OCS 352- IOT CONCEPTS &

ITS
APPLICATIONS
Lecture Notes

III BE -CIVIL/EEE/MECH

(2021 Regulation)

Prepared by
S.Piriyadharshini AP/ECE
 OCS352 IOT CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS LTPC2023
OBJECTIVES:
• To apprise students with basic knowledge of IoT that paves a platform to understand physical and logical design
of IOT
• To teach a student how to analyze requirements of various communication models and protocols for cost-
effective design of IoT applications on different IoT platforms.
• To introduce the technologies behind Internet of Things (IoT).
• To explain the students how to code for an IoT application using Arduino/Raspberry Pi open platform.
• To apply the concept of Internet of Things in real world scenario.

UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET OF THINGS 5

Evolution of Internet of Things – Enabling Technologies – IoT Architectures: oneM2M, IoT World Forum (IoTWF) and
Alternative IoT Models – Simplified IoT Architecture and Core IoT Functional Stack – Fog, Edge and Cloud in IoT

UNIT II COMPONENTS IN INTERNET OF THINGS 5

Functional Blocks of an IoT Ecosystem – Sensors, Actuators, and Smart Objects – Control Units - Communication
modules (Bluetooth, Zigbee,Wifi, GPS, GSM Modules)

UNIT III PROTOCOLS AND TECHNOLOGIES BEHIND IOT 6

IOT Protocols - IPv6, 6LoWPAN, MQTT, CoAP - RFID, Wireless Sensor Networks, BigData Analytics, Cloud
Computing, Embedded Systems.

UNIT IV OPEN PLATFORMS AND PROGRAMMING 7

IOT deployment for Raspberry Pi /Arduino plat form-Architecture –Programming – Interfacing – Accessing GPIO Pins
– Sending and Receiving Signals Using GPIO Pins – Connecting to the Cloud.

UNIT V IOT APPLICATIONS 7

Business models for the internet of things, Smart city, Smart mobility and transport, Industrial IoT, Smart health,
Environment monitoring and surveillance – Home Automation – Smart Agriculture
30 PERIODS

PRACTICAL EXERCISES: 30 PERIODS

1. Introduction to Arduino platform and programming

2. Interfacing Arduino to Zigbee module
3. Interfacing Arduino to GSM module
4. Interfacing Arduino to Bluetooth Module
5 Introduction to Raspberry PI platform and python programming
6. Interfacing sensors to Raspberry PI
7. Communicate between Arduino and Raspberry PI using any wireless medium
8. Setup a cloud platform to log the data
9. Log Data using Raspberry PI and upload to the cloud platform
10.Design an IOT based system

OUTCOMES:
CO 1: Explain the concept of IoT.
CO 2: Understand the communication models and various protocols for IoT.
CO 3: Design portable IoT using Arduino/Raspberry Pi /open platform
CO 4: Apply data analytics and use cloud offerings related to IoT.
CO 5: Analyse applications of IoT in real time scenario. TOTAL:60
PERIODS
TEXTBOOKS
1. Robert Barton, Patrick Grossetete, David Hanes, Jerome Henry, Gonzalo Salgueiro, “IoT
Fundamentals: Networking Technologies, Protocols, and Use Cases for the Internet of Things”,
CISCO Press, 2017
2. Samuel Greengard, The Internet of Things, The MIT Press, 2015
REFERENCES
1. Perry Lea, “Internet of things for architects”, Packt, 2018
2. Olivier Hersent, David Boswarthick, Omar Elloumi , “The Internet of Things – Key applications and Protocols”,
Wiley, 2012
3. IOT (Internet of Things) Programming: A Simple and Fast Way of Learning, IOT Kindle Edition.
4. Dieter Uckelmann, Mark Harrison, Michahelles, Florian (Eds), “Architecting the Internet of Things”, Springer, 2011.
5. Arshdeep Bahga, Vijay Madisetti, “Internet of Things – A hands-on approach”, Universities Press, 2015
6. https://www.arduino.cc/
7. https://www.ibm.com/smarterplanet/us/en/?ca=v_smarterplanet

Unit 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF IoT

1. INTRODUCTION TO IoT

• IOT Definition: The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to the use of intelligently connected devices and
systems to leverage data gathered by embedded sensors and actuators in machines and other physical
objects.
• IoT terminology is not entirely settled. IoT is as roughly equivalent to what is referred to as the Internet
of Everything (Cisco/W3C terminology), the Physical Web (Google terminology), Physical
Computing (Arduino terminology), Machine-to-Machine (M2M), Cyber-Physical Systems (Control
theory terminology) or the World-Sized Web (a term coined by B. Schneier).

• Today the Internet has become ubiquitous, has touched almost every corner of the globe, and
is affecting human life in unimaginable ways.
• We are now entering an era of even more pervasive connectivity where very wide variety of
appliances will be connected to the web.
• One year after the past edition of the Cluster book 2012 it can be clearly stated that the
Internet of Things (IoT) has reached many different players and gained further recognition.
Out of the potential Internet of Things application areas, Smart Cities (and regions), Smart
 Car and mobility, Smart Home and assisted living, Smart Industries, Public safety, Energy
& environmental protection, Agriculture and Tourism as part of a future IoT Ecosystem
(Figure 1.1) have acquired high attention.

IoT Ecosystem.

1.The Internet of Things as simply an interaction between the physical and digital worlds.
The digital world interacts with the physical world using a plethora of sensors and actuators.
2. Another is the Internet of Things is defined as a paradigm in which computing and
networking capabilities are embedded in any kind of conceivable object.
• We use these capabilities to query the state of the object and to change its state if possible.
• In common parlance, the Internet of Things refers to a new kind of world where almost all
the devices and appliances that we use are connected to a network.
• We can use them collaboratively to achieve complex tasks that require a high degree of
intelligence.
• For this intelligence and interconnection, IoT devices are equipped with embedded sensors,
actuators, processors, and transceivers.
• IoT is not a single technology; rather it is an agglomeration of various technologies that
work together in tandem.
• Sensors and actuators are devices, which help in interacting with the physical environment.
• The data collected by the sensors has to be stored and processed intelligently in order to
derive useful inferences from it.
• Note that we broadly define the term sensor; a mobile phone or even a microwave oven can
count as a sensor as long as it provides inputs about its current state (internal state +
environment).
• An actuator is a device that is used to effect a change in the environment such as the
temperature controller of an air conditioner.
• The storage and processing of data can be done on the edge of the network itself or in a
remote server.
• If any preprocessing of data is possible, then it is typically done at either the sensor or some
other proximate device.
• The processed data is then typically sent to a remote server.
• The storage and processing capabilities of an IoT object are also restricted by the resources
available, which are often very constrained due to limitations of size, energy, power, and
computational capability.
• As a result the main research challenge is to ensure that we get the right kind of data at the
desired level of accuracy.
• Along with the challenges of data collection, and handling, there are challenges in
communication as well.
• The communication between IoT devices is mainly wireless because they are generally
installed at geographically dispersed locations.
• The wireless channels often have high rates of distortion and are unreliable.
• In this scenario reliably communicating data without too many retransmissions is an
important problem and thus communication technologies are integral to the study of IoT
devices.
• We can directly modify the physical world through actuators or we may do something
virtually. For example, we can send some information to other smart things.
• The process of effecting a change in the physical world is often dependent on its state at that
point of time. This is called context awareness. Each action is taken keeping in consideration
the context because an application can behave differently in different contexts.
• For example, a person may not like messages from his office to interrupt him when he is on
vacation. Sensors, actuators, compute servers, and the communicationnetwork form the core
infrastructure of an IoT framework. However, there are many software aspects that need to
be considered.
• First, we need a middleware that can be used to connect and manage all of these
heterogeneous components. We need a lot of standardization to connect many different
devices.
• The Internet of Things finds various applications in health care, fitness, education,
entertainment, social life, energy conservation, environment monitoring, home automation,
and transport systems.

2.Evolution of IoT

• The Internet of Things (IoT) has emerged as a transformative technology, connecting devices
and enabling seamless communication between the physical and digital worlds.

• Over the years, the IoT has undergone a significant evolution, transitioning from simple
connected devices to intricate smart ecosystems that revolutionize industries and improve our
daily lives.

• The first phase of the IoT witnessed the proliferation of connected devices. Everyday objects
such as smartphones, wearables, and home appliances became "smart" by connecting to the
internet, allowing users to remotely control and monitor them.
• This connectivity paved the way for advancements in areas like home automation, health
monitoring, and personalized user experiences.

• One of the key challenges faced during the IoT's evolution was the lack of interoperability
between different devices and platforms.

• This led to fragmented ecosystems and hindered the seamless integration of devices.
However, efforts were made to establish industry standards and protocols, enabling
interoperability and fostering collaboration among various stakeholders.

• Standards like Zigbee, Z-Wave, and MQTT emerged, facilitating device communication and
data exchange across different IoT platforms.

• The evolution of IoT extended beyond consumer devices to industry-specific applications.

Sectors such as healthcare, manufacturing, transportation, and agriculture embraced IoT
technologies to optimize operations, increase efficiency, and improve safety.

• In healthcare, IoT devices monitor patient health remotely, facilitate telemedicine, and enable
predictive analytics for disease prevention.

• In manufacturing, IoT sensors and automation enhance production processes, reduce

downtime, and enable predictive maintenance.
3.TECHNOLOGIES INVOLVED IN IOT DEVELOPMENT: INTERNET/WEB
AND NETWORKING BASICS OSI MODEL
IoT(internet of things) enabling technologies are
1. Wireless Sensor Network
2. Cloud Computing
3. Big Data Analytics
4. Communications Protocols
5. Embedded System
1. Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) :
A WSN comprises distributed devices with sensors which are used to monitor the
environmental and physical conditions. A wireless sensor network consists of end
nodes, routers and coordinators. End nodes have several sensors attached to them
where the data is passed to a coordinator with the help of routers. The coordinator
also acts as the gateway that connects WSN to the internet.
 Example –
• Weather monitoring system
• Indoor air quality monitoring system
• Soil moisture monitoring system
• Surveillance system
• Health monitoring system
2. Cloud Computing :
It provides us the means by which we can access applications as utilities over the internet.
Cloud means something which is present in remote locations.
With Cloud computing, users can access any resources from anywhere like databases,
webservers, storage, any device, and any software over the internet.
Characteristics –
1. Broad network access
2. On demand self-services
3. Rapid scalability
4. Measured service
5. Pay-per-use
Provides different services, such as –
• IaaS (Infrastructure as a service)
Infrastructure as a service provides online services such as physical machines,
virtual machines, servers, networking, storage and data center space on a pay
per use basis. Major IaaS providers are Google Compute Engine, Amazon Web
Services and Microsoft Azure etc.
Ex : Web Hosting, Virtual Machine etc.
• PaaS (Platform as a service)
Provides a cloud-based environment with a very thing required to support the
complete life cycle of building and delivering West web based (cloud)
applications – without the cost and complexity of buying and managing
underlying hardware, software provisioning and hosting. Computing platforms
such as hardware, operating systems and libraries etc. Basically, it provides a
platform to develop applications.
Ex : App Cloud, Google app engine
• SaaS (Software as a service)
It is a way of delivering applications over the internet as a service. Instead of
installing and maintaining software, you simply access it via the internet,
freeing yourself from complex software and hardware management.
SaaS Applications are sometimes called web-based software on demand
software or hosted software.
SaaS applications run on a SaaS provider’s service and they manage security
availability and performance.
Ex : Google Docs, Gmail, office etc.
3. Big Data Analytics :
It refers to the method of studying massive volumes of data or big data. Collection of data
whose volume, velocity or variety is simply too massive and tough to store, control,
process and examine the data using traditional databases.
Big data is gathered from a variety of sources including social network videos, digital
images, sensors and sales transaction records.
Several steps involved in analyzing big data –
1. Data cleaning
2. Munging
3. Processing
4. Visualization
Examples –
• Bank transactions
• Data generated by IoT systems for location and tracking of vehicles
• E-commerce and in Big-Basket
• Health and fitness data generated by IoT system such as a fitness bands

4. Communications Protocols :
They are the backbone of IoT systems and enable network connectivity and linking to
applications. Communication protocols allow devices to exchange data over the network.
Multiple protocols often describe different aspects of a single communication. A group of
protocols designed to work together is known as a protocol suite; when implemented in
software they are a protocol stack.
They are used in
1. Data encoding
2. Addressing schemes
 5. EmbeddedSystems:
It is a combination of hardware and software used to perform special tasks.
It includes microcontroller and microprocessor memory, networking units (Ethernet
Wi-Fi adapters), input output units (display keyword etc. ) and storage devices (flash
memory).
It collects the data and sends it to the internet.

Embedded systems used in

Examples
1. Digital camera
2. DVD player, music player
3. Industrial robots
4. Wireless Routers etc.

Technologies involved in IOT:

All issues do not have a technical solution, science and technology can certainly contribute to
decreasing potential negative effects. In order to enable IoT optimism and to reduce causes for
pessimism, technology must combine progress in a variety of scientific fields including:

• Computer networks (so Alice’s devices can communicate and interoperate),

• Miniature energy-efficient hardware (so Alice’s devices are long-lived and convenient to wear),
• Low-power Embedded Software (so devices can cooperate, durably, on a small battery)
• Distributed Computing (so Alice remains flexible as to where and how her data might be
processed),
• Privacy-Preserving Data Processing (so Alice can keep under control personal or sensitive data,
and manage its use),
• Control and Robotics (to efficiently pilot Alice’s sensors and actuators), • Human-Computer
Interfacing (to offer simple but powerful control of the system),
• System Safety (to ensure the actuators are not dangerous for Alice or others), and
• System Security (to defend Alice against potential hackers).
• Networking technologies enable IoT devices to communicate with other devices, applications,
and services running in the cloud.
• The internet relies on standardized protocols to ensure communication between
heterogeneous devices is secure and reliable.
• Standard protocols specify rules and formats that devices use to establish and
manage networks and transmit data across those networks.
• Networks are built as a “stack” of technologies. A technology such as Bluetooth
LE is at the bottom of the stack.
• While others such as such as IPv6 technologies (which is responsible for the logical
device addressing and routing of network traffic) are further up the stack.
Technologies at the top of the stack are used by the applications that are running
on top of those layers, such as message queuing technologies.
• This article describes widely adopted technologies and standards for IoT
networking. It also provides guidance for choosing one network protocol over
another. It then discusses key considerations and challenges related to networking
within IoT: range, bandwidth, power usage, intermittent connectivity,
interoperability, and security.

IOT NETWORKING CONSIDERATIONS AND CHALLENGES

When you consider which networking technologies to adopt within your

IoT application, be mindful of the following constraints:

• Range
• Bandwidth
• Power usage
• Intermittent connectivity
• Interoperability
• Security

Range

Networks can be described in terms of the distances over which data is

typically transmitted by the IoT devices attached to the network:

• PAN (PersonalAreaNetwork)
PAN is short-range, where distances can be measured in meters,
such as a wearable fitness tracker device that communicates with
an app on a cell phone over BLE.
• LAN (LocalAreaNetwork)
LAN is short- to medium-range, where distances can be up to
hundreds of meters, such as home automation or sensors that are
installed within a factory production line that communicate over wifi
with a gateway device that is installed within the same building.
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) MAN is long-range (city wide),
where distances are measured up to a few kilometers, such as smart parking
sensors installed throughout a city that are connected in a mesh network
topology.
• WAN (Wide Area Network) WAN is long-range, where distances can be measured in
kilometers, such as agricultural sensors that are installed across a large farm or ranch
that are used to monitor micro-climate environmental conditions across the property.

Your network should retrieve data from the IoT devices and transmit to its
intended destination. Select a network protocol that matches the range is
required. For example, do not choose BLE for a WAN application to operate
over a range of several kilometers. If transmitting data over the required
range presents a challenge, consider edge computing. Edge computing
analyzes data directly from the devices rather than from a distant data center
or elsewhere.
Bandwidth

Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be transmitted per unit of time.
It limits the rate at which data can be collected from IoT devices and
transmitted upstream. Bandwidth is affected by many factors, which
include:

• The volume of data each device gathers and transmits

• The number of devices deployed
• Whether data is being sent as a constant stream or in intermittent bursts,
and if any peak periods are notable

The packet size of the networking protocol should match up with the volume of data
typically transmitted. It is inefficient to send packets padded with empty data. In
contrast, there are overheads in splitting larger chunks of data up across too many small
packets. Data transmission rates are not always symmetrical (that is, upload rates might
be slower than download rates). So, if there is two-way communication between devices,
data transmission needs to be factored in. Wireless and cellular networks are
traditionally low bandwidth, so consider whether a wireless technology is the right
choice for high-volume applications.

Consider whether all raw data must be transmitted. A possible solution is to capture less
data by sampling less frequently. Thus, you’ll capture fewer variables and may filter data
from the device to drop insignificant data. If you aggregate the data before you transmit
it, you reduce the volume of data transmitted. But this process affects flexibility and
granularity in the upstream analysis. Aggregation and bursting are not always suitable for
time-sensitive or latency-sensitive data. All of these techniques increase the data
processing and storage requirements for the IoT device.

Power usage

Transmitting data from a device consumes power. Transmitting data over long ranges
requires more power than over a short range. You must consider the power source – such
as a battery, solar cell, or capacitor – of a device and its total lifecycle. A long and
enduring lifecycle will not only provide greater reliability but reduce operating cost. Steps
may be taken to help achieve longer power supply lifecycles. For example, to prolong the
battery life, you can put the device into sleep mode whenever it is idle. Another best
practice is to model the energy consumption of the device under different loads and
different network conditions to ensure that the device’s power supply and storage
capacity matches with the power that is required to transmit the necessary data by using
the networking technologies that you adopted.

Intermittent connectivity

IoT devices aren’t always connected. In some cases, devices are designed to connect
periodically. However, sometimes an unreliable network might cause devices to drop off
due to connectivity issues. Sometimes quality of service issues, such as dealing with
interference or channel contention on a wireless network using a shared spectrum.
Designs should incorporate intermittent connectivity and seek any available solutions to
provide uninterrupted service, should that be a critical factor for IoT landscape design.

Interoperability

Devices work with other devices, equipment, systems, and technology; they are
interoperable. With so many different devices connecting to the IoT, interoperability can
be a challenge. Adopting standard protocols has been a traditional approach for
maintaining interoperability on the Internet. Standards are agreed upon by industry
participants and avoid multiple different designs and directions. With proper standards,
and participants who agree to them, incompatibility issues, hence interoperability issues
may be avoided.

However, for the IoT, standardization processes sometimes struggle to keep up with
innovation and change. They are written and released based on upcoming versions of
standards that are still subject to change. Consider the ecosystem around the
technologies: Are they widely adopted? Are they open versus proprietary? How many
implementations are available?
 Using these questions to plan your IoT networks help plan better interoperability for a
more robust IoT network.
Security
Security is a priority. Selection of networking technologies that implement end-to-end
security, including authentication, encryption, and open port protection is crucial.
IEEE
802.15.4 includes a security model that provides security features that include access
control, message integrity, message confidentiality, and replay protection, which are
implemented by technologies based on this standard such as ZigBee.

Consider the following factors in shaping a secure and safe IoT network:

• Authentication
Adopt secure protocols to support authentication for devices, gateways, users,
services, and applications. Consider using adopting the X.509 standard for
device authentication.
• Encryption
If you are using wifi, use Wireless Protected Access 2 (WPA2) for
wireless network encryption. You may also adopt a Private Pre-
Shared Key (PPSK) approach. To ensure privacy and data integrity
for communication between applications, be sure to adopt TLS or
Datagram Transport-Layer Security (DTLS), which is based on TLS,
but adapted for unreliable connections that run over UDP. TLS
encrypts application data and ensures its integrity.

