FIOT

unit-1
• Introduction to Internet of Things
• Characteristics of IoT.
• Physical Design of IoT
• Functional blocks of IoT, Sensing, Actuation
• Basics of Networking.
• Communication Protocols
• Sensor Networks.
Introduction to Internet of Things
 Existing devises, such as networked computers or 5G enabled mobile phones already
have some form of unique identities and are also connected to the internet, the focus
on IoT in the configuration, control and networking via the internet of devices or
things.
 Experts forecast that by the year 2022 there will be a total of 50 billion devices/ things
connected to the internet.
 The scope of IoT is not limited to just connected things(Devices, appliance, machines)
to the Internet.
 Today the Internet has become ubiquitous, has touched almost every corner of the
globe, and is affecting human life in unimaginable ways. We are now entering an era
of even more pervasive connectivity where a very wide
  variety of appliances will be connected to the web. One year after the past edition
of the Cluster book 2012 it can be clearly stated that
 the Internet of Things (IoT) has reached many different players and gained further
recognition. Out of the potential Internet of Things application areas, Smart Cities
(and regions), Smart Car and mobility, Smart Home and assisted living, Smart
Industries, Public safety, Energy & environmental protection, Agriculture and
Tourism as part of a future IoT Ecosystem (Figure 1.1) have acquired high attention.
 We are entering an era of the “Internet of Things” (abbreviated as IoT).There are 2
 definitions: First one is defined by Verbenas and second by Pe˜na-L´opez
1. The Internet of Things as simply an interaction between the physical and digital
worlds. The digital world interacts with the physical world using a plethora of sensors and
actuators.
2. Another is the Internet of Things is defined as a paradigm in which computing and
networking capabilities are embedded in any kind of conceivable object.
 We use these capabilities to query the state of the object and to change its state if
possible.
 In common parlance, the Internet of Things refers to a new kind of world where
almost all the devices and appliances that we use are connected to a network.
 We can use them collaboratively to achieve complex tasks that require a high degree
of intelligence.
 For this intelligence and interconnection, IoT devices are equipped with embedded
sensors, actuators, processors, and transceivers.
 IoT is not a single technology; rather it is an agglomeration of various
technologies that work together in tandem.
 Sensors and actuators are devices, which help in interacting with the physical
environment.
 The data collected by the sensors has to be stored and processed intelligently in
order to derive useful inferences from it.
 Note that we broadly define the term sensor; a mobile phone or even a microwave
oven can count as a sensor as long as it provides inputs about its current state
(internal state + environment).
 An actuator is advice that is used to effect a change in the environment such as the
temperature controller of an air conditioner.
 The storage and processing of data can be done on the edge of the network itself
or in a remote server.
 If any pre processing of data is possible, then it is typically done at either the
sensor or some other proximate device. T
 he processed data is then typically sent to a remote server. The storage and
processing capabilities of an IoT object are also restricted by the resources
available, which are often very constrained due to limitations of size, energy,
power, and computational capability.
 As a result the main research challenge is to ensure that we get the right kind of
data at the desired level of accuracy.
 Along with the challenges of data collection, and handling, there are challenges in
communication as well.
 The communication between IoT devices is mainly wireless because they are
generally installed at geographically dispersed locations.
 The wireless channels often have high rates of distortion and are unreliable.
  In this scenario reliably communicating data without too many retransmissions is
an important problem and thus communication technologies are integral to the
study of IoT devices. We can directly modify the physical world through
actuators or we may do something virtually.
 For example ,we can send some information to other smart things. The process of
effecting a change in the physical world is often dependent on its state at that
point of time. This is called context awareness.
 Each action is taken keeping in consideration the context because an application
can behave differently in different contexts.
 For example, a person may not like messages from his office to interrupt him
when he is on vacation. Sensors, actuators, compute servers, and the
communication network form the core infrastructure of an IoT framework.
 However, there are many software aspects that need to be considered. First, we
need a middleware that can be used to connect and manage all of these
heterogeneous components.
 We need a lot of standardization to connect many different devices. The Internet
of Things finds various applications in health care, fitness, education,
entertainment, social life, energy conservation, environment monitoring, home
automation, and transport systems.
Characteristics of IoT
1. Connectivity
Connectivity is an important requirement of the IoT infrastructure. Things of IoT should be
connected to the IoT infrastructure. Anyone, anywhere, anytime can connect, this should be
guaranteed at all times. For example, the connection between people through Internet
devices like mobile phones, and other gadgets, also a connection between Internet devices
such as routers, gateways, sensors, etc.
2. Intelligence and Identity
The extraction of knowledge from the generated data is very important. For example, a
sensor generates data, but that data will only be useful if it is interpreted properly. Each IoT
device has a unique identity. This identification is helpful in tracking the equipment and at
times for querying its status.
3. Scalability
The number of elements connected to the IoT zone is increasing day by day. Hence, an IoT
setup should be capable of handling the massive expansion. The data generated as an
outcome is enormous, and it should be handled appropriately.
4. Dynamic and Self-Adapting (Complexity)
IoT devices should dynamically adapt themselves to changing contexts and scenarios.
Assume a camera meant for surveillance. It should be adaptable to work in different
conditions and different light situations (morning, afternoon, and night).
5. Architecture
IoT Architecture cannot be homogeneous in nature. It should be hybrid, supporting
different manufacturers ‘ products to function in the IoT network. IoT is not owned by
anyone engineering branch. IoT is a reality when multiple domains come together.
6. Safety
There is a danger of the sensitive personal details of the users getting compromised when
all his/her devices are connected to the internet. This can cause a loss to the user. Hence,
data security is the major challenge. Besides, the equipment involved is huge. IoT networks
may also be at risk. Therefore, equipment safety is also critical.
7. Self Configuring
This is one of the most important characteristics of IoT. IoT devices are able to upgrade
their software in accordance with requirements with a minimum of user participation.
Additionally, they can set up the network, allowing for the addition of new devices to an
already-existing network.
8. Interoperable communication protocols
IoT devices use standardized protocols and technologies to ensure they can communicate
with each other and other systems. Interoperability is one of the key characteristics of the
Internet of Things (IoT). It refers to the ability of different IoT devices and systems to
communicate and exchange data with each other, regardless of the underlying technology
or manufacturer.
 nteroperability is critical for the success of IoT, as it enables different devices and
systems to work together seamlessly and provides a seamless user experience.
Without interoperability, IoT systems would be limited to individual silos of data
and devices, making it difficult to share information and create new services and
applications.
 To achieve interoperability, IoT devices, and systems use standardized
communication protocols and data formats. These standards allow different devices
to understand and process data in a consistent and reliable manner, enabling data to
be exchanged between devices and systems regardless of the technology used.

