from the Latin word annellus, which means a small ring.
Approximately 16,500 species have been described. The phylum
includes earthworms, polychaete worms, and leeches. Like mollusks,
annelids exhibit protostomic development. Annelids are bilaterally
symmetrical and have a worm-like appearance. Their particular
segmented body plan results in repetition of internal and external
features in each body segment. This type of body plan is
called metamerism. The evolutionary benefit of such a body plan is
thought to be the capacity it allows for the evolution of independent
modifications in different segments that perform different functions. The
overall body can then be divided into head, body, and tail.
4.3.2.1Characteristic of Phylum Annelids
1. They are mostly aquatic, some are terrestrial.

2. They are generally burning animals, some are sedentary or free
living, and some are ectoparasites.
3. The body is vermiform, bilaterally symmetrical, and
metamerically segmented.
4. They have straight tube alimentary canal, and undergo extra-
cellular digestion.
5. Has segmentally arranged Locomotory organs, repeated groups
of chitinous setae or chaetae.
6. Leaches have no setae.
1. Respiration is generally through body surface or through a special
projection of parapods.
2. Has well developed closed type blood vascular system.
3. Possesses Nephridia which is the excretory organs.
4. Nervous system consists of paired cerebral ganglia or brain, a
double ventral nerve cord bearing segmental ganglia.
5. Gonads develop from the coelomic epithelium.
183
6. Sex may be separate or united, and development may be direct or

indirect.
4.3.2.2Physiological Processes of Annelids
The skin of annelids is protected by a cuticle that is thinner than the

cuticle of the ecdysozoans and does not need to be molted for growth.
Chitinous hairlike extensions, anchored in the skin and projecting from
the cuticle, called chaetae, are present in every segment in most groups.
The chaetae are a defining character of annelids. Polychaete worms have
paired, unjointed limbs called parapodia on each segment used for
locomotion and breathing. Beneath the cuticle there are two layers of
muscle, one running around its circumference (circular) and one running
the length of the worm (longitudinal). Annelids have a true coelom in
which organs are distributed and bathed in coelomic fluid. Annelids
possess a well-developed complete digestive system with specialized
organs: mouth, muscular pharynx, esophagus, and crop. A cross-
sectional view of a body segment of an earthworm is shown in Figure
4.6; each segment is limited by a membrane that divides the body cavity
into compartments.
Annelids have a closed circulatory system with muscular pumping

“hearts” in the anterior segments, dorsal and ventral blood vessels that
run the length of the body with connections in each segment, and
capillaries that service individual tissues. Gas exchange occurs across
the moist body surface. Excretion is carried out by pairs of primitive
“kidneys” called metanephridia that consist of a convoluted tubule and
an open, ciliated funnel present in every segment. Annelids have a well-
developed nervous system with two ventral nerve cords and a nerve ring
of fused ganglia present around the pharynx. How does digestion in
organisms of the phylum Annelida take place? What type of digestive
system do they have?
184
Figure 4.6 Extracellular digestion in annelids. In this schematic showing

the basic anatomy of annelids, the digestive system is indicated in green,
the nervous system is indicated in yellow, and the circulatory system is
indicated in red. Source: http://cnx.org/contents/185cbf87-c72e-48f5-
b51e-f14f21b5eabd@10.8
Annelids may be either monoecious with permanent gonads (as in

earthworms and leeches) or dioecious with temporary or seasonal
gonads (as in polychaetes). How does a change in the circulatory system
organization support the body designs in cephalopods compared to other
mollusks?
1. Describe the morphology and anatomy of mollusks.

2. What are the anatomical differences between nemertines and
mollusks?
3.
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
4.3.2.3Annelid Diversity
The phylum Annelida is divided into three classes: oligochaetes (for

example, earthworms), hirudineans (such as leeches) and polychaetes
(these are mostly marine aquatic organisms with parapodia, such as
nereis). The phylum includes the classes Polychaeta and Clitellata
(Figure 4.67); the latter contains subclasses Oligochaeta, Hirudinoidea,
and Branchiobdellida.
185
Earthworms are the most abundant members of the subclass

Oligochaeta, distinguished by the presence of the clitellum, a ring
structure in the skin that secretes mucus to bind mating individuals and
forms a protective cocoon for the eggs. They also have a few, reduced
chaetae (oligo- = “few”; -chaetae = “hairs”). The number and size of
chaetae is greatly diminished in oligochaetes as compared to the
polychaetes (poly- = “many”; -chaetae = “hairs”). The chaetae of
polychaetes are also arranged within fleshy, flat, paired appendages on
each segment called parapodia.
The subclass Hirudinoidea includes leeches. Significant differences
between leeches and other annelids include the development of suckers
at the anterior and posterior ends, and the absence of chaetae.
Additionally, the segmentation of the body wall may not correspond to
internal segmentation of the coelomic cavity. This adaptation may allow
leeches to swell when ingesting blood from host vertebrates. The
subclass Branchiobdellida includes about 150 species that show
similarity to leeches as well as oligochaetes. All species are obligate
symbionts, meaning that they can only survive associated with their
host, mainly with freshwater crayfish. They feed on the algae that grows
on the carapace of the crayfish. Into which classes is the phylum
Annelida divided?
Figure 4.7 The (a) earthworm and (b) leech are both annelids. Source:
4.3.2.4Habitat and Adaptation
Annelids are found worldwide in nearly every habitat on the planet, but
they prefer to live in wet environments due to their inability to protect
themselves from desiccation. They are especially common in oceanic
waters, fresh waters, and damp soils. Most polychaetes live in the ocean,
where they either float, burrow, wander on the bottom, or live in tubes
they construct.
186
Annelids have adapted to different environments through convergent

evolution. Some annelids adapted to the space between sand grains by
progenesis, while others evolved by miniaturization of ancestral adult
stages. Miniaturization is as important as progenesis in the adaptation to
the interstitium. When the environmental conditions in an earthworm’s
habitat change, many earthworms become inactive in a process called
aestivation. They move deeper into the soil, coil into a tight ball, excrete
a protective mucus and lower their metabolic rate in order to reduce
water loss. Species lacking a pelagic trochophore stage show special
adaptive features.
4.3.3 Similarities between Mollusk and Annelids
Mollusks and annelids are very similar creatures. Both groups are
invertebrates, meaning they lack a backbone. They also both have a soft,
unsegmented body. Mollusks and annelids also both have a coelom, or a
fluid-filled body cavity. Another similarity between these two groups is
that they both have a muscular foot used for locomotion.
1. What is the purpose of chromatophores?

2. What is the difference between annelids and molluscs?
4.4 Summary
The phylum Mollusca is a large, mainly marine group of invertebrates.

Mollusks show a variety of morphologies. Many mollusks secrete a
calcareous shell for protection, but in other species, the shell is reduced
or absent. Mollusks are protostomes. The dorsal epidermis in mollusks
is modified to form the mantle, which encloses the mantle cavity and
visceral organs. This cavity is distinct from the coelomic cavity, which
the adult animal retains, surrounding the heart. Respiration is facilitated
by gills known as ctenidia. A chitinous scraper called the radula is
present in most mollusks. Mollusks are mostly dioecious and are divided
into seven classes.
The phylum Annelida includes worm-like, segmented animals.

Segmentation is both external and internal, which is called metamerism.
Annelids are protostomes. The presence of chitinous hairs called chaetae
is characteristic of most members. These animals have well-developed
nervous and digestive systems. Polychaete annelids have parapodia that
participate in locomotion and respiration. Suckers are seen in the order
187
Hirudinea. Breeding systems include separate sexes and

hermaphroditism.
Hickman, C.P. and L. S. Roberts. 1994. Animal Diversity. Wm. C.

Brown, Dubuque, IA.
at http://cnx.org/contents/185cbf87-c72...f21b5eabd@10.8
Karl M. Wilbur, C. M. Yonge (2013). Physiology of Mollusca: Volume

I. Edition. Elsevier Science, ISBN 1483275841, 9781483275840
https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/1-introduction
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Caribbean_reef_squid.jpg.
https://youtu.be/mW4PbW893ik
https://youtu.be/7hORx7hp-3Y
https://youtu.be/HEOjIRv9XQQ
Answers to SAE 1
1. The radula is generally used for cutting or scraping food in the

phylum Mollusca. This is sometimes compared to the tongue.
The main function of this radula is feeding. But the forces which are
used for cutting the food with teeth are unknown. This can be
recognized as a rasping organ in molluscs. Scraping of food
from rocks and other substances is done by radula.
2. The visceral mass in the shelled species displays torsion around
the perpendicular axis on the centre of the foot which is
modified for crawling.
Answers to SAE 2
1. Mollusks have a large muscular foot that may be modified in
various ways, such as into tentacles, but it functions in
locomotion. They have a mantle, a structure of tissue that covers and
encloses the dorsal portion of the animal, and secrete the shell when it is
present. The mantle encloses the mantle cavity, which houses the gills
(when present), excretory pores, anus, and gonadopores. The coelom of
mollusks is restricted to the region around the systemic heart. The main
body cavity is a hemocoel. Many mollusks have a radula near the mouth
that is used for scraping food.
188
2. Mollusks have a shell, even if it is a reduced shell. Nemertines do

not have a shell. Nemertines have a proboscis; mollusks do not.
Nemertines have a closed circulatory system, whereas Mollusks have an
open circulatory system.
Answers to SAE 3
1. These are organs that are present in the skin of many

cephalopods, such as squids, cuttlefish, octopuses, etc., whose
primary function is camouflage. These are the pigment-containing
cells whose function is to adjust the body’s colouration to its
environment.
2. Mollusks are invertebrates such as the common snail. Most
mollusks have shells. Annelids are worms such as the familiar
earthworm. They have segmented bodies.
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Unit 5 Echinoderms and Chordates
Unit Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.3 Main Contents
5.3.1 Echinoderms
5.3.1.1 Characteristic Features of Echinoderms
5.3.1.2 Physiological Processes of Echinoderms
5.3.2 Echinoderm Diversity
5.3.2.1 Habitat
5.3.2.2 Ecological Adaptation
5.3.3 Chordates
5.3.3.1 Invertebrate Chordates
5.3.3.2 Habitat and Ecological Adaptation
5.3.3.3 Vertebrates and Invertebrates Animals
5.4 Summary
5.1 Introduction
Echinoderms and chordates are two closely-related groups of

animals. They belong to the clade Deuterostomia, which means their
blastopore develops into the anus. Deuterostomes include the phyla
Echinodermata and Chordata (which includes the vertebrates) and two
smaller phyla. Deuterostomes share similar patterns of early
development. They also show bilateral symmetry at some stage of their
life cycle and exhibit radial cleavage. Echinoderms are marine
organisms that include starfish, while chordates include humans and
other vertebrates. Their shared common ancestor was likely a bilaterally
symmetrical organism with a cephalized nervous system.

