This series is coordinated by D r S. Korver and Professor D r J.

Boyazoglu

fcUROp,,

Sponsors
Produktschap voor Veevoeder, The Hague, Netherlands
Gist Brocades, Delft, Netherlands
Degussa, Hanau-Wolfgang, Germany
ALKO ltd., Rajamäki, Finland
Finnfeeds International ltd.,Surrey, England
Ralston Purina International, St. Louis, USA

Organization
L.A. den Hartog (chairman), Research Institute for Pig Husbandry, Rosmalen,Netherlands and Dept.
Animal Nutrition, Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen, Netherlands
M.W.A. Verstegen (secretary), Dept. Animal Nutrition, Wageningen Agricultural University,
Wageningen, Netherlands
J. Huisman,T N O Institute for Animal Nutrition and Animal Physiology (ILOB), Wageningen,
Netherlands
B. Kemp, Dept. ofAnimal Nutrition,Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen, Netherlands
S. Bakker, IGMB-TNO, Wageningen, Netherlands

Scientific committee
M.W.A. Verstegen,J. Huisman, LA. den Hartog and B. Kemp •
Digestive physiology
inpigs
Proceedings of the Vth International Symposium on Digestive Physiology
in Pigs,Wageningen (Doorwerth), Netherlands, 24 - 26 April 1991
(EAAP Publication No. 54, 1991)

M.W.A. Verstegen,J. Huisman and LA. den Hartog (Editors)

MARU!'':V; :
NiWOr.M

Pudoc Wageningen 1991

iy
,CIP-data Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Den Haag

ISBN90-220-1040-6
NUGI 835

© Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation (Pudoc),Wageningen, Netherlands, 1991.

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Printed in the Netherlands.

 CONTENTS
Preface 1

SESSION 1 ANIMAL FACTORS AFFECTING DIGESTION AND

ABSORPTION

id A. Rerat and T. Corring

Animal factors affecting protein digestion and absorption. 5
% P.T. Sangild, B.Foltmann and P.D. Cranwell
The development of gastric proteases in the pre- and post-natal pig.
The effects of age and ACTH treatment 35
m R-J. Xu, P.D. Cranwell and D.P. Hennessy
Effects of method of feeding and meal size on the postprandial
gastrin response in pigs 41
A. Langlois, C. Juste, T. Corring, C. Philippe, J.C. Cuber and
J.A. Chayvialle
Does pancreatic polypeptide affect gallbladder function in the pig? 47
A.F.B. van der Poel, B.Kemp, E.R. Wähle and D.J. van Zuilichem
Pig ileal digestibility associated with antinutritional factors and
protein quality in Phaseolus beans and soyabeans 50
B.R. Weström, S.G. Pierzynowski, J. Svendsen and B.W. Karlsson
Stimulatory effect of dietary changes at weaning on the exocrine '
pancreas in developing pigs 55
J. Huisman and M.P. Le Guen
Effects of pea ANF's and pea carbohydrates on ileal protein
digestibility of piglets 60
C. Simoes Nunes, I. Galibois, A. Rerat and L. Savoie
Simultaneous hepatic and gut balances of amino acids in the pig 67
*ÇP.T. Sangild, P.D. Cranwell, H. S^rensen, K. Mortensen, O. Norén,
L. Wetteberg and H. Sjöström
Development of intestinal disaccharidases, intestinal peptidases and
pancreatic proteases in sucking pigs.The effects of age and ACTH
treatment 73
J.T. Yen, R.A. Easter and B.J. Kerr
Absorption of free or protein-bound lysine and threonine in
conscious multicannulated pigs 79
M. Schmitz, F. Ahrens, J. Schön and H. Hagemeister
Amino acid absorption and its significance for protein supply in the
pig 85
J.M. Fentener van Vlissingen, J.G.M. Bakker, L.P. Jager, N.P.Lenis, H. de
Visser, F.G.M. Rüssel and J.E. van Dijk
The kinetics of plasma lysine after oral and parenteral
administration to pigs 88
M.P. Le Guen, G.H. Tolman and J. Huisman
Antibodies formation against pea proteins in piglets 99
B.R. Weström, G.M. Ekström, N. Pantzar and B.W. Karlsson
Mucosal cathepsin Band D activities and the relation to intestinal
macromolecular absorption during postnatal development in pigs 104
J. Huisman, A.F.B. van der Poel and A.C. Beynen
Animal species differences in antinutritional effects of raw
Phaseolus vulgaris beans and Pisum sativum:comparison of piglets,
rats, chickens and mice 108
M. Nasi
Plant phosphorus responsestosupplemental microbial phytase in the
diet of the growing pigs 114
J.W. Sissons and C.L. Jones
Ultrasonic and electromyographic measurements of thé effects of
feed intake on digesta flow and gastro-intestinal motility in pigs- 120
A. Pfeiffer and H. Henkel
The effect of different dietary protein levels on water intake and
water excretion of growing pigs 126
E.T. Fialho and T.R. Cline
Influence of environmental temperature and dietary protein levels
on apparent digestibility of protein and amino acids and energy
balance in growing pigs 132
A.C. Beynen, J. Huisman and C E . West
Comparison between the ileal and fecal excretion of bile acids and
neutral steroids in pigs 139

SESSION 2 ENDOGENOUS LOSSESDURING DIGESTION IN PIGS

W.B. Souffrant
Endogenous nitrogen losses during digestion in pigs 147
L. Buraczewska, U. Pöhland, J. Gdala, W.Grala, G. Janowska and
W.B. Souffrant
Exocrine pancreatic secretion of enzymes in growing pigs given
diets based on barley, pea, lupin or field bean 167
C.A. Makkink, B.Kemp, J.M. Fentener van Vlissingen
Evaluation of a method to study protein digestion in the proximal
digestive tract of young piglets 173
H. Bergner
The problem of estimation of amino acid digestibility in pigs 179
R-J. Xu and P.D. Cranwell
Gastrin secretion in the neonatal pig in response to the introduction
of either colostrum or a peptone solution into the stomach 184
S. Furuya and Y. Kaji
The effects of feed intake and dietary fibre levels on the
endogenous ileal amino acid output in growing pigs 190
C.A. Makkink and T. Heinz
Endogenous Nlossesat the terminal ileum of young pigletsfed diets
based on either skimmilk powder or soybean meal 196
A.F.B. van der Poel, Th. Heinz, M.W.A. Verstegen, J. Huisman and
W.B. Souffrant
Endogenous lossesof protein from heat-processed beans (Phaseolus
vulgaris L.) 201
M.P. Le Guen, J. Huisman and C.A. Makkink
Effect of peas and pea isolates on protease activities in pancreatic
tissue of piglets 207

SESSION 3 IN VITRO TECHNIQUES OF MEASURING DIGESTION

B.O. Eggum and S. Boisen

In vitro techniques of measuring digestion 213
F. Ahrens, J. Schön and M. Schmitz
A discontinuous in-vitro technique for measuring hindgut
fermentation in pigs 226
S. Boisen and J. Fernandez
In vitro digestibility of energy and amino acids in pig feeds 231
W.Lowgren and H. Graham
In vitro estimation of readily and less-readily available nutrients 237
C. Bellaver, R.A. Easter, D.A. Cook and A. Gonzalez
A comparison of in vivo and in vitro methodes for estimating
digestibility in swine 241
G. Breves and J. Dreyer
The effects of dietary carbohydrates on microbial growth as
determined by continuous in vitro-incubations of hindgut contents
of pigs 248
P. Valette, H. Malouin, T. Corring and L. Savoie
Impact of exocrine pancreatic adaptation on in vitro protein
digestibility 250
M.D. Harrison, M.R.M. Ballard, R.A. Barclay, M.E. Jackson and
H.L. Stilborn
A comparison of true digestibility for poultry and apparent ileal
digestibility for swine. A classical in vitro method and NIR
spectrophotometry for determining amino acid digestibility 254
P. van Leeuwen, M.W.A. Verstegen, H.J. van Lonkhuijsen and
G.J.M. van Kempen
Near Infrared Reflectance (NIR) spectroscopy to estimate the
apparent ileal digestibility of protein in feedstuffs 260
F. Liebert, J. Tossenberger, Z. Henics and G. Gebhardt
Comparative results about amino acid efficiency estimation by
different methods in pigs 266

SESSION 4 METHODOLOGIES FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF

DIGESTION

M.F. Fuller
Methodologies for the measurement of digestion 273
S.G. Pierzynowski, B.R. Weström and B.W. Karlsson
Chronic models for the evaluation of the GI tract function during
porcine postnatal development 289
T. Köhler, M.W.A. Verstegen, J. Huisman, P. van Leeuwen and
R. Mosenthin
Comparison of various techniques for measuring ileal digestibility
in pigs 296
U. Hennig, J. Wünsche, W.B.Souffrant and F. Kreienbring
Precaecal nutrient digestibility and amino acid absorption in pigs
with ileorectal anastomoses and ileocaecal re-entrant cannulae 304
J. Wünsche, T. Völker, E. Borgmann and W.B. Souffrant
Assessing the proportion of bacteria nitrogen in faeces and digesta
of pigs using DAP estimation and bacteria fractionation 310
A.W. Jongbloed, P.A. Kemme and Z. Mroz
Comparative studies on duodenal, ileal and overall digestibility of
dry matter, total phosphorus and phytic acid in pigs using dual-
phase markers 317
M.F. Fuller and A. Cadenhead
Estimation of undigested dietary protein by the use of 125I-labelled
protein 322
A.W. Jongbloed, J.G.M. Bakker, P.W. Goedhart and E. Krol-Kramer
Evaluation of chromic oxyde with lower concentration and of HC1-
insoluble ashasmarkers for measuring overallapparent digestibility
of some dietary nutrients for pigs 325
M.F. Fuller and A. Cadenhead
Effect of the amount and composition of the diet on galactosamine
flow from the small intestine 330
Z. Mroz, A.W. Jongbloed, P.A. Kemme, H. Everts, A.M. van Vuuren and
R. Hoste
Preliminary evaluationof anewcannulation technique (steered ileo-
caecal valve) for quantitative collection of digesta from the small
intestine of pigs 334
V. Théodorou, J. Fioramonti and L. Buéno
sl
Cr-EDTA isadigestive marker moreaccuratethan "C-PEG 4000
for measurement of net water absorption from pig's proximal colon 340
D. Thomaneck, U. Hennig and W.B. Souffrant
In vitro determination of protein digestibility of feeds using a
"digestion cell"(Preliminary results) 345
T. Köhler, R. Mosenthin, L.A. den Hartog, J. Huisman and
M.W.A. Verstegen
Adaptative effects of ileo-rectal anastomosis on digestion in pigs 349
M.J. van Baak, E.C. Rietveld and C A . Makkink
Determination of trypsin and chymotrypsin activity in pancreatic
juice, tissue and chyme: the effect of freeze-drying and storage 356
P. Leterme, L. Pirard, A. Théwis and E. François
Comparison of the rate of passage of digesta in pigs modified by
ileo-rectal anastomosis or fitted with an ileal T-cannula 361