• Port protectin
Port protection ensures that only the ports required for communication with the
gateway or upstream applications or services remain open to external
connections. All other ports should be disabled or protected by firewalls. Device
ports might be exposed when exploiting Universal Plug and Play (UPnP)
vulnerabilities. Thus, UPnP should be disabled on the router.
4.IOT Architectures

A. The IoT World Forum (IoTWF) Standardized Architecture

In 2014 the IoTWF architectural committee (led by Cisco, IBM, Rockwell

Automation, and others) published a seven-layer IoT architectural reference
model. While various IoT reference models exist, the one put forth by the
IoT World Forum offers a clean, simplified perspective on IoT and includes
edge computing, data storage, and access. It provides a succinct way of
visualizing IoT from a technical perspective. Each of the seven layers is
broken down into specific functions, and security encompasses the entire
 model. Figure belowd etails the IoT Reference Model published by the
IoTWF.
As shown in Figure 2-2, the IoT Reference Model defines a set of levels with control flowing from

the center (this could be either a cloud service or a dedicated data center), to the edge,

which includes sensors, devices, machines, and other types of intelligent end
nodes. In general, data travels up the stack, originating from the edge, and
goes northbound to the center.
Using this reference model, we are able to achieve the following:
• Decompose the IoT problem into smaller parts
• Identify different technologies at each layer and how they relate to one another
• Define a system in which different parts can be provided by different vendors
• Have a process of defining interfaces that leads to interoperability
• Define a tiered security model that is enforced at the transition
points between levels
The following sections look more closely at each of the seven layers of the
IoT Reference Model.
Layer 1: Physical Devices and Controllers Layer
The first layer of the IoT Reference Model is the physical devices and controllers layer.
This layer is home to the “things” in the Internet of Things, including the various
endpoint devices and sensors that send and receive information. The size of these
“things” can range from almost microscopic sensors to giant machines in a factory. Their
primary function is generating data and being capable of being queried and/or controlled
over a network.
Layer 2: Connectivity Layer
In the second layer of the IoT Reference Model, the focus is on connectivity. The most
important function of this IoT layer is the reliable and timely transmission of data. More
specifically, this includes transmissions between Layer 1 devices and the network and
between the network and information processing that occurs at Layer 3 (the edge
computing layer).As you may notice, the connectivity layer encompasses all networking
elements of IoTand doesn’t really distinguish between the last-mile network (the network
between the sensor/endpoint and the IoT gateway, discussed later in this chapter),
gateway, and backhaul networks. Functions of the connectivity layer are detailed in
Figure 2-3.
Layer 3: Edge Computing Layer.

Edge computing is the role of Layer 3. Edge computing is often referred to as the “fog”
layer and is discussed in the section “Fog Computing,” later in this chapter. At this layer,
the emphasis is on data reduction and converting network data flows into information that
is ready for storage and processing by higher layers. One of the basic principles of this
reference model is that information processing is initiated
as early and as close to the edge of the network as possible. Figure 2-4
highlights the functions handled by Layer 3 of the IoT Reference Model.
 Another important function that occurs at Layer 3 is the evaluation of data to see if it can
befiltered or aggregated before being sent to a higher layer. This also allows for data to be
reformatted or decoded ,making additional processing by other systems easier. Thus, a
critical function is assessing the data to see if predefined thresholds are crossed and any
action or alerts need to be sent.

Upper Layers: Layers 4–7

The upper layers deal with handling and processing the IoT data generated
by the bottom layer. For the sake of completeness, Layers 4–7 of the IoT
Reference Model are summarized in Table 2-2.

B. M2M Communication

One M2M IoT Standardized Architecture In 2012 ETSI and 13 other founding members
launched oneM2M as a global initiative designed to promote efficient M2M communication
systems and IoT. The goal of oneM2M is to create a common services layer, which can be
readily embedded in field devices to allow communication with application servers.
oneM2M’s framework focuses on IoT services, applications, and platforms. These include
smart metering applications, smart grid, smart city automation, e health, and connected
vehicles. One of the greatest challenges in designing an IoT architecture is dealing with the
heterogeneity of devices, software, and access methods. By developing a horizontal platform
architecture, oneM2M is developing standards that allow interoperability at all levels of the
IoT stack. Figure: The Main Elements of the oneM2M IoT Architecture The oneM2M
architecture divides IoT functions into three major domains: the application layer, the
services layer, and the network layer. While this architecture may seem simple and
somewhat generic at first glance, it is very rich and promotes interoperability through IT-
friendly APIs and supports a wide range of IoT technologies.

■ Applications layer: The oneM2M architecture gives major attention to connectivity

between devices and their applications. This domain includes the application-layer protocols
and attempts to standardize northbound API definitions for interaction with business
intelligence (BI) systems. Applications tend to be industry-specific and have their own sets
of data models, and thus they are shown as vertical entities.

■ Services layer: This layer is shown as a horizontal framework across the vertical industry
applications. At this layer, horizontal modules include the physical network that the IoT
applications run on, the underlying management protocols, and the hardware. Examples
include backhaul communications via cellular, MPLS networks, VPNs, and so on. Riding
on top is the common services layer. This conceptual layer adds APIs and middleware
supporting third-party services and applications. One of the stated goals of oneM2M is to
“develop technical specifications which address the need for a common M2M Service Layer
that can be readily embedded within various hardware and software nodes, and rely upon
connecting the myriad of devices in the field area network to M2M application servers,
which typically reside in a cloud or data center.” A critical objective of oneM2M is to attract
and actively involve organizations from M2M-related business domains, including
telematics and intelligent transportation, healthcare, utility, industrial automation, and smart
home applications, to name just a few.

Network layer: This is the communication domain for the IoT devices and endpoints. It
includes the devices themselves and the communications network that links them.
Embodiments of this communications infrastructure include wireless mesh technologies,
such as IEEE 802.15.4, and wireless point-to-multipoint systems, such as IEEE 801.11ah.
Also included are wired device connections, such as IEEE 1901 power line communications.
In many cases, the smart (and sometimes not-so-smart) devices communicate with each
other. In other cases, machine-tomachine communication is not necessary, and the devices
simply communicate through a field area network (FAN) to use-case-specific apps in the
IoT application domain. Therefore, the device domain also includes the gateway device,
which provides communications up into the core network and acts as a demarcation point
between the device and network domains.

Machine-to-machine communication, or M2M, is exactly as it sounds: two machines

“communicating,” or exchanging data, without human interfacing or interaction. This
includes serial connection, powerline connection (PLC), or wireless communications in
the industrial Internet of Things (IoT). Switching over to wireless has made M2M
communication much easier and enabled more applications to be connected.

In general, when someone says M2M communication, they often are referring to cellular
communication for embedded devices. Examples of M2M communication in this case
wouldbe vending machines sending out inventory information or ATM machines getting
authorization to despense cash.

As businesses have realized the value of M2M, it has taken on a new name: the Internet
of Things (IoT). IoT and M2M have similar promises: to fundamentally change the way
the world operates. Just like IoT, M2M allows virtually any sensor to communicate,
which opens up the possibility of systems monitoring themselves and automatically
responding to changes in the environment, with a much reduced need for human
involvement. M2M and IoT are almost synonymous—the exception is IoT (the newer
term) typically refers to wireless communications, whereas M2M can refer to any two
machines—wired or wireless—communicating with one another.

Traditionally, M2M focused on “industrial telematics,” which is a fancy way of

explaining data transfer for some commercial benefit. But many original uses of M2M
still stand today, like smart meters. Wireless M2M has been dominated by cellular since
it came out in the mid-2000’s with 2G cell networks. Because of this, the cellular
market has tried to brand M2M as an inherently cellular thing by offering M2M data
plans. But cellular M2M is only one subsection of the market, and it shouldn’t be
thought of as a cellular-only area.

How M2M Works

As previously stated, machine-to-machine communication makes the Internet of Things
possible. According to Forbes, M2M is among the fastest-growing types of connected
device technologies in the market right now, largely because M2M technologies can
connect millions of devices within a single network. The range of connected devices
includes anything from vending machines to medical equipment to vehicles to buildings.
Virtually anything that houses sensor or control technology can be connected to some
sort of wireless network.

This sounds complex, but the driving thought behind the idea is quite simple. Essentially,
M2M networks are very similar to LAN or WAN networks, but are exclusively used to
allow machines, sensors, and controls, to communicate. These devices feed information
they collect back to other devices in the network. This process allows a human (or an
intelligent control unit) to assess what is going on across the whole network and issue
appropriate instructions to member devices.

M2M Applications

The possibilities in the realm of M2M can be seen in four major use cases,
which we’ve detailed below:

1. MANUFACTURING

Every manufacturing environment—whether it’s food processing or general product

manufacturing—relies on technology to ensure costs are managed properly and
processes are executed efficiently. Automating manufacturing processes within such a
fast-paced environment is expected to improve processes even more. In the
manufacturing world, this could involve highly automated equipment maintenance and
safety procedures.

For example, M2M tools allow business owners to be alerted on their smartphones when
animportant piece of equipment needs servicing, so they can address issues as quickly as
they arise. Sophisticated networks of sensors connected to the Internet could even order
replacement parts automatically.

2. HOME APPLIANCES
IoT already affects home appliance connectivity through platforms like Nest. However,
M2M is expected to take home-based IoT to the next level. Manufacturers like LG and
Samsung are already slowly unveiling smart home appliances to help ensure a higher
quality of life foroccupants.

For example, an M2M-capable washing machine could send alerts to the owners’ smart
devices once it finishes washing or drying, and a smart refrigerator could automatically
order groceries from Amazon once its inventory is depleted. There are many more
examples of home automation that can potentially improve quality of life for residents,
including systems that allow members of the household to remotely control HVAC
systems using their mobile devices. In situations where a homeowner decides to leave
work early, he or she could contact the home heating system before leaving work to make
sure the temperature at home will be comfortable upon arrival.

3. HEALTHCARE DEVICE MANAGEMENT

One of the biggest opportunities for M2M technology is in the realm of health care. With
M2M technology, hospitals can automate processes to ensure the highest levels of
treatment. Using devices that can react faster than a human healthcare professional in an
emergency situation make this possible. For instance, when a patient’s vital signs drop
below normal, an M2M-connected life support device could automatically administer
oxygen and additional care until a healthcare professional arrives on the scene. M2M also
allows patients to be monitored in their own homes instead of in hospitals or care centers.
For example, devices that track a frail or elderly person’s normal movements can detect
when he or she has had a fall and alert a healthcare worker to the situation.

4. SMART UTILITY MANAGEMENT

In the new age of energy efficiency, automation will quickly become the new normal. As
energy companies look for new ways to automate the metering process, M2M comes to
the rescue, helping energy companies automatically gather energy consumption data, so
they can accurately bill customers. Smart meters can track how much energy a household
or business uses and automatically alert the energy company, which supplants sending out
an employee to read the meter or requiring the customer to provide a reading. This is even
more important as utilities move toward more dynamic pricing models, charging
consumers more for energy usage during peak times.

A few key analysts predict that soon, every object or device will need to be able to connect
to the cloud. This is a bold but seemingly accurate statement. As more consumers,
users, and business owners demand deeper connectivity, technology will need to be
continually

equipped to meet the needs and challenges of tomorrow. This will empower a wide range
ofhighly automated processes, from equipment repairs and firmware upgrades to system
diagnostics, data retrieval, and analysis. Information will be delivered to users, engineers,
data scientists, and key decision-makers in real time, and it will eliminate the need for
guesswork.

The Value Of M2M

Growth in the M2M and IoT markets has been growing rapidly, and according to many
reports, growth will continue. Strategy Analytics believes that low power, wide-area
network (LPWAN) connections will grow from 11 million in 2014 to 5 billion in
2022. And IDC says the market for worldwide IoT solutions will go from $1.9 trillion in
2013 to $7.1 trillion in 2020.

Many big cell operators, like AT&T and Verizon, see this potential and are rolling out
their own M2M platforms. Intel, PTC, and Wipro are are all marketing heavily in M2M
and working to take advantage of this major industry growth spurt. But there is still a great
opportunity for new technology companies to engage in highly automated solutions to
help streamline processes in nearly any type of industry. We’re certain we’ll see a huge
influx of companies who begin to innovate in this area in the next five years.

However, as the cost of M2M communication continues to decrease, companies must

determine how they will create value for businesses and customers. In our mind, the
opportunity and value for M2M doesn’t lie in the more traditional layers of the
communication world. Cell carriers and hardware manufacturers, for example, are
beginning to look into full-stack offerings that enable M2M and IoT product development.
We strongly believe value lies in the application side of things, and the growth in this
industry will be driven by smart applications from this point forward.
 Companies shouldn’t think about IoT or M2M for the sake of IoT or M2M. Instead, they
should focus on optimizing their business models or providing new value for their
customers. For example, if you’re a logistics company like FedEx or UPS, you have
obvious choices for automated logistics decisions made by machines. But if you’re a
retailer, the transition to automation may not be as obvious. It’s one thing to think of a
“cool” automated process—say, creating advertising that is automatically tied to a specific
customer through the use of M2M technology—but before you move forward with the
process, you have to consider the value you’re getting out of it. How much does it cost to
implement? Will any company considering a move into the IoT space needs to understand
what its business model is, how it will make money, and how it will provide value for
customers or internal processes.

C. Simplified Architecture of IoT

Figure below has three layers, namely, the perception, network, and application layers.

(i) The perception layer is the physical layer, which has sensors for sensing and
gathering information about the environment. It senses some physical
parameters or identifies other smart objects in the environment.
(ii) The network layer is responsible for connecting to other smart things, network
devices, and servers. Its features are also used for transmitting and processing
sensor data.
(iii) The application layer is responsible for delivering application
specific services to the user. It defines various applications in
which the Internet of Things can be deployed, for example, smart
homes, smart cities, and smart health.

The three-layer architecture defines the main idea of the Internet of Things, but it is not
sufficient for research on IoT because research often focuses on finer aspects of the Internet
of Things. That is why, we have many more layered architectures proposed in the literature.
One is the fivelayer architecture, which additionally includes the processing and business
layers [3–6]. The five layers are perception, transport, processing, application, and business
layers (see Figure 1). The role of the perception and application layers is the same as the
architecture with three layers. We outline the function of the remaining three layers.

(i) The transport layer transfers the sensor data from the perception layer
to the processing layer and vice versa through networks such as
wireless, 3G, LAN, Bluetooth, RFID, and NFC.
(ii) The processing layer is also known as the middleware
layer. It stores, analyzes, and processes huge amounts of
 data that comes from the transport layer. It can manage
and provide a diverse set of services to the

lower layers. It employs many technologies such as

databases, cloud computing, and big data processing
modules.
(iii) The business layer manages the whole IoT system,
including applications, business and profit models, and
users’ privacy. The business layer is out of the scope of
this paper. Hence, we do not discuss it further.

D. Core IoT Functional Stack

The IoT network must be designed to support its unique requirements and constraints. This section
provides an overview of the full networking stack, from sensors all the way to the applications
layer.

The Core IoT Functional Stack IoT networks are built around the concept of “things,” or smart
objects performing functions and delivering new connected services. These objects are “smart”
because they use a combination of contextual information and configured goals to perform actions.
These actions can be self-contained (that is, the smart object does not rely on external systems for
its actions); however, in most cases, the “thing” interacts with an external system to report
information that the smart object collects, to exchange with other objects, or to interact with a
management platform. In this case, the management platform can be used to process data collected
from the smart object and also guide the behavior of the smart object. From an architectural
standpoint, several components have to work together for an IoT network to be operational:
“Things” layer: At this layer, the physical devices need to fit the constraints of the environment
in which they are deployed while still being able to provide the information needed.
Communications network layer: When smart objects are not self-contained, they need to
communicate with an external system. In many cases, this communication uses a wireless
technology. This layer has four sublayers: Access network sublayer: The last mile of the IoT
network is the access network. This is typically made up of wireless technologies such as
802.11ah, 802.15.4g, and LoRa. The sensors connected to the access network may also be wired.
Gateways and backhaul network sublayer: A common communication system organizes multiple
smart objects in a given area around a common gateway. The gateway communicates directly with
the smart objects. The role of the gateway is to forward the collected information through a longer-
range medium (called the backhaul) to a headend central station where the information is
processed. This information exchange is a Layer 7 (application) function, which is the reason this
object is called a gateway. On IP networks, this gateway also forwards packets from one IP
network to another, and it therefore acts as a router. Network transport sublayer: For
communication to be successful, network and transport layer protocols such as IP and UDP must
be implemented to support the variety of devices to connect and media to use. IoT network
management sublayer: Additional protocols must be in place to allow the headend applications to
exchange data with the sensors. Examples include CoAP and MQTT.

Application and analytics layer: At the upper layer, an application needs to process the
collected data, not only to control the smart objects when necessary, but to make
intelligent decision based on the information collected and, in turn, instruct the “things”
or other systems to adapt to the analyzed conditions and change their behaviors or
parameters. The following sections examine these elements and help you architect your
IoT communication network.

Layer 1: Things: Sensors and Actuators Layer

Most IoT networks start from the object, or “thing,” that needs to be connected.From an
architectural standpoint, the variety of smart object types, shapes, and needs drive the
variety of IoT protocols and architectures. There are myriad ways to classify smart
objects. One architectural classification could be:

• Battery-powered or power-connected: This classification is based on whether the

object carries its own energy supply or receives continuous power from an external
power source. Battery- powered things can be moved more easily than line- powered
objects. However, batteries limit the lifetime and amount of energy that the object is
allowed to consume, thus driving transmission range and frequency.

• Mobile or static: This classification is based on whether the “thing” should move or
always stay at the same location. A sensor may be mobile because it is moved from one
object to another (for example, a viscosity sensor moved from batch to batch in a
chemical plant) or because it is attached to a moving object (for example, a location
sensor on moving goods in a warehouse or factory floor). The frequency of the
movement may also vary, from occasional to permanent. The range of mobility (from a
few inches to miles away) often drives the possible power source.
• Low or high reporting frequency: This classification is based on how often the object
should report monitored parameters. A rust sensor may report values once a month. A
motion sensor may report acceleration several hundred times per second. Higher
frequencies drive higher energy consumption, which may create constraints on the
possible power source (and therefore the object mobility) and the transmission range.
• Simple or rich data: This classification is based on the quantity of data exchanged at
each report cycle. A humidity sensor in a field may report a simple daily index value
(on a binary scale from 0 to 255), while an engine sensor may report hundreds of
parameters, from temperature to pressure, gas velocity, compression speed, carbon
index, and many others. Richer data typically drives higher power consumption. This
classification is often combined with the previous to determine the object data
 throughput (low throughput to high throughput). You may want to keep in mind that
throughput is a combined metric. A medium-throughput object may send simple data at
rather high frequency (in which case the flow structure looks
continuous), or may send rich data at rather low frequency (in which case
the flow structure looks bursty).
• Report range: This classification is based on the distance at which the gateway is
located. For example, for your fitness band to communicate with your phone, it needs
to be located a few meters away at most. The assumption is that your phone needs to
be at visual distance for you to consult the reported data on the phone screen. If the
phone is far away, you typically do not use it, and reporting data from the band to the
phone is not necessary. By contrast, a moisture sensor in the asphalt of a road may
need to communicate with its reader several hundred meters or even kilometers away.
• Object density per cell: This classification is based on the number of smart objects
(with a similar need to communicate) over a given area, connected to the same gateway.
An oil pipeline may utilize a single sensor at key locations every few miles. By contrast,
telescopes like the SETI Colossus telescope at the Whipple Observatory deploy
hundreds, and sometimes thousands, of mirrors over a small area, each with multiple
gyroscopes, gravity, and vibration sensors.

Layer 2: Communications Network Layer

Once you have determined the influence of the smart object form factor over its transmission
capabilities (transmission range, data volume and frequency, sensor density and mobility), you
are ready to connect the object and communicate. Compute and network assets used in IoT
can be very different from those in IT environments. The difference in the physical form
factors between devices used by IT and OT is obvious even to the most casual of observers.
What typically drives thisis the physical environment in which the devices are deployed. What
may not be as inherently obvious, however, is their operational differences.