1. Describe the distinguishing characteristics of echinoderms
2. Explain the haracteristic features of echinoderms
3. Physiological Processes of Echinoderms
4. Describe the distinguishing characteristics of chordates
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5.3 Main Contents
5.3.1 Echinoderms
Echinodermata are named for their spiny skin (from the Greek “echinos”
meaning “spiny” and “dermos” meaning “skin”). The phylum includes
about 7,000 described living species, such as sea stars, sea cucumbers,
sea urchins, sand dollars, and brittle stars. Echinodermata are
exclusively marine. Adult echinoderms exhibit pentaradial symmetry
and have a calcareous endoskeleton made of ossicles (Figure 5.1),
although the early larval stages of all echinoderms have bilateral
symmetry. The endoskeleton is developed by epidermal cells, which
may also possess pigment cells, giving vivid colors to these animals, as
well as cells laden with toxins. These animals have a true coelom, a
portion of which is modified into a unique circulatory system called
a water vascular system. An interesting feature of these animals is their
power to regenerate, even when over 75 percent of their body mass is
lost.
5.3.1.1Characteristic Features of Phylum Echinodermata
i. All Echinoderms are marine animals, and the adults are mostly
with Pentamerous radial symmetry (ie can be divided into 5 equal
parts). Body is not metamerically segmented;
ii. Could be rounded, cylindrical or star shaped without head.
iii. They have no brain, only few specialized sense organs.
iv. They have a complete digestive system.
v. Locomotive is mainly by tube feet, in some by means of spines or
by movement of arms.
vi. They have no olfactory organs.
vii. Sexes are separate, fertilization is external.
viii. They have indeterminate type of development.
ix. Respiration is by dermal branchiae, tube feet or respiratory trees.
x. They have an internal skeleton (endoskeleton) made up of plates
of calcium carbonate, imbedded in the body wall.
5.3.1.2Physiological Processes of Echinoderms
Echinoderms have a unique system for gas exchange, nutrient

circulation, and locomotion called the water vascular system. The
system consists of a central ring canal and radial canals extending along
each arm. Water circulates through these structures allowing for gas,
nutrient, and waste exchange. A structure on top of the body, called
the madreporite, regulates the amount of water in the water vascular
system. “Tube feet,” which protrude through openings in the
endoskeleton, may be expanded or contracted using the hydrostatic
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pressure in the system. The system allows for slow movement, but a
great deal of power, as witnessed when the tube feet latch on to opposite
halves of a bivalve mollusk, like a clam, and slowly, but surely pull the
shells apart, exposing the flesh within.
Figure 5.1 The echinoderm nervous system has a nerve ring at the center
and five radial nerves extending outward along the arms. There is no
centralized nervous control. Echinoderms have separate sexes and
release their gametes into the water where fertilization takes place.
Source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/echinodermata/blastoidea.html
Echinoderms may also reproduce asexually through regeneration from
body parts. What is the unique system for gas exchange, nutrient
circulation, and locomotion in Echinoderms?
1. Why are the adult Echinoderms said to have a mostly

Pentamerous radial symmetry?
2. What is the structure on top of the body,that regulates the
amount of water in the water vascular system?
5.3.2 Echinoderm Diversity
This phylum is divided into five classes: Asteroidea (sea stars),

Ophiuroidea (brittle stars), Echinoidea (sea urchins and sand
dollars), Crinoidea (sea lilies or feather stars), and Holothuroidea (sea
cucumbers) (Figure 5.2). Perhaps the best-known echinoderms are
members of the class Asteroidea, or sea stars. They come in a large
variety of shapes, colors, and sizes, with more than 1,800 species
known. The characteristics of sea stars that set them apart from other
echinoderm classes include thick arms that extend from a central disk
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where organs penetrate into the arms. Sea stars use their tube feet not
only for gripping surfaces but also for grasping prey. Sea stars have two
stomachs, one of which they can evert through their mouths to secrete
digestive juices into or onto prey before ingestion. This process can
essentially liquefy the prey and make digestion easier.
Brittle stars have long, thin arms that do not contain any organs. Sea
urchins and sand dollars do not have arms but are hemispherical or
flattened with five rows of tube feet, which help them in slow
movement. Sea lilies and feather stars are stalked suspension feeders.
Sea cucumbers are soft-bodied and elongate with five rows of tube feet
and a series of tube feet around the mouth that are modified into
tentacles used in feeding. Which is the best-known class of
echinoderms?
Figure 5.2 Different members of Echinodermata include the (a) sea star
in class Asteroidea, (b) the brittle star in class Ophiuroidea, (c) the sea
urchins of class Echinoidea, (d) the sea lilies belonging to class
Crinoidea, and (e) sea cucumbers representing class Holothuroidea.
Source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/echinodermata/blastoidea.html
5.3.2.1 Habitat
Echinoderms are globally distributed in almost all depths, latitudes and

environments in the ocean. Adults are mainly benthic, living on the
seabed, whereas larvae are often pelagic, living as plankton in the open
ocean. Some holothuroid adults such as Pelagothuria are however
pelagic. Some crinoids are pseudo-planktonic, attaching themselves to
floating logs and debris, although this behaviour was exercised most
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extensively in the Paleozoic, before competition from organisms such as

barnacles restricted the extent of the behaviour.
5.3.2.2Ecological Adaptation
Echinoderms have several adaptations to their environment.Some of

these adaptations include:
1. Radial symmetry and five lines of symmetry
2. Amazing vision or about 20/20 vision
3. A nerve ring at the center and five radial nerves extending
outward along the arms
4. No centralized nervous control
5. Separate sexes and release of gametes into the water where
fertilization takes place
6. Asexual reproduction through regeneration from body parts
7. Defense mechanisms such as spines, toxins, and camouflage
8. Water vascular system
9. Body regeneration
10. Cutaneous and cloacal respiration
11. Open circulatory systems
1. What are the five classes of Echinoderms?
2. Which members of Echinoderms have two stomachs, which confers
on it the ability to liquefy its prey and make digestion easier?
5.3.3 Chordates
The majority of species in the phylum Chordata are found in the

subphylum Vertebrata, which include many species with which we are
familiar. The vertebrates contain more than 60,000 described species,
divided into major groupings of the lampreys, fishes, amphibians,
reptiles, birds, and mammals. Animals in the phylum Chordata share
four key features that appear at some stage of their development: a
notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal
tail (Figure 5.3). In certain groups, some of these traits are present only
during embryonic development. The chordates are named for
the notochord, which is a flexible, rod-shaped structure that is found in
the embryonic stage of all chordates and in the adult stage of some
chordate species. It is located between the digestive tube and the nerve
cord, and provides skeletal support through the length of the body. In
some chordates, the notochord acts as the primary axial support of the
body throughout the animal’s lifetime. In vertebrates, the notochord is
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present during embryonic development, at which time it induces the

development of the neural tube and serves as a support for the
developing embryonic body. The notochord, however, is not found in
the postnatal stage of vertebrates; at this point, it has been replaced by
the vertebral column (the spine). What happens to the notochord in
vertebrates and protochordates? In vertebrates, the notochord disappears
and to produce the spine (vertebral column). In protochordates, the
notochord remains during their whole life.
The dorsal hollow nerve cord is derived from ectoderm that sinks
below the surface of the skin and rolls into a hollow tube during
development. In chordates, it is located dorsally to the notochord. In
contrast, other animal phyla possess solid nerve cords that are located
either ventrally or laterally. The nerve cord found in most chordate
embryos develops into the brain and spinal cord, which compose the
central nervous system.
Pharyngeal slits are openings in the pharynx, the region just posterior
to the mouth, that extend to the outside environment. In organisms that
live in aquatic environments, pharyngeal slits allow for the exit of water
that enters the mouth during feeding. Some invertebrate chordates use
the pharyngeal slits to filter food from the water that enters the mouth.
In fishes, the pharyngeal slits are modified into gill supports, and in
jawed fishes, jaw supports. In tetrapods, the slits are further modified
into components of the ear and tonsils, since there is no longer any need
for gill supports in these air-breathing animals. Tetrapod means “four-
footed,” and this group includes amphibians, reptiles, birds, and
mammals. (Birds are considered tetrapods because they evolved from
tetrapod ancestors.)
The post-anal tail is a posterior elongation of the body extending beyond

the anus. The tail contains skeletal elements and muscles, which provide
a source of locomotion in aquatic species, such as fishes. In some
terrestrial vertebrates, the tail may also function in balance, locomotion,
courting, and signaling when danger is near. In many species, the tail is
absent or reduced; for example, in apes, including humans, it is present
in the embryo, but reduced in size and nonfunctional in adults. What are
the characteristic features of the chordates? What are the two main
subdivisions of the phylum Chordata?
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Figure 5.3 Chordate features. In chordates, four common features appear

at some point during development: a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve
cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail. The endostyle is embedded in
the floor of the pharynx. Source:
cies-numbers/2009/03-exec-summary.html.
5.3.3.1Invertebrate Chordates
In addition to the vertebrates, the phylum Chordata contains two clades

ofinvertebrates: Urochordata (tunicates)
and Cephalochordata (lancelets). Members of these groups possess the
four distinctive features of chordates at some point during their
development.The tunicates (Figure 5.4) are also called sea squirts. The
name tunicate derives from the cellulose-like carbohydrate material,
called the tunic, which covers the outer body. Although tunicates are
classified as chordates, the adult forms are much modified in body plan
and do not have a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, or a post-anal
tail, although they do have pharyngeal slits. The larval form possesses
all four structures. Most tunicates are hermaphrodites. Tunicate larvae
hatch from eggs inside the adult tunicate’s body. After hatching, a
tunicate larva swims for a few days until it finds a suitable surface on
which it can attach, usually in a dark or shaded location. It then attaches
by the head to the substrate and undergoes metamorphosis into the adult
form, at which point the notochord, nerve cord, and tail disappear.
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Figure 5.4 (a) This photograph shows a colony of the

tunicate Botrylloides violaceus. In the (b) larval stage, the tunicate can
swim freely until it attaches to a substrate to become (c) an adult.
Source:
Most tunicates live a sessile existence in shallow ocean waters and are
suspension feeders. The primary foods of tunicates are plankton and
detritus. Seawater enters the tunicate’s body through its incurrent
siphon. Suspended material is filtered out of this water by a mucus net
(pharyngeal slits) and is passed into the intestine through the action of
cilia. The anus empties into the excurrent siphon, which expels wastes
and water.
Lancelets possess a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal

slits, and a post-anal tail in the adult stage (Figure 5.5). The notochord
extends into the head, which gives the subphylum its name
(Cephalochordata). Extinct fossils of this subphylum date to the middle
of the Cambrian period (540–488 mya).The living forms, the lancelets,
are named for their blade-like shape. Lancelets are only a few
centimeters long and are usually found buried in sand at the bottom of
warm temperate and tropical seas. Like tunicates, they are suspension
feeders. What are two clades of invertebrates contained in the phylum
Chordata?
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Figure 5.5 Adult lancelets retain the four key features of chordates: a
notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal
tail. Source:
5.3.3.2Habitat and Ecological Adaptation
These organisms reside in marine environments living individually or

in colonies. Invertebrate chordates feed on tiny organic matter, such as
plankton, suspended in the water. Invertebrate chordates are coelomates
or animals with a true body cavity.
An animal may adapt to its habitat in different ways. It may be a