9.Integrated into information network:

IoT devices are usually integrated into the information network that allows them to
communicate and exchange data with other devices and systems.

Physical Design of IoT

1. Things of IoT:
 The “Things” in IoT usually refers to IoT devices which have unique identities and
can perform remote sensing, Actuating and monitoring capabilities. IoT devices can
exchange data with other connected devices and applications (directly or indirectly).
 An IoT device may consist of several interfaces connections to other devices, both
wired and wireless. These include
I)IoT interfaces for sensors
II) Interfaces for internet connectivity
III) memory and storage interfaces
IV) audio video interfaces.
An IoT Device can collect various types of data from the onboard or attached sensors, such as
temperature, humidity, light intensity.
 IoT devices can also be varied types, for instance, wearable sensors, smart watches,
LED light automobiles and industrial machines.

2.IoT Protocols
 The set of rules governing all direct or indirect exchange of data between computers
on a network. These rules are formulated at the application level and are used
collectively to define how devices communicate interoperably, irrespective of
differences in their internal designs and operations.
 IoT protocols help send commands and data between a network of devices controlled
by sensors or other physical attributes like motion, temperature, or vibration. Network
protocols help achieve reliable data transfer across all layers like the application,
transport, network, and link layer.
APPLICATION LAYER
Message Queue Telemetry Transport (MQTT)
Designed to be lightweight, so it can work in very low bandwidth networks, MQTT allows
communication between nodes in both reliable and unreliable networks. MQTT follows a
publish/subscribe architecture, meaning that there are nodes (brokers) that make the
information available, while others (clients) can read the available information after
subscribing by accessing the corresponding URL.
A use case of MQTT is in a smart factory where there are temperature sensors installed along
with the production plant. The installed sensors will connect to the MQTT broker and will
publish the data within sensor topics, as follows:

sensors/temperature/assemblyLineInit

Afterward, the MQTT clients, which can be of several types and quantities, will subscribe to
the same topic in order to read the temperature data. An example of an MQTT architecture
can be seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1. MQTT's publish/subscribe architecture. Image used courtesy of MQTT

In addition, MQTT defines three levels of quality of service, depending upon the reliability,
from lowest to highest:

 Level 0: there is no guarantee of the message delivery.