The operational differences must be understood in order to apply the correct handling to secure
the target assets. Temperature variances are an easily understood metric. The cause for the
variance is easily attributed to external weather forces and internal operating conditions.
Remote external locations, such as those associated with mineral extraction or pipeline
equipment can span from the heat of the Arabian Gulf to the cold of the Alaskan North Slope.
Controls near the furnaces of a steel mill obviously require heat tolerance, and controls for
cold food storage require the opposite. In some cases, these controls must handle extreme
fluctuations as well. These extremes can be seen within a single deployment. For example,
portions of the Tehachapi, California, wind farms are located in the Mojave Desert, while
others are at an altitude of 1800 m in the surrounding mountains. As you can imagine, the wide
variance in temperature takes a special piece of hardware that is capable of withstanding such
harsh environments. Humidity fluctuations can impact the long- term success of a system as
 well. Well heads residing in the delta of the Niger River.

• Access Network Sublayer

There is a direct relationship between the IoT network technology you choose and the type
of connectivity topology this technology allows. Each technology was designed with a certain
number of use cases in mind (what to connect, where to connect, how much data to transport at
what interval and over what distance). These use cases determined the frequency band that was
expected to be most suitable, the frame structure matching the expected data pattern (packet
size and communication intervals), and the possible topologies that these use cases illustrate.
As IoT continues to grow exponentially, you will encounter a wide variety of applications and
special use cases. For each of them, an access technology will be required. IoT sometimes
reuses existing access technologies whose characteristics match more or less closely the IoT
use case requirements. Whereas some access technologies were developed specifically for IoT
use cases, others were not. One key parameter determining the choice of access technology is
the range between the smart object and the information collector. Figure 2-9 lists some access
technologies you may encounter in the IoT world and the expected transmission distances.

PAN (personal area network): Scale of a few meters. This is the personal space around a
person. A common wireless technology for this scale is Bluetooth.

HAN (home area network): Scale of a few tens of meters. At this scale, common wireless
technologies for IoT include ZigBee and Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE).

NAN (neighborhood area network): Scale of a few hundreds of meters. The term NAN is
often used to refer to a group of house units from which data is collected.

FAN (field area network): Scale of several tens of meters to several hundred meters. FAN
typically refers to an outdoor area larger than a single group of house units. The FAN is often
seen as “open space” (and therefore not secured and not controlled). A FAN is sometimes
viewed as a group of NANs, but some verticals see the FAN as a group of HANs or a group
of smaller outdoor cells. As you can see, FAN and NAN may sometimes be used
interchangeably. In most cases, the vertical context is clearenough to determine the grouping
hierarchy.

LAN (local area network): Scale of up to 100 m. This term is very common innetworking,
and it is therefore also commonly used in the IoT space when standard networking
technologies (such as Ethernet or IEEE 802.11) are used. Other networking classifications,
such as MAN (metropolitan area network, with a range of up to a few kilometers) and WAN
(wide area network, with a range of more than a few kilometers), are also commonly used.
Network Transport Sublayer
 The previous section describes a hierarchical communication architecture
in which a series of smart objects report to a gateway that conveys the
reported data over another medium and up to a central station. However,
practical implementations are often flexible, with multiple transversal
communication paths. For example, consider the case of IoT for the energy
grid. Your house may have a meter that reports the energy consumption to
a gateway over a wireless technology. Other houses in your neighborhood
(NAN) make the same report, likely to one or several gateways. The data
to be transported is small and the interval is large (for example, four times
per hour), resulting in a low-mobility, lowthroughput type of data structure,
with transmission distances up to a mile. Several technologies (such as
802.11ah, 802.15.4, or LPWA) can be used for this collection segment.
Other neighborhoods may also connect the same way, thus forming a FAN.

IoT Network Management Sublayer

IP, TCP, and UDP bring connectivity to IoT networks. Upper-layer

protocols need to take care of data transmission between the smart objects
and other systems. Multiple protocols have been leveraged or created to
solve IoT data communication problems. Some networks rely on a push
model (that is, a sensor reports at a regular interval or based on a local
trigger), whereas others rely on a pull model (that is, an application queries
the sensor over the network), and multiple hybrid approaches are also
possible.

Layer 3: Applications and Analytics Layer

Once connected to a network, your smart objects exchange information with other
systems. As soon as your IoT network spans more than a few sensors, the power of the
Internet of Things appears in the applications that make use of the information
exchanged with the smart objects. Analytics Versus Control Applications Multiple
applications can help increase the efficiency of an IoT network. Each application
collects data and provides a range of functions based on analyzing the collected data.
It can be difficult to compare the features offered. Chapter 7, “Data and Analytics for
IoT,” provides an in-depth analysis of the various application families. From an
architectural standpoint, one basic classification can be as follows: Analytics
application: This type of application collects data from multiple smart objects,
processes the collected data, and displays information resulting from the data that was
processed. The display can be about any aspect of the IoT network, from historical
reports, statistics, or trends to individual system states. The important aspect is that the
application processes the data to convey a view of the network that cannot be obtained
from solely looking at the information displayed by a single
 smart object. Control application: This type of application controls the
behavior of the smart object or the behavior of an object related to the smart
object. For example, a pressure sensor may be connected to a pump. A
control application increases the pump speed when the connected sensor
detects a drop in pressure. Control applications are very useful for
controlling complex aspects of an IoT network with a logic that cannot be
programmed inside a single IoT object, either because the configured
changes are too complex to fit into the local system or because the
configured changes rely on parameters that include elements outside the
IoT object.

4.Fog Computing
The solution to the challenges mentioned in the previous section is to distribute data
management throughout the IoT system, as close to the edge of the IP network as
possible. The best-known embodiment of edge services in IoT is fog computing. Any
device with computing, storage, and network connectivity can be a fog node.
Examples include industrial controllers, switches, routers, embedded servers, and
IoT gateways. Analyzing IoT data close to where it is collected minimizes latency,
offloads gigabytes of network traffic from the core network, and keeps sensitive data
inside the local network.
 Fog services are typically accomplished very close to the edge device, sitting as
close to the IoT endpoints as possible. One significant advantage of this
is that the fog
node has contextual awareness of the sensors it is managing because of its geographic
proximity to those sensors. For example, there might be a fog router on an oil derrick that
is monitoring all the sensor activity at that location. Because the fog node is able to analyze
information from all the sensors on that derrick, it can provide contextual analysis of the
messages it is receiving and may decide to send back only the relevant information over
the backhaul network to the cloud. In this way, it is performing distributed analytics such
that the volume of data sent upstream is greatly reduced and is much more useful to
application and analytics servers residing in the cloud.

The defining characteristic of fog computing are as follows:

Contextual location awareness and low latency: The fog node sits as close to the IoT
endpoint as possible to deliver distributed computing.

Geographic distribution: In sharp contrast to the more centralized cloud, the services
and applications targeted by the fog nodes demand widely distributed deployments.

Deployment near IoT endpoints: Fog nodes are typically deployed in the presence of a
large number of IoT endpoints. For example, typical metering deployments often see 3000
to 4000 nodes per gateway router, which also functions as the fog computing node.

Wireless communication between the fog and the IoT endpoint: Although it is possible
to connect wired nodes, the advantages of fog are greatest when dealing with a large
number of endpoints, and wireless access is the easiest way to achieve such scale.

Use for real-time interactions: Important fog applications involve real-time interactions
rather than batch processing. Preprocessing of data in the fog nodes allows upper-layer
applications to perform batch processing on a subset of the data.

5.Edge Computing

Fog computing solutions are being adopted by many industries, and

efforts to develop distributed applications and analytics tools are being introduced at an
accelerating pace. The natural place for a fog node is in the network device that sits closest to the
IoT endpoints, and these nodes are typically spread throughout an IoT network. However, in
recent years, the concept of IoT computing has been pushed even further to the edge, and in some
cases it now resides directly in the sensors and IoT devices.
Edge Computing Fog computing solutions are being adopted by many
industries, and efforts to develop distributed applications and analytics tools are being introduced
at an accelerating pace. The natural place for a fog node is in the network device that sits closest
to the IoT endpoints, and these nodes are typically spread throughout an IoT network. However,
in recent years, the concept of IoT computing has been pushed even further to the edge, and in
some cases it now resides directly in the sensors and IoT devices. IoT devices and sensors often
have constrained resources, however, as compute capabilities increase.
Some new classes of IoT endpoints have enough compute capabilities to
perform at least low-level analytics and filtering to make basic decisions. For example, consider
a water sensor on a fire hydrant. While a fog node sitting on an electrical pole in the distribution
network may have an excellent view of all the fire hydrants in a local neighborhood, a node on
each hydrant would have clear view of a water pressure drop on its own line and would be able to
quickly generate an alert of a localized problem. The fog node, on the other hand, would have a
wider view and would be able to ascertain whether the problem was more than just localized but
was affecting the entire area.
Another example is in the use of smart meters. Edge compute– capable
meters are able to communicate with each other to share information on small subsets of the
electrical distribution grid to monitor localized power quality and consumption, and they can
inform a fog node of events that may pertain to only tiny sections of the grid. Models such as these
helps ensure the highest quality of power delivery to customers.

The Hierarchy of Edge, Fog, and Cloud

It is important to stress that edge or fog computing in no way replaces the cloud. Rather, they
complement each other, and many use cases actually require strong cooperation between layers.
In the same way that lower courts do not replace the supreme court of a country, edge and fog
computing layers simply act as a first line of defense for filtering, analyzing, and otherwise
managing data endpoints.
This saves the cloud from being queried by each and every node for each
event. This model suggests a hierarchical organization of network, compute, and data storage
resources. At each stage, data is collected, analyzed, and responded to when necessary, according
to the capabilities of the resources at each layer.
As data needs to be sent to the cloud, the latency becomes higher. The advantage of this hierarchy
is that a response to events from resources close to the end device is fast and can result in
immediate benefits, while still having deeper compute resources available in the cloud when
necessary.
It is important to note that the heterogeneity of IoT devices also means
a heterogeneity of edge and fog computing resources. While cloud resources are expected to be
homogenous, it is fair to expect that in many cases both edge and fog resources will use different
operating systems, have different CPU and data storage capabilities, and have different energy
consumption profiles.
Edge and fog thus require an abstraction layer that allows applications
to communicate with one another. The abstraction layer exposes a common set of APIs for
monitoring, provisioning, and controlling physical resources in a standardized way.
The abstraction layer also requires a mechanism to support virtualization, with the ability to run
multiple operating systems or service containers on physical devices to support multitenancy and
application consistency across the IoT system.
Definition of a common communications services framework is being
addressed by groups such as oneM2M, discussed earlier. Figure below illustrates the hierarchical
nature of edge, fog, and cloud computing across an IoT system. From an architectural standpoint,
fog nodes closest to the network edge receive the data from IoT devices. The fog IoT application
then directs different types of data to the optimal place for analysis:
■ The most time-sensitive data is analyzed on the edge or fog node closest to the things generating
the data.
■ Data that can wait seconds or minutes for action is passed along to an aggregation node for
analysis and action.
■ Data that is less time sensitive is sent to the cloud for historical analysis, big data analytics, and
long-term storage. For example, each of thousands or hundreds of thousands of fog nodes might
send periodic summaries of data to the cloud for historical analysis and storage. In summary, when
architecting an IoT network, you should consider the amount of data to be analyzed and the time
sensitivity of this data. Understanding these factors will help you decide whether cloud computing
is enough or whether edge or fog computing would improve your system efficiency. Fog
computing accelerates awareness and response to events by eliminating a round trip to the cloud
for analysis. It avoids the need for costly bandwidth additions by offloading gigabytes of network
traffic from the core network. It also protects sensitive IoT data by analyzing it inside company
walls
EPC QUESTIONS - UNIT 1

1. Explain Evolution of IoT and Describe the IoT enabling Technologies

2. Explain M2M Communication with suitable explanations.
3. Explain in detail IOTWF standardized reference model Architecture.
4. Describe the simplified IoT Architecture.
5. Explain the concept of Edge, Fog and Cloud computing
 UNIT II COMPONENTS IN INTERNET OF THINGS
Functional Blocks of an IoT Ecosystem – Sensors, Actuators, and Smart Objects – Control Units -
Communication modules (Bluetooth, Zigbee, Wifi, GPS, GSM Modules)

1.Functional blocks of an IoT ecosystem

IoT don’t exist in a void. A lone sensor isn’t really good for anything, nor is a bunch of them, for that
matter, unless they are all connected to one another and to platforms that generate data for further use.
This is what we call an Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystem – a broad network of connected and
interdependent devices and technologies that are applied by specialists towards a specific goal, such as
the creation of a smart city.
Obviously, there are limitless applications to the IoT and therefore we can speak of endless coexisting
IoT ecosystems. But if you boil what is happening in the ecosystem down to the bare essentials, you
will come up with a simple schema: a device collects data and sends it across the network to a platform
that aggregates the data for future use by the agent. And so we have the key components to an IoT
ecosystem: devices, networks, platforms, and agents. Let’s discuss them in more detail.

Four things form basic building blocks of the IoT system –sensors, processors, gateways,
applications. Each of these nodes has to have its own characteristics in order to form an
useful IoT system
.

Figure 1: Simplified block diagram of the basic building blocks of the IoT
Sensors:

• These form the front end of the IoT devices. These are the so-called “Things” of the system.
Their main purpose is to collect data from its surroundings (sensors) or give out data to its
surrounding (actuators).
• These have to be uniquely identifiable devices with a unique IP address so that they can be easily
identifiable over a large network.
• These have to be active in nature which means that they should be able to collect real-time data.
These can either work on their own (autonomous in nature) or can be made to work by the user
depending on their needs (user-controlled).
• Examples of sensors are gas sensor, water quality sensor, moisture sensor, etc.

Sensor: A sensor is an electronic instrument that translates real-world parameters such as physical
quantities, events or characteristics into the electrical signals for the purpose of monitoring and
controlling.

It can take the shape of a basic switch or be a more complicated sensor depending on the
application. Sensors are integrated in a way that they can interact with the surrounding environment
to sense the input energy.

A transduction element is used to convert this sensed energy into a more consistent form. Sensor
works as an input device. A block diagram for sensor is shown belowTo understand their function,
let’s say we need to adjust the altitude of an aircraft, and for this purpose, we need to develop a
control system for it.

Just fixing the fuel throttle won’t get the job done – we need to adjust it for each touchpoint when
there’s a variance in speed, such as when the airplane goes down or up. Using a sensor can help us
measure the speed and convert it into a readable form for the control system.

Based on the measured speed, the connected electronic device will adjust the throttle. Sensors exist
in various forms and shapes. For example- Thermocouple, photo cell, RTD, LVDT, strain gauge,
Load cell etc.
Here are some of the common ones:
• Biosensors – are typically used in electronical technology. Medical devices use them to analyze
proteins, cells, and more.
• IR sensor – helps measure distance by estimating the depth of IR reflection.
• Temperature sensor – converts temperature changes into electrical signals with the help of the
thermodynamic principle.
• Image sensor – leverages CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Sensor) technology to identify
and transfer the details used to create images. You’ll find these sensors in surveillance and
consumer electronics devices.
• Motion detectors – are based on radar, microwave, and ultrasonic technologies. They generate
waves and use echo to determine nearby motion and obstacles in their pathways.
 Processors:

• Processors are the brain of the IoT system. Their main function is to process the data captured
by the sensors and process them so as to extract the valuable data from the enormous amount
of raw data collected. In a word, we can say that it gives intelligence to the data.
• Processors mostly work on real-time basis and can be easily controlled by applications. These
are also responsible for securing the data – that is performing encryption and decryption of data.
• Embedded hardware devices, microcontroller, etc are the ones that process the data because
they have processors attached to it.

Gateways:

• Gateways are responsible for routing the processed data and send it to proper locations for its
(data) proper utilization.
• In other words, we can say that gateway helps in to and fro communication of the data. It provides
network connectivity to the data. Network connectivity is essential for any IoT system to
communicate.
• LAN, WAN, PAN, etc are examples of network gateways.

Applications:

• Applications form another end of an IoT system. Applications are essential for proper utilization
of all the data collected.
• These cloud-based applications which are responsible for rendering the effective meaning to the
data collected. Applications are controlled by users and are a delivery point of particular services.
• Examples of applications are home automation apps, security systems, industrial control hub, etc.

2.Sensors, Actuators, and Smart Objects

A. Sensor

•A sensor measures some physical quantity and converts that measurement reading into a digital
representation. That digital representation is typically passed to another device for transformation
into useful data that can be consumed by intelligent devices or humans.

•sensors provide superhuman sensory capabilities

•Sensors can be readily embedded in any physical objects

•interpret their environment and make intelligent decisions

Sensor categories

•Active or passive: Sensors can be categorized based on whether they produce an energy output and
typically require an external power supply (active) or whether they simply receive energy and
typically require no external power supply (passive).
• Invasive or non-invasive: Sensors can be categorized based on whether a sensor is part of the
environment it is measuring(invasive) or external to it (non-invasive).

• Contact or no-contact: Sensors can be categorized based on whether they require physical contact
with what they are measuring (contact) or not (no-contact).

• Absolute or relative :Sensors can be categorized based on whether they measure on an absolute scale
(absolute) or based on a difference with a fixed or variable reference value (relative).

• Area of application: Sensors can be categorized based on the specific industry or vertical where
they are being used.

• How sensors measure: Sensors can be categorized based on the physical mechanism used to
measure sensory input (for example, thermoelectric, electrochemical, piezoresistive, optic, electric,
fluid mechanic, photo elastic).

• What sensors measure: Sensors can be categorized based on their applications or what physical
variables they measure
Categorization based on what physical phenomenon asensor is measuring
 Precision agriculture (smart farming)
• which uses a variety of technical advances to improve the efficiency,
sustainability, and profitability of traditional farming practices.
• This includes the use of GPS and satellite aerial imagery for determining field viability; robots for high-
precision planting, harvesting, irrigation, and so on; and real-time analytics and artificial intelligence to
predict optimal crop yield, weather impacts, and soil quality.
• Among the most significant impacts of precision agriculture are those dealing with sensor
measurement of a variety of soil characteristics. These include real- time measurement of
soil quality, pH levels, salinity, toxicity levels, moisture levels for irrigation planning, nutrient levels
for fertilization planning, andso on.
• All this detailed sensor data can be analyzed to provide highly valuable and
 actionable insight to boost productivity and crop yield.
• biodegradable, passive microsensors to measure soil and crop and conditions
• These sensors, developed at North Dakota State University (NDSU), can be planted directly in
the soil and left in the ground to biodegrade without any harm to soil quality.

Sensors in a Smart Phone

Growth and Predictions in the Number of Sensors

B. Actuators
• Actuators are natural complements to sensors
• Sensors are designed to sense and measure practically any measurable variable in the physical
world.
• They convert their measurements (typically analog) into electric signals or digital
representations that can be consumed by an intelligent agent (a device or a human).
• Actuators, on the others hand, receive some type of control signal (commonly an electric signal
or digital command) that triggers a physical effect, usually some type of motion, force, and so
on.
• Sensors provide the information, actuators provide the action

• Actuators also vary greatly in function, size, design, and so on.

Some common ways that they can be classified include the following:
• Type of motion: Actuators can be classified based on the type of motion they produce (for
example, linear, rotary, one/two/three- axes).
• Power: Actuators can be classified based on their power output (for example, high power, low
power, micro power)
• Binary or continuous: Actuators can be classified based on the number of stable-state outputs.
• Area of application: Actuators can be classified based on the specific industry or vertical
where they are used.
• Type of energy: Actuators can be classified based on their energy type.
Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS)Interesting advances in sensor and actuator technologies

is in how they are packaged and deployed.

Micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS), sometimes simply referred to as micro-machines, can

integrate and combine electric and mechanical elements, such as sensors and actuators, on a very
small (millimeter or less) scale.

One of the keys to this technology is a microfabrication technique that is similar to what is used for
microelectronic integrated circuits.
This approach allows mass production at very low costs

• The combination of tiny size, low cost, and the ability to mass produce makes MEMS an
attractive option for a huge number of IoT applications.
• MEMS devices have already been widely used in a variety of different applications and can be
found in very familiar everyday devices.
• For example, inkjet printers use micropump MEMS.
• Smart phones also use MEMS technologies for things like accelerometers and gyroscopes.
• In fact, automobiles were among the first to commercially introduce MEMS into the mass
market, with airbag accelerometers

C. Smart Objects

• Smart objects are, quite simply, the building blocks of IoT.