physical or structural adaptation, just as the limbs of birds have modified
into wings or the way the cheetah is shaped for running at a fast speed. It
may be in the way the body works in circulating and respiration, for
instance the gills that fish have enable them to breathe in water. Or it
may be the way the animal behaves whether it is hunting for food, or
running fast to avoid predators or migrating to other places for food or
survival. An animal's environment consists of many different things.
The climate, the kinds of food plants that grow in it, other animals that
may be predators or competitors- the animal must learn to adapt to each
of these factors in order to survive. With increasing population growth
and human activity that disturbs the natural habitat, animals must learn
to adapt to these kind of threats as well.
Animals in the wild can only live in places they are adapted to. They
must have the right kind of habitat where they can find the food and
space they need. Did you know that animals camouflage themselves so
they can adapt to their environment? Adaptation can protect animals
from predators or from harsh weather. Many birds can hide in the tall
grass and weeds and insects can change their colour to blend into the
surroundings. This makes it difficult for predators to seek them out for
food.
Some animals, like the apple snail, can survive in different ecosystems-
from swamps, ditches and ponds to lakes and rivers. It has a lung/gills
combination that reflects its adaptation to habitats with oxygen poor
water. This is often the case in swamps and shallow waters.
In the harsh cold climate of Alaska, the animals have learnt to adapt to
the weather by storing food in their body and protecting themselves
from the cold with thick furs. Human inhabitants in Alaska have also
learnt to cope with the environment by building shelters that insulate and
hold the heat, and yet do not allow the structure to melt.
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5.3.3.3Vertebrates and Invertebrates Animals
Vertebrates are typically more complex as compared to invertebrates,

with a more developed nervous system and a greater level of cognitive
function. They have an integral skeleton made up of bones and cartilage
that provide support and protection for their internal organs. They also
have a wide range of reproductive strategies, including internal and
external fertilization. Coming to invertebrates, on the other hand, there is
a lack of a true skeleton and instead, have an exoskeleton or a
hydrostatic skeleton. They are generally less complex than vertebrates,
having a simpler nervous system. They are also found in a variety of
habitats, but many are restricted to specific environments. Which of
vertebrates or invertebrates, are typically more complex organisms?
1. Sessile adult tunicates lose the notochord; what does this

suggest about the function of this structure?
2. During embryonic development, what features do we share with

tunicates or lancelets?
5.4 Summary
Echinoderms are deuterostome marine organisms. This phylum of

animals bear a calcareous endoskeleton composed of ossicles covered by
a spiny skin. Echinoderms possess a water-based circulatory system.
The madreporite is the point of entry and exit for water for the water
vascular system. The characteristic features of Chordata are a notochord,
a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail.
Chordata contains two clades of invertebrates: Urochordata (tunicates)
and Cephalochordata (lancelets), together with the vertebrates. Most
tunicates live on the ocean floor and are suspension feeders. Lancelets
are suspension feeders that feed on phytoplankton and other
microorganisms.
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Chen, J. Y., Huang, D. Y., and Li, C. W., “An early Cambrian craniate-
like chordate,” Nature 402 (1999): 518–522, doi:10.1038/990080.
Zamora, S., Rahman, I. and Smith, A. (2012). Plated Cambrian

Bilaterians Reveal the Earliest Stages of Echinoderm
Evolution. PLoS ONE, 7(6).
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24850925
http://www.starfish.ch/reef/echinoderms.html
http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/starfish/
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/echinodermata/blastoidea.html
https://youtu.be/ypYesuV3PoI
https://youtu.be/SiaIouBgzPc
https://youtu.be/s0gc8lkrUlQ
https://youtu.be/kgZRZmEc9j4
Answers to SAE 1
1. The adult Echinoderms are mostly with Pentamerous radial
symmetry, this means they can be divided into 5 equal parts.
2. A structure on top of the body, called the madreporite, regulates
the amount of water in the water vascular system.
Answers to SAE 2
1. The five classes of Echinoderms are: Asteroidea (sea stars),
Ophiuroidea (brittle stars), Echinoidea (sea urchins and sand
dollars), Crinoidea (sea lilies or feather stars), and Holothuroidea
(sea cucumbers)
2. Its class Asteroidea (Sea stars) which have two stomachs, one of
which they can evert through their mouths to secrete digestive
juices into or onto prey before ingestion, a process that can
essentially liquefy the prey and make digestion easier.
Answers to SAE 3
3. It suggests that the notochord is important for support during
locomotion of an organism.
4. During embryonic development, we also have a notochord, a
dorsal hollow nerve tube, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail.
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Unit 6 Vertebrates I: Fishes and Amphibians
Unit Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.3 Main Contents
6.3.1 Vertebrate organisms
6.3.1.1 Fishes
6.3.1.2 Jawless Fishes
6.3.1.3 Jawed Fishes
6.3.1.4 Bony Fishes
6.3.2 Amphibians
6.3.2.1 Characteristics Features of Amphibians
6.3.2.2 Amphibian Diversity
6.3.2.3 Ecological Adaptation of Amphibians
6.4 Summary
6.1 Introduction
Vertebrates are among the most recognizable organisms of the animal

kingdom. More than 62,000 vertebrate species have been identified. The
vertebrate species now living represent only a small portion of the
vertebrates that have existed. The best-known extinct vertebrates are the
dinosaurs, a unique group of reptiles, reaching sizes not seen before or
since in terrestrial animals. They were the dominant terrestrial animals
for 150 million years, until they died out near the end of the Cretaceous
period in a mass extinction. A great deal is known about the anatomy of
the dinosaurs, given the preservation of their skeletal elements in the
fossil record.
1. Describe the general characteristics and classification of

vertebrates
2. Describe the difference between jawless and jawed fishes
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6.3 Main Contents
6.3.1 Vertebrate Organisms
Vertebrates have several basic features. First, vertebrates have a

complex central nervous system. This includes a well-developed brain
and a spinal cord that is held in the vertebral column. Vertebrates also
have a closed circulatory system. This means the blood of a vertebrate
circulates through its body in blood vessels. Vertebrates also have skin
that is protected by hair, feathers, or scales. Finally, as embryos,
vertebrates have neural crest cells. These cells develop into nerve cells
and cells that form facial features.
In addition to these basic features, there are five key characteristics that
are common to all vertebrates. These include:
1. Vertebra/backbone: Vertebra are a series of small bones that
make up the backbone. The spinal cord passes through the
vertebral column.
2. Skull: Vertebrates have a skull. This protects the delicate, well-
developed brain.
3. Endoskeleton: Vertebrates have a well-developed endoskeleton.
4. This is an internal skeleton that provides structure to the
vertebrate's body.
5. Bilateral Symmetry: These organisms are bilaterally
symmetrical. This means that vertebrates have mirror-image right
and left halves of their bodies.
6. Two Pairs of Appendages: Vertebrates have appendages such as
wings, fins, or limbs. These appendages are seen in pairs on the
vertebrate's body.
Vertebrates are divided into five classes: - Pisces - Amphibia - Reptilia -

Aves, and - Mammalia. What does the complex central nervous system
of vertebrates consisted? Vertebrates have a complex central nervous
system that includes a well-developed brain and a spinal cord that is
held in the vertebral column.
1. What are the five classes of Vertebrates?
2. What are the two pairs of appendages possessed by
vertebrates?
3.3.1.1Fishes
Modern fishes include an estimated 31,000 species. Fishes were the

earliest vertebrates, and jawless fishes were the earliest of these. Jawless
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fishes—the present day hagfishes and lampreys—have a distinct

cranium and complex sense organs including eyes, distinguishing them
from the invertebrate chordates. The jawed fishes evolved later and are
extraordinarily diverse today. Fishes are active feeders, rather than
sessile, suspension feeders.
3.3.1.2 Jawless Fishes
Jawless fishes are craniates (which includes all the chordate groups
except the tunicates and lancelets) that represent an ancient vertebrate
lineage that arose over one half-billion years ago. Some of the earliest
jawless fishes were the ostracoderms (which translates as “shell-skin”).
Ostracoderms, now extinct, were vertebrate fishes encased in bony
armor, unlike present-day jawless fishes, which lack bone in their scales.
The clade Myxini includes 67 species of hagfishes. Hagfishes are eel-

like scavengers that live on the ocean floor and feed on dead
invertebrates, other fishes, and marine mammals (Figure 6.1a).
Hagfishes are entirely marine and are found in oceans around the world
except for the polar regions. A unique feature of these animals is the
slime glands beneath the skin that are able to release an extraordinary
amount of mucus through surface pores. This mucus may allow the
hagfish to escape from the grip of predators. Hagfish are known to enter
the bodies of dead or dying organisms to devour them from the inside.
Figure 6.1 (a) Pacific hagfishes are scavengers that live on the ocean
floor. (b) These parasitic sea lampreys attach to their lake trout host by
suction and use their rough tongues to rasp away flesh in order to feed
on the trout’s blood. Source: https://openstax.org/books/concepts-
biology/pages/15-6-vertebrates
The skeleton of a hagfish is composed of cartilage, which includes a

cartilaginous notochord, which runs the length of the body, and a skull.
This notochord provides support to the fish’s body. Although they are
craniates, hagfishes are not vertebrates, since they do not replace the
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notochord with a vertebral column during development, as do the

vertebrates.
The clade Petromyzontidae includes approximately 40 species of

lampreys. Lampreys are similar to hagfishes in size and shape;
however, lampreys have a brain case and incomplete vertebrae.
Lampreys lack paired appendages and bone, as do the hagfishes. As
adults, lampreys are characterized by a toothed, funnel-like sucking
mouth. Some species are parasitic as adults, attaching to and feeding on
the body fluids of fish (Figure 15.37b). Most species are free-living.
Lampreys live primarily in coastal and fresh waters and have a

worldwide temperate region distribution. All species spawn in fresh
waters. Eggs are fertilized externally, and the larvae are distinctly
different from the adult form, spending 3 to 15 years as suspension
feeders. Once they attain sexual maturity, the adults reproduce and die
within days. Lampreys have a notochord as adults.
6.3.1.3 Jawed Fishes
Gnathostomes or “jaw-mouths” are vertebrates that have jaws and

include both cartilaginous and bony fishes. One of the most significant
developments in early vertebrate evolution was the origin of the jaw,
which is a hinged structure attached to the cranium that allows an animal
to grasp and tear its food. The evolution of jaws allowed early
gnathostomes to exploit food resources that were unavailable to jawless
fishes.
The clade Chondrichthyes, the cartilaginous fishes, is diverse,

consisting of sharks (Figure 6.3a), rays, and skates, together with
sawfishes and a few dozen species of fishes called chimaeras, or ghost
sharks. Chondrichthyes have paired fins and a skeleton made of
cartilage. This clade arose approximately 370 million years ago in the
middle Devonian. They are thought to have descended from an extinct
group that had a skeleton made of bone; thus, the cartilaginous skeleton
of Chondrichthyes is a later development. Parts of the shark skeleton are
strengthened by granules of calcium carbonate, but this is not the same
as bone.
Most cartilaginous fishes live in marine habitats, with a few species

living in fresh water for some or all of their lives. Most sharks are
carnivores that feed on live prey, either swallowing it whole or using
their jaws and teeth to tear it into smaller pieces. Shark teeth likely
evolved from the jagged scales that cover their skin. Some species of
sharks and rays are suspension feeders that feed on plankton.
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Figure 6.3(a) This hammerhead shark is an example of a predatory