 Level 1: the delivery is guaranteed, but it is possible to receive duplicate messages.
 Level 2: the delivery is guaranteed and there will be no duplicates.
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
This protocol has been the origin of data communication for the World Wide Web (WWW),
so logically it is being used in the IoT world. However, it is not optimized for it because of
the following:

 The HTTP is made for two systems communicating to each other at a time, not more, so
it is time and energy-consuming to connect several sensors to get information.
 The HTTP is unidirectional, made for one system (client) to be sending one message to
another one (server). This makes it quite hard to escalate an IoT solution.
 Power consumption: HTTP relies on Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which
requires a lot of computing resources, so it is not suitable for battery-powered
applications.

Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)

CoAP is a web transfer protocol to be used with limited networks with low bandwidth and
low availability. It follows a client/server architecture and is built similarly to HTTP,
supporting the REST model: servers make resources available with an URL, and clients can
make requests of types GET, POST, PUT and DELETE.
The CoAP communication links are 1:1 and UDP-based, so the delivery is not guaranteed.
CoAP is made to work in highly congested networks, where nodes do not have a lot of
intelligence and are not always working.

Data Distribution Service (DDS)

Similar to MQTT, DDS follows a publish-subscribe methodology, with the main difference
being that there are no brokers. It means that all publishers (i.e., temperature sensors) and
subscribers (i.e., mobile phones) are all connected to the same network. This network is
known as Global Data Space (GDS) and it interconnects each node with all the other ones to
avoid bottlenecks. An example of the DDS GDS can be seen in Figure 2.

Figure 2. A DDS Global Data Space. Image used courtesy of the DDS Foundation
Furthermore, any node can leave or join the network, since they are dynamically discovered.

WebSocket
Linked to the HTTP protocol, the WebSocket technology establishes a TCP connection
between a browser and a server, and then both of them exchange information until the
connection is closed. Figure 3 shows a high-level comparison between HTTP and
WebSocket.

Figure 3. Comparison between HTTP and WebSocket. Image used courtesy of Scaleway

Although this protocol can be seen as an improvement of the HTTP connection, the
WebSocket is still very overloaded and heavy for IoT applications.

Advanced Message Queue Protocol (AMQP)

In the beginning, AMQP was not initially created for IoT applications, but for banking
environments. AMQP accepts publish/subscribe architectures, as well as request/response
types. It is TCP-based, so delivery is guaranteed, as well as acknowledgment, which makes
this protocol reliable, with the consequent overhead message reliability.
Compared to MQTT, AMQP offers two Quality of Service levels:

 At most once: the sender does not wait until having an acknowledgment from the
receiver to delete a message.
 At least once: for each message, the sender will receive an acknowledgment from the
receiver before deleting the message. In a case where the acknowledgment is lost, the
message is re-sent.
 Exactly once: the messages are sent only once. It requires special coordination between
the sender and the receiver.

Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP)

It is based on Extensible Markup Language (XML) and in the past, it was known as Jabber. It
is an open-source, decentralized, secure protocol to exchange XML messages.
A characteristic factor of XMPP is its addressing method and how nodes are identified. It
uses a Jabber ID with the format jabberID@domain.com, which allows two nodes to
interchange information regardless of the distance between them.
TRANSPORT LAYER
The transport layer is represented majorly by TCP and UDP protocols. Today almost all
operating systems support multiprocessing multi-user environments. This transport layer
protocol provides connections to the individual ports. These ports are known as protocol
ports. Transport layer protocols work above the IP protocols and deliver the data packets
from IP serves to destination port and from the originating port to destination IP services.
Below are the protocols used at the transport layer.
1. UDP
UDP stands for User Datagram Protocol. User Datagram Protocol provides a nonsequential
transmission of data. It is a connectionless transport protocol. UDP protocol is used in
applications where the speed and size of data transmitted is considered as more important
than the security and reliability. User Datagram is defined as a packet produced by User
Datagram Protocol. UDP protocol adds checksum error control, transport level addresses, and
information of length to the data received from the layer above it. Services provided by User
Datagram Protocol(UDP) are connectionless service, faster delivery of messages, checksum,
and process-to-process communication.
2. TCP
TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol. TCP protocol provides transport layer
services to applications. TCP protocol is a connection-oriented protocol. A secured
connection is being established between the sender and the receiver. For a generation of a
secured connection, a virtual circuit is generated between the sender and the receiver. The
data transmitted by TCP protocol is in the form of continuous byte streams. A unique
sequence number is assigned to each byte. With the help of this unique number, a positive
acknowledgment is received from receipt. If the acknowledgment is not received within a
specific period the data is retransmitted to the specified destination.
NETWORK LAYER:

IPv4
IPv4 address consists of two things that are the network address and the host address. It
stands for Internet Protocol version four. It was introduced in 1981 by DARPA and was the
first deployed version in 1982 for production on SATNET and on the ARPANET in
January 1983.
IPv4 addresses are 32-bit integers that have to be expressed in Decimal Notation. It is
represented by 4 numbers separated by dots in the range of 0-255, which have to be
converted to 0 and 1, to be understood by Computers. For Example, An IPv4 Address can
be written as 189.123.123.90.
IPv4 Address Format
IPv4 Address Format is a 32--bit Address that comprises binary digits separated by a dot (.).