SESSION 5 DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES IN THE PIG

W. Drochner
Digestion of carbohydrates in the pig 367 j
K.E. Bach Knudsen and B. Borg Jensen
Effect of sourceand levelof dietary fibre onmicrobial fermentation
in the large intestine of pigs 389 |
J. Bengala Freire, A. Aumaître, J. Peiniau and Y. Lebreton
Apparent ilealdigestibilityof starch andagalactosides from peasby
early weaned pigs:effect of extrusion 395
H. Graham, J. Inborr and P. Aman
Definition and analysis of dietary fibre. Effect on nutritional
evaluation 401I
J. Inborr, M.R. Bedford, J.F. Patience and H.L. Classen
The influence of supplementary feed enzymes on nutrient
disappearance and digesta characteristics in the GI-tract of early
weaned pigs 405
J.B. Schutte, G.M. Beelen, G.B. Derksen and J. Wiebenga
Digestion and utilization of D-xylose in pigs as affected by age,
frequency of feeding and dietary level 4jj
A.L. Sutton, A.G. Mathew, A.B.Scheidt, J.A. Patterson and D.T. Kelley
Effects of carbohydrate sources and organic acids on intestinal
microflora and performance of the weanling pig 422 (
K.E. Bach Knudsen
Breakdown of plant polysaccharides in the gastrointestinal tract of
Pigs . 428
E. Chabeauti, Y. Jaguelin, C. Février, B.Carre and Y. Lebreton
Digestion of plant cell wall polysaccharides in pigs fed on diets
varying in cell wall and lactose contents 434
J. van der Meulen and J.G.M. Bakker
Effect of various sources of dietary fibre on chemico-physical
characteristics of digesta in the stomach and the small intestine in
the pig 440
J. Gdala, H. Graham, L. Buraczewska and P. Aman
Ilealandfaecal digestibility of polysaccharides inpigsfed diets with
different varieties of pea 446
R. Mosenthin, W.C. Sauer, F. Ahrens and C.F.M, de Lange
Effect of supplementation of propionic acid on ileal and fecal
nutrient and energy digestibilities and on the level of microbial
metabolites in ileal and cecal digesta of growing pigs 452
T
C. Wecke and G. Gebhardt
Maize starch digestibility from CCM with different chopping
degrees and crude fibre contents in ileorectomized and intact pigs 456
R. Köhler and F. Reinisch
Digestibility of crude fibre andnon-starch polysaccharides from rye
and triticale in piglets 461
A.G. Mathew, A.L. Sutton, A.B.Scheidt, D.M. Forsyth, J.A. Patterson and
D.T. Kelly
Effects of apropionicacid containing feed additive on performance
and intestinal microbial fermentation of the weanling pig 464
C.H.M. Smits, W.A.G. Veen, G.J. Borggreve and J J . Heeres-Van der Tol
The effect of the carbohydrate fraction from various raw materials
on the performance, the ileal and faecal digestibilities and the
energetic value of the diet 470

List of contributors to the scientific program 477

PREFACE
This book provides a compilation of papers presented at the Vth Congress on Digestive
Physiology in Pigs held in Wageningen (Doorwerth), The Netherlands.
Background and aim of this symposium are a consequence of changes in the field of
digestive physiology of pigs.
During the last years many new advances have been made in the field of animal nutrition.
New disciplines have been used to increase our knowledge on digestion and digestive
processes. The symposium programme shows some of the new research fields in the area
of digestive physiology in the pig.It isthe Vth in a series of symposia aimed at discussing
results of new studies and the development of concepts on digestive physiology in pigs.
In 1979, Dr. R. Braude and his co-workers at Shinfield, arranged the first international
seminar on digestive physiology in the pig.The proceedings of this seminar can be found
in the Technical Bulletin No. 3:"Current concepts of digestion and absorption in the pig"
(Eds. A.G. Low and I. Partridge).
Three years later (1981) the second seminar took place at Versailles, arranged by Dr. A.
Rerat and hisstaff. Theseminar proceedings were published in"LesColloquesde 1TNRA"
no. 12 entitled "Digestive physiology in the pig" (Eds. J.P. Laplace, T. Corring and A.
Rerat).
The third symposium was held in 1985 in Copenhagen. The proceedings have been
published as"Proceedings of the 3rd International Seminar on Digestive Physiology in the
Pig" 580, Beretning fra Statens Husdyrbrugsfors^g by the National Institute of Animal
Science, Denmark (Eds. A. Just, H. J^rgensen and J.A. Fernandez).
The fourth symposium was held in Jablonna, Poland in 1988.The proceedings have been
published by the Polish Academy of Sciences "The Institute of Animal Physiology and
Nutrition, Poland (Eds. L. Buraczewska, S. Buraczewski, B. Pastuszewska and T.
Zebrowska).
Papers in the Vth Symposium are written by many authoritive workers and are organised
in five main topics concerned with various aspects of digestive physiology in pigs.In each
session a first paper deals with a review of literature providing an update of the state of
art of knowledge in this field. This provided an essential part of the symposium and
enabled also a structured and a well organized discussion through its chairmen and
discussion leaders.
Wewish to acknowledge the financial support of the Vth Symposium by the organisation
listed in the beginning of this book.
We would like to give special thanks to Mrs. J. van de Kraats-Bos, who provided such
excellent secretarial help, essential for the preparation of the Congress and the
proceedings.
SESSION 1
Animal factors affecting digestion and absorption
 ANIMAL FACTORS AFFECTING PROTEIN DIGESTION AND
ABSORPTION
A. RERAT*1) and T. CORRING(2)

(1) Unité sur l'absorption et le métabolisme hépatique

(2) Laboratoire d'Ecologie et de Physiologie du Système Digestif
CRJ - INRA, Jouy-en-Josas 78350 - FRANCE.

Abstract
Protein digestion and absorption is analysed in this review with a special
attention paid to some essential parameters. Enzyme secretions at the various
levels of the digestive tract are inventoried as well as their sequential action on
proteins and peptides, their adaptability, neurohormonal regulation and animal
factors such as age and nutritional and physiological status. The role of the various
transport systems for aminoacids and peptides in the brush border and basolateral
membrane of the enterocyte are examined as well as the nutritional consequences
of these systems and the possible passage of native peptides into the portal blood.
Amino acid metabolism in the enterocyte is analysed, in particular the metabolism
of glutamine originating from the blood or lumen.

Introduction
The digestion of food depends on a variety of physiological parameters related
with its physical and chemical characteristics and with other factors such as the
rhythm of intake. The rate of food passage through the gut and intestinal enzyme
capacities of the animal are of particular importance . Thus, the transit rate
determines the time of contact between food and enzymes and this may be at the
origin of a more or less complete hydrolysis of dietary constituents and the
appearance of substrates inducing the development of some bacteria in the hindgut
whose degradating action is not necessarily beneficial. The transit rate also
regulates the time of contact between digestion products and absorptive surfaces;
this may result in the formation of more or less voluminous residues despite a real
but unfitted hydrolysis as well as in a delayed appearance of some digestion
products in the "inner medium" leading to a poor metabolic utilisation (Elman,1953).
In the same way, any abnormal secretion or any absorption failure may lead to the
presence of abnormally large amounts of nutrients in a segment of the digestive
tract which they should not have reached with the same consequences as those of
an inadequate transit. Hence, there is an interdependency between the various
mechanisms of digestion in terms of motricity, secretion and absorption (Rerat et
al., 1977a). The sequence of digestive events is therefore necessarily coordinated by
the nervous and humoral relationships between the various organs. These
relationships are characterized by the existence of retroactive systems which, at
each step of digestion, are monitoring the importance and length of the previous
and following steps. The regulatory peptides secreted by the mucosa throughout
the digestive tract and by a variety of digestive organs such as the pancreas play a
major role in the synchronization of the various digestive events.
These variables which are characteristic for the animal may be submitted to
variations depending on the species, heredity, age, physiological stage (gestation,
lactation, nutrition) and stress. They may also vary according to nutrients and type
of feeding.
All the digestive events and their interrelations will not be analysed in this
report. We have chosen to focus on protein digestion and to update our knowledge
concerning:
 - digestive hydrolyses en relation to enzyme productions'in the various segments
of the digestive tract, their adaptation and regulation;
- some intestinal transport mechanisms
- some aspects of enterocyte metabolism.

I. SEQUENCE OF DIGESTIVEHYDROLYSES, REGULATION AND ADAPTATION

From its entry into the mouth and during its progression through the gut, food is
successively mixed with digestive secretions contributing to the sequential
degradation of dietary macromolecules into nutrients which are subsequently
absorbed. For proteins, these hydrolyses start in the stomach and continue in the
intestine under the combined action of pancreatic and intestinal enzymes.

1.1. Gastric hydrolysis

The stomach secretes into the gastric lumen a complex mixture originating from
various glands and mucosal cells, i.e. electrolytes, enzymes, mucosubstances, blood
substances and other biologically active matters (such as the intrinsec factor). It
also secretes a regulatory peptide, gastrin, into the blood circulation. The gastric
juice is mainly characterized by two components, an acid component containing
hydrochloric acid and water produced by the parietal cells and an alcaline
component containing pepsinogens secreted by the chief cells or peptic cells as well
as electrolytes such as chlore, carbonate, sodium and potassium secreted by the
cardial glands also responsible for the production of mucosubstances.
The hydrochloric acid secretion has a variety of functions, i.e; activation of
pepsinogens into pepsin, maintenance of intragastric pH at low values
corresponding to the optimal pH for the action of pepsins-, chemical digestion and
stimulation of the duodenal production of cholecystokinin-pancreozymin.

Enzyme composition of the gastric juice

The gastric juice contains several pepsins and chymosin, i.e. proteases which
initiate protein digestion. These enzymes are synthesized and secreted in the form
of proenzymes converted into active enzymes by a limited proteolysis which
s'eparates a fraction of the N-terminal portion from the peptide chain (Kageyama &
Kagahashi, 1980). This process triggered by hydrochloric acid is very rapid at pH 2
and goes on more slowly at pH 4 by autocatalysis due to the pepsin formed. In
humans, distinction can be made between 7 pepsins distributed into two major
groups according to their physicochemical characteristics,, their activity and
optimal pH of action (PGI:2.0 >pH > 1.5; PGII pH 3.2) (Samloff, 1971; Seijffers et al.,
1965). In the pig, there are three (Foltmann, 1986) or four (Vonk & Western, 1984)
pepsins, among which pepsin A is a major constituent with an optimum action at
pH 2, pepsin B which is present in small amounts and not well known, pepsin C or
gastricsin with an optimum action between pH 3 and 4. Young piglets (but not
infants) possess another protease, chymosin (Foltmann et al., 1981) with the same
optimum pH of action as that of pepsin C. However, gastric proteases are generally
active within a large pH range and are all capable of coagulating milk at pH 6.5. The
specific action of pepsins has been very well analysed (Taylor, 1968),i.e.
endopeptidases which cleave the peptide bonds only between L-amino acids. The
most rapid hydrolysis rate is observed for bonds near the aromatic amino acids,
tyrosine and phenylalanine. The hydrolysis rate decreases for bonds involving
glutamic acid and cystine and becomes very low for bonds between valine and
glycine, tyrosine and cystine, tyrosine and serine. Glycylpeptides are very resistant
to the action of pepsin.
 Relationships between hydrolysis and gastric transit

Hydrolysis intensity depends on the length of stay of proteins within the gastric
lumen and is thus responsible for the time length of contact between enzymes and
substrates. This length of stay plays a major role for the first steps of food
degradation since the pH of the fundic and pyloric contents changes with time,
from 5 immediately after the meal to 2 after some time (Lawrence, 1972). Hence,
protein hydrolysis is first slow and then more rapid. The gastric emptying rate can
be reduced by various factors such as hyper- or hypo-osmolarity (Hunt, 1963) or an
acid pH (Hunt & Knox, 1972). This emptying rate is controlled by receptors located
in the duodenum which are sensitive to chyme acidity, osmolarity, levels of fatty
acids and various amino acids: tryptophan in dogs and humans, phenylalanine,
glutamate, arginine and cysteine in humans (Stephens et al., 1975; Byrne et al.,
1977). Oligopeptides and proteins also participate as efficiently as their constituting
amino acids in the reduction of the gastric emptying rate (Burn-Murdock et al.,
1978; Stephens et al., 1976). The enzymatic hydrolysis of proteins depends on their
amount and nature (Zebrowska, 1973) as well as on the nature of dietary lipids
(Ziemlanski et al., 1972) and sugars (Buraczewski et al., 1971).