• They are what transform everyday objects into a network of intelligent objects that are able to
learn from and interact with their environment in a meaningful way
• The real power of smart objects in IoT comes from being networked together rather than being
 isolated as standalone objects
• If a sensor is a standalone device that simply measures the humidity of the soil, it is interesting
and useful, but it isn’t revolutionary
• If that same sensor is connected as part of an intelligent network that is able to coordinate
intelligently with actuators to trigger irrigation systems as needed based on those sensor
readings, we have something far more powerful
• Extending that even further, imagine that the coordinated sensor/actuator set is intelligently
interconnected with other sensor/actuator sets to further coordinate fertilization, pest control,
and so on—and even communicate with an intelligent backend to calculate crop yield potential
• A smart object, is a device that has, at a minimum, thefollowing four defining characteristics

Processing unit:
• Some type of processing unit for
• Acquiring data,
• Processing and analyzing sensing information received by the sensor(s),
• Coordinating control signals to any actuators, and
• Controlling a variety of functions on the smart object, including the communication and power
systems
 • The most common is a microcontroller because of its small form factor, flexibility,
programming simplicity, ubiquity, low power consumption, and low cost

• Sensor(s) and/or actuator(s):

A smart object is capable of interacting with the physical world through sensors and actuators
Communication device:
• The communication unit is responsible for connecting a smart object with other smart objects
and the outside world (via the network).
• Communication devices for smart objects can be either wired or wireless

Power source:
• Smart objects have components that need to be powered.
• The most significant power consumption usually comes from the communication unit of a smart
object
Size is decreasing:
•in reference to MEMS, there is a clear trend of ever-decreasing size.
•Some smart objects are so small they are not even visible to the naked eye.
•This reduced size makes smart objects easier to embed in everyday objects.

Power consumption is decreasing:

•The different hardware components of a smart object continually consume less power.
•This is especially true for sensors, many of which are completely passive.
•Some battery powered sensors last 10 or more years without battery replacement.
Processing power is increasing:
•Processors are continually getting more powerful and smaller.
•This is a key advancement for smart objects, as they become increasingly complex and connected.
Communication capabilities are improving:
•wireless speeds are continually increasing, but they are also increasing in range.
•IoT is driving the development of more and more specialized communication protocols covering a
greater diversity of use cases and environments Smart Object Trends impacting IOT
Processing power is increasing:
•Processors are continually getting more powerful and smaller.
•This is a key advancement for smart objects, as they become increasingly complex and connected.
Communication capabilities are improving:
•wireless speeds are continually increasing, but they are also increasing in range.
•IoT is driving the development of more and more specialized communication protocols covering a
greater diversity of use cases and environments Smart Object Trends impacting IOT
Communication is being increasingly standardized:
•There is a strong push in the industry to develop open standards for IoTcommunication protocols.
•In addition, there are more and more open source efforts to advance IoT

3.Control Units
• The Internet of Things is rarely discussed without the conversation steering to data and the new
Data Economy.
• Sensors are the source of IoT data.
• Driven by new innovations in materials and nanotechnology, sensor technology is developing at a
never before seen pace, with a result of increased accuracy, decreased size and cost, and the ability to
measure or detect things that weren't previously possible.
Transducer
• A better term for a sensor is a transducer.
• Physical device that converts one form of energy into another.
• The transducer converts some physical phenomenon into an electrical impulse that can then be
interpreted to determine a reading.

Actuators
• Another type of transducer that you will encounter in many loT systems is an actuator.
• In simple terms, an actuator operates in the reverse direction of a sensor.
• It takes an electrical input and turns it into physical action.
• For instance, an electric motor, a hydraulic system, and a pneumatic system.

Sensors and Actuators

• Humidity Sensor
• LEDS
• Level/tilt sensor
• Relays
• Pressure sensor
• Motors
• Temperature Sensor
• Lasers
• Motion sensor
• Solenoids
• Proximity sensor
• Speakers
• Optical sensor
• LCD displays
• Acceleration sensor
• Load sensor
• Vibration, chemical, flow.....

4.Communication Modules

• Bluetooth

• Zigbee

• Wifi

BLUETOOTH
It is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect devices of different functions such as
telephones, computers, mobiles or cell phones, cameras and printers so on.Bluetooth LAN is
an adhoc network, which means that the network is formed spontaneously find each other and
make a network called piconet.
Architecture: Bluetooth defines 2 types of networks:
• Piconet
• Scattered Net
i) Piconet It is a small net. It has up to 8 stations, one of which is called the primary and rest
is secondary.The communication between these two is one to one or one to more. The 8
stations is parked state and synchronized with primary.
ii) Scattered Net: Piconets can be combined as scattered net. A secondary station in one piconet
can be the primary in another piconet.
 Bluetooth: A short range wireless communication technology for exchanging data using short-
wavelength UHF radio waves (2.4 to 2.485 GHz) and build personal area networks (PANs).
• Traditional Bluetooth is connection oriented. When a device is connected, a link is maintained,
even if there is no data flowing.
• Sniff modes allow devices to sleep, reducing power consumption to give months of battery life
• Peak transmit current is typically around 25mA
• Even though it has been independently shown to be lower power than other radio standards, it is
still not low enough power for coin cells and energy harvesting applications

• Started with Ericsson's Bluetooth Project in 1994 for radiocommunication between cell
 phones over short distances
• Named after Danish king Herald Blatand (AD 940-981) who was fond of blueberries
• Intel, IBM, Nokia, Toshiba, and Ericsson formed Bluetooth SIG in May 1998  Version
1.0A of the specification came out in late 1999.
• IEEE 802.15.1 approved in early 2002 is based on Bluetooth Later versions handled by
Bluetooth SIG directly
• Key Features:
▪ Lower Power: 10 mA in standby, 50 mA while transmitting
▪ Cheap: $5 per device
▪ Small: 9 mm2 single chips
Features:
o Low Power wireless technology
o Short range radio frequency at 2.4 GHz ISM Band
o Wireless alternative to wires
o Creating PANs (Personal area networks)
o Support Data Rate of 1 Mb/s (data traffic, video traffic)
o Uses Frequency Hopping spread Spectrum
▪ Bluetooth 5:
o 4x range, 2x speed and 8x broadcasting message capacity
o Low latency, fast transaction (3 ms from start to finish) Data Rate 1 Mb/s: sending just
small data packets
What is Bluetooth Low Energy?
• Bluetooth low energy is a NEW, open, short range radio technology
• Blank sheet of paper design
• Different to Bluetooth classic (BR/EDR)
• Optimized for ultra low power
• Enable coin cell battery use cases
• < 20mA peak current
• < 5 uA average current
• Physical Layer − This includes Bluetooth radio and Baseband (also in the data link layer.
o Radio − This is a physical layer equivalent protocol that lays down the physical
structure and specifications for transmission of radio waves. It defines air interface,
frequency bands, frequency hopping specifications, and modulation techniques.
o Baseband − This protocol takes the services of radio protocol. It defines the
addressing scheme, packet frame format, timing, and power control algorithms.
• Data Link Layer − This includes Baseband, Link Manager Protocol (LMP), and Logical Link
Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP).
o Link Manager Protocol (LMP) − LMP establishes logical links between Bluetooth
devices and maintains the links for enabling communications. The other main
functions of LMP are device authentication, message encryption, and negotiation of
packet sizes.
o Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP) − L2CAP provides adaption
between upper layer frame and baseband layer frame format. L2CAP provides support
for both connection-oriented as well as connectionless services.
• Middleware Layer − This includes Radio Frequency Communications (RFComm) protocol,
adopted protocols, SDP, and AT commands.
 o RFComm − It is short for Radio Frontend Component. It provides a serial interface
with WAP.
o Adopted Protocols − These are the protocols that are adopted from standard models.
The commonly adopted protocols used in Bluetooth are Point-to-Point Protocol
(PPP), Internet Protocol (IP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP), and Wireless Application Protocol (WAP).
o Service Discovery Protocol (SDP)− SDP takes care of service-related queries like
device information so as to establish a connection between contending Bluetooth
devices.
o AT Commands – Attention command set.
• Applications Layer − This includes the application profiles that allow the user to interact
with the Bluetooth applications.

Zigbee
Introduction
• Zigbee is defined and developed by Zigbee Alliance and is based on the IEEE 802.15.4
standard.
• It operates in 2.4 GHz ISM band globally, 915 MHz in Americas, and 868 MHz in Europe.
• Zigbee uses mesh topology and can achieve a maximum data rate of 250 kbps in 2.4 GHz band.
As a short-range wireless technology, it can provide ranges up to 100 meters depending on the
transmit power level and indoor conditions.
• Zigbee has a large addressing space and can support a maximum of 64K IoT devices. Also,
larger networks can be supported by linking multiple Zigbee networks.
• ZigBee provides flexibility for developers and end-users and delivers great interoperability.
Because of its important feature of being low-cost, low-power consumption and having faster
wireless connectivity, the protocol has many applications. For instance, it’s a popular technology
for smart home, because it outstands other wireless technologies with some distinct features.
• Firstly, communication is two -way which makes ZigBee devices reliable. Secondly, it caters
to all sectors like lightings, security, appliances and home access. Thirdly, and most
importantly, this technology requires very little power mainly due to its low latency and low
duty cycle.
• In addition, it uses mesh network and thus reduce chances of failure at nodes.
For applications such as smart meters that are usually installed in locations with poor radio
quality, linking multiple networks can provide scalability.
• In addition, it can increase the reliability as backup routes also can be established and used in
case of failure.
• Even though, Zigbee modules do not exist in most of the existing smartphones, tablets, or
computers, Zigbee is used as the only technology in home products such as Samsung Smart
Things, and Philips Hue. Street lighting is an excellent example that can be controlled using
 Zigbee mesh topology, since it is capable of providing functionalities such as remote
management for a large network of devices.
• Self-forming and self-healing are two important features of Zigbee technology. Self-forming
means that the Zigbee network can configure itself automatically. Self-healing means that it
can reconfigure itself dynamically in situations that Zigbee nodes become faulty, removed or
disabled.
• Interoperability is one of the important features of Zigbee modules. Interoperability is
important, since there might be Zigbee modules from many different manufacturers especially
in home automation and industrial devices.

System Structure
ZigBee system consists of ZigBee Co-ordinator, Router and End device.

1. ZigBee Coordinator (ZC): A network consists of at least one central unit. ZC is the
most important device as it coordinates and acts as a bridge of network. It is the device
responsible for the start of the network. Most importantly, this unit is responsible for the
transmission and reception of data. It also facilitates the handling and storing of
information.
2. ZigBee Router (ZR): A router is an intermediate unit. It allows data to pass through them
to and fro to other devices.
3. ZigBee End-Device (ZED): A ZED interfaces to a sensor and executes the control
operation. The end device contains just enough functionality to talk to either the
coordinator or the router. This causes the node to stay asleep for a long time thereby
increasing battery life to a great extent. A ZED device requires less energy as compared
to the ZC or ZR.
Topologies
The number of coordinators, routers, devices in the network depends on the topology used. There
are three ZigBee Network topologies: star, Cluster tree and Mesh.
• A star network consists of a coordinator and any number of end devices. These devices
are then connected to the coordinator but isolated from each other.
• In Cluster Tree topology, end devices connect the coordinator via Router.
• In the mesh networks, the nodes are interconnected with other nodes so that there exist
multiple pathways connecting each node. The connection between nodes is updated using
built-in routing methodologies. Thus, it provides good stability in changing conditions or
failure at any node

ZigBee Architecture
There are four layers in ZigBee network architecture. ZigBee protocol architecture consists of a
stack of various layers of which physical and MAC layers are as defined in IEEE 802.15.4 and
the other two layers belong to Zigbee specification.

• The Physical layer performs modulation and demodulation to the signals send and received.
• MAC layer transfer data using CSMA/CA. Moreover, the MAC layer synchronizes the
communication between the devices.
• The network layer is responsible for setting up a network, connecting to the devices, routing
data, etc.
• Lastly, the application layer allows the device to interface with a network layer for data
management and communication between the devices
Physical Layer: This layer does modulation and demodulation operations upon transmitting and
receiving signals respectively. This layer’s frequency, data rate, and a number of channels are given
below.
MAC Layer: This layer is responsible for reliable transmission of data by accessing different networks
with the carrier sense multiple access collision avoidances (CSMA). This also transmits the beacon
frames for synchronizing communication.
Network Layer: This layer takes care of all network-related operations such as network setup, end
device connection, and disconnection to network, routing, device configurations, etc.
Application Support Sub-Layer: This layer enables the services necessary for Zigbee device objects
and application objects to interface with the network layers for data managing services. This layer is
responsible for matching two devices according to their services and needs.
Application Framework: It provides two types of data services as key-value pair and generic message
services. The generic message is a developer-defined structure, whereas the key-value pair is used for
getting attributes within the application objects. ZDO provides an interface between application objects
and the APS layer in Zigbee devices. It is responsible for detecting, initiating, and binding other devices
to the network.

WIFI
In general, IoT applications have diverse requirements in terms of range, data rate, energy
efficiency and the cost of devices.

WiFi is a wireless technology that provides local area network connectivity and is well suited
to support IoT applications that require high data rate and a reasonably low latency. Due to the
existence of in-building WiFi connectivity, it becomes a good choice for some IoT
applications.Like a mobile phone, a Wi-Fi network uses Radio Waves to send data across a
network.

The computer should include a wireless adaptor that converts data transferred to a radio signal.
 The identical signals deliver to a router decoder through an Antenna. After decoding, the data
is sent to the Internet over a connected Ethernet connection. Because the wireless network is
bidirectional, data from the Internet will also transit via the router and coded into a radio signal
that the computer's wireless adapter will receive.

The first Wi-Fi standard was released in 1997. Since then, WiFi technology has been constantly
evolving to provide faster speeds and larger coverage. The name of existing WiFi standards are
listed in Table given below

Table : Names of existing WiFi standard

• 802.11b used the same 2.4 GHz frequency band with a bandwidth of 83 MHz and supported a
maximum data rate of 11 Mbps and had a range up to 150 feet. This technology used spread
spectrum technology and became very popular due to its cost. Almost at the same time, 802.11a
standard introduced a WiFi technology that operated in 5 GHz frequency band, and used OFDM
technology for its operation. Due to utilizing larger bandwidth (300 MHz), use of OFDM
technology and higher frequency band which is less prone to noise, 802.11a could support
maximum data rate of 54 Mbps. 802.11a did not become very popular mainly because its cost
was higher than 802.11b.

• 802.11g used both capabilities of 802.11a and 802.11b. It supports data rates of up to 54 Mbps
similar to 802.11a. It also uses the 2.4 GHz frequency for greater range, and it is backward
compatible with 802.11b. Therefore, 802.11g access points can work with 802.11b wireless
network interface cards. 802.11g became standard in 2003 and is also referred to as WiFi 3.
802.11n operated in both the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands. It supported a maximum data rate of
600 Mbps. The main reasons for its better performance were the use of modified OFDM, an
enhancement in Layer 2 design, utilizing higher channel bandwidth, and support of up to four
spatial streams Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) for spatial multiplexing. MIMO allows
multiple transmitters or receivers to operate simultaneously at one or both ends of the link and
provides a substantial increase in data rate. In 2018, WiFi Alliance decided to use a better
 naming system for WiFi standards and called 802.11n as WiFi-4.

• 802.11 ac, also called WiFi 5, was a huge step in WiFi evolution. It supported maximum data
rate of above Gigabits per second. The technology operated exclusively in the 5 GHz frequency
band, supported up to eight spatial streams, utilized higher bandwidth of up to 160 MHz, and
took advantage of denser modulation technique. 802.11ac uses 256 Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation (QAM) up from 64QAM used in 802.11n.

• 802.11 ad (WiGig) operates on 60 GHz band (millimeter waves). The spectrum for this
technology is different in different parts of the world. In North America, 802.11 ad uses 57-64
GHz. WiGig is a very high data rate and low distance technology. 60 GHz was not a license
exempt band, but it became license exempt band after 2013. Due to existence of a large
spectrum of 7 GHz, it is possible to implement simple modulation techniques to achieve very
high data rates. For example, 7 Gbps can be achieved by using simple 1b/Hz modulation
techniques instead of using more complex methods. Due to small wavelength (millimeter
wave), many antennas can be put in a chip to make the antenna array. Due to the use of
directional antenna and very short distance coverage of this technology, the technology
introduces low interference and inherent security.

• 802.11 ax is one of the newest generation of Wi-Fi standard which is also called Wi-Fi 6. Wi-
Fi 6 offers higher data rates and capacity, up to 9.6 Gbps, and operates in both 2.4 GHz and 5
GHz spectrum. There also exists Wi-Fi 6E that supports an all-new 6 GHz spectrum, which has
higher throughputs and lower latency.

• 802.11ah (Wi-Fi HaLow) is a below one gigahertz wireless technology which operates in 900
MHz license-exempt bands. Since it uses a lower frequency band, it can offer longer range
wireless connectivity and therefore can provide robust connectivity in challenging
environments. It also provides lower power consumption as compared to other WiFi
technologies and for this reason meets the requirements for IoT

Working of Wi-Fi
In wireless network, nodes are mobile and the set of reachable nodes change with time.
• Mobile nodes are connected to a wired network infrastructure called access points (AP)
• Access points are connected to each other by a distribution system (DS) such as ethernet,
token ring, etc.
• Two nodes communicate directly with each other if they are reachable (eg, A and C)
• Communication between two stations in different APs occurs via two APs (eg, A and E)

The technique for selecting an AP is called active scanning. It is done whenever a node joins a
network or switches over to another AP.
• The node sends a Probe frame.
• All APs within reach reply with a Probe Response frame.
• The node selects one of the APs and sends an Association Request frame.
• The AP replies with an Association Response frame
• APs also periodically send a Beacon frame that advertises its features such as transmission
rate. This is known as passive scanning
Frame Format

• Control- contains subfields that includes type (management, control or data), subtype
(RTS, CTS or ACK) and pair of 1-bit fields ToDS and FromDS.
• Duration- specifies duration of frame transmission.
• Addresses-The four address fields depend on value of ToDS and FromDS subfields.
When one node is sending directly to another, both DS bits are 0, Addr1 identifies the
target node, and Addr2 identifies the source node. When both DS bits are set to 1, the
message went from a node onto the distribution system, and then from the distribution
system to another node. Addr1contains ultimate destination, Addr2 contains immediate
sender, Addr3 contains intermediate destination and Addr4 contains original source.
• Sequence Control- defines sequence number of the frame to be used in flow control.
• Payload- can contain a maximum of 2312 bytes and is based on the type and the subtype
defined in the Control field.
• CRC- contains CRC-32 error detection sequence.

Collision Avoidance
• Collision detection is not feasible, since all nodes are not within the reach of each other.
• The two major problems are hidden and exposed terminals.
• In figure, each node is able to send and receive signals from nodes to its immediate left
and right.