IPv6
IPv6 is based on IPv4 and stands for Internet Protocol version 6. It was first introduced in
December 1995 by Internet Engineering Task Force. IP version 6 is the new version of
Internet Protocol, which is way better than IP version 4 in terms of complexity and
efficiency. IPv6 is written as a group of 8 hexadecimal numbers separated by colon (:). It
can be written as 128 bits of 0s and 1s.
IPv6 Address Format
IPv6 Address Format is a 128
128-bit IP Address, which is written in a group of 8 hexadecimal
numbers separated by colon (:).
6LoWPAN

The 6LoWPAN protocol refers to IPv6 Low Power Personal Area Network which uses a
lightweight IP-based communication to travel over low data rate networks. It has limited
processing ability to transfer information wirelessly using an internet protocol. So, it is
mainly used for home and building automation. The 6LoWPAN protocol operates only
within the 2.4 GHz frequency range with 250 kbps transfer rate. It has a maximum length of
128-bit header packets.

Link Layer:

Link Layer protocols determine how the data is physically sent over the networks physical
layer or medium(example copper wire, electrical cable, or radio wave).

• Link layer determines how the packets are coded and signaled by the hardware device
over the medium to which the host is attached.

a. 802.3 Ethernet: 802.3 is a collections of wired Ethernet standards for the link layer.

For example 802.3 10BASE5 Ethernet that uses coaxial cable as a shared medium,
802.3.i is standard for 10 BASET Ethernet over copper twisted pair connection, Standards
provide data rates from 10 Mb/s to 40 gigabits per second and the higher. The shared
medium in Ethernet can be a coaxial cable , twisted pair wire or and Optical fiber.

802.1-WI-FI: IEEE 802.3 is a collections of wireless Local area network.(WLAN)

communication standards, including extensive descriptions of the link layer. For example
802.11a operate in the 5 GHz band, 802.11b and 802.11g operate in the 2.4 GHz band.
802.11ac operates in the 5G hertz band.

c. 802.16 WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX)):

IEEE 802.16 is a collection of wirless broadband and Standards, including extensive

descriptions for the link layer also called WiMAX wimax standard provides a data rates
from from 1.5 Mb/s to 1Gb/s the recent update provides data rates of hundred megabits
per second for mobile station.

d. 802.15.4 LR-WPAN: IEEE 802.1 5.4 is a collections of standard for low rate wireless
personal area network(LRWPAN).These standard form the basis of specifications for
high level communication Zigbee.

LR-WPAN standards provide data rates from 40 k b/ s. These standards provide low
cost and low speed Communications for power constrained devices.

Logical design of IoT

IoT functional block :

Logical design of an IoT system refers to an abstract representation of the entities and
process without going into low level specification of the implementations .
or

The actual design of how its components (computers, sensors, and actuators) should be
arranged to complete a particular function

An IoT system comprises of a number of functional blocks that provide the system the
capabilities for identification , sensing, actuation ,communication and Management.

The function blocks are described as follows

Devices: An IoT system comprises of the devices that provide sensing, actuation,
monitoring and control function.

Communication: communication block handle the communication systems

Services : An IoT system uses various types of IoT services such as services for device
monitoring ,device control services ,data publishing services and services for device
Discovery.

Management: Functional blocks provide various functions to govern the IoT system.

Security: Security functional block security IoT system and by providing functions such
as application authorization message and content integrity and data security.

Application: IoT application provides and interface that the user can used to control and
monitor various aspects of the IoT system. Application also allow users to view the
system status and view or analyze the processed to data.
 IoT communication model

1. Request & Response Model –

This model follows a client-server architecture.
 The client, when required, requests the information from the server. This request is
usually in the encoded format.
 This model is stateless since the data between the requests is not retained and each
request is independently handled.
 The server Categories the request, and fetches the data from the database and its
resource representation. This data is converted to response and is transferred in an
encoded format to the client. The client, in turn, receives the response.
 On the other hand — In Request-Response communication model client sends a request
to the server and the server responds to the request. When the server receives the request
it decides how to respond, fetches the data retrieves resources, and prepares the
response, and sends it to the client.

Publisher-Subscriber Model

This model comprises three entities: Publishers, Brokers, and Consumers.