Gastric secretion pattern

The gastric secretions change with age. The secretion of hydrochloric acid may
start at birth (Cranwell & Titchen, 1974), but seems to be delayed, by the
development of lactic acid fermentations in the stomach as affected by the
environment at birth (Cranwell et al., 1976). The volume of gastric secretions
increases rapidly during the first weeks of life and then more slowly (Noakes, 1972).
There is no production of pepsin at birth while that of chymosin is rather high;
after 2-5 days, the production of chymosin decreases and disappears after 4-5
weeks (Foltmann et al., 1981) while the production of pepsin increases first slowly
then rapidly (Lewis et al., 1957; Decuypere et al., 1978)

Regulation of gastric secretion

Gastric secretion is monitored by a variety of nervous, endocrine and paracrine

mechanisms. Gastrin secreted by the G cells of the gastric antrum as influenced by
an antral distension (Soares et al., 1977) or by small peptides and amino acids
(Richardson et al., 1976) represents one of the most important regulators of the
secretion ; it is thus favoured by the ingestion of protein rich meals (Rerat et al.,
1985). The two forms of this peptide, G17 and G34, act directly on the parietal cell
and increase the acid secretion (Sachs et al., 1981). Gastrin may also act directly on
the parietal cell via a local release of histamine (Main & Pearce, 1982). Gastrin
secretion is modulated by another regulatory peptide, bombesin (Hirschowitz &
Molina, 1983).
The nervous regulation of vagal origin is also an important control system of
gastric secretion. This cholinergic-like vagal stimulation has been evidenced by the
existence of a secretion during sham-feeding (Feldmann & Richardson, 1981).
Acetylcholine and its analogues stimulate the secretion of pepsinogen both in intact
animals (Samloff, 1971) and in isolated preparations (Kashekar et al., 1983; Sanders
et al., 1983); this stimulation is inhibited by atropine which also inhibits the
secretion induced by direct vagal stimulation (Hirschowitz, 1967).
The gastric secretion is also subjected to a paracrine control exerted by
somatostatin. The somatostatin producing cells in the stomach are in a close
contact with gastrin producing cells and with parietal cells (Larsson et al., 1979).
Somatostatin strongly inhibits the secretion of gastrin and parietal cell secretions
(Loud et al., 1985). Somatostatin is also stimulated by hydrochloric acid and its
secretion by the gastric antrum and the parietal cell area is inhibited by the vagal
nervous system (Larsson, 1980; Hoist et al., 1983).Thus, the positive action of the
vagal nervous system may partly be due to the inhibition of the paracrine effect of
somatostatin, which in turn inhibits the gastric secretion.
There is also a humoral and nervous regulation of gastric secretion of intestinal
origin. The release of secretin into the bloodstream in response to the presence of
hydrochloric acid in the duodenum causes a large inhibition of HCL production
(Chey et al., 1981); it also inhibits gastric emptying (Vague & Andre, 1971) and
seems to stimulate the in vivo secretion of pepsinogen (Stening et al., 1969), but
this stimulatory action is being controversed. Somatostatin is also released by the
pyloric antrum and the duodenum as affected by HCL and in addition to its
paracrine action seems to behave as an inhibitory hormone (Larsson, 1980; Loud et
al., 1985). The presence of nutrients in the duodenum inhibits the acid secretion,
this inhibition being exerted together with several regulatory peptides whose
secretion is stimulated by the nutrients, i.e. GIP (Pederson & Brown, 1972),
neurotensin (Fletcher et al., 1985; Skov-Olsen et al., 1983), peptide YY (Adrian et
al., 1985), enteroglucagon (Christiansen et al., 1976). Glucagon inhibits peptide and
acid secretion related to meal ingestion in man (Konturek et al., 1975).
This variety of mechanisms intervene according to a given sequence at the
moment of food intake. During the cephalic phase, i.e. when the meal is perceived
or during sham-feeding, secretion of acid and of pepsin is stimulated by the
pneumogastric. Thereafter, the arrival of food in the stomach induces the gastric
phase of secretion triggered by distension of the organ and mainly the pyloric
antrum and by the dietary protein content. The secretion is stimulated both via the
excitation of the parasympathic fibres and by the release of gastrin, but also by the
inhibition of somatostatin. The next step is the arrival of the food bolus in the
duodenum which via physical (distension) and chemical stimuli (hydrochloric acid,
protein nutrients) induces the intestinal phase characterized by an inhibition of
gastric secretion, mainly acid, by various regulatory peptides secreted by the
duodenal mucosa (GIP, neurotensin, secretin, peptide YY, somatostatin).

Consequences of gastric hydrolysis

Which is the result of gastric digestion ? In vivo, the nitrogenous matters are
partly solubilized (up to 50% within lh according to the nature of proteins), the
soluble fraction being mainly composed of proteins, peptides and very few amino
acids (Miranda & Pelissier, 1983; Low, 1979) and increasing with time after the
meal. Hence, apart from the first emissions from the stomach, the gastric
proteolysis is rather high. Protein hydrolysis is accompanied by a supply of
endogenous proteins (6-8 g/day according to Cuperlovic et al., 1975; Zebrowska et
al., 1975). No peptides or free amino acids seem to be absorbed from the gastric
lumen (Rerat et al., 1988b).
The gastric phase of digestion can be considered as a preparatory phase and
may be by-passed as shown by the consequences of gastrectomy on digestibility
and absorption (Corring &Rerat, 1983).

1.2. RESPECTIVE ROLES OFPOST-STOMACHAL HYDROLYSES

When the digesta arrive in the duodenum they are mixed with bile and
pancreatic juice and as their pH value increases, their hydrolysis by pancreatic and
intestinal enzymes starts and goes on while they are moving towards the distal
segments. Digestion of proteins in the small intestine is very rapid and intense. It is
due to the combined action of pancreatic enzymes responsible for endoluminal
digestion and intestinal enzymes reponsible for membrane hydrolysis.

1.2.1. Exocrine pancreas enzymes

The pancreatic exocrine secretion of a wide spectrum of enzymes represents one

major animal factor responsible for the enzymic degradation of many dietary
components in mammals. In the rat pancreas, twenty individual proteins have been
identified by two-dimensional electrophoresis, i.e. four forms of
procarboxypeptidase, three forms of trypsinogen, two or three forms of amylase,
two forms each of chymotrypsinogen and proelastase, one form each of lipase and
RNAse and four non identified forms of glycoproteins (Poort & Poort, 1981; Schick
et al., 1984). Pancreatic proteolytic enzymes are secreted into the intestinal lumen
in an inactive form (trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidases A and B
and proelastase) Trypsinogen is activated by intestinal enterokinase and forms
trypsin which in turn activates chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidases A and B
and proelastases (Keller, 1968; Rovery, 1988). A distinction is usually made between
endopeptidases (trypsin, chymotrypsin and elastases) and exopeptidases
(carboxypeptidases A and B). Other proteolytic enzymes such as collagenase and
nucleases are present in the pancreatic juice. Endo- and exopeptidases cleave the
inner and terminal peptide bonds of the protein molecule. Chymotrypsin and
carboxypeptidase A cleave specific bonds near the aromatic L-amino acids
(tyrosine, tryptophan, phenylalanine) while trypsin and carboxypeptidase B cut
specific bonds near the basic L-amino acids (arginine and lysine). According to
Gertler et al., (1980) the less specifically acting elastases as well as chymotrypsin
play a major role in protein digestion. However, for optimal hydrolysis, all
pancreatic proteolytic enzymes must act together.

Pancreatic enzyme deficiencies

In some diseases such as cystic fibrosis, which is a familial disease of the young,
an almost complete loss of pancreatic enzyme activity is reported in 80 % of the
patients suffering from a severe malnutrition. In animals, many experiments have
shown that deprivation of pancreatic enzymes leads to a decrease in the apparent
digestibility of energy and protein as well as in the absorption of dietary nitrogen.
After total pancreatectomy, nitrogen absorption in dogs decreased by 30%one hour
after the meal (Shingleton et al., 1955). In chickens (Ariyoshi et al., 1964) about 25%
of ingested protein was used after pancreatectomy. In pigs, we found a 13%
decrease in the apparent digestibility of nitrogen after the meal (Corring &
Bourdon, 1977) and a 35 to 46% decrease in the appearance of free amino acids in
the portal blood (Rerat et al., 1977b) when pancreatic juice was removed from the
intestinal lumen. However, according to many data the exocrine pancreas possesses
a large reserve capacity (Corring, 1980). In patients with chronic pancreatitis,
maldigestion of dietary proteins was observed only when trypsin activity was
under 10% of the normal (Di Magno et al., 1973) and the apparent digestibility of
the diet was normal when only 1% of the pancreatic gland was kept in the rat
(Uram et al., 1960). Moreover, the exocrine pancreas seems to be able to regenerate
after a 95% pancreatectomy (Hotz et al., 1973). In the pancreatic duct-ligated pig,
the apparent digestibility of nitrogen markedly decreased within the first 10 days,
but increased significantly with time and the pigs grew in weight although to a
lesser extent than intact animals. This improvement was the result of adaptative
enzymatic increases reported by different authors (Senegas et al., 1976).

Pancreatic enzymes and food

It is well known today that pancreatic enzyme equipment can be markedly

altered by diet composition. Long-term protein deficiencies cause severe disorders
of the pancreas. Proteolytic enzyme activities are usually lower in the duodenal
aspirates of infants when their diet is protein deficient. Dietary protein deprivation
results in a loss of zymogen granules, shrinking and atrophy of the acinar cells and
a reduction in the amount and duration of enzyme secretion from the pancreas.
Following secretion into the small intestine, inactivation of pancreatic proteolytic
enzymes increases when protein-free diets are fed. With total protein deprivation,
the protein synthetic activity of the acinar cell corresponds almost exclusively to
the production of anionic proteases (trypsinogens 1 and 2, chymotrypsinogen 1,
proelastase 1 and procarboxypeptidases A and B) (Schick et al., 1984). As these
proteins represent almost 50% of the exocrine pancreatic enzymes in the rat, this
adaptative process is a "last chance" for the cell and the body to get amino acid
supplies for survival (Schick et al., 1984).
During protein malnutrition, is the disturbance of pancreatic digestive enzyme
secretion large enough to exacerbate this malnutrition and impair refeeding ? When
refeeding protein-deficient rats with a well balanced diet, the anabolism
considerably increased and chymotrypsin activity reached higher values than those
of the reference group (Keroua & Belleville, 1981). The exocrine pancreas modifies
its enzyme secretion in response to diet composition (Corring, 1980). In animals,
proteolytic enzyme activities either in the pancreatic tissue or juice entering the
duodenum are modified by the dietary protein content while amylase and lipase
activities, respectively depend on dietary carbohydrate and lipid contents. These
variations are related to parallel increases or decreases in enzyme biosynthesis
(Reboud et al., 1966; Poort & Poort, 1980). Five days to three weeks after
administration of diets containing normal (22%) to high (82%) protein levels, the
synthesis of most pancreatic proteins, was directly proportional to the dietary
nutritional substrate. However, chymotrypsinogen, anionic trypsinogen, proelastase
1 and procarboxypeptidases were the most markedly affected by the diet while the
biosynthesis of trypsinogen 3, proelastase 2, RNAse and lipase were not modified
(Poort & Poort, 1981; Schick et al., 1984). These findings indicate a differential
effect of the diet on the biosynthesis of serine proteases and other proteolytic
enzymes in terms of extent and timing of enzyme responses. Elastase gene
expression only significantly increased after ingestion of a 70% protein diet while
chymotrypsinogen and especially trypsinogen already increased after a 25% protein
diet. Hence, the expression of pancreatic proteolytic genes was not altered by
dietary protein to the same extent (Giorgi et al., 1985). According to Wicker et al.,
(1985) at least part of the adaptative regulation of protein synthesis in the rat
pancreas is pretranslational either as a result of an enhanced transcription of the
corresponding hydrolase genes or a reduced degradation of specific mRNA species.
The idea that there are minimal and maximal limits to secretion is clearly shown
by lipase activities in response to growing amounts of dietary lipids (Sabb et al.,
1986). Such limits in the adaptation have not been reported for other pancreatic
enzymes. Amylase secretion is enhanced by increasing levels of starch intake (
Noirot et al., 1981). Pancreatic proteolytic enzyme secretion is proportional or
shows a "purposive" adaptative response to the amount of nitrogen intestinally
infused in man (Vidon et al., 1978) or orally ingested by the rat (Schick et al., 1984).
It also depends on the dietary protein quality (Valette et al., 1987) and no
adaptative response was observed with protein of poor biological value (Johnson et
al., 1977) or with a suboptimal supply of dietary protein (Temler et al., 1984).