cartilaginous fish. (b) This stingray blends into the sandy bottom of the
ocean floor when it is feeding or awaiting prey. Source:
https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/15-6-vertebrates
Sharks have well-developed sense organs that aid them in locating prey,
including a keen sense of smell and electroreception, the latter being
perhaps the most sensitive of any animal. Organs called ampullae of
Lorenzini allow sharks to detect the electromagnetic fields that are
produced by all living things, including their prey. Electroreception has
only been observed in aquatic or amphibious animals. Sharks, together
with most fishes, also have a sense organ called the lateral line, which
is used to detect movement and vibration in the surrounding water, and a
sense that is often considered homologous to “hearing” in terrestrial
vertebrates. The lateral line is visible as a darker stripe that runs along
the length of the fish’s body.
Sharks reproduce sexually and eggs are fertilized internally. Most

species are ovoviviparous, that is, the fertilized egg is retained in the
oviduct of the mother’s body, and the embryo is nourished by the egg
yolk. The eggs hatch in the uterus and young are born alive and fully
functional. Some species of sharks are oviparous: They lay eggs that
hatch outside of the mother’s body. Embryos are protected by a shark
egg case or “mermaid’s purse” that has the consistency of leather. The
shark egg case has tentacles that snag in seaweed and give the newborn
shark cover. A few species of sharks are viviparous, that is, the young
develop within the mother’s body, and she gives live birth.
Rays and skates include more than 500 species and are closely related to
sharks. They can be distinguished from sharks by their flattened bodies,
pectoral fins that are enlarged and fused to the head, and gill slits on
their ventral surface (Figure 6.3b). Like sharks, rays and skates have a
cartilaginous skeleton. Most species are marine and live on the sea floor,
with nearly a worldwide distribution.
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6.3.1.4 Bony Fishes
Members of the clade Osteichthyes, or bony fishes, are characterized by

a bony skeleton. The vast majority of present-day fishes belong to this
group, which consists of approximately 30,000 species, making it the
largest class of vertebrates in existence today. Nearly all bony fishes
have an ossified skeleton with specialized bone cells (osteocytes) that
produce and maintain a calcium phosphate matrix. This characteristic
has only reverted in a few groups of Osteichthyes, such as sturgeons and
paddlefish, which have primarily cartilaginous skeletons. The skin of
bony fishes is often covered in overlapping scales, and glands in the skin
secrete mucus that reduces drag when swimming and aids the fish in
osmoregulation. Like sharks, bony fishes have a lateral line system that
detects vibrations in water. Unlike sharks, some bony fish depend on
their eyesight to locate prey. Bony fish are also unusual in possessing
taste cells in the head and trunk region of the body that allow them to
detect extremely small concentrations of molecules in the water. All
bony fishes, like the cartilaginous fishes, use gills to breathe. Water is
drawn over gills that are located in chambers covered and ventilated by
a protective, muscular flap called the operculum. Unlike sharks, bony
fishes have a swim bladder, a gas-filled organ that helps to control the
buoyancy of the fish. Bony fishes are further divided into two clades
with living members: Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes)
and Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fishes). The ray-finned fishes include
many familiar fishes—tuna, bass, trout, and salmon (Figure 6.4a),
among others. Ray-finned fishes are named for the form of their fins—
webs of skin supported by bony spines called rays. In contrast, the fins
of lobe-finned fishes are fleshy and supported by bone (Figure 6.4b).
Living members of lobe-finned fishes include the less familiar
lungfishes and coelacanth. IN-TEXT QUESTION (ITQ): Which of the
fishes were the earliest vertebrates that evolved? Fishes were the earliest
vertebrates, and jawless fishes were the earliest of these.
Figure 6.4 The (a) sockeye salmon and (b) coelacanth are both bony
fishes of the Osteichthyes clade. The coelacanth, sometimes called a
lobe-finned fish, was thought to have gone extinct in the Late
Cretaceous period 100 million years ago until one was discovered in
1938 between Africa and Madagascar. Source:
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1. What are jawless fishes?

2. What is the mot important characteristic of members of the
clade Osteichthyes?
6.3.2 Amphibians
Amphibians are vertebrate tetrapods. Amphibia includes frogs,

salamanders, and caecilians. The term amphibian means “dual life,”
which is a reference to the metamorphosis that many frogs undergo from
a tadpole to an adult and the mixture of aquatic and terrestrial
environments in their life cycle. Amphibians evolved in the Devonian
period and were the earliest terrestrial tetrapods. As tetrapods, most
amphibians are characterized by four well-developed limbs, although
some species of salamanders and all caecilians possess only vestigial
limbs. An important characteristic of extant amphibians is a moist,
permeable skin, achieved by mucus glands. The moist skin allows
oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange with the environment, a process
called cutaneous respiration. All living adult amphibian species are
carnivorous, and some terrestrial amphibians have a sticky tongue that is
used to capture prey. 90% of all amphibian species are frogs. IN-TEXT
QUESTION (ITQ): Which chordate class is considered evidence of the
transition of vertebrates from an aquatic environment to dry land?
Amphibians are totally aquatic during their larval stage and partially
terrestrial animals as adults. Because of this, they are considered
intermediate organisms in the evolutionary passage of vertebrates from
an aquatic to dry land. Amphibians are also the first tetrapod animals;
that is, the first with two pairs of limbs, a typical feature of terrestrial
vertebrates. The name “amphibian” comes from the double life (aquatic
as larvae and partially terrestrial as adults) of these animals.
6.3.2.1 Characteristics Features of Amphibians
Below are some of the characteristics shared by the amphibians.

1. Egg Are Fertilized Outside of the Body
Most amphibians reproduce in fresh water while a few lay their eggs on
land and have developed mechanisms to keep the eggs moist.
Reproduction in amphibians has more similarities with the fish than with
reptiles or mammals. Although they reproduce sexually, fertilization and
development of the young ones take place outside the body.
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2. Cold-Blooded
Although amphibians exhibit both terrestrial and aquatic characteristic,
they are strictly cold-blooded or ectothermic. They do not have the
internal mechanisms to regulate their own body temperatures like
mammals do. They rely on the external environment to regulate their
body temperature. Amphibians tend to bask in the sun to raise their body
temperature and retreat to a cold place to lower their temperature. Their
cold-blooded nature has limited the ecosystem in which they can thrive
in since they cannot survive in areas of high or low temperatures.
Amphibians do not have hair or fur to insulate them from heat loss. To
survive the cold winter, most amphibians remain active throughout the
period. Some also sink deep into the water to stay warm. Other species
hibernate at the bottom of the ponds. Salamanders have the ability to
antifreeze ice forming around them by converting glycogen into glucose.
3. Breathe Through Skin

Amphibians have primitive lungs compared to other amniotes. They
possess large alveoli and few internal septa, responsible for a slow
oxygen diffusion rate into the blood. The lungs have low internal
volumes and cannot process as much air as mammals or reptiles. Some
species of salamanders are lungless and have to employ other means to
breathe. Most amphibians exchange gases or breathe through their
moist, permeable skin. To facilitate sufficient gaseous exchange, the
vascular skin of the amphibians must be moist. The moist skin allows
the oxygen to diffuse at a sufficiently high rate. The process by which
gaseous exchange takes place through the skin is called cutaneous
respiration. Aquatic amphibians like the Titicaca water frog can rely
entirely on cutaneous respiration since the concentration of oxygen in
water increases at both low temperature and high rate of flow. A
network of cutaneous capillaries enables for the exchange of gases and
the diffusion of water and iron between the environment and the animal.
4. Carnivores
Amphibians are mainly carnivores and feed on almost anything that
moves and they can swallow. The adult amphibian is a predator with its
diet consisting of a wide variety of food. Some of these foods include
spiders, earthworms, beetles, and caterpillars. Burrowing caecilians
mainly feed on earthworms whereas salamanders and anurans feed
mainly on insects and arthropods. Large amphibians can also feed on
small vertebrates such as birds and mammals. Food is often selected by
sight, even in areas with dim light.
5. Time Spent In Water And On Land

Amphibians spend their life both on land and in water. The term
“amphibian” is a Greek word for “amphibious” which means “living a
double life.” Most have a biphasic life cycle which involves the
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fertilization and development of eggs and larvae in water. The larvae

metamorphose into a semi-terrestrial or terrestrial juvenile and adults.
On the evolutionary tree, amphibians are found midway between fish
which fully live in water and reptiles and mammals which lead a fully
terrestrial lifestyle. Adult amphibians have to live near water since they
need steady moisture supply in order to survive. They can be found in a
wide range of habitat near water including swamps, streams, forests, and
dump areas.
6.3.2.2Amphibian Diversity
Amphibians are animals that are characterized by their ability to survive

both in water and on land. The name “amphibian” is derived from the
Greek word “amphibious” which means “to live a double life.” There
are over 6,500 living species of amphibians with the majority of the
species living within fresh aquatic water ecosystem. Most of them are
born in water and start off as a larva and develop a land-based lifestyle
as they develop. The class Amphibia is divided into three modern
orders:
1. Anura (“tail-less ones”), which includes the toads and frogs.
2. Apoda (“legless ones”), which comprises the caecilians.
3. Urodela (“tailed-ones”), which are mainly salamanders.
Living salamanders (Figure 6.5a) include approximately 500 species,

some of which are aquatic, others terrestrial, and some that live on land
only as adults. Adult salamanders usually have a generalized tetrapod
body plan with four limbs and a tail. Some salamanders are lungless,
and respiration occurs through the skin or external gills. Some terrestrial
salamanders have primitive lungs; a few species have both gills and
lungs.
Figure 6.5 (a) Most salamanders have legs and a tail, but respiration
varies among species. (b) The Australian green tree frog is a nocturnal
predator that lives in the canopies of trees near a water source. Source:
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Frogs (Figure 6.5b) are the most diverse group of amphibians, with
approximately 5,000 species that live on all continents except
Antarctica. Frogs have a body plan that is more specialized than the
salamander body plan for movement on land. Adult frogs use their hind
limbs to jump many times their body length on land. Frogs have a
number of modifications that allow them to avoid predators, including
skin that acts as camouflage and defensive chemicals that are poisonous
to predators secreted from glands in the skin.
Frog eggs are fertilized externally, as they are laid in moist

environments. Frogs demonstrate a range of parental behaviors, with
some species exhibiting little care, to species that carry eggs and
tadpoles on their hind legs or backs. The life cycle consists of two
stages: the larval stage followed by metamorphosis to an adult stage.
The larval stage of a frog, the tadpole, is often a filter-feeding
herbivore. Tadpoles usually have gills, a lateral line system, long-finned
tails, but no limbs. At the end of the tadpole stage, frogs undergo a
gradual metamorphosis into the adult form. During this stage, the gills
and lateral line system disappear, and four limbs develop. The jaws
become larger and are suited for carnivorous feeding, and the digestive
system transforms into the typical short gut of a predator. An eardrum
and air-breathing lungs also develop. These changes during
metamorphosis allow the larvae to move onto land in the adult stage
(Figure 6.6).
Figure 6.6 A frog begins as a (a) tadpole and undergoes metamorphosis

to become (b) a juvenile and finally (c) an adult. Source:
Caecilians comprise an estimated 185 species. They lack external limbs
and resemble giant earthworms. They inhabit soil and are found
primarily in the tropics of South America, Africa, and southern Asia
where they are adapted for a soil-burrowing lifestyle and are nearly
blind. Unlike most of the other amphibians that breed in or near water,
reproduction in a drier soil habitat means that caecilians must utilize
internal fertilization, and most species give birth to live young (Figure
6.7).
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Figure 6.7 Caecilians lack external limbs and are well adapted for a
soil-burrowing lifestyle. Source: https://openstax.org/books/concepts-
biology/pages/15-6-vertebrates
6.3.2.3 Ecological Adaptation of Amphibians
The amphibians are as class, typically furnished with five fingered limbs
which are adapted for locomotion both on land as well as in water. They
are cold –blooded or poikilothermic animals of jumping and swimming
habits. Their skin is smooth, clammy and naked, that is without scales.
There is remarkable difference between the young and the adults; the
limbless but tailed young forms or tadpoles, as they are called, live in
water and breathe by gills while almost in every case the adults breathe
by lungs and can live both on land as well as in water and hence the
name amphibian. The skin is usually soft and moist in order to carry on
the important functions of skin or cutaneous respiration and this is the
reason why the presence of moisture is essential for the wellbeing of all
amphibians. The tailless amphibians, such as frogs and toads, numbering
some thousand species, have a worldwide distribution. They are most
abundantly found in tropical countries. Bu it is remarkable that
notwithstanding their natural inclination to live in and around water no
amphibian has been discovered to live in salt and marine waters. Is a
crocodile an amphibian?
1. Which animals are called amphibians?

