Best Practices for Data Modeling for Large Datasets

Use of Appropriate Data Structures

One critical aspect of efficient data modeling for large datasets is the use of appropriate
data structures. Data structures, such as arrays, trees, and graphs, enable organizing and
accessing data efficiently.

For instance, using hash tables to store key-value pairs can significantly improve the
performance of search and retrieval operations.

Similarly, using optimized data structures like B-trees and LSM-trees can enhance insertion,
deletion, and range query operations for large datasets.

Using appropriate data structures makes a significant difference in the performance of data
modeling for large datasets. Proper use of data structures can help us achieve better space
and time complexity, which is crucial for efficient data modeling at scale.

Use of Indexing Techniques

When it comes to data modeling for large datasets, the use of indexing techniques can
significantly improve the efficiency of data retrieval and processing. Indexing involves
creating a separate data structure that contains pointers to the main data set's records,
allowing for faster access to specific data. This technique helps speed up data querying and
searching by reducing the amount of data that needs to be scanned.

There are several different types of indexing techniques available, including B-trees, hash
indexing, and bitmap indexing. B-trees are commonly used in database systems and can
support range queries, making them useful for datasets with ordered keys. Hash indexing,
on the other hand, is best suited for datasets that require exact-match queries and have a
uniform distribution of data. Bitmap indexing is useful for datasets with a large number of
attributes where queries often involve more than one attribute.

Parallel Processing of Data

Parallel processing of data is a technique used to increase the speed and efficiency of data
modeling for large datasets. With this technique, the dataset is divided into smaller parts,
and these parts are processed simultaneously by multiple processors or nodes. This not only
saves time but also utilizes the resources effectively and avoids bottlenecks.

In parallel processing, the dataset is split into smaller portions, and each portion is
processed by a separate processor. This way, multiple processors work together to process a
single dataset, increasing the speed of processing. The processors in this technique can be
either part of a single computer or multiple computers connected in a network.
There are two main types of parallel processing: shared memory and distributed memory.
The shared memory technique uses multiple processors that are connected to a single
memory. In contrast, the distributed memory technique uses multiple processors that are
distributed across different computers, and each processor has its own memory.

Use of Compression Techniques

Compression reduces the amount of space required to store data, leading to faster access
times and reduced costs. One popular compression technique is gzip, which compresses
files by replacing repeated strings with shorter codes. A more recent compression
algorithm, Snappy, was developed for big data processing and is designed to provide faster
compression and decompression. Compression is particularly useful when transferring data
over a network, as it reduces the amount of bandwidth needed.

Tools for Efficient Data Modeling for Large Datasets

Apache Spark

Apache Spark is an open-source distributed computing system designed to process large

amounts of data quickly and efficiently.

Spark provides an interface for programming with a widely adopted data processing
language called "Scala," and also supports programming languages like Python and Java for
data processing.

Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS)

Hadoop Distributed File System, commonly known as HDFS, is a distributed file system
designed to store and manage large datasets distributed across clusters of computers. The
primary goal of HDFS is to provide reliable and efficient storage of large data sets, while also
allowing scalable data processing.

Cassandra

Cassandra is an open-source, distributed NoSQL database management system designed to

handle large amounts of data across many commodity servers. It was designed to handle
the massive data storage needs of sites like Facebook, Twitter, and Netflix.
What Is Considered a Large Dataset?

Let’s first define what constitutes a large dataset. In general, a dataset is considered "large"
when it exceeds the capacity of a computer's main memory (RAM). This means that the data
cannot be loaded into memory all at once, necessitating specialized approaches for
processing.

Large datasets are typically characterized by:

1. Volume: They contain a massive number of records, think 100s of gigabytes,

terabytes, or even petabytes of data.
2. Complexity: They may involve diverse data types, including structured and
unstructured data.
3. Velocity: Data arrives and is generated at a high rate, requiring real-time or near-
real-time processing.
4. Variety: Datasets may include text, images, videos, sensor data, social media feeds,
and more.