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 Publishers are the source of data. It sends the data to the topic which are managed by the
broker. They are not aware of consumers.
 Consumers subscribe to the topics which are managed by the broker.
 Hence, Brokers responsibility is to accept data from publishers and send it to the
appropriate consumers. The broker only has the information regarding the consumer to
which a particular topic belongs to which the publisher is unaware of.
 Push-Pull Model –
The push-pull model constitutes data publishers, data consumers, and data queues.
 Publishers and Consumers are not aware of each other.
 Publishers publish the message/data and push it into the queue. The consumers, present
on the other side, pull the data out of the queue. Thus, the queue acts as the buffer for
the message when the difference occurs in the rate of push or pull of data on the side of
a publisher and consumer.
 Queues help in decoupling the messaging between the producer and consumer. Queues
also act as a buffer which helps in situations where there is a mismatch between the rate
at which the producers push the data and consumers pull the data.


4. Exclusive Pair –
 Exclusive Pair is the bi-directional model, including full-duplex communication
among client and server. The connection is constant and remains open till the client
sends a request to close the connection.
 The Server has the record of all the connections which has been opened.
 This is a state-full connection model and the server is aware of all open connections.
 WebSocket based communication API is fully based on this model.

 Communication APIs:

REST-based Communication APIs

Representational state transfer (REST) is a set of architectural principles by which you can
design Web services the Web APIs that focus on systems’s resources and how resource states
are addressed and transferred. REST APIs that follow the request response communication
model, the rest architectural constraint apply to the components, connector and data
elements, within a distributed hypermedia system. The rest architectural constraint are as
follows:

Client-server – The principle behind the client-server constraint is the separation of concerns.
for example clients should not be concerned with the storage of data which is concern of the
serve. Similarly the server should not be concerned about the user interface, which is concern
of the clien. Separation allows client and server to be independently developed and updated.
Stateless – Each request from client to server must contain all the information necessary to
understand the request, and cannot take advantage of any stored context on the server. The
session state is kept entirely on the client.
Cache-able – Cache constraints requires that the data within a response to a request be
implicitly or explicitly leveled as cache-able or non cache-able. If a response is cache-able,
then a client cache is given the right to reuse that repsonse data for later, equivalent requests.
caching can partially or completely eliminate some instructions and improve efficiency and
scalability.
Layered system – layered system constraints, constrains the behavior of components such
that each component cannot see beyond the immediate layer with they are interacting. For
example, the client cannot tell whether it is connected directly to the end server or two an
intermediaryalong the way. System scalability can be improved by allowing intermediaries to
respond to requests instead of the end server, without the client having to do anything
different.
Uniform interface – uniform interface constraints requires that the method of communication
between client and server must be uniform. Resources are identified in the requests (by
URIsin web based systems) and are themselves is separate from the representations of the
resources data returned to the client. When a client holds a representation of resources it has
all the information required to update or delete the resource you (provided the client has
required permissions). Each message includes enough information to describe how to process
the message.
Code on demand – Servers can provide executable code or scripts for clients to execute in
their context. this constraint is the only one that is optional.
A RESTful web service is a ” Web API ” implemented using HTTP and REST principles.
REST is most popular IoT Communication APIs.

WebSocket based communication API

Web socket APIs allow bi-directional, full duplex communication between clients and
servers. Websocket APIs follow the exclusive pair communication model.

Unlike request-response model such as REST, the WebSocket APIs allow full duplex
communication and do not require new coonection to be setup for each message to be sent.
Websocket communication begins with a connection setup request sent by the client to the
server.

The request (called web socket handshake) is sent over HTTP and the server interprets it is an
upgrade request. If the server supports Web socket protocol, the server responds to the web
socket handshake response.

After the connection setup client and server can send data/messages to each other in full
duplex mode. Web socket API reduce the network traffic and letency as there is no overhead
for connection setup and termination requests for each message.

Web socket suitable for IoT applications that have low latency or high throughput
requirements. So Web socket is most suitable IoT Communication APIs for IoT System.
IoT enabling Technologies

IoT(internet of things) enabling technologies are

1. Wireless Sensor Network
2. Cloud Computing
3. Big Data Analytics
4. Communications Protocols
5. Embedded System
1. Wireless Sensor Network(WSN) :
A WSN comprises distributed devices with sensors which are used to monitor the
environmental and physical conditions. A wireless sensor network consists of end
nodes, routers and coordinators. End nodes have several sensors attached to them
where the data is passed to a coordinator with the help of routers. The coordinator
also acts as the gateway that connects WSN to the internet.