2. What is considered an amphibian?
6.4 Summary
You have studied in this unit that fishes are adapted to life in water, with
specialized structures like gills for breathing and fins for swimming,
while amphibians have adaptations that allow them to live both in water
and on land, including their unique skin and specialized limbs.
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The earliest vertebrates that diverged from the invertebrate chordates

were the jawless fishes. Hagfishes are eel-like scavengers that feed on
dead invertebrates and other fishes. Lampreys are characterized by a
toothed, funnel-like sucking mouth, and some species are parasitic on
other fishes. Gnathostomes include the jawed fishes (cartilaginous and
bony fishes) as well as all other tetrapods. Cartilaginous fishes include
sharks, rays, skates, and ghost sharks. Bony fishes can be further divided
into ray-finned and lobe-finned fishes.
As tetrapods, most amphibians are characterized by four well-developed

limbs, although some species of salamanders and all caecilians are
limbless. Amphibians have a moist, permeable skin used for cutaneous
respiration. Amphibia can be divided into three clades: salamanders
(Urodela), frogs (Anura), and caecilians (Apoda). The life cycle of
amphibians consists of two distinct stages: the larval stage and
metamorphosis to an adult stage.
Kikuyama, Sakae; Kawamura, Kousuke; Tanaka, Shigeyasu;

Yamamoto, Kakutoshi (1993). "Aspects of amphibian metamorphosis:
Hormonal control". International Review of Cytology: A Survey of Cell
Biology. Academic Press. pp. 105–126. ISBN 978-0-12-364548-
7. Archived from the original on April 14, 2021. Retrieved October
15, 2020.
Schoch, Rainer R. (2014). Amphibian Evolution: The Life of Early Land
Vertebrates. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781118759134. Archived from
the original on July 25, 2020.
Uno, Yoshinobu (2021). "Inference of evolution of vertebrate genomes
and chromosomes from genomic and cytogenetic analyses using
amphibians". Chromosome Science. 24 (1–2): 3–
12. doi:10.11352/scr.24.3.
https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/1-introduction
https://youtu.be/GT2iSFj19DE
https://youtu.be/XvvpaGsoY_U
https://youtu.be/xSUCSB6uQVk
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Answers to SAE 1
1. Vertebrates are divided into five classes: - Pisces - Amphibia -
Reptilia - Aves, and - Mammalia.
2. The two pairs of appendages include appendages such as wings,
fins, or limbs. These appendages are seen in pairs on the
vertebrate's body.
Answers to SAE 2
1. Jawless fishes are craniates (which include all the chordate
groups except the tunicates and lancelets) that represent an
ancient vertebrate lineage that arose over one half-billion years
ago.
2. Members of the clade Osteichthyes, or bony fishes, are
characterized by a bony skeleton.
Answers to SAE 3
1. Amphibians are specialized organisms within the class Amphibia.
This order contains salamanders (urodeles or caudates), frogs and toads
(anurans), and caecilians (apodans or gymnophionans).
2. An amphibian is usually an organism that exhibits a metamorphic
life strategy, though this isn't always true. Amphibians are
ectothermic animals that usually have thin, slimy skin. They
include salamanders, frogs, and caecilians.
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UNIT 7 VERTEBRATES II: REPTILES, BIRDS AND

MAMMALS
Unit structure
7.1 Introduction
7.3 Main Contents
7.3.1 Vertebrates II: The Amniotes
7.3.1.1 Reptiles
7.3.1.2 Diversity of Reptiles
7.3.2 Birds
7.3.2.1 Characteristics of Birds
7.3.2.2 External Features of Birds
7.3.2.3 Adaptive Features of Birds to Their Environment
7.3.3 Mammals
7.3.3.1 Diversity and Characteristics of Mammals
7.3.3.2 Primates
7.3.3.3 Adaptations of vertebrates to the terrestrial
environment
7.4 Summary
7.1 Introduction
In this unit, we shall study about the amniotes which are a clade of
tetrapod vertebrates comprising the reptiles, birds, and mammals.
Amniotes are characterized by having an egg equipped with an amnion,
an adaptation to lay eggs on land or retain the fertilized egg within the
mother. Amniote embryos, whether laid as eggs or carried by the
female, are protected and aided by several extensive membranes. In
eutherian mammals (such as humans), these membranes include the
amniotic sac that surrounds the fetus. These embryonic membranes and
the lack of a larval stage distinguish amniotes from tetrapod amphibians.
1. Identify the classes of animals that are amniotes

2. Explain the main characteristics of amphibians, reptiles, and birds
3. Discuss the evolution of amniotes
4. Describe the derived characteristics in birds that facilitate flight
5. Name and describe the distinguishing features of the three main
groups of mammals
6. Describe the derived features that distinguish primates from other
animals
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7.3 Main Contents
7.3.1 Vertebrates II: The Amniotes
The amniotes—reptiles, birds, and mammals—are distinguished from

amphibians by their terrestrially adapted (shelled) egg and an embryo
protected by amniotic membranes. The evolution of amniotic
membranes meant that the embryos of amniotes could develop within an
aquatic environment inside the egg. This led to less dependence on a
water environment for development and allowed the amniotes to invade
drier areas. This was a significant evolutionary change that distinguished
them from amphibians, which were restricted to moist environments due
to their shell-less eggs. Although the shells of various amniotic species
vary significantly, they all allow retention of water. The membranes of
the amniotic egg also allowed gas exchange and sequestering of wastes
within the enclosure of an eggshell. The shells of bird eggs are
composed of calcium carbonate and are hard and brittle, but possess
pores for gas and water exchange. The shells of reptile eggs are more
leathery and pliable. Most mammals do not lay eggs; however, even
with internal gestation, amniotic membranes are still present.
In the past, the most common division of amniotes has been into classes
Mammalia, Reptilia, and Aves. Birds are descended, however, from
dinosaurs, so this classical scheme results in groups that are not true
clades. We will discuss birds as a group distinct from reptiles with the
understanding that this does not reflect evolutionary history.
7.3.1.1Reptiles
They are basically Tetrapods. Snakes and other squamates

have vestigial organs such as limbs and are categorised as tetrapods,
like caecilians, since they are descended from four-limbed ancestors.
Reptiles deposit eggs encased in shells on land. Even reptiles that live in
the water come ashore to lay their eggs. Internal fertilisation is the
most common method of reproduction for them. Some species are
ovoviviparous, meaning the eggs stay in the mother's body until the time
comes for them to hatch. Other species are viviparous, meaning they
give birth to live offspring. Which vertebrate class is considered to be
the first that was entirely terrestrial?
1. Reptiles have Oviparous Characteristics: The majority of reptiles

reproduce sexually, however others can reproduce asexually. The
cloaca, which is located at the base of the tail, is used for reproduction.
Most reptiles have copulatory organs, which are generally hidden inside
their bodies. A penis is seen in male turtles and crocodiles, whereas a
pair of hemipenes is found in lizards and snakes. Because some species,
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such as the tuatara, lack copulatory organs, mating is accomplished by

forcing the cloaca together.
Figure 7.1 Life cycle of a Turtle. Source:

Life Cycle of Reptiles

1. Reptiles have scales: The creation of reptiles' scaly skin, which
includes the protein keratin and waxy lipids to reduce water loss
from the skin, was one of the important adaptations that allowed
them to survive on land. Because reptiles and amphibians have
occlusive skin, they can't breathe through their skin and must rely
on their lungs.
2. Reptiles are Ectotherms: Ectotherms are animals whose primary
source of body heat is derived from their surroundings.
Endotherms, on the other hand, control body temperature using heat

produced by metabolism. Reptiles are classified as poikilotherms, or
creatures whose body temperatures fluctuate rather than remain
constant, in addition to being ectothermic. Reptiles have behavioural
adaptations to assist control body temperature, such as warming up by
basking in the sun and cooling down by choosing shaded regions or
burrowing underground.
3. Lungs are used by reptiles to breathe: Lungs are used by reptiles
to breathe. The breathing process can only be completed through the
lungs, despite the fact that turtles have porous skin through which
gaseous exchange occurs, and certain species improve the pace of
gaseous exchange through the cloaca. Distinct reptile species
have different ways of breathing through their lungs. The lungs of
lizards and snakes are ventilated by axial musculature, which is
also utilised to move. As a result of these factors, the majority of
animals are obliged to hold their breath during strenuous activity.
Some lizards, on the other hand, use buccal pumping to help them
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breathe. Crocodiles have muscular diaphragms, which pull the pubis

backwards to provide room for the lungs to expand. Because certain
reptiles lack secondary palates, they must hold their breath while
swallowing.
Figure 7.2 Breathing lungs in reptiles. Source:

Respiratory System of Reptiles

1. Reptiles have characteristics of a Vertebrate: Reptiles have traits
that are comparable to those of mammals, birds, and certain
amphibians. The spinal cords that span the length of their bodies
are housed in their backbones. From the tail to the skull, reptiles
contain a chain of bone parts. The cranium or skull, appendages,
and limb girdles make up the bone endoskeleton. The inner tissue
is protected by the endoskeleton, which also assists in bodily
mobility. What constitutes the bone exoskeleton in rptiles?
1. How does reproduction atake place in animals of the class Reptilia?