Hidden Station
• Suppose station B is sending data to A. At the same time, station C also has data
to send to station A.
• Since B is not within the range of C, it thinks the medium is free and sends its
data to A.
• Frames from B and C collide at A. Stations B and C are hidden from each other.
Exposed Station
• Suppose station A is transmitting to station B and station C has some data to send
to station D, which can be sent without interfering the transmission from A to B.
• Station C is exposed to transmission from A and it hears what A is sending and
 thus refrains from sending, even if the channel is available

Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA)

• The idea is for the sender and receiver to exchange short control frames with each
other, so that stations nearby can avoid transmitting for the duration of the data
frame.
• The control frames used for collision avoidance is Request to Send (RTS) and
Clear to Send (CTS).
• Any station hearing RTS is close to sender and remains silent long enough for CTS
to be transmitted back.
Any station hearing CTS remains silent during the upcoming data transmission.
• The receiver sends an ACK frame to the sender after successfully receiving a
frame.
• If RTS frames from two or more stations collide, then they do not receive CTS.
• Each node waits for a random amount of time and then tries to send RTS again
Handshake for hidden & exposed station
• B sends an RTS containing name of sender, receiver & duration of transmission.
• It reaches A, but not C.
• The receiver A acknowledges with a CTS message back to the sender B echoing
the duration of transmission and other information.
• The CTS from A is received by both B and C. B starts to transmit data to A.
• C knows that some hidden station is using the channel and refrains from transmitting.
• The handshaking messages RTS and CTS does not help in exposed stations because
C does not receive CTS from D as it collides with data sent by A.
• Solution for hidden node Handshake for exposed node

Advantages of Wi-Fi in IoT

• We can transport a wireless laptop from one location to another.
• We can reduce the expense of cables by using wireless network communication devices.
 • Wi-Fi setup and configuration are much more straightforward than wiring.
• It is fully secure and will not disrupt any network.
• We may also use hot spots to connect to the Internet.
• Wireless internet access is possible.
Disadvantages of Wi-Fi
• Wi-Fi emits radiation that is harmful to human health.
• When we are not utilizing the server, we must terminate the Wi-Fi connection.
• There are certain limitations to data transfer; we cannot transport data across great
distances.
• When compared to a conventional connection, Wi-Fi deployment is more costly.
Applications of Wi-Fi
• Apps for smartphones
• Applications for business
• Applications for the home
• Computerized software
• Automotive industry
• Video conferencing while surfing the Internet

GPS
• As one of the first methods to track and catalogue digital data of the physical world, GPS has had
an essential influence on Internet of Things (IoT) technologies. IoT can collect and quantify large
amounts of data for everything from personal health to public vehicles; GPS tracking is needed to
provide location information for these objects.

• GPS and IoT complement each other to form a more complete, usable set of interconnected data.
IoT monitors objects and hardware to give real-time information and data about a device’s
operations, while GPS provides the physical coordinates of the hardware or object. With these
systems working in tandem, they form the foundation of asset tracking systems, smarter cities,
innovative products such as self-driving cars and health-related wearable technologies, and a vast,
interconnected ecosystem that allows for smart devices to interact with sophisticated locating
capabilities to achieve goals previously thought impossible

What is the Global Positioning System?

• The Global Positioning System was conceived in 1960 under the auspices of the U.S. Air Force, but
in 1974 the other branches of the U.S. military joined the effort.
• The first satellites were launched into space in 1978. The System was declared fully operational in
April 1995.
• The Global Positioning System consists of 24 satellites, that circle the globe once every 12 hours, to
provide worldwide position, time and velocity information.
• GPS makes it possible to precisely identify locations on the earth by measuring distance from the
satellites.
• GPS allows you to record or create locations from places on the earth and help you navigate to and
from those places.
• Originally the System was designed only for military applications and it wasn’t until the 1980’s that
it was made available for civilian use also.

The 3 segments of GPS

The Space segment: The space segment consists of 24 satellites circling the earth at 12,000 miles in
altitude. This high altitude allows the signals to cover a greater area. The satellites are arranged in their
orbits so a GPS receiver on earth can always receive a signal from at least four satellites at any given
time. Each satellite transmits low radio signals with a unique code on different frequencies, allowing
the GPS receiver to identify the signals. The main purpose of these coded signals is to allow for
calculating travel time from the satellite to the GPS receiver. The travel time multiplied by the speed
of light equals the distance from the satellite to the GPS receiver. Since these are low power signals
and won’t travel through solid objects, it is important to have a clear view of the sky.
 The Control segment: The control segment tracks the satellites and then provides them with corrected
orbital and time information. The control segment consists of four unmanned control stations and one
master control station. The four unmanned stations receive data from the satellites and then send that
information to the master control station where it is corrected and sent back to the GPS satellites.

The User segment: The user segment consists of the users and their GPS receivers. The number of
simultaneous users is limitless.

GPS Terminology

2D Positioning: In terms of a GPS receiver, this means that the receiver is only able to lock on to three
satellites which only allows for a two dimensional position fix. Without an altitude, there may be a
substantial error in the horizontal coordinate.
3D Positioning: Position calculations in three dimensions. The GPS receiver has
locked on to 4 satellites. This provides an altitude in a addition to a horizontal coordinate, which means
a much more accurate position fix.
Real Time Differential GPS: Real-time DGPS employs a second, stationary GPS receiver at a
precisely measured spot (usually established through traditional survey methods). This receiver
corrects any errors found in the GPS signals, including atmospheric distortion, orbital anomalies,
Selective Availability (when it existed), and other errors. A DGPS station is able to do this because its
computer already knows its precise location, and can easily determine the amount of error provided by
the GPS signals. DGPS corrects or reduces the effects of:
- Orbital errors
- Atmospheric distortion
- Selective Availability
- Satellite clock errors
- Receiver clock errors
DGPS cannot correct for GPS receiver noise in the user’s receiver, multipath
interference, and user mistakes. In order for DGPS to work properly, both the user’s
receiver and the DGPS station receiver must be accessing the same satellite signals
at the same time.
 GSM
What is GSM?

GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. It is a digital cellular technology
used for transmitting mobile voice and data services. Important facts about the GSM are
given below:
• The concept of GSM emerged from a cell-based mobile radio system at Bell Laboratories in
the early 1970s.
• GSM is the name of a standardization group established in 1982 to create a
• common European mobile telephone standard.
• GSM is the most widely accepted standard in telecommunications and it is implemented
globally.
• GSM is a circuit-switched system that divides each 200 kHz channel into eight 25 kHz time-
slots. GSM operates on the mobile communication bands 900 MHz and 1800 MHz in most
parts of the world. In the US, GSM operates in the bands 850 MHz and 1900 MHz.

System Architecture of GSM

A GSM system consists of three main subsystems:

(i) Radio Subsystem (RSS)

(ii) Networking and Switching Subsystem (NSS)
(iii) Operation Subsystem (OSS)

Figure 2.1.2 Functional Architecture of a GSM SystemRadio subsystem (RSS)

 This subsystem comprises all the radio specific entities. That is, the mobile stations, the base
station subsystems, the base transceiver station and the base station controller. We
brieflyexplain the important components of the radio subsystem in the following:

Mobile Station (MS):

A mobile station (MS) or cell phone contains two major components: the subscriber identity
module(SIM) and the mobile device. The SIM is a removable smart card. Each mobile device
has aunique identifier that is known as its IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity).
Apart fromthe telephone interface, an MS also offers other types of interfaces to the users
suchas USB, Bluetooth, etc. Despite its small size, a SIM card is a very important component
of a GSM network.It contains all the subscription information of a subscriber and holds the
key information that activates the phone after it is powered on. It contains a microcontroller to
primarily store and retrievedata from the flash storage on the SIM. Identification information
is stored in the SIM card’s protected memory (ROM) that is not accessible or modifiable by
the customer.

Additional flash memory is included in the mobile device to allow storage of other information
suchas addresses, pictures, audio and video clips, and short messages. The SIM card contains
many otheridentifiers and tables such as card type, serial number, a list of subscribed services,
and a Personal Identity Number (PIN).

Base Station Subsystem (BSS):

A GSM network comprises many BSSs. Each BSS consists of a Base Station Controller (BSC)
and several Base Transceiver Stations (BTSs). We will explain these components
subsequently. A BSSperforms all functions necessary to maintain radio connections to an MS,
as well as does coding/decoding of voice.
Base Transceiver Station (BTS):

A BTS comprises all radio equipment such as antenna, signal processors and amplifiers that
are necessary for radio transmission. It encodes the received signal, modulates it on a carrier
wave, andfeeds the RF signals to the antenna. It communicates with both the mobile station
and the BSC.
Base Station Controller (BSC):

A BSC manages the radio resource of the BTSs in the sense that it assigns frequency and time
slotsfor all MSs in the area. It also manages the handoff from one BTS to another within the
BSS. The BSC also multiplexes the radio channels onto the fixed network connection to the
Mobile SwitchingCentre (MSC).
Network and switching subsystem (NSS)

This subsystem forms the heart of the GSM system. It connects the wireless networks
to thestandard public networks and carries out usage-based charging, accounting, and
also handles roaming. NSS consists of a switching centre and several databases as described
below.
Mobile Switching Center (MSC):

An MSC can be considered to form the heart of a GSM network. An MSC sets up
connectionsto other MSCs and to other networks such as Public Data Network (PDN). An
MSC is responsible for the connection setup, connection release, and call handoff to other
MSCs. A Gateway MSC (GMSC) is responsible for gateway functions, while a customer
roams to other networks. It also performs certain other supplementary services such as call
forwarding, multiparty calls, etc.
Home Location Registers (HLRs):

A HLR stores in a database important information that is specific to each subscriber. The
information contains subscriber’s IMSI, pre/post paid, user’s current location, etc.
Visitor Location Register (VLR):
 It is essentially a temporary database that is updated whenever a new MS enters its area by
roaming.The information is obtained from the corresponding HLR database. The function of
the VLR is to reduce the number of queries to the HLR and make the user feel as if he were in
his home network.
Operation subsystem (OSS)

The operation subsystem contains all the functions necessary for network operation and
maintenance. It consists of the following:
Operation and Maintenance Centre (OMC):

It supervises all other network entities. Its functions are traffic monitoring, subscribers,
securitymanagement and accounting billing.

Authentication Centre ( AuC )

It protects against intruders targeting the air interface. The AuC stores information
concerned withsecurity features such as user authentication and encryption. The AuC is
related to the HLR.
Equipment Identity Register (EIR):

It is essentially a database that is used to track handsets using the IMEI. It helps to block calls
fromstolen, unauthorized, or defective mobiles.

GSM PROTOCOLS
The signaling protocol in GSM is structured into three general layers depending on the
interface, as shown below. Layer 1 is the physical layer that handles all radio-specific
functions. This includes the creation of bursts according to the five different formats,
multiplexing of bursts intoa TDMA frame, synchronization with the BTS, detection of idle
channels, and measurement of the channel quality on the downlink. The physical layer at
Um uses GMSK for digital modulation and performs encryption/decryption of data, i.e.,
encryption is not performed end- to-end, but only between MS and BSS over the air interface.
 Figure 2.1.3 Protocol architecture for Signalling

The main tasks of the physical layer comprise channel coding and error detection/
correction, which is directly combined with the coding mechanisms. Channel coding makes
extensive use of different forward error correction (FEC) schemes. Signalling between
entities in a GSM network requires higher layers. For this purpose, the LAPDm protocol has
been defined at the Uminterface for layer two. LAPDm has been derived from link access
procedure for the D- channel (LAPD) in ISDN systems, which is a version of HDLC. LAPDm
is a lightweight LAPD becauseit does not need synchronization flags or check summing for
error detection. LAPDm offers reliabledata transfer over connections, re- sequencing of data
frames, and flow control.

The network layer in GSM, layer three, comprises several sublayers. The lowest sublayer is
the radio resource management (RR). Only a part of this layer, RR’, is implemented in the
BTS, the remainder is situated in the BSC. The functions of RR’ are supported by the BSC
via the BTS management (BTSM). The main tasks of RR are setup, maintenance, and release
of radio channels. Mobility management (MM) contains functions for registration,
authentication, identification, location updating, and the provision of a temporary mobile
subscriber identity (TMSI).

Finally, the call management (CM) layer contains three entities: call control (CC), short
message service (SMS), and supplementary service (SS). SMS allows for message transfer
using the control channels SDCCH and SACCH, while SS offers the services like user
identification, call redirection, or forwarding of ongoing calls. CC provides a point-to-point
connection between twoterminals and is used by higher layers for call establishment, call
clearing and change of call parameters. This layer also provides functions to send in-band
tones, called dual tone multiple frequency (DTMF), over the GSM network. These tones are
used, e.g., for the remote control of answering machines or the entry of PINs in electronic
banking and are, also used for dialing in traditional analog telephone systems.

Additional protocols are used at the Abis and A interfaces. Data transmission at the physical
layer typically uses pulse code modulation (PCM) systems. LAPD is used for layer two at
Abis, BTSM for BTS management. Signaling system No. 7 (SS7) is used for signaling
between an MSC and a BSC. This protocol also transfers all management information
between MSCs, HLR, VLRs, AuC, EIR, and OMC. An MSC can also control a BSS via a
BSS application part (BSSAP).

Performance characteristics of GSM :

➢ Communication

Mobile, wireless communication; support for voice and data services

➢ Total mobility

International access, chip-card enables use of access points of different providers

➢ Worldwide connectivity

• One number, the network handles localization

➢ High capacity

• Better frequency efficiency, smaller cells, more customers per cell

➢ High transmission quality

• High audio quality and reliability for wireless, uninterrupted phone calls at
higher speeds (e.g., from cars, trains)

➢ Security functions
• Access control, authentication via chip-card and PIN

Disadvantages of GSM:

➢ There is no perfect system!!

• No end-to-end encryption of user data

• No full ISDN bandwidth of 64 Kbit/s to the user, no transparent B-channel

➢ Reduced concentration while driving

➢ Electromagnetic radiation

➢ Abuse of private data possible

➢ Roaming profiles accessible

➢ High complexity of the system

➢ Several incompatibilities within the GSM standards

 UNIT III PROTOCOLS AND TECHNOLOGIES BEHIND IOT 6

IOT Protocols - IPv6, 6LoWPAN, MQTT, CoAP - RFID, Wireless Sensor Networks, BigData Analytics,
Cloud Computing, Embedded Systems.
IPV6
 Enter IPv6, which uses 128-bit addresses, usually displayed to users as eight groups of four hexadecimal
digits—for example, 2001:0db8:85a3:0042 :0000:8a2e:0370:7334.

 The address space (2^128) is so huge that you could assign the same number of addresses as the whole
of IPv4 to every person on the planet and barely make a dent in it.

 It was originally expected that mobile phones connected to the Internet (another huge growth area) would
push this technology over the tipping point.

 In fact, mobile networks are increasingly using IPv6 internally to route traffic. Although this
infrastructure is still invisible to the end user, it does mean that there is already a lot of use below the
surface which is stacked up, waiting for a tipping point.
Need for IPv6:
The Main reason of IPv6 was the address depletion as the need for electronic devices rose quickly
when Internet Of Things (IOT) came into picture after the 1980s & other reasons are related to the
slowness of the process due to some unnecessary processing, the need for new options, support for
multimedia, and the desperate need for security. IPv6 protocol responds to the above issues using the
following main changes in the protocol:
1. Large address space
An IPv6 address is 128 bits long .compared with the 32 bit address of IPv4, this is a huge(2 raised 96
times) increases in the address space.
2. Better header format
IPv6 uses a new header format in which options are separated from the base header and inserted, when
needed, between the base header and the upper layer data . This simplifies and speeds up the routing
process because most of the options do not need to be checked by routers.
3. New options
IPv6 has new options to allow for additional functionalities.
4. Allowance for extension
IPv6 is designed to allow the extension of the protocol if required by new technologies or applications.
5. Support for resource allocation
In IPv6,the type of service field has been removed, but two new fields , traffic class and flow label
have been added to enables the source to request special handling of the packet . this mechanism can
be used to support traffic such as real-time audio and video.
6. Support for more security
The encryption and authentication options in IPv6 provide confidentiality and integrity of the packet.
In IPv6 representation, we have three addressing methods :
 Unicast
 Multicast
 Anycast
Addressing methods
1. Unicast Address
Unicast Address identifies a single network interface. A packet sent to a unicast address is delivered
to the interface identified by that address.
2. Multicast Address
Multicast Address is used by multiple hosts, called as groups, acquires a multicast destination
address. These hosts need not be geographically together. If any packet is sent to this multicast
address, it will be distributed to all interfaces corresponding to that multicast address. And every
node is configured in the same way. In simple words, one data packet is sent to multiple destinations
simultaneously.
3. Anycast Address
Anycast Address is assigned to a group of interfaces. Any packet sent to an anycast address will be
delivered to only one member interface (mostly nearest host possible).
Note: Broadcast is not defined in IPv6.
Types of IPv6 address:
We have 128 bits in IPv6 address but by looking at the first few bits we can identify what type of
address it is.
Prefix Allocation Fraction of Address Space

0000 0000 Reserved 1/256

0000 0001 Unassigned (UA) 1/256

0000 001 Reserved for NSAP 1/128

0000 01 UA 1/64

0000 1 UA 1/32

0001 UA 1/16

001 Global Unicast 1/8

010 UA 1/8

011 UA 1/8

100 UA 1/8

101 UA 1/8

110 UA 1/8
Prefix Allocation Fraction of Address Space

1110 UA 1/16

1111 0 UA 1/32

1111 10 UA 1/64

1111 110 UA 1/128

1111 1110 0 UA 1/512

1111 1110 10 Link-Local Unicast Addresses 1/1024

1111 1110 11 Site-Local Unicast Addresses 1/1024

1111 1111 Multicast Address 1/256

Note: In IPv6, all 0’s and all 1’s can be assigned to any host, there is not any restriction like IPv4.
Provider-based Unicast address:
These are used for global communication.

The First 3 bits identify it as of this type.

Registry Id (5-bits): Registry Id identifies the region to which it belongs. Out of 32 (i.e. 2^5), only 4
registry IDs are being used.

Provider Id: Depending on the number of service providers that operate under a region, certain bits
will be allocated to the Provider Id field. This field need not be fixed. Let’s say if Provider Id = 10
bits then Subscriber Id will be 56 – 10 = 46 bits.
Subscriber Id: After Provider Id is fixed, the remaining part can be used by ISP as a normal IP
address.
Intra Subscriber: This part can be modified as per the need of the organization that is using the
service.
Geography based Unicast address :

Global routing prefix: Global routing prefix contains all the details of Latitude and Longitude. As
of now, it is not being used. In Geography-based Unicast address routing will be based on location.
Interface Id: In IPv6, instead of using Host Id, we use the term Interface Id.
Some special addresses:
Unspecified

Loopback

IPv4 Compatible

IPv4 mapped

Local Unicast Addresses :

These are of two types: Link-local and Site-Local
1. Link-local address:

A link-local address is used for addressing a single link. It can also be used to communicate with
nodes on the same link. The link-local address always begins with 1111111010 (i.e. FE80). The
router will not forward any packet with Link-local address.
2. Site local address:

Site local addresses are equivalent to a private IP address in IPv4. Likely, some address space is
reserved, which can only be routed within an organization. The first 10-bits are set to 1111111011,
which is why Site local addresses always begin with FEC0. The following 32 bits are Subnet IDs,
which can be used to create a subnet within the organization. The node address is used to uniquely
identify the link; therefore, we use a 48-bits MAC address here.

Advantages of IPv6 :
1. Realtime Data Transmission : Realtime data transmission refers to the process of transmitting data
in a very fast manner or immediately. Example : Live streaming services such as cricket matches, or
other tournament that are streamed on web exactly as soon as it happens with a maximum delay of 5 -
6 seconds.
2. IPv6 supports authentication: Verifying that the data received by the receiver from the sender is
exactly what the sender sent and came through the sender only not from any third party. Example :
Matching the hash value of both the messages for verification is also done by IPv6.
3. IPv6 performs Encryption: Ipv6 can encrypt the message at network layer even if the protocols
of application layer at user level didn’t encrypt the message which is a major advantage as it takes care
of encryption.
4. Faster processing at Router: Routers are able to process data packets of Ipv6 much faster due to
smaller Base header of fixed size – 40 bytes which helps in decreasing processing time resulting in
more efficient packet transmission. Whereas in Ipv4, we have to calculate the length of header which
lies between 20-60 bytes.
IPv6 and Powering Devices
• We can see that an explosion in the number of Internet of Things devices will almost certainly need
IPv6 in the future.
• But we also have to consider the power consumption of all these devices. We know that we can
regularly charge and maintain a small handful of devices. At any one moment, we might have a laptop,
a tablet, a phone, a camera, and a music player plugged in to charge.
• The constant juggling of power sockets, chargers, and cables is feasible but fiddly.
•The requirements for large numbers of devices, however, are very different.
• The devices should be low power and very reliable, while still being capable of connecting to the
Internet. Perhaps to accomplish this, these devices will team together in a mesh network.
• This is the vision of 6LoWPAN, an IETF working group proposing solutions for “IPv6 over Low
power Wireless Personal Area Networks”, using technologies such as IEEE 802.15.4. While a detailed
discussion of 6LoWPAN and associated technologies is beyond the scope of this book, we do come
back to many related issues, such as maximizing battery life in
 2.6LoWPAN

While the Internet Protocol is key for a successful Internet of Things, constrained nodes and
constrained networks mandate optimization at various layers and on multiple protocols of the IP
architecture. Some optimizations are already available from the market or under development by the
IETF. Figure 2.12 highlights the TCP/IP layers where optimization is applied.