Role of peptides in the nutritional regulation of pancreatic enzymes

It was formerly shown that in animals adapted to a diet enriched with a specific
nutrient, the subsequent high level of this nutrient in the digestive tract induced an
increase in the corresponding enzyme levels in the pancreas. It is interesting to
note that it occurred without any contact between the nutrient and the pancreas.
Ingested nutrients very rapidly undergo a physical and biochemical degradation
which starts in the stomach. The stomach then empties a mixture of nutrients and
hydrolysis products into the duodenum. Therefore, the information sent to the
pancreas may be generated by the substrate or by its hydrolysis products. Several
studies have been performed with an attempt to identify the product responsible
for the pancreatic response and adaptation to the diet and the second messenger
involved.
It is noteworthy that almost all experimental findings emphasize the effect of
hydrolysis products on pancreatic secretion before their intestinal absorption

10
suggesting an active involvement of the intestinal mucosa via the release of the
second messenger. Simoes Nunes & Corring (1980) reported that an intravenous
injection of duodenal extracts from pigs fed on high-starch meals into recipient pigs
elicited the secretion of pancreatic amylase. Simoes Nunes (1982) also showed in
the pig that pancreatic adaptation to dietary carbohydrates and lipids was no
longer observed after bypass of the proximal small intestine. In contrast, the
pancreatic proteolytic enzyme adaptation to dietary proteins did not seem to
depend on the proximal small intestine (Simoes-Nunes, personal communication).
Bozkurt and Haberich (1985) reported that starch instillation into the duodenum
led to a rapid decrease in amylase secretion whereas intraduodenal amino acids
and lipids somewhat delayed the responses of proteolytic enzymes and lipase. The
intestinal mucosa seems to be involved in the adaptation of the pancreas to the
diet, but the mechanisms are probably different for each enzyme (Bozkurt &
Haberich, 1985) and most likely involve many peptides. Only little information is
available about the nervous control of the pancreatic adaptation to the diet.
According to Morisset and Dunnigan (1967) this adaptation is not affected in
vagotomized rats.
Among the regulatory peptides, cholecystokinin is often considered to be the
main intestinal factor for pancreatic adaptation to the diet (Green et al., 1986).
Stimulation with caerulein, a synthetic analogue of cholecystokinin, revealed both
coordinate and anticoordinate rate changes (latency, kinetics and extent) in
protein synthesis. Acute caerulein (25pg/kg/h) administred to rats decreased the
secretion of amylase and increased that of anionic trypsinogens 1^ and 2,
chymotrypsinogens, procarboxypeptidases and RNAse within 3h, while cationic
trypsinogen 3, elastase 2 and lipase synthesis were not modified (Schick et al.,
1984). These findings are compatible with those observed after intake of protein-
rich diets. However, according to Bozkurt and Haberich (1985) in rats and Langlois
et al., (1989) in pigs, cholecystokinin does not have any specific effect on
proteolytic enzymes, but rather a general stimulatory action on all pancreatic
enzymes.
All peptides which are known to regulate the exocrine pancreas do not play an
essential role in the adaptation of pancreatic secretion to the diet whereas
currently unknown peptide-like components seem to be involved (Dick & Felber,
1975; Corring, 1977).

1.2.2. Intestinal enzymes

After hydrolysis caused by the sequential action of hydrochloric acid, gastric

pepsins and pancreatic enzymes, mixtures composed of a large proportion (70%) of
small peptides ( 2 - 6 amino acid residues) and free amino acids (30%) are very
quickly released into the intestinal lumen (Adibi &Mercer, 1973; Chung et al., 1979).
While the free amino acids are absorbed by specific transport systems, the peptides
undergo a new hydrolysis before being absorbed by the digestive tract. The
ultimate digestion of peptides is due to peptidases present in the brush border and
the cytoplasm of the enterocytes of the intestinal villi. Because of these villi and
the microvilli of the enterocyte apical membrane the intestine represente a very
wide and a very efficient absorbant and digestive surface area (200 m in man
according to Wilson, 1962).

Intestinal peptidases

The brush border of the enterocyte contains a large amount of peptidases whose
action is completed by other enzymes present in the cytoplasm. These enzymes are
characterized by their specific activity. Thus, in the pig and rat the following
enzymes have been identified in the brush-border membrane:
- an endopeptidase (Fulcher & Kenny, 1983; Kocna et al., 1980; Yoshioka et al.,
1988) in small amounts (Danielsen et al., 1980) cleaving the peptide bonds near the

11
hydrophobic amino acids (Kerr & Kenny, 1974) inside oligopeptides and proteins
such as casein (Guan et al., 1988)
- aminopeptidases cleaving neutral amino acids in the N-terminal position (NAP,
neutral aminopeptidase; Maroux et al., 1973) or acid amino acids such as glutamic
and aspartic acids (AAP, acid aminopeptidase, Benajiba and Maroux, 1980) or
proline (aminopeptidase P; Lasch et al., 1986) or dipeptides, mainly X-Pro and X-Ala
( Dipeptidyldipeptidase DPPIV, Svensson et al., 1978)
- one or several carboxypeptidases (Skovbjerg, 1981) releasing amino acids at the
C-terminal position, mainly proline (carboxypeptidase P: Yoshioka et al., 1988;
Erikson et al., 1989).
Furthermore, in the enterocyte brush border of humans and rats the following
enzymes have been identified: folate conjuguase which separates the
pteroylglutamic residue from folic acid (Reisenauer et al., 1977),
glutathionedipeptidase which cleaves glutathion into its constitutive elements
(Korak & Tate, 1982), dipeptidases mainly hydrolysing glycylleucine and
aspartyllysine (Tobey et al., 1985) and glutamyl-transpeptidase (Hughey &
Curthoys, 1976) which acts both as a peptidase and an exchanger of amino groups.
The action of these enzymes of which one fraction is released into the intestinal
lumen as a consequence of mucosal desquamation (Andersen et al., 1988) is
completed in the cytoplasm by that of several other peptidases:
- aminotripeptidase with a great affinity for tripeptides possessing a free oc-
amino group and those containing proline or hydroxyproline at the amino terminus
(Adibi &Kim, 1981).
- several dipeptidases cleaving only dipeptides: glycylleucine dipeptidase with a
very wide specificity, isolated in the pig (Noren et al., 1973), glycyl-glycine
dipeptidase hydrolysing dipeptide Gly-Gly; tryptophan-alanine dipeptidase;
prolyldipeptidase acting on Pro-X dipeptides ( Noren et al., 1973); proline
dipeptidase (prolidase) isolated in the pig (Sjöström et al., 1978) which is only
active on aminoacylproline peptide bonds, i.e. on X-Pro dipeptides.
Other peptidases, probably present in cytosol, remain to be identified: leucine
aminopeptidase, arginine aminopeptidase, pyroglutamate aminopeptidase and
carnosinase (Sjöström and Nören, 1986)

Hydrolysis by intestinal enzymes

The hydrolysis of oligopeptides present in the intestinal lumen thus begins in the
brush border of the microvilli and mainly concerns oligopeptides with more than
three amino acid residues. Endopeptidase has probably only a minor role because
of its analogy of function with pancreatic endopeptidases; its action leads to the
formation of small-sized peptides. Aminopeptidase N separates a series of individual
amino acids from the peptides, mainly leucine and methionine (Kim et al., 1976;
Feracci et al., 1981). Aminopeptidase A separates glutamic and aspartic acids from
the peptides, but has also a small activity towards arginine and N-terminal lysine
(Danielsen et al., 1977). However, none of these two enzymes is able to separate
proline in N-terminal position. When proline is in that position it can only be
released by the joint action of two enzymes, i.e. dipeptidyldipeptidase which
separates dipeptides of the aminoacylproline N-terminal type (Walter et al., 1980;
Morita et al., 1983) in the brush border, and proline dipeptidase after transfer of
these dipeptides in the enterocyte by a specific transport system. The magnitude of
the carboxypeptidase action in the brush border has not yet been well established
(Skovbjerg, 1981).
Thus, oligopeptides (C^-Cg) present in the intestinal lumen are first broken down
in the brush border into di-and tri-peptides and neutral and acid amino acids. A
large fraction of tripeptides (60%) and a minor fraction of dipeptides (10%) are also
hydrolysed at this level apart from those containing a proline residue (X-Pro or X-
hydroxyproline). The remaining di and tri-peptides are transferred by a specific
transport system into the cytoplasm ( Adibi & Kim, 1981) where they are

12
hydrolysed to a large extent. However, part of them might not be hydrolysed and
be conveyed in the native state into the portal blood (Gardner 1984).

Topographical variations

The amounts of peptidases found in the intestinal mucosa are topographically

variable. They are inexistent in the crypts of the villi in which the enterocytes are
still non differentiated and maximum in the medium and upper part of the villi
(Nordstrom et al., 1968). The activity of some peptidases is larger in the rat ileum
(DPPIV, NAP, AAP, carboxypeptidase) than in the proximal small intestine (Norén
et al., 1980; Skovbjerg, 1981; Triadou et al., 1983); however, this is controversed for
aminopeptidase N (Miura et al., 1983)The proximal-distal gradient is also observed
for lysosomal enzymes in the young rat ( Nikolaievskaia & Chernikov, 1986). The
distribution between brush border peptidases and cytosol peptidases is variable
according to intestinal segments, the former being dominant in the ileum and the
others in the jejunum. According to Silk et al., (1976) this might signify that luminal
peptidases play a more important role in the ileum than in the jejunum.

Regulation of peptidase activity

The aminopeptidase activity appears to be regulated by hydrolysis end products.

The hydrophobic amino acids seem to inhibit the enzyme activity of the brush
border (Kim & Brophy, 1979). Thus, alanine, methionine, leucine and histidine have
a very marked inhibitory effect on a mixture of cytoplasm and membrane -enzymes.
Furthermore, various dietary factors may play an important role. In young rats,
fasting caused a depression of brush border enzyme activity probably related with
the absence of nutritive substrate, but it stimulated the cytosol enzyme activity
most likely because of a higher protein turnover due to neoglucogenesis. The
ingestion of casein rich meals stimulated not only the activity of brush border
enzymes (Saito & Suda, 1975), but also that of cytosol enzymes apart from proline-
leucine peptidase (Nicholson et al., 1974); these adaptative events were mainly
marked in the ileum (McCarthy et al., 1980). The ratio between aminopeptidase N
and isomaltase activity increased when the dietary protein content rose from 5 to
20% in the rat (King et al., 1983). Aminopeptidase activity increased in the brush
border after administration of small peptides to the rat, but not after feeding a
mixture of free amino acids (Fuse et al., 1989). On the other hand, aminopeptidase
N activity decreased during total parenteral nutrition (Galluser et al., 1989). A
deficit of valine led to a depression in leucine aminopeptidase activity (Kimura et
al., 1978).

Factors of variation of peptidase activity

Some factors such as the age ( Ugolev et al., 1979; Kedinger et al., 1986; Austic,
1985), physiological status (gestation, lactation; Rolls, 1975) or intestinal resection
may lead to a variation in intestinal peptidase activity. This activity can generally
be observed very early during foetal development of piglets. It is very high at birth
but is momentaneously inhibited by colostrum ingestion which in the rat and pig
contains a peptidase inhibitor (Lindbergh et al., 1975). Some peptidase activities
then increase during the first weeks of life of piglets (Tivey & Smith, 1989) and
thereafter decrease until a subnormal level at 8 weeks (Lindbergh & Carlsson,
1982). The pattern of peptidase activities is similar in the rat (Lindbergh & Owman,
1966); thus, they generally increase during late gestation, are maximum at birth
and decrease within 3 weeks till the adult level; these activities are lower in
suckled than in non suckled rats. Moreover, 2 weeks after birth there is a
provisional rise in cytosol peptidase activity parallel to that of lysosomal
cathepsins (Vaeth and Henning, 1982). This is interpreted as an adaptation to the
absence of luminal protease, the milk proteins being absorbed by pinocytosis and

13
broken down by the successive action of lysosomal and cytosolic enzymes. In the
rat the aminotripeptidase activity in the jejunum remains stationary for 2 weeks
and thereafter increases (Noack et al., 1966).
After massive intestinal resection, aminopeptidase activity increases in large
proportions when expressed by intestinal length unit, but not by DNA unit (Garrido
et al., 1978). Accordingly, this increase only reflects the existence of a mucosal
hyperplasia, but does not account for any change in the cell content. These facts
have been confirmed for leucine aminopeptidase (Albert et al., 1990) and N
aminopeptidase (Chaves et al., 1987) present in the ileum after a large proximal
resection. After a pancreas shunt the intestinal secretions are also stimulated, as
shown in the hamster (Senegas et al., 1976), and correspond to a weight increase of
the intestinal mucosa (Corring &Bourdon, 1976).

2. TRANSPORT OF HYDROLYSIS PRODUCTS IN THEINTESTINAL CELLWALL

After the above described hydrolyses, a mixture of non digested proteins, small
peptides and free amino acids reach the absorptive surface areas of the intestine.
The extent and mechanism of transport'are different for these substrates. Although
many advances have been made the last few years in our knowledge of intestinal
transport systems, there are still many gaps and less information is available than
in the case of transport in other tissues (e.g. kidney, muscle). Data concerning the
absorption of native proteins have been published in a recent review (Gardner,
1988) and will therefore not be analysed here.