2. Do organisms of the class Reptilia have direct or indirect
development?
7.3.1.2 Diversity of Reptiles
Class Reptilia includes diverse species classified into four living clades.
These are the Crocodilia, Sphenodontia, Squamata, and Testudines.
The Crocodilia (“small lizard”) arose approximately 84 million years
ago, and living species include alligators, crocodiles, and caimans.
Crocodilians (Figure 7.3a) live throughout the tropics of Africa, South
America, the southeastern United States, Asia, and Australia. They are
found in freshwater habitats, such as rivers and lakes, and spend most of
their time in water. Some species are able to move on land due to their
semi-erect posture.
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Figure 7.3 (a) Crocodilians, such as this Siamese crocodile, provide

parental care for their offspring. (b) This Jackson’s chameleon blends in
with its surroundings. (c) The garter snake belongs to the
genus Thamnophis, the most widely distributed reptile genus in North
America. (d) The African spurred tortoise lives at the southern edge of
the Sahara Desert. It is the third largest tortoise in the world. Source:
The Sphenodontia (“wedge tooth”) arose in the Mesozoic Era and

includes only one living genus, Tuatara, with two species that are found
in New Zealand. There are many fossil species extending back to the
Triassic period (250–200 million years ago). Although the tuataras
resemble lizards, they are anatomically distinct and share characteristics
that are found in birds and turtles.
Squamata (“scaly”) arose in the late Permian; living species include

lizards and snakes, which are the largest extant clade of reptiles (Figure
7.3b). Lizards differ from snakes by having four limbs, eyelids, and
external ears, which are lacking in snakes. Lizard species range in size
from chameleons and geckos that are a few centimeters in length to the
Komodo dragon, which is about 3 meters in length.
Snakes are thought to have descended from either burrowing lizards or

aquatic lizards over 100 million years ago (Figure 7.3c). Snakes
comprise about 3,000 species and are found on every continent except
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Antarctica. They range in size from 10 centimeter-long thread snakes to

7.5 meter-long pythons and anacondas. All snakes are carnivorous and
eat small animals, birds, eggs, fish, and insects.
Turtles are members of the clade Testudines (“having a shell”) (Figure

7.3d). Turtles are characterized by a bony or cartilaginous shell, made
up of the carapace on the back and the plastron on the ventral surface,
which develops from the ribs. Turtles arose approximately 200 million
years ago, predating crocodiles, lizards, and snakes. Turtles lay eggs on
land, although many species live in or near water. Turtles range in size
from the speckled padloper tortoise at 8 centimeters (3.1 inches) to the
leatherback sea turtle at 200 centimeters (over 6 feet). The term “turtle”
is sometimes used to describe only those species of Testudines that live
in the sea, with the terms “tortoise” and “terrapin” used to refer to
species that live on land and in fresh water, respectively. Compared to
amphibians, what is an example of an evolutionary innovation present in
organisms of the class Reptilia to combat the loss of water through the
skin? Reptile skin is keratinized and impermeable to water whereas
amphibian skin is permeable. The impermeability of their skin made the
cutaneous gas exchange performed by amphibians impossible, making
respiration dependent on internal organs such as airways and lungs.
Reptiles have developed several adaptations to lead a complete
terrestrial life. These adaptations include:
1. Thick, scaly skin that helps them to conserve moisture inside
their bodies, which helps them survive on land (especially in hot and
dry areas).
2. Efficient excretory systems which help them to excrete a highly
concentrated urine.
3. Kidneys that have adapted to living on land with limited access to
drinking water.
4. A reproductive strategy that involves laying soft-shelled eggs.
5. Lungs that are adapted to breathing air.
6. Basking in the sun to regulate their body temperature
7. Legs that are adapted for walking on land
7.3.2 Birds
The most obvious characteristic that sets birds apart from other modern
vertebrates is the presence of feathers, which are modified scales. While
vertebrates like bats fly without feathers, birds rely on feathers and
wings, along with other modifications of body structure and physiology,
for flight.
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7.3.2.1Characteristics of Birds
Birds are endothermic, and because they fly, they require large amounts
of energy, necessitating a high metabolic rate. Like mammals, which are
also endothermic, birds have an insulating covering that keeps heat in
the body: feathers. Specialized feathers called down feathers are
especially insulating, trapping air in spaces between each feather to
decrease the rate of heat loss. Certain parts of a bird’s body are covered
in down feathers, and the base of other feathers have a downy portion,
whereas newly hatched birds are covered in down.
Feathers not only act as insulation but also allow for flight, enabling the
lift and thrust necessary to become airborne. The feathers on a wing are
flexible, so the collective feathers move and separate as air moves
through them, reducing the drag on the wing. Flight feathers are
asymmetrical, which affects airflow over them and provides some of the
lifting and thrusting force required for flight (see the figure below).
Two types of flight feathers are found on the wings, primary feathers
and secondary feathers. Primary feathers are located at the tip of the
wing and provide thrust. Secondary feathers are located closer to the
body, attach to the forearm portion of the wing and provide lift. Contour
feathers are the feathers found on the body, and they help reduce drag
produced by wind resistance during flight. They create a smooth,
aerodynamic surface so that air moves smoothly over the bird’s body,
allowing for efficient flight.
Figure 7.4 (a) Primary feathers are located at the wing tip and provide
thrust; secondary feathers are located close to the body and provide lift.
(b) Many birds have hollow pneumatic bones, which make flight easier.
Source:https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/15-6-
vertebrates
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Flapping of the entire wing occurs primarily through the actions of the
chest muscles, the pectoralis and the supracoracoideus.
These muscles are highly developed in birds and account for a higher
percentage of body mass than in most mammals. These attach to a
blade-shaped keel, like that of a boat, located on the sternum. The
sternum of birds is larger than that of other vertebrates, which
accommodates the large muscles required to generate enough upward
force to generate lift with the flapping of the wings. Another skeletal
modification found in most birds is the fusion of the two clavicles
(collarbones), forming the furcula or wishbone. The furcula is flexible
enough to bend and provide support to the shoulder girdle during
flapping.
An important requirement of flight is a low body weight. As body

weight increases, the muscle output required for flying increases. The
largest living bird is the ostrich, and while it is much smaller than the
largest mammals, it is flightless. For birds that do fly, reduction in body
weight makes flight easier. Several modifications are found in birds to
reduce body weight, including pneumatization of bones. Pneumatic
bones are bones that are hollow, rather than filled with tissue (see the
figure below). They contain air spaces that are sometimes connected to
air sacs, and they have struts of bone to provide structural reinforcement.
Pneumatic bones are not found in all birds, and they are more extensive
in large birds than in small birds. Not all bones of the skeleton are
pneumatic, although the skulls of almost all birds are.
Figure 7.5 Birds have hollow, pneumatic bones, which make flight
easier. Source: https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/15-6-
vertebrates
Other modifications that reduce weight include the lack of a urinary

bladder. Birds possess a cloaca, a structure that allows water to be
reabsorbed from waste back into the bloodstream. Uric acid is not
expelled as a liquid but is concentrated into urate salts, which are
expelled along with fecal matter. In this way, water is not held in the
urinary bladder, which would increase body weight. Most
bird species only possess one ovary rather than two, further reducing
body mass. The air sacs that extend into bones to form pneumatic bones
also join with the lungs and function in respiration. Unlike mammalian
lungs in which air flows in two directions, as it is breathed in and out,
221
airflow through bird lungs travels in one direction (see the figure
below). Air sacs allow for this unidirectional airflow, which also creates
a cross-current exchange system with the blood. In a cross-current or
counter-current system, the air flows in one direction and
the blood flows in the opposite direction, creating a very efficient means
of gas exchange. What is the role of the cloaca in the success of birds for
live in the terrestrial environment?
Figure 7.6 Avian respiration is an efficient system of gas exchange with

air flowing unidirectionally. During inhalation, air passes from the
trachea into posterior air sacs, then through the lungs to anterior air sacs.
The air sacs are connected to the hollow interior of bones. During
exhalation, air from air sacs passes into the lungs and out the trachea.
Source: https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/15-6-
vertebrates
7.3.2.2External Features of Birds
The body of the birds is steamlined or spindle-shaped well adapted for

aerial life. The neck is usually long and flexible. The head is rounded
and the facial portion is produced into beak. Close to the base of the
beak are two slit-like nostrils. The eyes of the bird are of considerable
size for the sense of smell seems to be feebly developed but the
powervision is correspondingly advanced, especially in some birds of
prey. Each eye is provided with three eyelids: the upper and lower
eyelids are like fold of skin while the third eyelid, the nictitating
membrane, is a delicate transparent membrane which can be drawn
across the eye. Usually the lower lid is movable. On each side of the
head there is a small aperture with a short passage leading to the ear-
drum. It lies behind and below the eyes and is usually hidden by the
features. Unlike mammals, the external ears are absent. What are the
main morphological features of birds?
7.3.2.3 Adaptive Features of Birds to Their Environment
The fore limbs form the wings which are organs of flight while the hind
limbs are adapted for bearing the entire weight of the body when
walking. For this purpose the hind limbs are usually attached somewhat
222
for forward and the skeleton is also modified to this end. The legs are
covered with scales. The cloaca lies on the ventral surface at the root of
the tail and on the dorsal surface of the same region is an oilgland. Its
oily secretion is used for preening feathers. The feet, break and the
tongue present very large number of variations of form which are
closely associated with the habits of the birds. The typical number of the
toes is four, of which, three are directed forwards and one backwards. In
perching birds the toes are adapted for grasping and automatically
clutching the support. Three toes are directed forwards and one
backwards. The same arrangement of the toes is also found in birds of
prey which use their feet for seizing. The claws form great talons as in
the eagles, hawks, kites, falcons, etc. The legs of the wading birds are
usually very long and partly or completely unfeathered up to the tibial
region. They have very long toes. Swimming birds like ducks have
webbed feet which serve as paddles. What adaptations for flight are
present in birds?
1. What adaptations for flight are present in birds?

2. What similarities are present in birds and reptiles regarding
external coverage, reproduction and excretion?
7.3.3 Mammals
Mammals are vertebrates that have hair and mammary glands used to
provide nutrition for their young. Certain features of the jaw, skeleton,
skin, and internal anatomy are also unique to mammals. The presence of
hair is one of the key characteristics of a mammal. Although it is not
very extensive in some groups, such as whales, hair has many important
functions for mammals. Mammals are endothermic, and hair provides
insulation by trapping a layer of air close to the body to retain metabolic
heat. Hair also serves as a sensory mechanism through specialized hairs
called vibrissae, better known as whiskers. These attach to nerves that
transmit touch information, which is particularly useful to nocturnal or
burrowing mammals. Hair can also provide protective coloration.
Mammalian skin includes secretory glands with various

functions. Sebaceous glands produce a lipid mixture called sebum that
is secreted onto the hair and skin for water resistance and lubrication.
Sebaceous glands are located over most of the body. Sudoriferous
glands produce sweat and scent, which function in thermoregulation and
communication, respectively. Mammary glands produce milk that is
223
used to feed newborns. While male and female monotremes and

eutherians possess mammary glands, some male marsupials do not.
The skeletal system of mammals possesses unique features that
differentiate them from other vertebrates. Most mammals
have heterodont teeth, meaning they have different types and shapes of
teeth that allow them to feed on different kinds of foods. These different
types of teeth include the incisors, the canines, premolars, and molars.
The first two types are for cutting and tearing, whereas the latter two
types are for crushing and grinding. Different groups have different
proportions of each type, depending on their diet. Most mammals are
also diphyodonts, meaning they have two sets of teeth in their lifetime:
deciduous or “baby” teeth, and permanent teeth. In other vertebrates, the
teeth can be replaced throughout life.
Modern mammals are divided into three broad groups: monotremes,

marsupials, and eutherians (or placental mammals). The eutherians, or
placental mammals, and the marsupials collectively are called therian
mammals, whereas monotremes are called prototherians.
7.3.3.1Diversity and Characteristics of Mammals
There are three living species of monotremes: the platypus and two
species of echidnas, or spiny anteaters (Figure 7.7). The platypus and
one species of echidna are found in Australia, whereas the other species
of echidna is found in New Guinea. Monotremes are unique among
mammals, as they lay leathery eggs, similar to those of reptiles, rather
than giving birth to live young. However, the eggs are retained within
the mother’s reproductive tract until they are almost ready to hatch.
Once the young hatch, the female begins to secrete milk from pores in a
ridge of mammary tissue along the ventral side of her body. Like other
mammals, monotremes are endothermic but regulate body temperatures
somewhat lower (90 °F, 32 °C) than placental mammals do (98 °F, 37
°C). Like reptiles, monotremes have one posterior opening for urinary,
fecal, and reproductive products, rather than three separate openings like
placental mammals do. Adult monotremes lack teeth.
224
Figure 7.7 The platypus (left), a monotreme, possesses a leathery beak

and lays eggs rather than giving birth to live young. An echidna, another
monotreme, is shown in the right photo. Source:
Marsupials are found primarily in Australia and nearby islands, although
about 100 species of opossums and a few species of two other families
are found in the Americas. Australian marsupials number over 230
species and include the kangaroo, koala, bandicoot, and Tasmanian devil
(Figure 7.8). Most species of marsupials possess a pouch in which the
young reside after birth, receiving milk and continuing to develop.
Before birth, marsupials have a less complex placental connection, and
the young are born much less developed than in placental mammals.
What are the three main groups into which mammals are divided?
Figure 7.8 The Tasmanian devil is one of several marsupials native to