Figure 2.12: Optimizing IP for IoT Using an Adaptation Layer

In the IP architecture, the transport of IP packets over any given Layer 1 (PHY) and Layer 2 (MAC)
protocol must be defined and documented. The model for packaging IP into lower-layer protocols is
often referred to as an adaptation layer.

Unless the technology is proprietary, IP adaptation layers are typically defined by an IETF working
group and released as a Request for Comments (RFC). An RFC is a publication from the IETF that
officially documents Internet standards, specifications, protocols, procedures, and events. For
example, RFC 864 describes how an IPv4 packet gets encapsulated over an Ethernet frame, and RFC
2464 describes how the same function is performed for an IPv6 packet.

IoT-related protocols follow a similar process. The main difference is that an adaptation layer designed
for IoT may include some optimizations to deal with constrained nodes and networks. The main
examples of adaptation layers optimized for constrained nodes or “things” are the ones under the
6LoWPAN working group and its successor, the 6Lo working group.

The initial focus of the 6LoWPAN working group was to optimize the transmission of IPv6 packets
over constrained networks such as IEEE 802.15.4. Figure 2.13 shows an example of an IoT protocol
stack using the 6LoWPAN adaptation layer beside the well- known IP protocol stack for reference.
 Figure 2.13: Comparison of an IoT Protocol Stack Utilizing 6LoWPAN and an IP
Protocol Stack

The 6LoWPAN working group published several RFCs, but RFC 4994 is foundational because
it defines frame headers for the capabilities of header compression, fragmentation, and mesh
addressing. These headers can be stacked in the adaptation layer to keep these concepts separate
while enforcing a structured method for expressing each capability. Depending on the
implementation, all, none, or any combination of these capabilities and their corresponding
headers can be enabled. Figure 2.14 shows some examples of typical 6LoWPAN header stacks.

Figure 2.14 6LoWPAN Header Stack

Header Compression

IPv6 header compression for 6LoWPAN was defined initially in RFC 4944 and subsequently
updated by RFC 6282. This capability shrinks the size of IPv6’s 40-byte headers and User
Datagram Protocol’s (UDP’s) 8-byte headers down as low as 6 bytes combined in some cases.
Note that header compression for 6LoWPAN is only defined for an IPv6 header and not IPv4.

The 6LoWPAN protocol does not support IPv4, and, in fact, there is no standardized IPv4
adaptation layer for IEEE 802.15.4. 6LoWPAN header compression is stateless, and
conceptually it is not too complicated. However, a number of factors affect the amount of
compression, such as implementation of RFC 4944 versus RFC 6922, whether UDP is included,
and various IPv6 addressing scenarios.
At a high level, 6LoWPAN works by taking advantage of shared information known by all nodes
from their participation in the local network. In addition, it omits some standard header fields by
assuming commonly used values. Figure 2.15 highlights an example that shows the amount of
reduction that is possible with 6LoWPAN header compression.

6LoWPAN Header Compression

At the top of Figure 2.15, you see a 6LoWPAN frame without any header compression enabled:
The full 40- byte IPv6 header and 8-byte UDP header are visible. The 6LoWPAN header is only
a single byte in this case. Notice that uncompressed IPv6 and UDP headers leave only 53 bytes
of data payload out of the 127- byte maximum frame size in the case of IEEE 802.15.4.

The bottom half of Figure 2.15 shows a frame where header compression has been enabled for a
best-case scenario. The 6LoWPAN header increases to 2 bytes to accommodate the compressed
IPv6 header, and UDP has been reduced in half, to 4 bytes from 8. Most importantly, the header
compression has allowed the payload to more than double, from 53 bytes to 108 bytes, which is
obviously much more efficient. Note that the 2- byte header compression applies to intra-cell
communications, while communications external to the cell may require some field of the header
to not be compressed.

Fragmentation
The maximum transmission unit (MTU) for an IPv6 network must be at least 1280 bytes. The
term MTU defines the size of the largest protocol data unit that can be passed. For IEEE 802.15.4,
127 bytes is the MTU. This is a problem because IPv6, with a much larger MTU, is carried inside
the 802.15.4 frame with a much smaller one. To remedy this situation, large IPv6 packets must
be fragmented across multiple 802.15.4 frames at Layer 2.

The fragment header utilized by 6LoWPAN is composed of three primary fields:

Datagram Size, Datagram Tag, and Datagram Offset. The 1-byte Datagram Size
field specifies the total size of the unfragmented payload. Datagram Tag identifies
the set of fragments for a payload. Finally, the Datagram Offset field delineates
how far into a payload a particular fragment occurs. Figure 2.16 provides an
overview of a 6LoWPAN fragmentation header.
 6LoWPAN Fragmentation Header

In Figure 2.16, the 6LoWPAN fragmentation header field itself uses a unique bit value to identify
that the subsequent fields behind it are fragment fields as opposed to another capability, such as
header compression. Also, in the first fragment, the Datagram Offset field is not present because
it would simply be set to 0. This results in the first fragmentation header for an IPv6 payload
being only 4 bytes long. The remainder of the fragments have a 5-byte header field so that the
appropriate offset can be specified.

Mesh Addressing

The purpose of the 6LoWPAN mesh addressing function is to forward packets over multiple
hops. Three fields are defined for this header: Hop Limit, Source Address, and Destination
Address. Analogous to the IPv6 hop limit field, the hop limit for mesh addressing also provides
an upper limit on how many times the frame can be forwarded. Each hop decrements this value
by 1 as it is forwarded. Once the value hits 0, it is dropped and no longer forwarded.

The Source Address and Destination Address fields for mesh addressing are IEEE
802.15.4 addresses indicating the endpoints of an IP hop. Figure 2.17 details the 6LoWPAN
mesh addressing header fields.

6LoWPAN Mesh Addressing Header

Note that the mesh addressing header is used in a single IP subnet and is a Layer 2 type of
routing known as mesh-under. RFC 4944 only provisions the function in this case as the
definition of Layer 2 mesh routing specifications was outside the scope of the 6LoWPAN
working group, and the IETF doesn’t define “Layer 2 routing.” An implementation performing
Layer 3 IP routing does not need to implement a mesh addressing header unless required by a
given technology profile.

IoT Application Layer Protocols

When considering constrained networks and/or a large-scale deployment of constrained nodes,

verbose web-based and data model protocols, may be too heavy for IoT applications. To address
this problem, the IoT industry is working on new lightweight protocols that are better suited to
large numbers of constrained nodes and networks. Two of the most popular protocols are CoAP
and MQTT. Figure 2.19 highlights their position in a common IoT protocol stack.

Example of a High-Level IoT Protocol Stack for CoAP and MQTT

In Figure 2.19, CoAP and MQTT are naturally at the top of this sample IoT stack, based on an
IEEE 802.15.4 mesh network. While there are a few exceptions, you will almost always find
CoAP deployed over UDP and MQTT running over TCP. The following sections take a deeper
look at CoAP and MQTT.

3.CoAP

Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP) resulted from the IETF Constrained RESTful
Environments (CoRE) working group’s efforts to develop a generic framework for resource-
oriented applications targeting constrained nodes and networks. The CoAP framework defines
simple and flexible ways to manipulate sensors and actuators for data or device management.

The CoAP messaging model is primarily designed to facilitate the exchange of messages over
UDP between endpoints, including the secure transport protocol Datagram Transport Layer
Security (DTLS).

From a formatting perspective, a CoAP message is composed of a short fixed-length Header

field (4 bytes), a variable-length but mandatory Token field (0–8 bytes), Options fields if
necessary, and the Payload field. Figure 2.20 details the CoAP message format, which delivers
low overhead while decreasing parsing complexity.
 Figure 2.20: CoAP Message Format
The CoAP message format is relatively simple and flexible. It allows CoAP to deliver low
overhead, which is critical for constrained networks, while also being easy to parse and process
for constrained devices. Table 2.4 CoAP Message Fields

CoAP can run over IPv4 or IPv6. However, it is recommended that the message fit within
a single IP packet and UDP payload to avoid fragmentation. For IPv6, with the default
MTU size being 1280 bytes and allowing for no fragmentation across nodes, the maximum
CoAP message size could be up to 1152 bytes, including 1024 bytes for the payload. In
the
case of IPv4, as IP fragmentation may exist across the network, implementations
should limit themselves to more conservative values and set the IPv4 Don’t Fragment
(DF) bit.

CoAP communications across an IoT infrastructure can take various paths. Connections
can be between devices located on the same or different constrained networks or between
devices and generic Internet or cloud servers, all operating over IP. Proxymechanisms are
also defined, and RFC 7252 details a basic HTTP mapping for CoAP. As both HTTP and
 CoAP are IP-based protocols, the proxy function can be located practically anywhere in
the network, not necessarily at the border between constrained and non- constrained
networks.

Figure 2.21: CoAP Communications in IoT Infrastructures

Just like HTTP, CoAP is based on the REST architecture, but with a “thing” acting as both
the client and the server. Through the exchange of asynchronous messages, a client
requests an action via a method code on a server resource. A uniform resource identifier
(URI) localized on the server identifies this resource. The server responds with a response
code that may include a resource representation. The CoAP request/response semantics
include the methods GET, POST, PUT, and DELETE.

4. Message Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT)

Figure 2.22: MQTT Publish/Subscribe Framework

At the end of the 1990s, engineers from IBM and Arcom (acquired in 2006 byEurotech) were
looking for a reliable, lightweight, and cost-effective protocol to monitor and control a large
number of sensors and their data from a central server location, as typically used by the oil and
gas industries. Their research resulted in the development and implementation of the Message
Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT) protocol that is now standardized by the Organization for
the Advancement of Structured Information Standards (OASIS).
The selection of a client/server and publish/subscribe framework based on the TCP/IP
architecture, as shown in Figure 2.22

An MQTT client can act as a publisher to send data (or resource information) to an MQTT server
acting as an MQTT message broker. In the example illustrated in Figure 2.22, the MQTT client
on the left side is a temperature (Temp) and relative humidity (RH) sensor that publishes its
Temp/RH data. The MQTT server (or message broker) accepts the network connection along with
application messages, such as Temp/RH data, from the publishers. It also handles the subscription
and unsubscription process and pushes the application data to MQTT clients acting as subscribers.

The application on the right side of Figure 2.22 is an MQTT client that is a subscriber to the
Temp/RH data being generated by the publisher or sensor on the left. This model, where
subscribers express a desire to receive information from publishers, is well known. A great
example is the collaboration and social networking application Twitter.

With MQTT, clients can subscribe to all data (using a wildcard character) or specific data from
the information tree of a publisher. In addition, the presence of a message broker in MQTT
decouples the data transmission between clients acting as publishers and subscribers. In fact,
publishers and subscribers do not even know (or need to know) about each other. A benefit of
having this decoupling is that the MQTT message broker ensures that information can be
buffered and cached in case of network failures. This also means that publishers and subscribers
do not have to be online at the same time. MQTT control packets run over a TCP transport using
port 1883. TCP ensures an ordered, lossless stream of bytes between the MQTT client and the
MQTT server. Optionally, MQTT can be secured using TLS on port 8883, and WebSocket
(defined in RFC 6455) can also be used.

MQTT is a lightweight protocol because each control packet consists of a 2-byte fixed header
with optional variable header fields and optional payload. You should note that a control packet
can contain a payload up to 256 MB. Figure 2.23 provides an overview of the MQTT message
format.

Figure 2.23 MQTT Message Format

Compared to the CoAP message format, MQTT contains a smaller header of 2 bytes compared
to 4 bytes for CoAP. The first MQTT field in the header is Message Type, which identifies the
kind of MQTT packet within a message. Fourteen different types of control packets are
specified in MQTT version 3.1.1. Each of them has a unique value that is coded into the
Message Type field. Note that values 0 and 15 are reserved. MQTT message types are
summarized in Table 2.5.

Table 2.5 MQTT Message Type

The next field in the MQTT header is DUP (Duplication Flag). This flag, when set, allows the
client to notate that the packet has been sent previously, but an acknowledgement was not
received. The QoS header field allows for the selection of three different QoS levels. The next
field is the Retain flag. Only found in a PUBLISH message, the Retain flag notifies the server
to hold onto the message data. This allows new subscribers to instantly receive the last known
value without having to wait for the next update from the publisher.

The last mandatory field in the MQTT message header is Remaining Length. This
field specifies the number of bytes in the MQTT packet following this field.

MQTT sessions between each client and server consist of four phases: session establishment,
authentication, data exchange, and session termination. Each client connecting to a server has a
unique client ID, which allows the identification of the MQTT session between both parties.
When the server is delivering an application message to more than one client, each client is
treated independently.

Subscriptions to resources generate SUBSCRIBE/SUBACK control packets, while un

subscription is performed through the exchange of UNSUBSCRIBE/UNSUBACK control
packets. Graceful termination of a connection is done through a DISCONNECT control packet,
which also offers the capability for a client to reconnect by re-sending its client ID to resume the
operations.

A message broker uses a topic string or topic name to filter messages for its subscribers. When
subscribing to a resource, the subscriber indicates the one or more topic levels that are used to
structure the topic name. The forward slash (/) in an MQTT topic name is used to separate each
level within the topic tree and provide a hierarchical structure to the topic names.
Comparison of CoAP and MQTT

5.RFID

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is a form of wireless communication that incorporates

the use of electromagnetic or electrostatic coupling in the radio frequency portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum to uniquely identify an object, animal or person. It uses radio
frequency to search ,identify, track and communicate with items and people. it is a method that
is used to track or identify an object by radio transmission uses over the web. Data digitally
encoded in an RFID tag which might be read by the reader. This device work as a tag or label
during which data read from tags that are stored in the database through the reader as compared
to traditional barcodes and QR codes. It is often read outside the road of sight either passive or
active RFID.
.
Kinds of RFID :There are many kinds of RFID, each with different properties, but
perhaps the most fascinating aspect of RFID technology is that most RFID tags have
neither an electric plug nor a battery. Instead, all of the energy needed to operate them
is supplied in the form of radio waves by RFID readers. This technology is called
passive RFID to distinguish it from the(less common) active RFID in which there is a
power source on the tag.

UHF RHID ( Ultra-High Frequency RFID ). It is used on shipping pallets and some
driver’s licenses. Readers send signals in the 902-928 MHz band. Tags communicate at
distances of several meters by changing the way they reflect the reader signals; the
reader is able to pick up these reflections. This way of operating is called backscatter.
HF RFID (High-Frequency RFID ). It operates at 13.56 MHz and is likely to be in
your passport, credit cards, books, and noncontact payment systems. HF RFID has a
short-range, typically a meter or less because the physical mechanism is based on
induction rather than backscatter.
There are also other forms of RFID using other frequencies, such as LF RFID(Low-
Frequency RFID), which was developed before HF RFID and used for animal tracking

There are two types of RFID :

1. Passive RFID –
Passive RFID tags does not have their own power source. It uses power from the
reader. In this device, RF tags are not attached by a power supply and passive RF
tag stored their power. When it is emitted from active antennas and the RF tag are
used specific frequency like 125-134KHZ as low frequency, 13.56MHZ as a high
frequency and 856MHZ to 960MHZ as ultra-high frequency.

2. Active RFID –
In this device, RF tags are attached by a power supply that emits a signal and there
is an antenna which receives the data. means, active tag uses a power source like
battery. It has it’s own power source, does not require power from source/reader.

Working Principle of RFID :

Generally, RFID uses radio waves to perform AIDC function. AIDC stands for
Automatic Identification and Data Capture technology which performs object
identification and collection and mapping of the data.

An antenna is an device which converts power into radio waves which are used for
communication between reader and tag. RFID readers retrieve the information from
RFID tag which detects the tag and reads or writes the data into the tag. It may
include one processor, package, storage and transmitter and receiver unit.

Working of RFID System :

Every RFID system consists of three components: a scanning antenna, a transceiver and
a transponder. When the scanning antenna and transceiver are combined, they are
referred to as an RFID reader or interrogator. There are two types of RFID readers —
fixed readers and mobile readers. The RFID reader is a network-connected device that
can be portable or permanently attached. It uses radio waves to transmit signals that
activate the tag. Once activated, the tag sends a wave back to the antenna, where it is
translated into data.
The transponder is in the RFID tag itself. The read range for RFID tags varies based on
factors including the type of tag, type of reader, RFID frequency and interference in the
surrounding environment or from other RFID tags and readers. Tags that have a
stronger power source also have a longer read range.

Features of RFID :
 An RFID tag consists of two-part which is an microcircuit and an antenna.
 This tag is covered by protective material which acts as a shield against the outer
environment effect.
 This tag may active or passive in which we mainly and widely used passive RFID.

Application of RFID :
 It utilized in tracking shipping containers, trucks and railroad, cars.
 It uses in Asset tracking.
 It utilized in credit-card shaped for access application.
 It uses in Personnel tracking.
 Controlling access to restricted areas.
 It uses ID badging.
 Supply chain management.
 Counterfeit prevention (e.g., in the pharmaceutical industry).

Advantages of RFID :
 It provides data access and real-time information without taking to much time.
 RFID tags follow the instruction and store a large amount of information.
 The RFID system is non-line of sight nature of the technology.
 It improves the Efficiency, traceability of production.
 In RFID hundred of tags read in a short time.

Disadvantages of RFID :
 It takes longer to program RFID Devices.
 RFID intercepted easily even it is Encrypted.
 In an RFID system, there are two or three layers of ordinary household foil to dam
the radio wave.
 There is privacy concern about RFID devices anybody can access infoation about
anything.
 Active RFID can costlier due to battery.

6.TECHNOLOGIES INVOLVED IN IOT DEVELOPMENT:

INTERNET/WEB AND NETWORKING BASICS OSI MODEL
IoT(internet of things) enabling technologies are
1. Wireless Sensor Network
2. Cloud Computing
3. Big Data Analytics
4. Communications Protocols
5. Embedded System
1. Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) :
A WSN comprises distributed devices with sensors which are used to monitor
the environmental and physical conditions. A wireless sensor
network consists of end nodes, routers and coordinators. End nodes have
several sensors attached to them where the data is passed to a coordinator with
the help of routers. The coordinator also acts as the gateway that connects
WSN to the internet.
 Example –
 Weather monitoring system
 Indoor air quality monitoring system
 Soil moisture monitoring system
 Surveillance system
 Health monitoring system
2. Cloud Computing :
It provides us the means by which we can access applications as utilities over the
internet. Cloud means something which is present in remote locations.
With Cloud computing, users can access any resources from anywhere like databases,
webservers, storage, any device, and any software over the internet.
Characteristics –
1. Broad network access
2. On demand self-services
3. Rapid scalability
4. Measured service
5. Pay-per-use
Provides different services, such as –
 IaaS (Infrastructure as a service)
Infrastructure as a service provides online services such as physical
machines, virtual machines, servers, networking, storage and data center
space on a pay per use basis. Major IaaS providers are Google Compute
Engine, Amazon Web Services and Microsoft Azure etc.
Ex : Web Hosting, Virtual Machine etc.
 PaaS (Platform as a service)
Provides a cloud-based environment with a very thing required to support the
complete life cycle of building and delivering West web based (cloud) applications –
without the cost and complexity of buying and managing underlying hardware,
software provisioning and hosting. Computing platforms such as hardware, operating
systems and libraries etc. Basically, it provides a platform to develop applications.
Ex : App Cloud, Google app engine
 SaaS (Software as a service)
It is a way of delivering applications over the internet as a service. Instead of
installing and maintaining software, you simply access it via the internet, freeing
yourself from complex software and hardware management.
SaaS Applications are sometimes called web-based software on demand software or
hosted software.
SaaS applications run on a SaaS provider’s service and they manage security
availability and performance.
Ex : Google Docs, Gmail, office etc.