Challenges of Large Datasets

Large datasets create unique challenges such as:

• Storage - Large datasets require substantial storage capacity, and it can be expensive
and challenging to manage and maintain the infrastructure to store such data.
Furthermore, due to the size, it is important that data analysis tools do not require
copying the data for access by multiple users.
• Access - Collecting and ingesting large datasets can be time-consuming and resource-
intensive. Ensuring data quality and consistency during the ingestion process is also
challenging. Transferring and communicating large datasets between systems or
over networks can be slow and may require efficient compression and transfer
protocols.
• Tools - Visualizing large datasets can be challenging, as traditional plotting
techniques may not be suitable. Specialized tools and techniques are often needed
to gain insights from such data. Ensuring that your data science pipelines and models
are scalable to handle increasing data sizes is essential. Scalability often requires a
combination of hardware and software optimizations.
• Resources - Designing and managing the infrastructure to process and analyze large
datasets, including parallelization and distribution of tasks, is a significant challenge.
Analyzing large datasets often demands significant computational power and
memory. Running computations on a single machine may be impractical,
necessitating the use of distributed computing frameworks like Hadoop and Spark.
Now that we understand what we're dealing with, let's explore the best practices for
handling large datasets.
Data Storage Strategies

Managing the storage of large datasets is the first step in effective data handling. Here are
some strategies:

• Distributed File Systems: Systems like Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS), Spark,
and other cloud storage solutions are designed for storing and managing large
datasets efficiently. They distribute data across multiple nodes, making it accessible
in parallel.
• Columnar Storage: Utilizing columnar storage formats like Apache Parquet or
Apache ORC can significantly reduce storage overhead and improve query
performance. These formats store data column-wise, allowing for efficient
compression and selective column retrieval.
• Data Partitioning: Partitioning your data into smaller, manageable subsets can
enhance query performance. It's particularly useful when dealing with time stamped
or categorical data.
• Data Compression: Employing compression algorithms like Snappy or Gzip can
reduce storage requirements without compromising data quality. However, it's
essential to strike a balance between compression and query performance.
The specific data storage strategy utilized by your organization may bring its own challenges.
Understanding data storage options and limitations can help teams optimize data access
methods.

Data Preprocessing

Cleaning and preparing data are critical steps in the data handling process. Large datasets
can cause additional complications to this process. It is essential that data analysis tools are
designed to handle large datasets efficiently. Some of the methods used to improve data
pre-processing are:

• Sampling: In many cases, you can work with a sample of your data for initial
exploration and analysis. This reduces computational requirements and speeds up
development. However, this introduces the risk of bias and may not capture the full
complexity of the dataset.
• Parallel Processing: Leverage parallel processing techniques to distribute data
preprocessing tasks across multiple cores or nodes, improving efficiency.
• Feature Engineering: Create relevant features from your raw data to improve the
performance of machine learning models. This step often involves dimensionality
reduction, grouping, and data normalization.
 • Data Quality Checks: Implement data quality checks and validation rules to ensure
the accuracy and integrity of your dataset. AI tools can help automate this process.

Data Visualization and Exploration

Visualizing large datasets can be challenging, but it's essential for understanding the data
and deriving insights:

• Sampling: Visualize random samples of data to get an overview without overloading

your visualization tools.
• Aggregation: Aggregate data before visualization to reduce the number of data
points displayed and improve performance.
• Interactive Tools: Use interactive visualization tools, which allow users to explore
and drill down into data subsets.

Industries Using Large Datasets

Most industries today have large datasets and companies are learning how to utilize the
growing scale of data available. As discussed, large datasets present challenges, but also
offer unique opportunities for businesses to utilize and learn from their data. Some
industries have been quicker to utilize big data like finance, telecommunications,
healthcare, agriculture, education, and government.

Handling large datasets is essential as the volume and complexity of data continue to grow.
By understanding methods for managing large datasets, organizations will be well-equipped
to unlock valuable insights that can drive decision-making and innovation.

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What is Data Denormalization?