2.1. Transport of amino acids

Amino acids are conveyed through the intestine by three systems i.e. an active,
specific and saturable transport, a transport with a facilitated diffusion and a
transport with a simple diffusion in the presence of high luminal concentrations of
amino acids. The demonstration of these systems is difficult because of overlapping
specificity and between-species differences. They can be ranked according to their
sodium dependence, K t determination from saturation kinetics, crossed inhibition
profiles between pairs of amino acids and genetic deficiencies (Wellner & Meister,
1980) associated with malabsorption and often with urinary losses of a group of
amino acids or of one amino acid. A supplementary parameter is based on the
reaction towards rare amino acids conveyed by a single transport system and
hence this system can be identified in other tissues and species (Hopfer, 1987).
Almost all the information available in this field has been obtained in other species
than the pig so that we have to use extrapolations for these animals.
Conventionally (Bannai et al., 1984) each transport system is characterized by a
letter or a group of letters indicating its specificity, expressed by capitals for the
Na dependent system and by small letters in the opposite case , with the
exception of the L system which is not Na + dependent. Some of the transport
systems identified in the intestine are responsible for the transport of amino acids
across the brush border membrane and others across the basolateral membrane.

The brush border

- In the brush border, the neutral amino acids are mainly transported Na
dependently by a "public" system used by several amino acids (Christensen, 1984)
and by three "private" systems. Most of them are conveyed by the NBB system
(neutral brush border) whose characteristics are close to the L system found in
other cell types, but different from those of the A system (Stevens et al., 1984). The
catalytic constant K t of this system is high (20 - 40 mmol/1). Methionine and
phenylalanine are transported by the Na dependent PHE system. Proline and
hydroxyproline have a specific transport system (IMINO) excluding alanine and
other short-chain amino acids and their transport capacity is high (Stevens et al.,

14
1984). The rabbit possesses a ß-system for transport of amino acids such as ß
alanine (Munck et al., 1985).
- Cationic or basic amino acids (lysine, arginine, citrulline, ornithine) and cystine
are transported by two "private" systems, one Na dependent (Y ) (Wolfram et al.,
1984) and the other not (y + ) (the + sign indicate the necessity of a load on the
lateral chain) (Stevens et al., 1984).
- Anionic or acid amino acids (glutamate, aspartate) are conveyed by a "private"
Na + dependent system, X Q A which is also responsible for the reverse transport
owing to potassium or protons (Berteloot, 1984). The catalytic constant of this
system is low (0.5 mmol/1).
The brush border also possesses an Na + dependent facilitated diffusion system
which only represents a small fraction of the absorption (Stevens et al., 1984). This
system has the same characteristics as the L system found in many other cells; its
catalytic constant is low (K t <lmmol/l). A second Na + independent system makes
possible the absorption of ß-amino acids (Lerner, 1984).

The basolateral plasma membrane

The basal cell pole also exhibits routes of transport through the basolateral
plasma membrane. The largest transport is made by the Na dependent L system
which is highly specific for neutral amino acids together with cysteine and
glutamine (Stevens et al., 1984; Taylor et al., 1989). There are several Na
independent systems, one (asc) responsible for transport of neutral amnio acids
with 3-4 carbons , alanine, serine and cysteine (Lash & Jones, 1984), one of low
capacity (y + ) enabling the release of basic amino acids and another that of proline
(Davies et al., 1987).
An active Na + dependent transport has also been observed with low substrate
concentrations (Mircheff et al., 1980); it is imputed to the presence of the A system
in the basolateral membrane which transports short-chain polar amino acids and
the ASC system which takes up neutral amino acids with 3-4 carbons.i.e. alanine,
serine and cysteine. This might explain the uptake of amino acids from the blood by
the enterocyte for metabolic purposes in the case of low intestinal absorption.
A special emphasis should be laid on the uptake of glutamic acid and glutamine
by the basolateral membrane as these amino acids play an important role, one in
the transaminations and the other as an essential energy source for the enterocyte.
These amino acids accumulate in the isolated intestinal cell (Bradford & Mac Givan,
1982) or in intact epithelial cell preparations (Boyd and Perring, 1981) much more
than in the case of neutral amino acids. Although it has not yet been demonstrated,
the basolateral membrane most likely possess an Na and K dependent transport
system similar to that existing in the brush border membrane or in the hepatocyte
(Ghishan et al., 1990).
All these systems are responsible for the transport of all free amino acids from
the intestinal lumen to the fluids irrigating the intestinal tissues. It is, however
difficult to establish the respective role played by each type of transport (active
transport, facilitated diffusion, simple diffusion) in the absorption processes
because their interventions vary according to substrate concentrations.

Factors of variation

The transport capacities of the intestine change throughout the digestive tract
as well as with age. They are much lower in the large bowel than in the small
bowel; thus, the transport of methionine is high in the piglet colon at birth, but
becomes very low within a few days (James &Smith, 1976). The transport of amino
acids in the small intestine exists before birth in rabbits (Deren et al., 1965;
Guandilini & Rubino, 1982) and guinea pigs (Butt & Wilson, 1968) and before
hatching in chickens (Pratt & Temer, 1971). In these three species, its efficiency
increases until the postnatal period. It decreases 2 or 3 days after birth and then

15
reach the adult level; this has been confirmed in the rat (Fitzgerald et al., 1971).
There are interspecific differences in the range of changes and amino acids
involved. As the catalytic constant K t is not modified during this evolution of
transport with age (Austic, 1985), it may be assumed that it is the number and not
the type of transport systems which changes with time, but there are exceptions
(Penzes &Boross, 1974)

2.2. Transport of peptides

2.2.1. Transport in the enterocyte

It was long considered that the free amino acids constituted the only form of
appearance of protein digestion products in the portal vein (Van Slyke & Meyer,
1972). And yet, it was shown that the amounts of free amino acids appearing in the
portal blood were often much lower than those disappearing from the intestinal
lumen (Dawson & Porter, 1962). This difference was imputed to the metabolism in
the gut wall of a fraction of absorbed amino acids since the presence of small
peptides in the portal blood had not yet been demonstrated.

Demonstration of oligopeptide transport

Owing to technical improvements it has been shown in vitro and in vivo

(Newey.& Smyth, 1959, 1960) that the form of hydrolysis products entering the
enterocyte may be different from the form appearing in the serous part of the cell
or in the mesenteric blood. In other words, it was demonstrated that small peptides
could enter the intestinal cell without being previously hydrolysed and released in
the portal blood in the form of amino acids. Oligopeptides disappear more rapidly
from the intestinal lumen than mixtures of analogous free amino acids (Adibi &
Philipps, 1968; Matthews et al., 1968). Besides, humans suffering from subtotal
incapacities for the absorption of basic free amino acids (cystinuria) or neutral
amino acids (Hartnup's disease) easily use mixtures of dipeptides containing these
amino acids (Asatoor et al., 1970; Hellier et al., 1972) The numerous studies made
on this topic have been reviewed (Matthews & Adibi, 1976; Adibi & Kim, 1981;
.Grimble et al., 1989). Hence, it is now generally admitted that peptides can be
absorbed more rapidly in the brush border than free amino acids and that because
of the presence of di and tripeptidases in the cytosol of the enterocyte, they are
released towards the portal vein in the form of free amino acids. However, it was
recently shown that in addition to the large quantities of amino acids appearing in
the portal blood, there are rather substantial and variable amounts of small
peptides which may be absorbed in the native form (Webb, 1986)
The specific transport of oligopeptides against a concentration gradient, owing to
a system which requires energy, has been evidenced both by the absence of
competition between peptides and free amino acids (Rubino et al., 1971) and by
obtaining the inhibition of brush border peptidases in vitro by hypoxia (Ugolev et
al., 1990; Smithson & Gray, 1977) or in vivo using various substances. By the latter
method it was shown that the small peptides disappear from the digestive lumen
without being hydrolysed, but apparently not the tetrapeptides (Adibi & Morse,
1977).

Biochemical factors of variation

The affinity of peptides for the transport system depends on their molecular
structure. Thus, the number of amino acids belonging to the structure of the
peptides play an important role. Hence, when the number of amino acids increases
from 2 to 3, the K t increases and the affinity of the peptide for the transport
system decreases which results in a limitation of the transport (Adibi et al., 1975).
The stereoisomeric form of each peptide represents another factor of variation of

16
peptide affinity towards its transport system. The absorption rate strongly
decreases when amino acids of the L-form are replaced by D-forms, the decrease
being less pronounced when there is only one amino acid of the D-form (Asatoor et
al., 1973). In fact, D and L enantiomorphs of the dipeptides use the same transport
system with a lower affinity for the D forms.
The lateral chain length constitutes a major factor liable to change the affinity of
the peptide for the transport system. An amino acid with a longer lateral chain
such as leucine provides the peptide with a higher affinity for the sites of
membrane absorption (Adibi & Soleimanpour, 1974). It seems that sometimes its
position, carboxy-terminal or amino-terminal, may have a different influence. Thus,
lysine is absorbed more rapidly when placed in the N terminal position in a
dipeptide with glycine than when it is placed in the C terminal position. The
opposite is observed when it forms a dipeptide with glutamic acid (Burston et al.,
1972).
Other characteristics may be involved. Thus, peptides containing basic or acid
amino acids have a lower affinity for the transport system than peptides containing
neutral amino acids (Addison et al., 1975).

A unique intestinal transport system for peptides

In contrast to amino acids, di- and tripeptides have only a single active
transport system. This system has a very high specificity since it is indifferent to
the electrical load of the lateral chain of the amino acids and accept all peptides
whether they contain neutral, basic or acid amino acids. Its activity can be
allosterically modified by the most hydrophobic peptides (Matthews & Burston,
1984; Rajendran et al., 1985). The peptides are competing for this common
transport system (Matthews et al., 1975; Taylor et al., 1980). Thus,
methionylmethionine is a potent inhibitor of carnosine absorption (Addison et al.,
1974) . In contrast, there may be stimulatory effects as in the case of
glutaminylglutamate for carnosine (Addison et al., 1974). In vivo, there is a slowing
down of peptide absorption in the presence of carbohydrates in the pig (Rerat et
al., 1990).

Driving force of peptide transport

Although opposite arguments have been supplied by some authors (Matthews et

al., 1979), the transport of peptides seems to be Na + independent (Ganapathy et al.,
1981). The driving force of peptide transport seems to be constituted of an
electrochemical proton gradient (Ganapathy & Leibach, 1985). It was thus shown
that the accumulation of peptides in the membrane vesicles of the brush border
took place in the presence of an H + gradient (Takuwa et al., 1985; Ganapathy et al.,
1987).
In addition to the active transport responsible for the absorption of peptides by
the enterocyte against a concentration gradient, there is a simple difffusion system
which is little involved at low concentrations, but which plays a major role at high
concentrations.

Topographical and physiological variations

In the rat, the transport of peptides is generally more marked in the jejunum
than in the ileum (Crampton et al., 1973). In the rabbit, (Guandilini & Rubino, 1982)
the rate of uptake (glycylproline) increases from mid-gestation, culminates at birth
and then decreases until the adult level.