3. Big Data Analytics :

It refers to the method of studying massive volumes of data or big data. Collection of
data whose volume, velocity or variety is simply too massive and tough to store,
control, process and examine the data using traditional databases.
Big data is gathered from a variety of sources including social network videos, digital
images, sensors and sales transaction records.
Several steps involved in analyzing big data –
1. Data cleaning
2. Munging
3. Processing
 4. Visualization

Examples –
 Bank transactions
 Data generated by IoT systems for location and tracking of vehicles
 E-commerce and in Big-Basket
 Health and fitness data generated by IoT system such as a fitness bands

4. Communications Protocols :
They are the backbone of IoT systems and enable network connectivity and linking to
applications. Communication protocols allow devices to exchange data over the
network. Multiple protocols often describe different aspects of a single
communication. A group of protocols designed to work together is known as a
protocol suite; when implemented in software they are a protocol stack.
They are used in
1. Data encoding
2. Addressing schemes
 5. EmbeddedSystems:
It is a combination of hardware and software used to perform special tasks.
It includes microcontroller and microprocessor memory, networking units
(Ethernet Wi-Fi adapters), input output units (display keyword etc. ) and storage
devices (flash memory).
It collects the data and sends it to the internet.

Embedded systems used in

Examples
1. Digital camera
2. DVD player, music player
 3. Industrial robots
4. Wireless Routers etc.

Technologies involved in IOT:

All issues do not have a technical solution, science and technology can certainly contribute to
decreasing potential negative effects. In order to enable IoT optimism and to reduce causes for
pessimism, technology must combine progress in a variety of scientific fields including:

• Computer networks (so Alice’s devices can communicate and interoperate),

• Miniature energy-efficient hardware (so Alice’s devices are long-lived and convenient to
wear),
• Low-power Embedded Software (so devices can cooperate, durably, on a small battery)
• Distributed Computing (so Alice remains flexible as to where and how her data might be
processed),
• Privacy-Preserving Data Processing (so Alice can keep under control personal or sensitive
data, and manage its use),
• Control and Robotics (to efficiently pilot Alice’s sensors and actuators), • Human-Computer
Interfacing (to offer simple but powerful control of the system),
• System Safety (to ensure the actuators are not dangerous for Alice or others), and
• System Security (to defend Alice against potential hackers).
• Networking technologies enable IoT devices to communicate with other devices,
applications, and services running in the cloud.
• The internet relies on standardized protocols to ensure communication between
heterogeneous devices is secure and reliable.
• Standard protocols specify rules and formats that devices use to establish and
manage networks and transmit data across those networks.
• Networks are built as a “stack” of technologies. A technology such as Bluetooth
LE is at the bottom of the stack.
• While others such as such as IPv6 technologies (which is responsible for the
logical device addressing and routing of network traffic) are further up the stack.
Technologies at the top of the stack are used by the applications that are running
on top of those layers, such as message queuing technologies.
• This article describes widely adopted technologies and standards for IoT
networking. It also provides guidance for choosing one network protocol over
another. It then discusses key considerations and challenges related to
networking within IoT: range, bandwidth, power usage, intermittent
connectivity, interoperability, and security.
 UNIT IV

OPEN PLATFORMS AND PROGRAMMING

IOT deployment for Raspberry Pi /Arduino plat form-Architecture –Programming – Interfacing –

Accessing GPIO Pins – Sending and Receiving Signals Using GPIO Pins – Connecting to the Cloud.

Iot Platform

An IoT platform is a multi-layer technology that enables straightforward provisioning,

management, and automation of connected devices within the Internet of Things universe. It
basically connects your hardware, however diverse, to the cloud by using flexible connectivity
options, enterprise-grade security mechanisms, and broad data processing powers. For
developers, an IoT platform provides a set of ready-to-use features that greatly speed up
development of applications for connected devices as well as take care of scalability and cross-
device compatibility.

Thus, an IoT platform can be wearing different hats depending on how you look at it. It is
commonly referred to as middleware when we talk about how it connects remote devices
to user applications (or other devices) and manages all the interactions between the hardware
and the application layers. It is also known as a cloud enablement platform or IoT enablement
platform to pinpoint its major business value, that is empowering standard devices with cloud-
based applications and services. Finally, under the name of the IoT application enablement
platform, it shifts the focus to being a key tool for IoT developers.

IoT platform as the middleware

IoT platforms originated in the form of IoT middleware, which purpose was to function as a
mediator between the hardware and application layers. Its primary tasks included data
collection from the devices over different protocols and network topologies, remote device
configuration and control, device management, and over-the-air firmware updates.

To be used in real-life heterogeneous IoT ecosystems, IoT middleware is expected to support

integration with almost any connected device and blend in with third-party applications used
by the device. This independence from underlying hardware and overhanging software allows
a single IoT platform to manage any kind of connected device in the same straightforward
way.
Modern IoT platforms go further and introduce a variety of valuable features into the hardware
and application layers as well. They provide components for frontend and analytics, on-device
data processing, and cloud-based deployment. Some of them can handle end-to-end IoT
solution implementation from the ground up.

IoT platform technology stack

In the four typical layers of the IoT stack, which are things, connectivity, core IoT features, and
applications & analytics, a top-of-the-range IoT platform should provide you with the majority
of IoT functionality needed for developing your connected devices and smart things.
Your devices connect to the platform, which sits in the cloud or in your on-premises data center,
either directly or by using an IoT gateway. A gateway comes useful whenever your endpoints
aren’t capable of direct cloud communication or, for example, you need some computing power
on edge. You can also use an IoT gateway to convert protocols, for example, when your
endpoints are in LoRaWan network but you need them to communicate with the cloud over
MQTT.
An IoT platform itself can be decomposed into several layers. At the bottom there is the
infrastructure level, which is something that enables the functioning of the platform. You
can find here components for container management, internal platform messaging,
orchestration of IoT solution clusters, and others.
The communication layer enables messaging for the devices; in other words, this is where
devices connect to the cloud to perform different operations.
The following layer represents core IoT features provided by the platform. Among the essential
ones are data collection, device management, configuration management, messaging, and OTA
software updates.
Sitting on top of core IoT features, there is another layer, which is less related to data exchange
between devices but rather to processing of this data in the platform. There is reporting, which
allows you to generate custom reports. There is visualization for data representation in user
applications. Then, there are a rule engine, analytics, and alerting for notifying you about any
anomalies detected in your IoT solution.
Importantly, the best IoT platforms allow you to add your own industry-specific components
and third-party applications. Without such flexibility adapting an IoT platform for a particular
business scenario could bear significant extra cost and delay the solution delivery indefinitely.
Advanced IoT platforms
There are some other important criteria that differentiate IoT platforms between each other,
such as scalability, customizability, ease of use, code control, integration with 3rd party
software, deployment options, and the data security level.
• Scalable (cloud native) – advanced IoT platforms ensure elastic scalability
across any number of endpoints that the client may require. This capability is
taken for granted for public cloud deployments but it should be specifically put
to the test in case of an on-premises deployment, including the platform’s load
balancing capabilities for maximized performance of the server cluster.
• Customizable – a crucial factor for the speed of delivery. It closely relates to
flexibility of integration APIs, louse coupling of the platform’s components, and
source code transparency. For small-scale, undemanding IoT solutions good
APIs may be enough to fly, while feature-rich, rapidly evolving IoT ecosystems
usually require developers to have a greater degree of control over the entire
system, its source code, integration interfaces, deployment options, data
schemas, connectivity and security mechanisms, etc.
• Secure – data security involves encryption, comprehensive identity
management, and flexible deployment. End-to-end data flow encryption,
including data at rest, device authentication, user access rights management, and
private cloud infrastructure for sensitive data – this is the basics of how to
avoid potentially compromising breaches in your IoT solution.

Cutting across these aspects, there are two different paradigms of IoT solution cluster
deployment offered by IoT platform providers: a public cloud IoT PaaS and a self-hosted
private IoT cloud.
IoT cloud enablement
An IoT cloud is a pinnacle of the IoT platforms evolution. Sometimes these two terms are
used interchangeably, in which case the system at hand is typically an IoT platform-as-a-
service (PaaS). This type of solution allows you to rent cloud infrastructure and an IoT
platform all from a single technology provider. Also, there might be ready-to-use IoT
solutions (IoT cloud services) offered by the provider, built and hosted on its infrastructure.
However, one important capability of a modern IoT platform consists in a private IoT cloud
enablement. As opposed to public PaaS solutions located at a provider’s cloud, a private IoT
cloud can be hosted on any cloud infrastructure, including a private data center. This type of
deployment offers much greater control over the new features development,
customization, and third-party integrations. It is also advocated for stringent data security
and performance requirements.

Arduino is a prototype platform (open-source) based on an easy-to-use hardware and software.

It consists of a circuit board, which can be programed (referred to as a microcontroller) and a
ready-made software called Arduino IDE (Integrated Development Environment), which is
used to write and upload the computer code to the physical board.
The key features are −
• Arduino boards are able to read analog or digital input signals from different sensors
and turn it into an output such as activating a motor, turning LED on/off, connect to
the cloud and many other actions.
• You can control your board functions by sending a set of instructions to the
microcontroller on the board via Arduino IDE (referred to as uploading software).
• Unlike most previous programmable circuit boards, Arduino does not need an extra
piece of hardware (called a programmer) in order to load a new code onto the board.
You can simply use a USB cable.
• Additionally, the Arduino IDE uses a simplified version of C++, making it easier to
learn to program.
• Finally, Arduino provides a standard form factor that breaks the functions of the micro-
controller into a more accessible package.

Board Types

Various kinds of Arduino boards are available depending on different microcontrollers used.
However, all Arduino boards have one thing in common: they are programed through the
Arduino IDE.
The differences are based on the number of inputs and outputs (the number of sensors, LEDs,
and buttons you can use on a single board), speed, operating voltage, form factor etc. Some
boards are designed to be embedded and have no programming interface
 (hardware), which you would need to buy separately. Some can run directly from a
3.7V battery, others need at least 5V.
Here is a list of different Arduino boards available.
Arduino boards based on ATMEGA328 microcontroller
Board Operati Clock Digital Ana PW UART Programmin
Name ng Volt Speed i/o i/o M Interface
Arduino USB vi a
Uno R3 5V 16MHz 14 6 6 1
ATMega16U2
ArduinoUn USB vi a
oR3SMD 5V 16MHz 14 6 6 1
ATMega16U2

Red Board 5V 16MHz 14 6 6 1 USB via FTDI

Arduino FTDI-
Pro 3.3v/8 3.3V 8MHz 14 6 6 1 Compatible
MHz Header
ArduinoPro FTDI-
5V/16MHz 5V 16MHz 14 6 6 1 Compatible
Header
Arduino FTDI-
mini 05 5V 16MHz 14 8 6 1 Compatible
Header
ArduinoPro FTDI-
mini 3.3V 8MHz 14 8 6 1 Compatible
3.3v/8mhz Header
ArduinoPro FTDI-
mini 5V 16MHz 14 8 6 1
Compatible
5v/16mhz Header
Arduino Ethernet FTDI-
5V 16MHz 14 6 6 1 Compatible
Header
FTDI-
Arduino Fio 3.3V 8MHz 14 8 6 1 Compatible
Header
LilyPad Arduino FTDI-
328 main board 3.3V 8MHz 14 6 6 1 Compatible
Header
LilyPad Arduino FTDI-
simple board 3.3V 8MHz 9 4 5 0 Compatible
Header
Arduino boards based on ATMEGA32u4 microcontroller

Board Name Operatin Clock Digita Analog PWM UART Programming

g Volt Speed l i/o Inputs Interface

Arduino Native USB

Leonardo 5V 16MHz 20 12 7 1

Pro micro Native USB

5V/16MHz 5V 16MHz 14 6 6 1

Pro micro Native USB

3.3V/8MHz 5V 16MHz 14 6 6 1

LilyPad Arduino Native USB

USB 3.3V 8MHz 14 6 6 1
Arduino boards based on ATMEGA2560 microcontroller

Board Name Operatin Clock Digital Analog PWM UAR Programmin

g Volt Speed i/o Inputs T gInterface
Arduino USBvia
Meg 5V 16MHz 54 16 14 4
ATMega16U2
a2560 R3 B
Mega Pro 3.3V FTDI-
3.3V 8MHz 54 16 14 4 Compatible
Header
Mega Pro 5V FTDI-
5V 16MHz 54 16 14 4 Compatible
Header
Mega Pro Mini FTDI-
3.3V 3.3V 8MHz 54 16 14 4 Compatible
Header
Arduino boards based on AT91SAM3X8E microcontroller
Board Name Oper Clock Digital Analog PW UAR Programmin
ating Speed i/o Inputs M T g Interface
Volt
ArduinoMega USB native
2560 R3 3.3V 84MHz 54 12 12 4

In this chapter, we will learn about the different components on the Arduino board. We will
study the Arduino UNO board because it is the most popular board in the Arduino board
family. In addition, it is the best board to get started with electronics and coding. Some
boards look a bit different from the one given below, but most Arduinos have majority of
these components in common.
Power USB
Arduino board can be powered by using the USB cable from your computer. All
you need to do is connect the USB cable to the USB connection (1).

Power (Barrel Jack)

Arduino boards can be powered directly from the AC mains power supply by
connecting it to the Barrel Jack (2).
Voltage Regulator
The function of the voltage regulator is to control the voltage given to the Arduino
board and stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements.

Crystal Oscillator
The crystal oscillator helps Arduino in dealing with time issues. How does Arduino
calculate time? The answer is, by using the crystal oscillator. The number printed on
top of the Arduino crystal is 16.000H9H. It tells us that the frequency is 16,000,000
Hertz or 16 MHz.
Arduino Reset
You can reset your Arduino board, i.e., start your program from the beginning. You
can reset the UNO board in two ways. First, by using the reset button (17) on the
board. Second, you can connect an external reset button to the Arduino pin labelled
RESET (5).
Pins (3.3, 5, GND, Vin)
• 3.3V (6) − Supply 3.3 output volt
• 5V (7) − Supply 5 output volt
• Most of the components used with Arduino board works fine with 3.3 volt
and 5 volt.
• GND (8)(Ground) − There are several GND pins on the Arduino, any of
which can be used to ground your circuit.
• Vin (9) − This pin also can be used to power the Arduino board from an
external power source, like AC mains power supply.
Analog pins
The Arduino UNO board has six analog input pins A0 through A5. These pins can
read the signal from an analog sensor like the humidity sensor or temperature sensor
and convert it into a digital value that can be read by the microprocessor.
 Main microcontroller
Each Arduino board has its own microcontroller (11). You can assume it as the brain
of your board. The main IC (integrated circuit) on the Arduino is slightly different
from board to board. The microcontrollers are usually of the ATMEL Company. You
must know what IC your board has before loading up a new program from the
Arduino IDE. This information is available on the top of the IC. For more details
about the IC construction and functions, you can refer to the data sheet.

ICSP pin
Mostly, ICSP (12) is an AVR, a tiny programming header for the Arduino consisting
of MOSI, MISO, SCK, RESET, VCC, and GND. It is often referred to as an SPI
(Serial Peripheral Interface), which could be considered as an "expansion" of the
output. Actually, you are slaving the output device to the master of the SPI bus.

Power LED indicator

This LED should light up when you plug your Arduino into a power source to
indicate that your board is powered up correctly. If this light does not turn on, then
there is something wrong with the connection.
TX and RX LEDs
On your board, you will find two labels: TX (transmit) and RX (receive). They
appear in two places on the Arduino UNO board. First, at the digital pins 0 and 1, to
indicate the pins responsible for serial communication. Second, the TX and RX led
(13). The TX led flashes with different speed while sending the serial data. The
speed of flashing depends on the baud rate used by the board. RX flashes during the
receiving process.
Digital I/O
The Arduino UNO board has 14 digital I/O pins (15) (of which 6 provide PWM
(Pulse Width Modulation) output. These pins can be configured to work as input
digital pins to read logic values (0 or 1) or as digital output pins to drive different
modules like LEDs, relays, etc. The pins labeled “~” can be used to generate PWM.

AREF
AREF stands for Analog Reference. It is sometimes, used to set an external reference
voltage (between 0 and 5 Volts) as the upper limit for the analog input pins.

After learning about the main parts of the Arduino UNO board, we are ready to learn how to
set up the Arduino IDE. Once we learn this, we will be ready to upload our program on the
Arduino board.
2. Raspberry Pi
Raspberry Pi (/paɪ/) is a series of small single-board computers developed in the United
Kingdom by the Raspberry Pi Foundation in association with Broadcom. Early on, the
Raspberry Pi project leaned towards the promotion of teaching basic computer science in
schools and in developing countries.
 JTAG
RCA headers
VIDEO
OUT
GPIO AUDIO Status LEDs
headers OUT

DSI display
connector

SD card slot
(back of board) USB 2.0

Micro USB power Broadcom ETHERNET OUT

(5 V 1 A DC) BCM 2835 only on 256 MB models
ARM11 700 MHz
CSI connector
camera
HDMI OUT

USB
LEDs

RCA video Audio

LAN

GPIO 512 MB RAM

CPU and GPU
HDMI

SD card
Power
 Raspberry Pi P1 header
PIN # Name Name PIN #
3.3 VDC power 5.0 VDC power
1

8 SDA0 (I2C) DNC

3

9 SCL0 (I2C) 0 V (Ground)

5

7 GPIO 7 TxD 15
7

DNC RxD 16
10 12
9
11

0 GPIO 0 GPIO1 1
25 23 21 19 17 15 13

2 GPIO 2 DNC
14 16 18 20 22 24 26

3 GPIO 3 GPIO4 4
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12 MOSI DNC

13 MISO GPIO6 6

14 SCLK CE0 10

DNC CE1 11
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username directory

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 GPIO 17

GPIO 4
GPIO 27
GPI0 Raspberry Pi Model 2 v1.1
 Raspberry Pi 2014
USB 2x
USB 2x

DSI (DISPLAY)
Audio
HDMI
ETHERNET

Power
CSI (CAMERA)
 GPIO pin
VCC 3.3 V
I
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200 
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 VCC 3.3 V

GPIO input 10 k
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 USB 2x
GPI0 Raspberry Pi Model 2 v1.1
 Raspberry Pi 2014
DSI (DISPLAY)

USB 2x
CSI (CAMERA)

ETHERNET
Audio
HDMI
Power
 3.3 V (Pin 1)

R1
2.2 k

LDR

GPIO

C1
1F GND (Pin 6)



 UNIT V
IOT APPLICATIONS
TOPICS
Business models for the internet of things, Smart city, Smart mobility and transport, Industrial
IoT, Smart health, Environment monitoring and surveillance – Home Automation – Smart
Agriculture
BUSINESS MODELS
• A Short History of Business Models
• Space and Time
• From Craft to Mass Production
• The Long Tail of the Internet
• Learning from History
• The Business Model Canvas
• Who is the Business Model for?

A Short History of Business Models

From the earliest times, and for the great majority of human existence, we have gathered in
tribes, with common property and shared resources.
This is an almost universal pattern amongst hunter-gatherers, as it means that every member of
the tribe can find food and shelter even if they have not been lucky foraging or hunting that
day.
We could describe this form of collectivism as a basic gift economy.
Gift economies develop where those with the appropriate skills can provide their products or
services-hunting, pottery, livestock, grain, childcare-and expect repayment of this obligation
not immediately but with a gift of comparable worth later.