Data denormalization is the process of introducing some redundancy into
previously normalized databases with the aim of optimizing database query performance. It
introduces some pre-computed redundancy using different techniques to solve issues in
normalized data. These techniques include:

• Table splitting
• Adding derived and redundant columns
• Mirrored tables
However, data denormalization introduces a trade-off between data write and read
performances.
Comparing data denormalization vs data normalization
Data normalization is the process that removes data redundancy by keeping exactly one
copy of each data in tables. It maintains the relationship between data and
eliminates unstructured data. There are mainly four ways to apply data normalization: first,
second, and third normal forms, and Boyce and Codd Normal Form (3.5NF).
A normalized database helps standardize the data across the organization and ensures
logical data storage. Normalization also offers organizations a clean data set for various
processes, improves query response time, and reduces data anomalies.
So, we can sum up the differences in data denormalization and normalization in two key
ways:

1. Data normalization removes redundancy from a database and introduces non-

redundant, standardized data. On the other hand, Denormalization is a process used
to combine data from multiple tables into a single table that can be queried faster.
2. Data Normalization is generally used when the joins between tables are less
expensive and there are many Update, Delete and Insert operations on the data. On
the other hand, Denormalization is useful when there are many costly join queries in
databases.

Data denormalization techniques: How to denormalize data

Database administrators use several data denormalization techniques depending on the
scenario. However, remember that those techniques have their own pros and cons. Here
are some examples of data normalization techniques used by database specialists:
Technique 1. Introducing a redundant column/Pre-joining tables
This technique can be used when there are expensive join operations and data from
multiple tables are frequently used. Here, that frequently used data will be added to one
table.
For example, let’s say there are two tables called customer and order. If you want to display
customer orders along with their names, adding the customer name to the order table will
reduce the expensive join operation. However, it will introduce massive redundancies.
Here's an illustration:
Technique 2. Table splitting
Table splitting is the process of decomposing a table into multiple smaller tables so they can
be queried and managed easily. Table splitting can be done in two ways: horizontal table
splitting and vertical table splitting.
Horizontal table splitting
Splitting table rows into smaller tables. Each table will have the same columns. This
approach is useful when data tables can be separated based on regions, physical locations,
tasks and many more scenarios.
For example, imagine a table containing student information for all departments in the
science faculty of a university. As the diagram illustrates, this table can be split according to
each department, such as computer science, chemistry, maths and biology.

Here, only a smaller data set will have to be queried compared with the original table. Thus,
this technique enables faster query performance for department-based queries.
Vertical table splitting
Vertical splitting is splitting a table based on columns, applying the primary key to each
partition.
For example, think that a hospital maintains a ‘Patients’ Table with patient ID, name,
address and medical history columns. We can create two new tables from it using vertical
partitioning: ‘Patient_details’ and ‘Patient_medical_history,’ as shown in the below figure.

This approach is best suited when some table columns are frequently accessed more than
others. It will allow getting only the required attributes, eliminating unnecessary data.
Technique 3. Adding derived columns
Consider the following example. Let’s say there are two tables, Student and
Student_Grades:

• The student table has only student information.

• The Student Grade table has marks for each assignment along with some other data.

If the application requires displaying the total marks for the students with their details, we
can add a new derived column that contains the total marks for all the assignments for each
student. Therefore, there is no need to calculate the total marks each time you query the
database.

Technique 4. Using mirrored tables

This technique creates a full or partial copy of an existing table, which will be stored in a
separate location and optimized for faster query performance. Generally, the mirrored table
will be used for read-heavy workloads using techniques like creating additional indexes and
data partitioning. That mirrored table can create read-heavy processes like analytics
queries.
This approach involves creating replications of databases and storing them either in
separate database instances or on a physical server. However, it involves complexities like
maintaining multiple copies of data and keeping them in sync, which can be costly and
require more resources.
Technique 5. Materialized views
Materialized views are pre-computed query results stored in a separate table. They are
typically ‘join’ and ‘aggregation’ queries that are quite expensive and result in frequently
accessed data. Next time, the database can pull the data from the view when needed rather
than execute the same query repeatedly.

Pros of data denormalization

Data Denormalization brings several advantages for organizations.

Improve user experience through enhanced query performance

Querying data from a normalized data store may require multiple joins from different types
of tables, depending on the requirement. When the data grows larger, it will slow down the
performance of Join operations. It can negatively impact the user experience, especially
when such operations are related to frequently-used functionalities.
Data denormalization allows us to reduce the number of joins between tables by keeping
frequently accessed data in redundant tables.