17
 2.2.2. Transport of peptides in the portal blood

Determination of peptides in the blood

Most peptides are hydrolysed by cytosol peptidases in the enterocyte while some
of them are not broken down but released as native petides into the mesenteric
vein. This was long ignored because of technical failures in the assessment of
peptides in the blood. Folin and Berglund (1922) were the first to make such
assumptions; they showed that there was a large increase in the concentration of
non protein, non urea, non amino nitrogen in the blood of humans fed with gelatine.
The results of Dent and Schilling (1949) on the basis of jugular and portal plasma
concentrations of peptides after the meal in the dog showed in agreement with
Christensen (1949) that at least a fraction of proteins was absorbed as peptides.
The appearance of dipeptides in the blood plasma during digestion has been clearly
evidenced in particular cases such as that of an artificial dipeptide, glycyl-glycine
(Adibi, 1971), peptides resistant to hydrolysis by dipeptidases as those which
contain hydroxyproline and which are present in gelatine (Prockop et al., 1962) or
carnosine and anserine, present in chicken breast proteins (Perry et a l , 1967). The
appearance of peptides on the serous side of the intestine has also been shown in
vitro during perfusion of intestinal loops isolated by means of enzyme proteolysates
(Gardner et al., 1982). In vivo it was claimed in the hamster that the proportion of
amino nitrogen appearing in the portal blood in the form of peptides after ingestion
of a casein proteolysate ranged around 10% (Gardner, 1984), but no direct evidence
for this absorption has been supplied. In the calf, the size of the peptides appearing
in the portal vein has been estimated (Schlagheck & Webb, 1984) and their
proportion found to represent 70% of the amino nitrogen appearing in the portal
vein. In contrast, quantitative studies performed in vivo in the pig using enzyme
hydrolysates of milk proteins showed that the rate of appearance of amino acids in
the portal vein reached 100%; hence there was no possibility for the appearance of
native peptides in the portal blood and according to the analyses, no peptides were
found (Rerat et al., 1988a). These discrepancies clearly show the necessity of
developing well fitted techniques of analysis for determining the amounts of
peptides absorbed in the native form as well as their size and type and the
conditions which favour their absorption. In the present state of knowledge it is
: "impossible to estimate the range of peptide appearance in the portal blood. Such an
estimation would have interesting consequences for some types of physiologically
active peptides (Gardner, 1984).

Fate of peptides appearing in the portal blood

Which is the origin and which is the fate of these blood peptides ? They may
originate from the gut lumen, but they may also be degradation products of
intestinal protein metabolism. Peptides appearing in the blood cannot be
hydrolysed in the plasma because its hydrolase activity is low or inexistent, as
shown for glycylglycine and glycyl-leucine (Krzysik & Adibi, 1977). In contrast,
dipeptides are easily used by the tissues since after intravenous administration of
glycyl-leucine it rapidly disappeared from the blood plasma, but was not found in
the urine or in the intracellular spaces of various tissues (Adibi et al., 1977). The
tissues exhibit a marked hydrolase activity towards peptides whether they are
exogenous or originating from tissue protein degradation with a large proportion of
di- and tripeptides. Peptides are thus hydrolysed in the intracellular compartment
during a very rapid process so that the existence of an intracellular pool of
peptides has only been demonstrated by means of a specific peptidase inhibitor,
bestatine (Botbol & Scornick, 1983). Evidence for an intracellular hydrolysis of
exogenous peptides followed by the incorporation of their constitutive amino acids

18
into the tissue proteins has been obtained by a comparative injection of C glycine
or 1 4 C glycyl-glycine (Krzysik & Adibi, 1979) the labelling of tissue proteins being
generally the same in both cases.

2.3. Adaptation of the intestinal transport

The absorption of nutrients by the samll intestine varies according to a variety

of natural factors such as the physiological status (lactation, gestation) or diet
changes and according to experimental factors such as intestinal resection. The
events involved can be divided into two categories, either a rise of the non specific
overall absorption capacities, i.e. concerning all nutrients and related to an
increase in the absorptive surface area, or the induction or repression of specific
transport mechanisms, variable according to the availability of transported
substrate or their stock in the body.

Non specific adaptation

The most striking examples of non specific adaptation concern the intestinal
resection and the lactation status. Intestinal resection reduces the absorptive area
and causes a decrease in the time of passage of food through the digestive tract.
However, when the resection involved less than half the digestive tract, no
malabsorption phenomena were observed in the rat, dog or man (Young & Weser,
1974; Weser, 1979). This was also the case for pigs subjected to enterectomy of the
proximal or distal small intestine (Laplace, 1976). Hence, there was a compensatory
absorption in the remaining intestine, the mechanism of which has been studied
mainly in the pig, but also in the rat subjected to resection of the proximal small
bowel. The absorption per cm of intestine increased for all nutrients whether they
were amino acids and peptides (Garridio et al., 1978; Menge et al., 1981) or glucose
(Dowling and Booth, 1967). This resulted from an increase in the surface area per
cm of intestine due to an increment in the height of the villi and in the number of
enterocytes per villus (Menge et al., 1983), but without any increase in the capacity
of each enterocyte for the transport of amino acids. A similar adaptative
mechanism can be observed in lactating females whose feed intake increases in
large proportions during this period. In lactating rats, the digestibility of the diet
was thus maintained (Fell, 1972); glucose and amino acids were absorbed more
rapidly than in control animals (Cripps & Williams, 1975), proline exhibiting the
opposite trend (Datta & Sharma, 1985). Non specific adaptative phenomena of the
same kind can also be observed during other types of hyperphagia such as after
exposure to cold (Jacobs et al., 1975) or after destruction of the ventromedian
hypothalamic nuclei (Brobeck et al., 1943).

Specific adaptation

The specific adaptation concerns the change in the absorption of a single

nutrient subsequently to a change in the dietary supply of this nutrient, and this
may lead to a response in the same direction as the change in the supply or in the
opposite direction (Diamond & Karasov, 1987; Obata et al., 1989). Thus, the amino
acid absorption ability of the intestine increases both after adaptation to high and
low levels of protein intake (Christensen, 1984). A comparative study of the
intestinal absorptive capacities using everted intestinal rings after adaptation to
two diets, either rich in carbohydrates with a moderate casein content (15%) or
poor in carbohydrates and rich in casein (75%), showed that the uptake of proline
was much higher with 75% than with 15% proteins and the opposite occurred with
glucose (Karasov et al., 1983). For each substrate and each change in the dietary
regimen, the stimulation of the transport is completed in one day while its
inhibition requires several days . Thus, a diet switch causes an acceleration in the
uptake of a nutrient (proline) and a reduction in the uptake of another nutrient

19
(glucose) according to different schedules. Accordingly, the specific intestinal
transport systems undergo an induction or a repression caused by the level of
dietary substrates. Taking into account that the intestinal mucosa has a biological
half-life of 17-18 h, these changes can either be due to the induction of new
transporting molecules in existing cells or to the production of new cells rich in
these molecules. The influence of feeding on the transport of amino acids has been
widely demonstrated. In the rat, fasting or feed restriction stimulated the transport
of various amino acids (Lis et al., 1972; Hindmarsh et al., 1967) The incorporation of
high levels of proteins to the diet stimulated more or less the transport of amino
acids in the rat (Scharrer & Brugemann, 1971). Conversely, a low protein level
reduced the transport of some amino acids, but increased that of others (Wapnir &
Lifshitz, 1974). The transport of methionine increased after intake of methionine
rich diets (Lis et al., 1973) while the intake of an excessive amount of
phenylalanine brought about a decrease in the transport of aromatic amino acids
(Wapnir et al., 1972).
There are also examples of a hormonal regulation of the intestinal transport of
amino acids, involving prolactin, somatotropin and thyroid hormones (Alpers, 1987).

2.4. Nutritional consequences of specific transport systems in the intestine

Kinetics of appearance of free amino acids in the portal vein

According to present data, the systems of intestinal transport of peptides are

independent of those used by the free amino acids and hence it may be assumed
that the competition for the sites of transport is reduced and the absorption more
efficient. However, only few experiments have been carried out on this topic in
vivo. The criteria used were either the rate of disappearance of nitrogenous matters
from the intestinal lumen of perfused intestinal loops (Silk et al., 1982) or the level
of appearance of oc-amino nitrogen in the peripheral blood (Silk, 1976). The spatio-
temporal capacities for digestive compensation of the gastro-intestinal tract cannot
be expressed by such approaches. Moreover, the intensity of absorption is very
poorly perceived, the variations in the systemic blood being buffered by the uptake
of amino acids by the liver. These shortcomings are avoided by a method of in vivo
-measurement of the appearance of amino acids in the portal vein and their
metabolism in the intestinal wall and the hepatic tissue (Rerat, 1988). This method
was used in animals fitted with a permanent cannula in the duodenum and which
received duodenal infusions of solutions of small peptides obtained by mild
enzymatic hydrolysis of milk proteins or solutions of free amino acids of the same
composition (Rerat et al., 1985, 1988a). Under these conditions, the appearance of
amino acids in the portal blood occurred very early since 66 to 68% of the total
amounts absorbed within 5h were absorbed during the first 2h, whatever the type
of proteins supplied. During the 5h of observation, the quantities of total amino
acids absorbed were significantly higher after infusion of oligopeptides than after
infusion of free amino acids. (Absorption coefficient for 106g perfused: 101 vs 58%).
The change with time in the absorption of most of the individual amino acids
resembled that of their sum. Thus, the appearance of amino acids in the portal
blood was greater, more rapid and more homogeneous after duodenal infusion of a
solution of small peptides than after infusion of a solution of free amino acids,
irrespective of the amount of the perfusate. The coefficient of "absorption" of most
individual amino acids was higher after infusion of a solution of small peptides than
after infusion of a solution of free amino acids, irrespective of the time elapsed
after the infusion. However, there were some exceptions. Thus, methionine
exhibited a significantly higher absorption coefficient after infusion with free
amino acids and the absorption coefficients of isoleucine, aspartic acid + asparagine
and glutamic acid + glutamine were equivalent for the two types of infusions. Even
when absent from the infusâtes, some amino acids such as asparagine, ornithine

20
and citrulline appeared in rather large quantities after infusion of both types of
solutions.
Thus, the physico-chemical nature of the solution had a marked influence on the
hierarchy of absorption of individual amino acids.

Comparison with the disappearance of amino acids and peptides present in the
intestinal lumen

The data obtained, especially those concerning the appearance of individual

amino acids in the portal blood, may be compared to those derived from other
techniques by means of which the rate of disappearance from the digestive lumen
was measured by oro-duodeno-jejunal intubations in man (Nixon and Mawer, 1970)
or isolated intestinal Thiry-Vella loops in vivo in man (Orten, 1963) or isolated
loops in situ in the rat (Delhumeau et al., 1962). The hierarchy of appearance of
free amino acid mixtures in the portal blood was usually similar to that of their
disappearance from isolated loops. Among essential amino acids, methionine and
branched chain amino acids were absorbed most rapidly in both cases and lysine,
histidine and threonine more slowly. Among the non-essential amino acids, diacids
were the slowest to be absorbed. There are discrepancies between these data and
the rate of disappearance from the digestive lumen of some amino acids synthetized
in the gut wall (low for glycine and very low for alanine) and their very high rate of
appearance in the portal blood. However, it is generally admitted (Sepuldeva &
Smith, 1978, 1979) that hydrophilic neutral amino acids of low molecular weight are
conveyed less easily than hydrophobic amino acids of higher molecular weight, the
transport of basic amino acids being intermediate.
During nutrition with free amino acid solutions, this competition for absorption
sites may be responsible for a change in the composition of the amino acid mixtures
available to the body. However, these consequences of competition might be
reduced (Christensen, 1963) since absorption occurs throughout the digestive tract.
Hence, amino acids with a high affinity for the transport systems can be absorbed
in the proximal intestine and those with a lower affinity in the more distal part of
the small intestine where competition is no longer operative. Our results showed
that the mixture of ingested amino acids was partly modified during its transport
and this was more marked with non-essential than with essential amino acids. The
spatio-temporal compensation is therefore only partly involved in the reduction of
competition between amino acids when they are administered in the free form.
After peptide infusion, the hierarchy of absorption is greatly modified the
highest rate being that of aromatic and basic amino acids and the lowest one that
of methionine. The more rapid absorption of amino acids after duodenal infusion of
oligopeptides than after infusion of free amino acids and the modification of the
composition of the absorbed mixture may be explained by different competitive
processes linked to the existence of specific sites of transport for di- and
tripeptides in the intestinal wall (Matthews, 1972; Matthews and Adibi, 1976). This
hierarchy of amino acid absorption is similar to that found in man using duodeno-
jejunal intubations for determining the kinetics of disappearance of amino acids
from the intestinal lumen (Crampton et al., 1971; Silk et al., 1973), but these
authors used hydrolysates containing large amounts of free amino acids leading to
interferences with the absorption. The rate of disappearance from the intestinal
lumen increased with decreasing size of peptides (Silk et al., 1985). Hence, di- and
tripeptides were more rapidly absorbed than tetra- and pentapeptides (Rees et al.,
1987), the hydrolysis being thus considered as the limiting factor (Grimble et al.,
1987). It would be interesting to determine why the transport of methionine was
slowed down when complex partial hydrolysates were used. Indeed, during in vitro
experiments using methionine containing dipeptides, the transport of this amino
acid was facilitated as compared to that of free methionine (Crampton et al., 1973).
Is it the size of the methionine containing peptides or their lower affinity for the
sites of transport for which they compete with other small peptides which are

21
 responsible for this slowing down of the transport of methionine by the intestinal
wall when partial hydrolysates are used ? The improvement of present knowledge
of the size distribution of small peptides of hydrolysates by a more accurate
analysis of their amino acid content will contribute to answering such a question as
well as ^that concerning the possibility of more general types of competition
between small peptides and the existence of transport groups.