2.
Example –
 Weather monitoring system
 Indoor air quality monitoring system
 Soil moisture monitoring system
 Surveillance system
 Health monitoring system
2. Cloud Computing :
It provides us the means by which we can access applications as utilities over the internet.
Cloud means something which is present in remote locations.
With Cloud computing, users can access any resources from anywhere like databases,
webservers, storage, any device, and any software over the internet.
Characteristics –
1. Broad network access
2. On demand self-services
3. Rapid scalability
4. Measured service
5. Pay-per-use
Provides different services,

 IaaS (Infrastructure as a service)

Infrastructure as a service provides online services such as physical machines, virtual
machines, servers, networking, storage and data center space on a pay per use basis.
Major IaaS providers are Google Compute Engine, Amazon Web Services and
Microsoft Azure etc.
Ex : Web Hosting, Virtual Machine etc.
 PaaS (Platform as a service)
Provides a cloud-based environment with a very thing required to support the complete
life cycle of building and delivering West web based (cloud) applications – without the
cost and complexity of buying and managing underlying hardware, software
provisioning and hosting. Computing platforms such as hardware, operating systems and
libraries etc. Basically, it provides a platform to develop applications.
Ex : App Cloud, Google app engine
 SaaS (Software as a service)
It is a way of delivering applications over the internet as a service. Instead of installing
and maintaining software, you simply access it via the internet, freeing yourself from
complex software and hardware management.
SaaS Applications are sometimes called web-based software on demand software or
hosted software.
SaaS applications run on a SaaS provider’s service and they manage security availability
and performance.
Ex : Google Docs, Gmail, office etc.
Types of cloud computing
Not all clouds are the same and no single type of cloud computing is right for everyone.
Several different models, types, and services have evolved to help offer the right solution for
your needs.

First, you need to determine the type of cloud deployment, or cloud computing architecture,
that your cloud services will be implemented on. There are three different ways to deploy
cloud services: on a public cloud, private cloud, or hybrid cloud. Learn more about public,
private, and hybrid clouds.
Public cloud
Public clouds are owned and operated by third-party cloud service providers, which deliver
computing resources like servers and storage over the internet. Microsoft Azure is an
example of a public cloud. With a public cloud, all hardware, software, and other supporting
infrastructure is owned and managed by the cloud provider. You access these services and
manage your account using a web browser.

Private cloud
A private cloud refers to cloud computing resources used exclusively by a single business or
organization. A private cloud can be physically located on the company’s onsite datacenter.
Some companies also pay third-party service providers to host their private cloud. A private
cloud is one in which the services and infrastructure are maintained on a private network.

Hybrid cloud
Hybrid clouds combine public and private clouds, bound together by technology that allows
data and applications to be shared between them. By allowing data and applications to move
between private and public clouds, a hybrid cloud gives your business greater flexibility and
more deployment options and helps optimize your existing infrastructure, security, and
compliance.


3. Big Data Analytics :
It refers to the method of studying massive volumes of data or big data. Collection of data
whose volume, velocity or variety is simply too massive and tough to store, control, process
and examine the data using traditional databases.
Big data is gathered from a variety of sources including social network videos, digital
images, sensors and sales transaction records.
Several steps involved in analyzing big data –
1. Data cleaning
2. Munging
3. Processing
4. Visualization
Examples –
 Bank transactions
 Data generated by IoT systems for location and tracking of vehicles
 E-commerce and in Big-Basket
 Health and fitness data generated by IoT system such as a fitness bands
4. Communications Protocols :
They are the backbone of IoT systems and enable network connectivity and linking to
applications. Communication protocols allow devices to exchange data over the network.
Multiple protocols often describe different aspects of a single communication. A group of
protocols designed to work together is known as a protocol suite; when implemented in
software they are a protocol stack.
They are used in
1. Data encoding
2. Addressing schemes
5. Embedded Systems :
It is a combination of hardware and software used to perform special tasks.
It includes microcontroller and microprocessor memory, networking units (Ethernet
Wi-Fi adapters), input output units (display keyword etc. ) and storage devices
(flash memory).
It collects the data and sends it to the internet.
Embedded systems used in
 6.
Examples –
1. Digital camera
2. DVD player, music player
3. Industrial robots
4. Wireless Routers etc.

Sensing
• Sensors are fundamental building blocks of IoT networks, they are the foundational
elements found in smart objects—the “things” in the Internet of Things. Smart objects
are any physical objects that contain embedded technology to sense and/or interact
with their environment.
• A sensor does exactly as its name indicates: It senses. More specifically, a sensor
measures some physical quantity and converts that measurement reading into a digital
representation. That digital representation is typically passed to another device for
transformation into useful data that can be consumed by intelligent devices or
humans.
• Sensors are used for sensing things and devices etc.
• A device that provides a usable output in response to a specified measurement.
The sensor attains a physical parameter and converts it into a signal suitable for
processing (e.g. electrical, mechanical, optical) the characteristics of any device or
material to detect the presence of a particular physical quantity.
The output of the sensor is a signal which is converted to a human-readable form
like changes in characteristics, changes in resistance, capacitance, impedance, etc.
 Transducer :
 A transducer converts a signal from one physical structure to another.
 It converts one type of energy into another type.
 It might be used as actuator in various systems.