Reduce complexity, keep the data model simple

Data denormalization reduces the complexity of queries by reducing the number of join
queries. It enables developers and other application users to write simple and maintainable
codes. Even novice developers can understand the queries and perform query operations
easily.
Plus, this simplicity will help reduce bugs associated with database operations significantly.

Enhance application scalability

Denormalization reduces the number of database transactions when reading data. This
approach is particularly helpful when a high user load results in a heavy load of database
transactions. This reduced number of transactions accommodates varying user loads,
improving the scalability of applications.

Generate data reports faster

Organizations use data to generate endless reports, such as usage statistics and sales
reports. Generating such reports can involve data aggregation and summarization by
searching the whole data set. Data normalization techniques like mirrored tables allow
organizations to optimize the databases specifically for daily report generation without
affecting the performance of master tables.

Cons of data denormalization

As discussed in the above section, data denormalization offers several advantages.
However, this technique can also have some disadvantages that you may need to consider
when using it.

• The most obvious disadvantage is increased data redundancy.

• There can be inconsistencies between data sets. For example, consider mirrored
databases. It requires taking replications, which need to be synced to make them up-
to-date. Inconsistencies can arise if there is a failure in the replica.
• Techniques like data splitting and mirrored tables will require additional storage
space, which can be costly.
• Denormalization also increases the complexity of the data schema. It will be harder
to maintain the data store as the number of tables increases.
• Inserts and Updates will be costly.
• Maintenance costs can be high due to the increased complexity and redundancy of
the data.

Advantages of Denormalization:

Improved Query Performance: Denormalization can improve query performance by

reducing the number of joins required to retrieve data.

Reduced Complexity: By combining related data into fewer tables, denormalization can
simplify the database schema and make it easier to manage.

Easier Maintenance and Updates: Denormalization can make it easier to update and
maintain the database by reducing the number of tables.

Improved Read Performance: Denormalization can improve read performance by making it

easier to access data.

Better Scalability: Denormalization can improve the scalability of a database system by

reducing the number of tables and improving the overall performance.

Disadvantages of Denormalization:

Reduced Data Integrity: By adding redundant data, denormalization can reduce data
integrity and increase the risk of inconsistencies.
Increased Complexity: While denormalization can simplify the database schema in some
cases, it can also increase complexity by introducing redundant data.

Increased Storage Requirements: By adding redundant data, denormalization can increase

storage requirements and increase the cost of maintaining the database.

Increased Update and Maintenance Complexity: Denormalization can increase the

complexity of updating and maintaining the database by introducing redundant data.

Limited Flexibility: Denormalization can reduce the flexibility of a database system by

introducing redundant data and making it harder to modify the schema.

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How to Reduce Data Redundancy

1. Applying master data

Master data is the sole source of common business data that a data administrator shares
across different systems or applications. While master data doesn’t reduce the
incidences of data redundancy, it enables organizations to apply and work around a
particular level of data redundancy. Leveraging master data ensures that an
organization can update a single piece of information if it changes. This system ensures
that redundant data remains up-to-date and offers the same information.

2. Normalizing databases

Database normalization involves efficiently arranging data in a database to ensure

redundancy elimination. This process ensures that a company’s database contains
information that appears and reads similarly throughout all records. Normalizing data
typically includes arranging a database’s columns and tables to ensure they correctly
enforce their dependencies. Various companies have special sets of criteria regarding
data normalization, and thus, different approaches to data normalization. For example, a
company may wish to normalize a province category with two digits, while another may
opt for the full name.
3. Remove unused data

Another factor contributing to data redundancy is preserving the data pieces that the
organization no longer requires. For example, organizations may move customer data to
a new database and keep the same data in the old one. This can lead to data duplication
and storage waste. Organizations can avoid this redundancy by promptly deleting the
data no longer required.

4. Data integration

Efficient data redundancy is possible. Many organizations focused on customer

interactions have Customer Relationship Management (CRM) systems integrated with
other business software (like accounting) which eliminates redundant data and
provides more insightful reports and improved customer service.