Nutritional consequences

What can we deduce from these competitions between amino acids and possibly
between small peptides under natural feeding conditions ? It is known that during
digestion of serum albumin proteins (Adibi and Mercer, 1973) hydrolysis of proteins
in the duodenum results in the appearance of large concentrations of small
peptides in the duodenum, 3 to 6 times higher than those of free amino acids. This
was also found in the ileum, but to a lesser extent. Moreover, it appeared that the
relative proportions of these two groups of nitrogenous substances varied mainly
with the protein ingested (Zebrowska, 1973). Because of the large number of factors
involved (proportions and composition of the mixture of free amino acids,
proportions of the mixture of small peptides, size and amino acid composition of
each of them, variable rate of absorption for each of the components of these
mixtures depending on their competition), the hierarchy of absorption cannot be
the same from one protein to another unless there are spatio-temporal
compensations. In fact, the hierarchy of disappearance of amino acids from the
digestive lumen throughout the small intestine was not the same for casein as for a
barley-soyabean based diet (Zebrowska, 1981); similarly, the hierarchy of amino
acids appearing in the portal vein varied from one protein to another (Rerat, 1988).
The consequences of this double transport system involving, on the one hand,
the amino acids and, on the other hand, the peptides are as follows:
- a very rapid disappearance of the proteins after meal intake. According to
Fisher (1954) a complete hydrolysis of proteins in vitro requires 36-155h and even
when using more modern methods for the dialysis of released products and a better
analogy between in vitro and in vivo digestion (Galibois et al., 1989), the time
needed for complete hydrolysis remains very long. It may therefore be assumed
that the very rapid absorption of protein digestion products is never preceded in
' vivo by a complete hydrolysis (Fisher, 1954).
- during genetic failures of certain amino acid transport systems (Hartnup's
disease) no consequences of protein malnutrition can be observed because of the
absorption of amino acids in the form of peptides in the enterocyte.
- in enteral nutrition, the kinetic advantage provided by the peptides is
obviously very interesting in the case of partial resections of the digestive tract
because the faster absorption of peptide solutions leads to a maximum utilisation
of the residual intestinal areas.
- in terms of metabolism, the utilisation of peptides in enteral nutrition may
prove to be interesting because the absorbed amino acid mixture is more
homogeneous and their rate of appearance higher in the portal blood. In pigs fitted
with permanent cannulas of the portal vein, carotid artery and hepatic vein as well
as with flowmeter probes around the portal vein and hepatic artery, it was possible
to establish hepatic and peripheral balances . Thus the profile and amount of the
amino acid mixture taken up by the liver and by the tissues after duodenal infusion
of small peptides was different from that observed after infusion of a mixture of
free amino acids of the same composition. The mixtures of amino acids retained by
the peripheral tissues was more imbalanced after infusion of free amino acids and
correlatively, the production of hepatic urea was higher (Rerat, 1988). The
biological value of these peptide mixtures was higher in the rat (Monchi et al., 1991)
than that of free aminoacid mixture.

22
3. Metabolism of amino acids in the enterocyte

During the postprandial period, a large flux of amino acids of luminal origin
reaches the enterocyte and decreases within a few hours in the absence of a new
meal; it is thereafter replaced by another flux from the blood. The amino acids
undergo various changes in the intestinal cell. They may either be metabolized or
incorporated into proteins or released as such into the portal blood. Their
metabolism involves the synthesis of non-essential amino acids, regulatory peptides
and pigments; they may also be catabolised by transamination ou deamination and
constitute a source of organic acids and energy. Their intracellular pool only
remains constant because of the balance between metabolism and de novo
synthesis of amino acids and between synthesis and degradation of intracellular
proteins.

3.1. Protein synthesis

The uptake of amino acids of luminal origin has been known for a long time.
Their in vitro incorporation into intramucosal proteins ranges around 10% (Bronk
et Parsons, 1966). They seemed to be more directly used for the synthesis of
intestinal proteins than amino acids derived from the blood. (Hirschfield et Kern,
1969). The latter seemed to be preferentially incorporated into crypt cell proteins
and the amino acids of luminal origin into the cells of the villi (Alpers, 1972). The
utilisation of amino acids of luminal origin for the synthesis of enterocyte proteins
was particularly evident during prolonged parenteral nutrition which caused a
mucosal atrophy (Levine et al., 19746) or after intestinal resections which only led
to a compensatory hyperplasia in the case of enteral nutrition (Levine et al.,
1974a).
In vivo, the importance of this uptake of amino acids of luminal origin is
illustrated by the difference between the total amounts of amino acids appearing in
the portal blood and the amounts ingested in pigs receiving large meals after a
previous fasting (Rerat, 1988). When digestion was finished, i.e. when the porto-
arterial differences disappeared, this difference represented 30 to 38% of the
amount of protein ingested in pigs fed large wheat or barley meals and even more
for carbohydrates. A very large fraction of ingested proteins was thus not
recovered as amino nitrogen in the efferent blood of the intestine. This absence
does not necessarily signify an uptake, but may be due to faecal excretion.
However, the difference between amounts disappearing from the proximal gut and
amounts ingested only represented 19 and 25%, respectively for wheat and barley.
The amounts of amino nitrogen disappearing from the digestive tract were thus 10
to 15 points higher than those appearing in the portal vein. Furthermore, as the
balance of the exchanges between arterial blood and intestinal lumen of the other
forms of nitrogen, urea and ammonia nitrogen, leads to a larger diffusion of urea
nitrogen towards the intestinal lumen than the corresponding appearance of
ammonia in the portal blood (Rerat & Buraczewska, 1986), the deficit of amino
nitrogen appearing in the portal vein relative to the amounts ingested can only be
explained by an uptake by the intestinal tissues.
The metabolism of proteins in the intestinal tissues is very active. These tissues
exhibit the highest fractionary synthesis rate in the body (Garlick, 1980), as
evidenced also by the rate of enzyme induction in the villi (Rosensweig et al., 1971)
and by the very high rate of endogenous amino nitrogen turnover (Alpers et Kinzic,
1973). Despite this synthesis the total protein content of the intestinal tissues and
that of the cells remain constant. An intense desquamation takes place throughout
the digestive tract which corresponds to protein losses in the intestinal lumen
compensated by the synthesis of new cells. A degradation of the proteins formed
may occur in the cells, mainly in the brush border enzymes (Kaufman et al., 1980).
There may also be a secretion of proteins towards the intestinal fluids. This
secretion mainly concerns some plasma proteins such as apolipoproteins Aj and

23
 Ajy (Glickman et Green, 1977; Magun et al., 1985 ; Hollanders et al., 1985 ; Green et
al., 1980) ;it is often highly stimulated by the ingestion of lipids. Other
apolipoproteins are very poorly secreted (Blaufuss et al., 1984). There are most
likely other proteins which are secreted into the circulating fluids but they have
not yet been evidenced apart from alkaline phosphatase (Young et al., 1981).

3.2. Amino acid metabolism.

Aminoacids of luminal origin

While it is rather easy to measure the appearance of amino acids in the portal
vein and a contrario to deduce the uptake of dietary nitrogen by the intestinal
tissues during late digestion, it is much more difficult to assess the final uptake of
luminal individual amino acids. This is due to their variable kinetics of absorption
and hence the end of the digestive processes cannot be accurately determined even
during long-lasting experiments. However, it is possible to deduce the magnitude of
intestinal metabolism in two situations: excess of amounts appearing in the portal
blood relative to amounts ingested and identification in the portal blood of amino
acids absent from the diet. In addition, it is also possible to measure the apparent
uptake of blood amino acids by the intestinal tissues on the basis of the
portoarterial differences which are negative during the post-prandial period when
the arterial concentration of the amino acid exceeds the portal concentration.
Measurement of intestinal blood input (arterial flux) and output (portal flux) of
amino acids after intestinal infusion of small peptides or amino acids of the same
composition clearly shows this variable metabolisation in the gut wall according to
the amino acid considered (Rerat, 1988) and the physico-chemical nature of the
infusate. This metabolisation is particularly evident for certain non-essential amino
acids such as alanine and to a lesser extent glycine exhibiting larger amounts in the
portal blood than the amounts infused. It is also evident for citrulline and ornithine
absent from the diet and appearing in rather large amounts in the portal vein.
These amounts widely exceed those of arterial origin taken up by the intestine. In
contrast, the very low rate of appearance of diacids and mainly glutamic acid in the
portal blood (11-23%) can only be explained by the involvment of this amino acid
in the reactions of deamination and transamination so that it partly disappears
. from the absorption balances (Neame &Wiseman, 1957, 1958 ; Pion et al., 1964)

Amino acids of arterial origin

A large apparent uptake of amino acids of arterial origin has also been observed.
It was higher after duodenal infusion of free amino acids than after infusion of
small peptides (Rerat, 1988). The differences in favour of the infusion of free amino
acids were significant for total amino acids (34g vs 25g/8h) and essential amino
acids ( l l g vs 6g/8h) ; they were particularly marked for lysine et branched-chain
amino acids whose uptake by the intestine was four times higher after infusion of
the solution of free amino acids. In both cases there was a large uptake of
glutamine, representing 40%of total non-essential amino acids and a smaller uptake
of glutamic acid and proline. This might be explained by the always higher
concentration of circulating free amino acids after duodenal infusion of the solution
of free amino acids than after that of small peptides; hence, they can then be used
in priority by the tissues with a high turnover rate such as the intestinal tissues. It
is noteworthy that the physico-chemical structure of the nitrogenous compounds
present in the small intestine influences the intestinal uptake of arterial origin and
its nature which is probably due to the changes it may cause in the kinetics of
appearance of amino acids in the portal blood.

24
 Glutamine metabolism in the enterocyte

The metabolism of glutamine in intestinal tissues has been widely studied during
the last twenty years (Windmueller, 1982). This amino acid is supplied to the
intestinal cell both via the arterial route and from the intestinal lumen. There is no
doubt about the arterial pathway. Thus, after administration of protein free diets
to pigs (Rerat et al., 1988c) glutamine represented 47% of the sum of amino acids
taken up from the arterial blood by the gut wall. Windmueller (1980) considers that
in most species and at each passage of blood in the intestine there is a net uptake
of 20% à 30% of total plasma glutamine. More than 80% of glutamine infused into
the mesenteric artery were immediately metabolised in the intestinal cells
(Windmueller et Spaeth, 1974). This uptake of glutamine by the intestinal cell is as
important as that of glucose, which is generally considered as the major source of
energy in the gut (Krebs, 1972), but it depends on the blood concentration
(Windmueller et Spaeth, 1974). Its utilisation seems to be lower in the ileum than
in the jejunum (Hanson et Parsons, 1977).
Blood glutamine enters the enterocyte through the basolateral membrane by
means of several transport systems (Mircheff et al., 1980), a sodium-independent,
saturable and stereospecific system (L) and two sodium-dependent systems (A et
ASC) ; these systems may transport a variety of neutral amino acids and are of
high affinity for glutamine.
Glutamine may also originate from the intestinal lumen from which it is very
rapidly absorbed, more rapidly than glutamate (Windmueller et Spaeth, 19J5, 1976).
It enters the enterocyte across the brush border by Na dependent and Na
independent systems (Saïd et al., 1989). The fraction appearing in the portal blood
increases with increasing luminal concentration. This is also the case for glutamate.
In contrast, asparagine which is also easily absorbed is absolutely not metabolised
in the rat gut cell because of the absence of asparaginase; this characteristic has
not been found in the dog (Pinkus et Windmueller, 1977) or guinea pig
(Friedhandler et Quastel, 1955).
The intestinal cell uses indifferently glutamine of both origins (Windmueller et
Spaeth, 1975). The presence of glutamine in the intestinal lumen depressed the rate
of utilisation of blood glutamine (20-40%) (Windmueller et Spaeth, 1975). In
addition, in the presence of luminal glutamine its metabolism exceeded by 70% that
of blood glutamine. The metabolism products of glutamine carbon chains are CO
(55%), lactate (8-14%), citrate (2-5%), citrulline (5%), proline (5%), alanine (4%) and
other amino acids such as aspartate. These products have been evidenced in vitro
(Windmueller et Spaeth, 1974) or in vivo (Windmueller et Spaeth, 1978). Their
distribution being the same in conventional and axenic rats, they do not originate
from the metabolism of the gut microflora. The major part of the carbon chain of
alanine is derived from glucose (Windmueller et Spaeth, 1974) and lactate
(Windmueller et Spaeth, 1978). Glutamine nitrogen was recovered quantitatively in
a variety of substances in the portal blood, especially ammonia (38%), citrulline
(28%) and alanine (24%), but also proline (7%) and some glutamate (2%) and
ornithine (1%) (Windmueller, 1980)
The reactions at the origin of these substances are initiated by the presence of
the corresponding enzymes. Thus, in most species the mucosa of the small intestine
contains a phosphate dependent glutaminase (Katunuma et al., 1973). This activity
was not modified by the presence of glutamine in the food, but it was reduced
during a 48-72h fasting (Anderson et al., 1976). There is almost no glutaminase
activity in the stomach and in the large intestine; the activity is located in the
mitochondria of the villi and the epithelial crypts of the small intestine mucosa
(Pinkus et Windmueller, 1977). It induces the deamination which is the initial
reaction of a series leading to the formation of the above-mentioned substances. A
very large fraction (80%) of amino nitrogen is transformed into ammonia and the
rest into carbamoylphosphate which combined with ornithine leads to citrulline
without any formation of urea or arginine (Windmueller et Spaeth, 1974).