• There are different types of sensors available to measure virtually everything in the
physical world and they are categorized as following:

Sensor Classification :
 Passive & Active
 Analog & digital
 Scalar & vector
 PassiveSensor –
Can not independently sense the input. Ex- Accelerometer, soil moisture, water
level and temperature sensors.
 ActiveSensor –
Independently sense the input. Example- Radar, sounder and laser altimeter sensors.
 AnalogSensor –
The response or output of the sensor is some continuous function of its input
parameter. Ex- Temperature sensor, LDR, analog pressure sensor and analog hall
effect.
 Digitalsensor –
Response in binary nature. Design to overcome the disadvantages of analog sensors.
Along with the analog sensor, it also comprises extra electronics for bit conversion.
Example – Passive infrared (PIR) sensor and digital temperature sensor(DS1620).
 Scalarsensor –
Detects the input parameter only based on its magnitude. The answer for the sensor
is a function of magnitude of some input parameter. Not affected by the direction of
input parameters.
Example – temperature, gas, strain, color and smoke sensor.
  Vectorsensor –
The response of the sensor depends on the magnitude of the direction and
orientation of input parameter. Example – Accelerometer, gyroscope, magnetic field
and motion detector sensors.

Types of sensors –

 Electrical sensor :
Electrical proximity sensors may be contact or non contact.
Simple contact sensors operate by making the sensor and the component complete an
electrical circuit.
Non- contact electrical proximity sensors rely on the electrical principles of either induction
for detecting metals or capacitance for detecting non metals as well.
 Light sensor:
Light sensor is also known as photo sensors and one of the important sensor.
Light dependent resistor or LDR is a simple light sensor available today.
0 seconds of 17 secondsVolume 0%

The property of LDR is that its resistance is inversely proportional to the intensity of the
ambient light i.e when the intensity of light increases, it’s resistance decreases and vise
versa.
 Touch sensor:
Detection of something like a touch of finger or a stylus is known as touch sensor.
It’s name suggests that detection of something.
They are classified into two types:
1. Resistive type
2. Capacitive type
Today almost all modern touch sensors are of capacitive types.
Because they are more accurate and have better signal to noise ratio.
 Range sensing:
Range sensing concerns detecting how near or far a component is from the sensing position,
although they can also be used as proximity sensors.
Distance or range sensors use non-contact analog techniques. Short range sensing, between
a few millimetres and a few hundred millimetres is carried out using electrical capacitance,
inductance and magnetic technique.
Longer range sensing is carried out using transmitted energy waves of various types eg
radio waves, sound waves and lasers.
 Mechanical sensor:
Any suitable mechanical / electrical switch may be adopted but because a certain amount of
force is required to operate a mechanical switch it is common to use micro-switches.
 Pneumatic sensor:
These proximity sensors operate by breaking or disturbing an air flow.
 The pneumatic proximity sensor is an example of a contact type sensor. These cannot be
used where light components may be blown away.
 Optical sensor:
In there simplest form, optical proximity sensors operate by breaking a light beam which
falls onto a light sensitive device such as a photocell. These are examples of non contact
sensors. Care must be exercised with the lighting environment of these sensors for example
optical sensors can be blinded by flashes from arc welding processes, airborne dust and
smoke clouds may impede light transmission etc.
 Speed Sensor:
Sensor used for detecting the speed of any object or vehicle which is in motion is known as
speed sensor .For example – Wind Speed Sensors, Speedometer ,UDAR ,Ground Speed
Radar .
 Temperature Sensor:
Devices which monitors and tracks the temperature and gives temperature’s measurement
as an electrical signal are termed as temperature sensors .These electrical signals will be in
the form of voltage and is directly proportional to the temperature measurement .
 PIR Sensor:
PIR stands for passive infrared sensor and it is an electronic sensor that is used for the
tracking and measurement of infrared (IR) light radiating from objects in its field of view
and is also known as Pyroelectric sensor .It is mainly used for detecting human motion and
movement detection .
 Ultrasonic Sensor:
The principle of ultrasonic sensor is similar to the working principle of SONAR or RADAR
in which the interpretation of echoes from radio or sound waves to evaluate the attributes of
a target by generating the high frequency sound waves .