Australia.Source: https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/15-
6-vertebrates
Eutherians are the most widespread of the mammals, occurring

throughout the world. There are several groups of eutherians, including
Insectivora, the insect eaters; Edentata, the toothless anteaters; Rodentia,
the rodents; Chiroptera, the bats; Cetacea, the aquatic mammals
including whales; Carnivora, carnivorous mammals including dogs, cats,
and bears; and Primates, which includes humans. Eutherian
mammals are sometimes called placental mammals, because all species
have a complex placenta that connects a fetus to the mother, allowing
for gas, fluid, waste, and nutrient exchange. While other mammals may
possess a less complex placenta or briefly have a placenta, all eutherians
have a complex placenta during gestation.
The main Characteristics of a mammal are as follows: It is warm-

blooded. Its skin has sweat and sebaceous glands and a covering of
225
hairs. It has different types of teeth, with each type carrying out a
specific function. It has external ears called pinnae. Its body cavity is
separated into two by a muscular sheet called a diaphragm. The upper
thoracic cavity contains the lungs and the heart while the lower
abdominal cavity contains the alimentary canal, the Kidneys and the
reproductive organs. It has a well-developed heart. It has a well-
developed brain. Fertilization is internal. In most mammals, the tiny
fertilized egg develops inside the body of the female parent for a period.
During this time, the young is attached to the mother by a placenta, an
organ through which it obtains nourishment from the mother. The young
is born alive (Vivipary) and feeds on the milk secreted by the mother’s
mammary glands. It is looked after by the parents until it learns to be
independent.
7.3.3.2Primates
Order Primates of class Mammalia includes lemurs, tarsiers, monkeys,

and the apes, which include humans. Non-human primates live primarily
in tropical or subtropical regions of South America, Africa, and Asia.
They range in size from the mouse lemur at 30 grams (1 ounce) to the
mountain gorilla at 200 kilograms (441 pounds). The characteristics and
evolution of primates are of particular interest to us as they allow us to
understand the evolution of our own species.
All primate species have adaptations for climbing trees, as they all
descended from tree-dwellers, although not all species are arboreal. This
arboreal heritage of primates resulted in hands and feet that are adapted
for brachiation, or climbing and swinging through trees. These
adaptations include, but are not limited to 1) a rotating shoulder joint, 2)
a big toe that is widely separated from the other toes and thumbs that are
widely separated from fingers (except humans), which allow for
gripping branches, and 3) stereoscopic vision, two overlapping visual
fields, which allows for the depth perception necessary to gauge
distance. Other characteristics of primates are brains that are larger than
those of many other mammals, claws that have been modified into
flattened nails, typically only one offspring per pregnancy, and a trend
toward holding the body upright.
Order Primates is divided into two groups: prosimians and

anthropoids. Prosimians include the bush babies of Africa, the lemurs
of Madagascar, and the lorises, pottos, and tarsiers of Southeast
Asia. Anthropoids include monkeys, lesser apes, and great apes (Figure
7.9). In general, prosimians tend to be nocturnal, smaller in size than
anthropoids, and have relatively smaller brains compared to anthropoids.
226
Figure 7.9 Primates can be divided into prosimians, such as the (a)
lemur, and anthropoids. Anthropoids include monkeys, such as the (b)
howler monkey; lesser apes, such as the (c) gibbon; and great apes, such
as the (d) chimpanzee, (e) bonobo, (f) gorilla, and (g) orangutan. Source:
7.3.3.3Adaptations of Vertebrates to the Terrestrial Environment
The animals, when they left the aquatic environment to colonize

the terrestrial environment , had to face the problem of desiccation. Only
those that had the necessary adaptations to avoid desiccation were able
to conquer the terrestrial environment. Some of these adaptations are:
1. The skin: A skin is needed to isolate the organism from the
environment and prevent water loss. Reptiles have their skin
covered with scales, which prevents it from growing. This is the
reason they have to shed their skin. Mammals have fur covered
skin and Birds have feathers cover their skin.
1. Efficient kidneys allow more water to be used by reducing its loss
in excretion.
2. Movement: terrestrial vertebrates have four legs with which they
can move or manipulate.
3. Lungs: necessary to capture oxygen from the air and be able to
carry it, through the circulatory system, to the cells. Amphibians
have their lungs are rudimentary, they need cutaneous respiration
as a complement, and Birds and mammals have their lungs are
more evolved.
227
Reproduction: Amphibians is the group worst adapted to life on

land. Their fertilization is external, they lay eggs in the water and the
young cannot leave the water until they become adults. The rest
of tetrapods have sexual reproduction with internal fertilization. While
Reptiles and birds are oviparous. The bone has a hard shell and a
protective bag, the amnion, filled with a liquid that protects and isolates
the embryo. Normally, the mother deposits the eggs and the embryo
does not come out until it is already developed. In some cases, they are
ovoviviparous, and the eggs remain inside the mother until the young
hatch. Mammals, except for the platypus, are viviparous. The embryo is
not protected by an egg, but instead develops in the mother's womb and
is nourished through the umbilical cord (except in marsupials). When
they are born, they feed on mother's milk. How do placental mammals
reproduce?
Vertebrates are adapted to life underground, on the surface, and in the

air. They range in size from minute fishes to elephants and
whales. Vertebrates feed upon plants, invertebrate animals, and one
another. Vertebrate faunas are important to humans for food and
recreation. Important adaptations of vertebrates include:
1. Structural adaptations, such as the color of skin, body shape, and
body covering.
2. Behavioral adaptations, such as special behavioral changes that
allow an organism to survive in its natural habitat.
1. What are the typical features of mammals?

2. How is circulation characterized in mammals?
7.4 Summary
The amniotes are distinguished from amphibians by the presence of a

terrestrially adapted egg protected by amniotic membranes. The
amniotes include reptiles, birds, and mammals. A key adaptation that
permitted reptiles to live on land was the development of scaly skin.
Reptilia includes four living clades: Crocodilia (crocodiles and
alligators), Sphenodontia (tuataras), Squamata (lizards and snakes), and
Testudines (turtles).
Birds are endothermic amniotes. Feathers act as insulation and allow for
flight. Birds have pneumatic bones that are hollow rather than tissue-
filled. Airflow through bird lungs travels in one direction. Birds evolved
from dinosaurs.
228
Mammals have hair and mammary glands. Mammalian skin includes

various secretory glands. Mammals are endothermic, like birds. There
are three groups of mammals living today: monotremes, marsupials, and
eutherians. Monotremes are unique among mammals as they lay eggs,
rather than giving birth to live young. Eutherian mammals have a
complex placenta.
Uno, Yoshinobu (2021). "Inference of evolution of vertebrate genomes

and chromosomes from genomic and cytogenetic analyses using
amphibians". Chromosome Science. 24 (1–2): 3–
12. doi:10.11352/scr.24.3.
https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/arthropodstory
https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/1-1-themes-and-concepts-of-
biology/
y/Book%3A_
https://tse1.mm.bing.net/th?&id=OVP.K6420fn65IB07ZD09OcwGwHg
Fo&w=608&h=342&c=7&pid=1.7&rs=1
https://youtu.be/oxDNa6Ao4jI
https://youtu.be/529mXVmvQ_E
https://youtu.be/Nss9MYvuIAo
https://youtu.be/Nss9MYvuIAo
https://youtu.be/9wAC01Vdu0o
https://www.openstaxcollege.org/l/chordate_evol
https://youtu.be/DZN7L0X5fuM
229
Answers to SAE 1
1. These animals reproduce sexually through internal fertilization by
means of the copulation between males and females. They lay
eggs with a shell and extraembryonic membranes. The embryo then
develops within the egg and outside the mother’s body (there also
exists ovoviviparous reptiles, which keep the egg within their
body until it hatches).
2. In organisms of the class Reptilia, embryonic development is
direct. Therefore, there is no larval stage.
Answers to SAE 2
1. The features of birds that allow them to fly are: wings attached to
a well-developed pectoral musculature, pneumatic bones, less
accumulation of feces in the bowels due to the absence of the
colon, the absence of a bladder (no urine storage), an
aerodynamic body and lungs with specialized air sacs.
2. Regarding external coverage, birds are similar to reptiles in that
they present impermeable keratinized outside. Concerning
reproduction, fertilization is internal in both and the embryo
develops within a shelled egg. Regarding excretion, both excrete
uric acid.
Answers to SAE 2
1. The typical features of mammals are: a body (more or less)
covered with hair; the presence of the diaphragm muscle (that
separates the thorax from the abdomen); mammary glands that produce
milk (in females); non-nucleated blood red cells; and a middle ear
with three ossicles.
2. Mammals have a closed and complete circulatory system. Their
heart has four chambers and arterial blood does not mix with
venous blood.
230
Glossary
Abdomen: Region of the body furthest from the mouth. In insects, the
third body region behind the head and thorax.
Altricial: Refers to animals with young that are unable to move on
their own after hatching or birth, and require extensive
parental care.
Ambulacra: Row of tube feet of an echinoderm.
amniotic egg:An egg that can be laid on land due to the presence of a
fluid-filled amniotic sac (amnion) that cushions and
protects the developing embryo.
Amniote: Any of a group of land-dwelling vertebrates that have an
amnion during embryonic development, including reptiles,
birds, and mammals.
Anapsid: A vertebrate distinguished by a skull with no openings in
the side behind the eyes, e.g. turtles.
Anus: End of the digestive tract, or gut, through which waste
products of digestion are excreted, as distinct from the
mouth.
Bipedal: Describes an animal that walks on two legs.
Biramous: Arthropod appendages that are biramous have two
branches, an outer branch and an inner branch.
Blood: Fluid which circulates throughout the body of an animal,
distributing nutrients, and often oxygen as well.
book lung: A set of soft overlapping flaps, covered up by a plate on
the abdomen, through which oxygen is taken up and
carbon dioxide given off.
Brain: Collection of nerve cells usually located at the anterior end
of an animal, when present at all.
Cephalon: In trilobites, the head shield bearing the eyes, antennae,
and mouth.
Chaetae: Stiff bristles characteristic of annelids.
Chela: The claw of an arthropod.
Chelicera: The first pair of appendages of a chelicerate arthropod.
Originally a short clawed appendage, the chelicerae of many arachnids