A Short History of Business Models

This is not a written debt but a social obligation, which the recipient will repay in due course,
perhaps when hunting is good, when she happens upon the raw materials for her craft, or even
much later in the year at harvest time.
Development of systems such as barter and money developed only at the edges, between
different tribes. We could argue that the first of what we could recognise as modern business
models developed at these borders and resulted from the technology required to move products
and obligations through space and time.
BUSINESS MODELS Introduction:
Definition: It is “hypothesis about what customers want, how they want it, and how an
enterprise can organize to best meet those needs, get paid for doing so, and make a profit”.
This definition brings together a number of factors:
• A group of people (customers)
• The needs of those customers
• A thing that your business can do to meet those needs
• Organisational practices that help to achieve this goal—and to be able to carry on doing
so, sustainably
• A success criterion, such as making a profit
Explain the HISTORY OF BUSINESS MODELS.
Gift economies develop where those with the appropriate skills can provide their products or
services and expect repayment of this obligation not immediately but with a gift of
comparable worth later.
Modern business models are resulted from the technology required to move products and
obligations through space and time.
SPACE AND TIME
While neighbouring tribes might have discovered variants in the local area’s resources it is
when trade develops with others from far-off lands that it becomes really interesting.
A merchant might sell silks made in his village to a region where these cloths are rare and in
demand in exchange for aromatic spices which will be highly prized back home. But long-
distance trade brings with it a whole set of problems: merchants have to carry larger
quantities of goods for sale Their goods and food carried will have to last far longer, so they
will need to be protected and preserved. they need to have a reliable means of transport for
themselves and their merchandise Preservation is also a way of transporting goods through
time. A farmer or trader who can afford to not sell all his produce during the harvest can fetch
a better price months later at a higher price. Money, then, abstracted trade further, setting an
easy-to-calculate exchange rate between a fixed currency (a certain size disc of gold or
weight of grain). Ease of calculation which this development brought with it made it easier to
develop new business models, such as the development of interest on loans.

FROM CRAFT TO MASS PRODUCTION

• When Gutenberg demonstrated his printing press circa 1450, books changed from
being priceless treasures, hand-crafted by monks and artisans, to a commodity that
could be produced.
• The invention laid the foundations for an information culture.
• Information is no longer so rare and valuable that it must be preserved by gatekeepers but
can be so widely spread that everyone can have access to it.
• As the printing press spread to the New World and India via the sea routes that would be
discovered by the end of the century.
• The cost of printing would become ever smaller as the technology spread, leading to new
business models with the rise of newspapers and pamphlets.
• In other areas, the ethic of mass production resulted in new business models such as
supermarkets, which pioneered both “self-service shopping” and the sale of a whole range
of products under one roof.
• Fast-food franchising began in the 1930s and exploded with McDonald’s and Burger King
in the 1950s. Standardized menus, pre-prepared ingredients, and standard practices for
each franchisee to follow meant that you could now eat
• Exactly the same meal in any of a chain restaurant’s stores in your country.
THE LONG TAIL OF THE INTERNET
• From Tim Berners-Lee’s first demonstration of the World Wide Web in 1990, it took only
five years for eBay and Amazon to open up shop and emerge another five years later as not
only survivors but victors of the dot-com bubble. Both companies changed the way we buy
and sell things.
• A physical bricks shop has to pay rent and maintain inventory, all of which takes valuable
space in the shop; therefore, it concentrates on providing what will sell to the customers who
frequent it: the most popular goods.
• In comparison, an Internet storefront exposes only bits, which are effectively free. Of course,
Amazon has to Maintain warehouses and stock, but these can be much more efficiently
managed than a public-facing shop.
• Long tail Internet giants help this process by aggregating products from smaller providers,
as with Amazon Marketplace or eBay’s sellers.
• This helps thousands of small third-party traders exist, but also makes money for the
aggregator, who don’t have to handle the inventory or delivery at all, having
outsourced it to the long tail.
• Yet although Google’s stated goal is “to organize the world’s information and make it
universally accessible and useful”, it makes money primarily through exploiting the
long tail of advertising, making it easy for small producers to advertise effectively alongside
giant corporations.
LEARNING FROM HISTORY
• What have we learnt that we could apply to an Internet of Things project that we
want to turn into a viable and profitable business?
• First, we’ve seen that some models are ancient, such as Make Thing Then Sell It.
• The way you make it or the way you sell it may change, but the basic principle has
held for millennia
• Second, we’ve seen how new technologies have inspired new business models.
• Third, although there are recurring patterns and common models, there are
countless variations. Subtle changes to a single factor, such as the manufacturing
• process or the way you pay for a product or resource, can have a knock-on effect on your
whole business.
• Finally, new business models have the power to change the world like mass production
changed the notion of work itself.
What is the use of THE BUSINESS MODEL CANVAS? Explain each template box.
• One of the most popular templates for working on a business model is the Business Model
• Canvas by Alexander Osterwalder and his startup, the Business Model Foundry.
• The canvas is a Creative Commons–licensed single-page planner.
• The boxes are designed to be a good size for sticky notes, emphasizing that you can play
with the ideas you have and move them around.
• Also the layout gives a meaning and context to each item.
• Let’s look at the model, starting with the most obvious elements and then drilling down into
the grittier details that we might neglect without this kind of template.
• At the bottom right, we have Revenue Streams, which is more or less the question of “how
are you going to make money?”
Although its position suggests that it is indeed one of the important desired outputs of the
business.
• The central box, Value Propositions, is, in plainer terms, what you will be producing—that
is, your Internet of Things product, service, or platform
• The Customer Segments are the people you plan to deliver the product to.
• The Customer Relationships might involve a lasting communication between the company
and its most passionate customers via social media.
• Maintaining a “community” of your customers may be beneficial, but which relationships
will you prioritise to keep communicating with your most valuable customer segments?
• Channels are ways of reaching the customer segments.
• From advertising and distributing your product, to delivery and after-sales, the channels you
choose have to be relevant to your customers.
• On the left side, we have the things without which we have no product to sell.
• The Key Activities are the things that need to be done.
• The Thing needs to be manufactured; the code needs to be written.
• Key Resources include the raw materials that you need to create the product but also the
people who will help build it.
• Few companies can afford the investment in time and money to do all the Key Activities
themselves or even marshal all the Key Resources.
• You will need Key Partners, businesses that are better placed to supply specific skills or
resources, because that is their business model, and they are geared up to do it more cheaply or
better than you could do yourself.
• Perhaps you will get an agency to do your web design and use a global logistics firm to do
your deliveries.
• The Cost Structure requires you to put a price on the resources and activities you just defined.
• Helps you determine whether you will be more cost driven (sell cheaply, and in great volume
via automation and efficiency) or more value driven (sell a premium product at higher margins,
but in smaller quantities).
WHO IS THE BUSINESS MODEL FOR?
• Primarily, the reason to model your business is to have some kind of educated hypothesis
about whether it might deliver what you want from it. the canvas help you think about the
business and give you ways to brainstorm different ideas:
• What if we target the product at students instead of businesses?
• What if we outsource our design to an agency?
• What if we sell at low volume/high value instead?
• The model is also useful if you want to get other people involved.
• This could be an employee or a business partner...or an investor.
• In each of these cases, the other parties will want to know that the business has
potential, has been thought out, and is likely to survive and perhaps even go places.
• Your customers will also be considering whether to invest their time and money in your
product.
• They will ask themselves certain questions about it. some of these likely questions are:
• Why should I waste time trying out Yet Another Social Network? I think I’ll wait and see
whether all my friends join it first.
• This first question is about your “Value Proposition” (that is, the product) and a reasonable
concern if you are trying to get into a market that already has good or popular solutions.
• Your online document collaboration looks great, but is it worth my moving my whole
business to it? If you stop trading or change the platform, we may have to redo all the work
again.
• Your online document collaboration looks great, but is it worth moving my whole
business to it? If you stop trading or change the platform, we may have to redo all the work
again.
• Such customers may well be interested in the details of your business model to
calculate whether the risk they’ve identified is worth their commitment.
• This free service is fantastic, but why don’t you let me pay for it, so I can get
consistency, receive support, and avoid adverts?
• Lastly, many customers are aware of alternative charging models that they would
prefer and might prefer a different one.
• Not all customers vote for the free option.
• It has been stated about “free” products: “If you’re not paying for something, you’re not the
customer; you’re the product being sold”. several assumptions often made are:
• Not paying means not complaining.
• You’re either the product or the customer.
• Companies you pay treat you better. So startups should all charge their users.
• Powazek suggests that the actual lesson to be learned is that:
• Your business plan cannot be secret anymore. People are too smart for that, too tired
of getting burned, too wary of losing their contributions when a startup dies, and too
annoyed by sudden changes to the terms. Communicate your business plan from the
start and you’ll avoid a thousand problems down the road.
Explain some of the models that Internet of Things companies have used or might
use. MAKE THING, SELL THING
• Adrian sells custom-built Bubblini, and the startup Good Night Lamp is preparing to ramp
up production of its eponymous lamps as an off-the-shelf product.
• Many small-scale projects take the option of selling the product in “kit” form, with some
assembly required.
• Because kits are assumed to be for specialists and hobbyists rather than the general public,
the administrative burden may be lower.
• However, making a decision to limit your target market may well limit the potential revenue
also.
SUBSCRIPTIONS
• An ongoing service implies costs to the provider—development, maintenance of servers
hosting costs, and in some cases even connection costs.
• A subscription model might be appropriate, allowing you to recoup these costs and
possibly make ongoing profit by charging fees for your service.
• In the future, content publishers may pay for certain premium services.
• People happily pay subscriptions to music services, corporate groupware, and of course,
mobile phones so perhaps Internet of Things products in these spaces will find subscription
more appealing to their consumers.
• In so-called freemium model ( “free” and “premium” ) a smaller or larger part of your product
isfree, while the users are also encouraged to pay a premium to get additional features or
remove limits.
• This model could be combined with our first two models: Buying the physical device gives
free lifetime access to the associated Internet service, but additional paid services are
also available.
CUSTOMISATION
• For a mass-produced item, any customisation must be strictly bounded to a defined menu: a
selection of different colours for the paintwork.
• The websites Facebook, Twitter etc offer small degrees of customisation within strictly
defined boundaries: a selection of (tasteful) colour schemes and background of your
choice.
• Many Internet of Things products have some possibility of customisation:
• Every Bubblino has a name (given to it by Adrian), but the user can also change which
phrases he listens to on Twitter.
The new manufacturing techniques, such as laser cutting and 3D printing, should allow
great possibilities for customising even the physical devices.
• MakieLab (http://makie.me) make dolls that can be designed online.
BE A KEY RESOURCE
• Not every Internet of Things business will be selling a product to the mass market.
• Some will sell components or expertise to other companies—that is, component
manufacturing or consultancy services.
• Effectively, in this kind of business, you are positioning yourself as a “key resource” or a
“partner” in somebody else’s business model.
• Small companies such as Adafruit sell electronic components to hobbyist makers.
• On the consultancy side, work will be available either simply providing your skills for hire
or indeed in providing vision and expertise for strategic planning to a company that wants to
engage with the Internet of Things.
• Environmental data consultancy amee (www.amee.com) provides means for not only
consumers but also businesses and government bodies to improve their environmental impact
by getting hard data about their carbon footprint—not just their direct energy usage but also
the energy used to dispose of their waste.
PROVIDE INFRASTRUCTURE: SENSOR NETWORKS
• Sensor data is a fascinating topic in the Internet of Things: There are official data
sources which are expensive to create and hard to access and they can exist only where
a government body or company has chosen to apply its large but finite resources.
• The long tail of third-party data sensor enthusiasts can supplement or sometimes
outclass the official streams of information.
• What is needed is a platform to aggregate that data, and one of the companies
competing to fulfil that role is Xively.
• They allow any consumer to upload a real-time feed of sensor data.
• Xively was intended to provide a free, public infrastructure for open source data while also
providing enhanced commercial offerings with enhanced capacity and privacy options and
formal service level agreements (SLAs).
Sensor data is information, which can be shared freely or might simply be sold. Many energy
suppliers are rolling out “smart meters”, which promise greater efficiency and therefore
cheaper bills but also aggregate huge quantities of information.
• As regards the business model, you need to consider the legality of such collection
and whether it fits with your company values.
TAKE A PERCENTAGE
• In the example of sensor networks, if the value of the data gathered exceeds the cost of the
physical sensor device, you might be able to provide that physical product for free.
• You could also link devices to advertising to reduce the price.
• Even without charging the end user of your Internet of Things device, there will be many
options to make a profit from somewhere (ad revenues, payment for data services from
companies or state organisations, commission for data bandwidth incurred, etc.)
• Perhaps future versions of Bubblino could also be triggered for occasional promoted tweets.
• Perhaps your Internet-enabled fridge will make tutting noises when you fill it and
suggest other (promoted) options for your next shop.
List and explain the possible ways to get funds for AN INTERNET OF THINGS
STARTUP?
• There will most likely be a period when you have only costs and no income.
• The problem of how to get initial funding is a critical one.
• If you have enough personal money to concentrate on your new Internet of Things startup
full time, you can fund your business yourself. For others there are still ways to kick off a
project.
• If the initial stages don’t require a huge investment of money, your time will be the main
limiting factor.
• If you can’t afford to work full time on your new project, perhaps you can spare a day in the
weekend or several evenings after work.
• Many people try to combine a startup with a consultancy business, planning to take short
contracts which support the following period of frantic startup work.
Making sure that you don’t need to spend huge amounts on the startup is key.
• You probably don’t need an office in the early stages, and perhaps you don’t need expensive
Aeron chairs.
• You can work from your kitchen table, a café, or out of a co-working space.
HOBBY PROJECTS AND OPEN SOURCE
• If your project is also your hobby, you may have no extra costs than what you would spend
anyway on your free-time activity.
• One way to make a project grow faster might be to release all the details as open source and
try to foster a community around it.
• This approach can be hard work and can benefit from a natural talent, experience, or luck in
attracting and maintaining good collaborators.
• After you have open-sourced a project, you can’t close-source it again.
• Yes, you can probably fork the project and continue to work on it in secret, but the existing
project may carry on if your collaborators are enthusiastic enough about it.
• Indeed, your idea, code, and schematics could be used by others in their own commercial
offering.
• Careful consideration of the license used may be critical here: A more restrictive license such
as the GPL requires those who build on your work to share their source code also under the
same terms.
• when thinking about open source, remember that as the project initiator and owner, you would
be the best placed in forming a company around the project and are more likely to get benefits
from the relationship with the community:
• Many pairs of eyes and hands testing, reporting problems, fixing them, and building new
features
• Many passionate users with real use cases and opinions about the product—better than any
focus group
• The goodwill of that community, with its ready-made network of personal
recommendations and social-media marketing
VENTURE CAPITAL
• Getting funding for a project from an external investor presents its own work and
risks Startups often concentrate their fundraising activities into rounds, periods in which
they dedicate much of their effort into raising a target amount of money, often for a defined
step in their business plan.
• Before any official funding round comes the informal idea of the friends, family, and fools
(FFF) round.
• This stage may be the one in which you’ve contributed your life savings, and persuaded
your aunt, your best friend, and a local small business to pitch in the rest, on the basis of your
reputation.
• Although it’s important to consider the possible impact on your personal relationships,
this round of funding may be the most straightforward to get hold of.
• A common next step would be an angel round.
• The so-called angels are usually individual investors, often entrepreneurs themselves, who
are willing to fund some early-stage startups which a more formal investor.
• Though angels take on a lot of risk in investing so early, before companies have
proved themselves, they tend to invest in a number of companies to spread the risk.
• They usually want equity in your company, a percentage of the value of the company, that
will pay back their investment if and when you do well.
• Angels typically disburse sums that are significant for early-stage startups—in the
region of tens or possibly hundreds of thousands of pounds.
• These angels might also demand a place on your board of directors, to oversee their
investment, but also out of interest in helping the company to succeed.
• The venture capital (VC) round is similar, but instead of your courting individual
investors, the investor is a larger group with significant funds, whose sole purpose is to discover
and fund new companies with a view to making significant profit.
• Typically, VC funding will be larger chunks of money, from half a million pounds up.
• In the early stages, would be an accelerator, which might be run by a venture capital firm.
• In this case, part or all of the money that could be awarded to your company is paid in kind,
in the form of free office space, consultancy, and specific training and mentoring in areas
that the investor believes will make you a success.
• You need to be aware that by accepting investment through venture capital, you are
committing yourself to an exit
An exit strategy is a “method by which a venture capitalist or business owner intends to get
out of an investment that he or she has made”.
• Because your investors will want a return, your long-term goal can’t just be to make your
company successful but to do it in such a way as to pay back the investment.
• Typically, you have only two exits: You get bought by a bigger company: In this case, the
buyer buys out the investors; that is, the buyer pays the investors the value of their percentage
equity of their perceived valuation of the worth of the company.
• You do an IPO (initial public offering)—that is, float on the stock market: This
involves new shares being issued and sold to the stock market.
• Although this option “dilutes” the value of the shares already issued, the existing
holders are able to then sell their shares on the market too, to get back their investment,
or to retain the shares if they believe that the shares will grow in value.
GOVERNMENT FUNDING
• Governments typically want to promote industry and technological development in their
country, and they may provide funds to help achieve particular aims.
• Although governments can and do set up their own venture capital funds or collaborate with
existing funds in various ways, they generally manage the majority of their funds
differently.
• For one thing, they also want to fund existing companies to do new research and
innovation.
• The money provided still has “strings attached”, but they are likely to be handled
differently:
Outputs: Deliverables are the metrics that an awarding body may use to tell if you are doing
the kind of thing that the body wants to fund.
• This metric may simply be a test that you are managing the money well or may be related to
the goals that the body itself wishes to promote.
• You might be required to write regular reports or pass certain defined milestones on
schedule.
• If your funding is given in stages, the later payments may be conditional on successful
delivery of previous outputs.
• You may be required to match funds; that is, if you were awarded L10,000, you would
also have to raise L10,000 yourself
Spending constraints: Some funding may require you to spend a proportion of the money
on, for example, business consultancy or web development, perhaps with the fund
facilitator’s company or associates.
• Governments will, however, try to split their pot of money to fund the outcomes that they
are interested in as policy.
• Quite reasonably, this may tend to favour grants for research over grants to help get to
market.
• After all, after the product is proven, the company should be able to afford to fund it by
itself or get VC funding.
• It is perfectly normal for companies to work through multiple sources of funding.
CROWDFUNDING
• we can think of crowdfunding as the long tail of funding projects.
• Getting many people to contribute to a project isn’t exactly a new phenomenon.
• Over millennia many civic and religious monuments and constructions have been
funded at least partly by the public.
• However, such projects have been mostly sponsored and given focus by some influential
person or body.
• The main options for crowdfunding are Kickstarter (www.kickstarter.com) and Indiegogo
(www.indiegogo.com).
• Historically, Kickstarter was available to use only for funding projects based in the US,
whereas
• Indiegogo set itself up to be “the world’s funding platform”.
• Appealing text, slick videos, and great design may make the difference between yours and a
competing project.
• There is a time to market your project, a time to ensure that the idea works, and a time to
build a sellable product.
• If you are thinking “lean”, you should be applying this idea at all stages.
• For example, at the first stages of production and marketing, you should be working towards
the “Minimum Viable Product”.
• This is still a sellable product rather than a prototype, but with all extraneous features
removed, it may feel like a prototype of your final vision for the product.
• All the initial efforts are towards making this product because it can be sold.
• If you have time and money afterward to add additional enhancements to the product, service,
packaging, and so on, this will add more value.
• But adding those enhancements to an incomplete prototype would not result in a
working business model.
• The essence, then, of lean is to be able to iterate, performing the tasks that are
required to get things moving at this stage, without investing time upfront to make
everything perfect.
• You can tweak in response to the feedback you get from iterating your product in the real
world.
• Such tweaks are known as pivots and usually work by changing one part of your
model—think one of the boxes on the Business Model Canvas.
For instance:
Zoom-in pivot:
Focus on what was only a part of the value proposition, and turn that into the whole
Minimum Viable Product.
Customer segment pivot:
• Realise that the people who will actually buy your product aren’t the ones you were
originally targeting.
• While you can continue to make exactly the same product, you have been marketing
it to the wrong people.
Technology pivot
• Accomplish the same goals as before, but change the implementation details.
 • This pivot would be a business decision, made to improve manufacturing costs,
speed, or quality

Internet of Things Applications

The Internet of Things (IoT) provides the ability to interconnect computing devices, mechanical
machines, objects, animals or unique identifiers and people to transfer data across a network without
the need for human-to-human or human-to-computer is a system of conversation. IoT
applications bring a lot of value in our lives. The Internet of Things provides objects, computing
devices, or unique identifiers and people's ability to transfer data across a network without the human-
to-human or human-to-computer interaction.

A traffic camera is an intelligent device. The camera monitors traffic congestion,

accidents and weather conditions and can access it to a common entrance.

This gateway receives data from such cameras and transmits information to the city's traffic
monitoring system.