Actuation
An IoT device is made up of a Physical object (“thing”) + Controller (“brain”) + Sensors +
Actuators + Networks (Internet). An actuator is a machine component or system that moves
or controls the mechanism of the system. Sensors in the device sense the environment, then
control signals are generated for the actuators according to the actions needed to perform.
A servo motor is an example of an actuator. They are linear or rotatory actuators, can move
to a given specified angular or linear position. We can use servo motors for IoT
applications and make the motor rotate to 90 degrees, 180 degrees, etc., as per our need.
The following diagram shows what actuators do, the controller directs the actuator based on
the sensor data to do the work.
Working of IoT devices and use of Actuators

The control system acts upon an environment through the actuator. It requires a source of
energy and a control signal. When it receives a control signal, it converts the source of
energy to a mechanical operation. On this basis, on which form of energy it uses, it has
different types given below.

• Humans use their five senses to sense and measure their environment. The sensory
organs convert this sensory information into electrical impulses tthat the nervous
system sends to the brain for processing. Likewise, IoT sensors are devices that
sense and measure the physical world and (typically) signal their measurements as
electric signals sent to some type of microprocessor or microcontroller for
additional
dditional processing.
• The human brain signals motor function and movement, and the nervous system
carries that information to the appropriate part of the muscular system.
Correspondingly, a processor can send an electric signal to an actuator that
translates
ates the signal into some type of movement (linear, rotational, and so on) or
useful work that changes or has a measurable impact on the physical world. This
interaction between sensors, actuators, and processors and the similar functionality
in biological systems is t he basis for various technical fields, including robotics and
biometrics.
Types of Actuators :
Actuators vary greatly in function, size, design, and so on. Some common ways that they
can be classified include the following:
Type of motion: Actuators can be classified based on the type of motion they produce (for
example, linear, rotary, one/two/three-axes).
Power: Actuators can be classified based on their power output (for example, high power,
low power, micro power)
Binary or continuous: Actuators can be classified based on the number of stable-state
outputs.
Area of application: Actuators can be classified based on the specific industry or vertical
where they are used.
Type of energy: Actuators can be classified based on their energy type. Table shows
actuators classified by energy type and some examples for each type.

1. Hydraulic Actuators –
A hydraulic actuator uses hydraulic power to perform a mechanical operation. They are
actuated by a cylinder or fluid motor. The mechanical motion is converted to rotary, linear,
or oscillatory motion, according to the need of the IoT device. Ex- construction equipment
uses hydraulic actuators because hydraulic actuators can generate a large amount of force.
Advantages :
 Hydraulic actuators can produce a large magnitude of force and high speed.
 Used in welding, clamping, etc.
 Used for lowering or raising the vehicles in car transport carriers.
Disadvantages :
 Hydraulic fluid leaks can cause efficiency loss and issues of cleaning.
 It is expensive.
 It requires noise reduction equipment, heat exchangers, and high maintenance systems.
2. Pneumatic Actuators –
A pneumatic actuator uses energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high pressure to
convert into either linear or rotary motion. Example- Used in robotics, use sensors that
work like human fingers by using compressed air.
Advantages :
 They are a low-cost option and are used at extreme temperatures where using air is a
safer option than chemicals.
 They need low maintenance, are durable, and have a long operational life.
 It is very quick in starting and stopping the motion.
Disadvantages :
 Loss of pressure can make it less efficient.
 The air compressor should be running continuously.
 Air can be polluted, and it needs maintenance.
3. Electrical Actuators –
An electric actuator uses electrical energy, is usually actuated by a motor that converts
electrical energy into mechanical torque. An example of an electric actuator is a solenoid
based electric bell.
Advantages :
 It has many applications in various industries as it can automate industrial valves.
 It produces less noise and is safe to use since there are no fluid leakages.
 It can be re-programmed and it provides the highest control precision positioning.
Disadvantages :
 It is expensive.
 It depends a lot on environmental conditions.
Other actuators are –
 Thermal/MagneticActuators –
These are actuated by thermal or mechanical energy. Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) or
Magnetic Shape‐Memory Alloys (MSMAs) are used by these actuators. An example of a
thermal/magnetic actuator can be a piezo motor using SMA.
 MechanicalActuators –
A mechanical actuator executes movement by converting rotary motion into linear
motion. It involves pulleys, chains, gears, rails, and other devices to operate. Example –
A crankshaft.
 Soft Actuators
 Shape Memory Polymers
 Light Activated Polymers
 With the expanding world of IoT, sensors and actuators will find more usage in
commercial and domestic applications along with the pre-existing use in industry.