are highly modified for feeding.
Chordate: an animal with a notochord (a cartilaginous rod that
extends the length of the body), dorsal hollow nerve cord
(a fluid-filled tube that runs the length of the body), gill
slits or pouches, and a tail at some stage in its life cycle.
Clitellum: In annelids, a swelling of the body towards the head of the
animal, where the gonads are located.
Cnidocyst: The "stinging cell" of a cnidarian.
231
Coelom: Fluid-filled cavity within the body of an animal; usually

refers to a cavity lined with specialized
tissue peritoneum in which the gut is suspended.
compound eye: found in many but not all arthropods, a compound
eye is composed of a large number of small, closely
packed simple eyes (ommatidia), each with its own lens
and nerve receptors.
Cuticle: In animals, a multilayered, extracellular, external body
covering, usually composed of fibrous molecules such as
chitin or collagen, and sometimes strengthened by the
deposition of minerals such as calcium carbonate.
Diapsid: A vertebrate distinguished by a skull with two pairs of
openings in the side behind the eyes, e.g., lizards, snakes,
crocodiles, dinosaurs, and pterosaurs.
Ectoderm: The outer basic layer of tissue in those animals with true
tissues.
Endoderm: The innermost basic layer of tissue in those animals with
true tissues.
Epidermis: The outermost layer of cells or skin. This tissue often
contains specialized cells for defense, gas exchange, or
secretion.
Epithelium: Layer of cells which lines a body cavity; cells may be
ciliated or unciliated, and may be squamous (flat, scale
shaped), cuboidal (cube-shaped), or columnar (column-
shaped).
Esophagus: That portion of the gut which connects the pharynx to the
stomach.
Exoskeleton: An external, often hard, covering or integument that
provides support and protection to the body.
Gastrodermis: In cnidarians, the endodermis which lines the gut cavity.
Genus: A category in the classification of plants and animals
between species and family; genera- pl.
Gill: In aquatic animals, highly vascularized tissues with large
surface area; these are extended out of the body and into
the surrounding water for gas exchange.
gill arches: Stiffenings which support the flesh between the gill slits
of chordates.
gill slit: A slitlike or porelike opening connecting the pharynx of
a chordate with the outside of the body.
Gnathobase: The expanded and hardened base of the appendage of
many arthropods, notably trilobites, crustaceans, and
marine cheliceramorphs.
gut (enteron): Body cavity formed between the mouth and anus in
which food is digested and nutrients absorbed; it consists
of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestine,
232
and anus, though some animals do not have all these

regions.
Head: That part of the body at the "front" end, where the brain,
mouth, and most sensory organs are located.
Heart: Muscular pump which circulates the blood.
Histostructure: The organization and arrangement of tissue
Incubation: In birds and reptiles, the maintaining of a constant
temperature during the development of the embryo.
Intestine: The portion of the digestive tract between the stomach and
anus; it is the region where most of the nutrients and
absorbed.
Jaw: Often loosely applied to any movable, toothed structures at
or near the mouth of an animal, such as
the scolecodonts of annelids.
Jointed: When stiff body parts are connected by a soft flexible
region, the body is said to be jointed.
Librigenae: The "free cheeks"; separate, detachable portions of the
trilobite cephalon.
Lophophore: Complex ring of hollow tentacles used as a feeding organ.
Mammilla: In eggshell, the cone-like structure at the base of the shell
unit where the shell unit attaches to the inner organic
membrane.
Marsupial: A mammal that gives live birth to young that have
gestated for only a short period of time.
Mesoderm: In animals with three tissue layers (i.e. all
except sponges and cnidarians), the middle layer of tissue,
between the ectoderm and the endoderm.
Mesogloea: Jellylike material between the outer ectoderm and the
inner endoderm of cnidarians.
Metabolism: The chemical processes within an organic body that
supply the energy necessary for life.
Microstructure: In eggshell, the shape, size, orientation, and
distribution of components of the shell.
Monotreme: A mammal that lays eggs rather than giving live birth.
Mouth: Front opening of the digestive tract, into which food is
taken for digestion.
Mucus: Sticky secretion used variously for locomotion, lubication,
or protection from foreign particles.
Muscle Bundle of contractile cells which allow animals to move.
Myotome: Segment of the body formed by a region of muscle.
Nematocyst: Older name for a cnidocyst.
Nerve: A bundle of neurons, or nerve cells.
Nerve cord: Primary bundle of nerves in chordates, which connects the
brain to the major muscles and organs of the body.
Neuron: A specialized cell that can react to stimuli and transmit
impulses.
233
Notochord: Characteristic of chordates, the notochord is a stiff rod of

tissue along the back of the body.
Organ: Collection of tissues which performs a particular function
or set of functions in an animal or plant's body.
organ system: Collection of organs which have related roles in an
organism's functioning.
Osculum: The main opening through which filtered water is
discharged.
Ovulation: The process by which an egg (the female gamete) is
released from the ovary.
papilla(e): Cellular outgrowths.
Parapodia: A sort of "false foot" formed by extension of the
body cavity.
Pathology: The study of disease and abnormalities.
Pedipalps: The second pair of appendages of cheliceromorphs.
Pharyngeal slits: Characteristic of chordates, pharyngeal slits are
openings through which water is taken into the
pharynx, or throat.
Pharynx: Cavity in the digestive tract just past the mouth
itself.
Phylum: A category in the hierarchy of animal classification
between class and kingdom; phyla- pl.
Placenta: In mammals, a tissue formed within the uterus
through which nutrients are passed from the mother
to the embryo (and later the fetus) and its wastes
are removed.
Pleurae: In trilobites and other arthropods, pleurae are
elongated flat outgrowths from each body segment,
that overlie and protect the appendages.
Pore: Any opening into or through a tissue or body
structure.
Precocial: Describes young that are mobile and fairly self-
sufficient at birth.
Proboscis: Elongated organ, usually associated with the
mouth.
Pygidium: In trilobites, the posterior division of the body,
formed by fusion of the telson with one or more
posterior pleurae.
Segmentation: In many animals, the body is divided into repeated
subunits called segments, such as those in
centipedes, insects, and annelids.
Septum: Partition which divides up a larger region into
smaller ones, such as in the central body cavity of
some anthozoa.
Siphon: Opening in molluscs or in urochordates which
draws water into the body cavity.
234
Skeleton: Support structure in animals, against which the

force of muscles acts.
Spicule: Crystalline or mineral deposits found in sponges,
sea cucumbers, or urochordates.
Spiracle: In insects and some other terrestrial arthropods, a
small opening through which air is taken into
the tracheae.
Spongocoel: Central body cavity of sponges.
Synapsid: A vertebrate distinguished by a skull with one pair
of openings in the sidebehind the eyes, e.g.,
mammals and their close relatives.
Telson: The last segment of the abdomen in many
arthropods.
Tentacles: Appendages which are flexible, because they have
no rigid skeleton.
Tetrapod: An animal with four limbs that evolved from a
common fish ancestor during the Devonian Period
(~365 million years ago).
Thorax: In insects, the second body region, between the
head and thorax. It is the region where the legs and
wings are attached.
Tissue: A group of cells with a specific function in the
body of an organism.
Tracheae: Internal tubes through which air is taken for
respiration.
Tube feet: Extensions of the water-vascular system
of echinoderms, protruding from the body and often
ending in suckers.
Tubercle: Any small rounded protrusion.
Uniramious: Among arthropods, uniramous refers to appendages
that have only one branch.
Vascular: Refers to a network of tubes which distribute
nutrients and remove wastes from the tissues of the
body.
Vertebra: A component of the vertebral column, or
backbone, found in vertebrates.
Zooxanthellae: Symbiotic dinoflagellates in the
genus Symbiodinium that live in the tissues of a
number of marine invertebrates and protists,
notably in many foraminiferans, cnidarians, and
some mollusks.
235

1). List the features that distinguish the kingdom Animalia from
other kingdom
2). Explain the processes of animal reproduction and embryonic
development
3). Describe the organizational features of the simplest multicellular
organisms
4). Describe the characteristics and physiological processes of
flatworms
5). Compare the internal systems and the appendage specialization of
arthropods
6). Describe the features of an animal classified in phylum Annelida
7). Describe the difference between jawless and jawed fishes
8). Explain the main characteristics of amphibians, reptiles, and birds
9). Describe the derived features that distinguish primates from other
animals
236

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COURSE

Course Team: Abiodun E. Adams (Course Developer/Writer) -

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

@ 2023 by NOUN Press

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any

GENERAL BIOLOGY II is a one semester, 18 Units course. It will be

Working Through this Course

MODULE 1 THE STUDY OF LIVING THINGS

MODULE 2 OVERVIEW OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

MODULE 3 OVERVIEW OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM

References and Further Readings

You would be required to read the recommended references and

the third is the written examination or the examination to be taken at the

How to get the Most from the Course

Do not delay to contact your facilitator by telephone or e-mail for

Dr. Abdullahi's research interest covers phytosociology, climate change,

MODULE 1 THE STUDY OF LIVING THINGS

In this module we will discuss about the diversity of life, basic

Unit 1 Classification of Living Organisms

Module 1 THE STUDY OF LIVING THINGS

UNIT 1 CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS

result, we will examine the numerous classification schemes for living

1.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. List the different groups of living organisms

1.3 Main Contents

1.3.1 Classifications of Living Organisms

taxonomic hierarchy are: species, genus, family, order, class, phylum,

1. Describe the hierarchical system of classification

1.3.2 Modern biological classification1.

Table 1. Comparison of the three domains of life

Cell Nucleus (DNA

There are only single-celled creatures in the Bacteria and Archaea

1.3.3 Binomial Nomenclature

All life is categorized according to a scale that you have learned:

1.5 References/Further Readings/Web Sources

Henderson's dictionary of biology (2011). / edited by Eleanor Lawrence.

ISBN:9781408234303 (pbk.), 1408234300 (pbk.). Edition:15th ed.

Roth, Wolff-Michael, (2009)-. Science education from people for people

Publisher: New York : Routledge, 2009. ISBN:9780415995542 (hbk)

Kuhn, Thomas S. (2012).The structure of scientific revolutions /

Susan Randel (2017). Principles of Biology Salem Press Publisher

1.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

UNIT 2 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS, IDENTIFICATION

Viruses are diverse entities: They vary in structure, methods of

2.2 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

2.3 Main Centents

2.3.1 The Study of Viruses

2.3.1.1Basic Characteristics of Viruses

Based on their characteristics, many scientists think that viruses should

2.3.1.2 Structure of a Virus

Viruses are extremely small, with sizes between 30 and 50 nm. In

Figure1.1 Viruses can be either complex in shape or relatively simple.

susceptible cell, a virus can activate the cell's mechanisms to generate

The primary elements utilized for the classification of viruses

The conventional methods devised by scientists for categorizing

hinges on how messenger RNA (mRNA) is generated in distinct types

5. Classification based on the mode of transmission

3. Sexually transmitted diseases – Transmission of the virus through