25
 Glutamate derived from the deamidation of glutamine can be reduced into proline
or transaminated into ornithine ; by transamination with pyruvate a fraction of
this glutamate may generate alanine and oc-ketoglutarate. The enzymes catalysing
these reactions are all present in the intestinal cell (Windmueller, 1982).
Which is the importance of glutamine metabolism in the enterocyte relative to its
metabolism in the body ? In terms of nitrogen metabolism, glutamine generates
various nitrogenous substances (ammonia, alanine, citrulline and proline) which are
released into the portal blood and which may all constitute urea precursors (Lund
et Watford, 1976). In pigs receiving a protein-free diet, the uptake of blood
glutamine by the gastrointestinal tract represents about 5g/8h (Rerat et al., 1988c).
If we assume that the substances produced from this glutamine are completely
metabolised, the amount of urea synthesized within 8h may reach 2g (i.e. 6g/24h).
The quantity of nitrogen bound to urea from glutamine (3g/24h) can thus be
compared to current data of urinary nitrogen excretion obtained in pigs, i.e. 7 to
17g according to the dietary protein content (Rerat et Henry, 1964). It may be
concluded that the proportion of glutamine nitrogen in this excretion is potentially
high (18 à 43%). This confirms data obtained in fasting rats in which more than 30%
of the nitrogen used in ureogenesis originate from the terminal products of
intestinal glutamine metabolism (Windmueller et Spaeth, 1974). The ammonia
proceeding from the metabolism of glutamine represents about 20% of the portal
ammonia output in normally fed pigs (Rerat et Buraczewska, 1986 ; Rerat, 1988). In
fasting dogs, this proportion ranges around 50% (Weber et Veach, 1979). On the
other hand, the carbon chains of lactate, alanine et proline are available for
gluconeogenesis (Ross et al., 1967). Besides, citrulline can be at the origin of
arginine synthesis, mainly in the liver and kidney (Ratner, 1979). Arterial glutamine
represents a preferential source of energy for the intestinal cell, its metabolism
accounting for 38% of CO produced versus 39% for aspartate and glutamate and
only 6% for glucose (Windmueller et Spaeth, 1980). The role of glutaminolysis in the
enterocytes and in other cells with a high division rate has been analysed
(Newsholme et al., 1985).

Conclusions
A certain member of advances have been made during the last decade in our
' knowledge of protein digestion and absorption in monogastric animals.
These advances mainly concern :
- the enzymes involved in the terminal hydrolysis of proteins in the brush border
and cytoplasm of the enterocytes, their variations according to the physiological
status of the body and the analysis of their sequential action ;
- the transport systems of free amino acids and oligopeptides both in the brush
border membrane and in the basolateral membrane of the enterocyte. These new
data lead to interesting prospects concerning the use of mixtures of small peptides
in human enteral nutrition ;
- the very active metabolism of the enterocyte both in terms of lipoprotein
secretion to the blood and use of food and blood glutamine as metabolic "fuel" ;
- the hormonal regulations of some secretions such as the pancreatic
secretions.These regulations contribute to explaining, until the molecular level, the
adaptation of this secretion to the diet.
There are still many fields to be explored such as for instance :
- the adaptations of transport systems and their variations according to food
and the physiological status of the body ;
- the hormonal regulations of intestinal secretions ;
- the possible appearance of native peptides in the portal blood.
This is not an exhaustive enumeration, but a survey of present knowledge and
future prospects in the field of protein digestion and absorption.

26
 Translated into English by Kirsten Rerat, INRA, Unité Centrale de Documentation,
Centre de Recherches de Jouy-en-Josas
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34
THE DEVELOPMENT OF GASTRIC PROTEASES IN THE PRE-
AND POST-NATAL PIG. THE EFFECTS OF AGE AND ACTH
TREATMENT
P.T. Sangild1, B. Foltmann2 and P.D. Cranwell3
1
Department of Animal Science and Animal Health, Royal Veterinary and
Agricultural University, Rolighedsvej 23, 1958 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
2
Institute of Biochemical Genetics University of Copenhagen, 0ster Farimagsgade
2A, 1353 Copenhagen K, Denmark
3
School of Agriculture, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3083, Australia

Abstract
In this study we investigated the effects of age and treatment with adrenocorticotrophic hormone
(ACTH) on the concentration of protease zymogens (prochymosin, pepsinogen and progastricsin) in
stomach tissue and the pentagastrin-stimulated gastric secretion of protease activity (milk-clotting and
general proteolytic activity). Fifty-five Large White x Landrace pigs from 22 days before birth (93
days gestation) to 36 days of age were used in the experiments. Prochymosin was present in fundic
tissue 22 days before birth, reached peak concentrations at birth and decreased in concentration
during the subsequent 36 days. In the first week after birth pepsinogen and progastricsin/were absent
or present in trace amounts but thereafter the concentrations of both zymogens increased rapidly.
The age-related development of maximal pentagastrin-stimulated secretion of protease activity
reflected the changes of zymogen concentrations in fundic tissue. Chronic treatment of pigs with
ACTH from three days of age significantly increased the concentration of prochymosin in fundic
tissue at 9-11 days and the concentrations of pepsinogen and progastricsin at 34-36 days of age.

Keywords: Gastric proteases; zymogens; chymosin; pepsin; gastricsin; development; pentagastrin-

stimulation; ACTH treatment; Cortisol

Tntroduction
The gastric juice of most mammals contains three groups of proteases: pepsin
(EC 3.4.23.1), gastricsin (EC 3.4.23.3), and chymosin (EC 3.4.23.4). They are
synthesized in the gastric mucosa as zymogens (pepsinogen, progastricsin and
prochymosin) which are subsequently converted into active enzymes under acidic
conditions. The gastric proteases are all homologous, but the individual groups
show no immunochemical cross-reactivity (Foltmann, 1981). In adult pigs pepsin is
the predominant gastric protease but minor amounts of gastricsin are also found.
Chymosin has previously been regarded as characteristic for the gastric juice of
young ruminants, but it is now recognized that chymosin occurs in the gastric juice
of many newborn mammals including piglets (Foltmann et al. 1981). All the
enzymes have milk-clotting activity, but the general proteolytic activity of pig
chymosin is very small compared with that of pepsin or gastricsin. The aim of this
work was to study the ontogeny of pig gastric proteases.
Earlier studies in young pigs have indicated that creep feeding and subsequent
weaning on to solid food stimulated gastric secretory capacity of general
proteolytic activity (Cranwell, 1985). Studies with rats have shown that develop-
ment of gastric proteases can also be stimulated by hormones such as gluco-
corticoids (Ikezaki & Johnson, 1983;Yahav et al., 1986). We investigated protease
zymogens in the stomach of young pigs after increasing plasma Cortisol levels by
chronic ACTH treatment. The effect on the pentagastrin-stimulated secretory
capacity of milk-clotting and general proteolytic activity was also determined.

35
Materials and Methods
Fifty-five Large White x Landrace pigs, 0.4 to 13.5 kg body-weight from eight
litters were used. The pigs of two litters were obtained by caesarean section, one
litter at 93 days gestation (n=6) and the other at 105 days gestation (n=4). The
remaining six sows farrowed normally and the piglets (n=45) were reared entirely
by the sows; they had no access to solid food, no bedding was provided, and water
was available ad lib. Nine of the piglets underwent gastric perfusion experiments
at 0-1 or 5-7 days of age (Xu & Cranwell, 1990). The remaining 36 pigs were
divided into 18 litter-mate pairs. One pig from each pair was injected intra-
muscularly with ACTH (12.5 j^g/kg075) twice daily from 3 days of age. The other
pig of each pair (control) was injected with physiological saline. At 9-11, 16-18,23-
25 or 34-36 days of age littermate pairs underwent gastric perfusion experiments.
Following a basal period, protease secretion was stimulated by intravenous
infusion of pentagastrin during two consecutive 90 minute periods at dose rates of
4 and 8 /jg/kg/hour (Xu & Cranwell,'1990). After the perfusion experiments or
following caesarean section each pig was euthanased with sodium pentobarbitone.
The stomach was removed, emptied of any residual fluid, weighed and stored at
-20°C until analysed. Procedures used in the preparation of the stomach tissue and
gastric perfusate for analyses of enzymes, are described in detail by Sangild (1990).
The fundic region is the major site of synthesis of gastric protease zymogens in
the pig (Linderstr0m-Lang et al., 1934); therefore samples of fundic tissue were
used in this investigation. Zymogens in tissue extracts were characterized
qualitatively by agar gel electrophoresis and detection ofenzymes by milk clotting
(Foltmann et al., 1985). Antisera were raised in rabbits against active enzymes and
the concentrations of individual enzymes were determined by rocket immunoelec-
trophoresis after activation of the zymogens (Foltmann et al., 1981; Axelsson et
al., 1983). Milk-clotting activity and general proteolytic activity in gastric
perfusates were determined by radial diffusion techniques using bovine skim-milk
and bovine haemoglobin as the substrates respectively (Lawrence & Sanderson,
1969; Samloff & Kleinman, 1969). Crystalline porcine pepsin (Sigma) was used as
the standard in both assays. Units of activity were expressed as pepsin-equivalents;
one unit represented the activity of 1.0 jugof pepsin.

Results
Each injection of ACTH in the treated pigs raised plasma Cortisol levels 6-8
times above basal levels for 3-4 hours. Saline injection had no effect on plasma
Cortisol levels in control pigs. Treatment with ACTH had no significant effects on
body weights or stomach weights at specific ages.
Prochymosin was present in the fundic mucosa 22 days before birth and reached
peak concentrations (9 mg/g) immediately after birth (Figure 1). Although the
tissue concentration of prochymosin decreased with age there was still more than
2 mg/g fundic tissue at 36 days. Pepsinogen could not be quantitated in fundic
tissue until 5-7 days and progastricsin not until 9-11 days; concentrations of both
zymogens increased with age with pepsinogen being predominant. Chronic
administration of ACTH was generally associated with greater concentrations of
each zymogen in fundic tissue. However, the differences between treated and
control pigs were only significant at 9-11 days for prochymosin and 34-36 days for
pepsinogen and progastricsin. The ratio of the tissue concentrations of pepsin to
chymosin increased markedly from 9 to 36 days of age in both control pigs (0.1 to
2.8) and pigs treated with ACTH (0.1 to 5.9).

36
 12
*
10
en Prochymosin
|> 8 and
pepsinogen

6
O
<
o c 4
H
zLU
Ü
2
z
O
O 0
zLU
*
O 0.4 Progastriesin
A
o 0.3
> 0?
N A
0.1
0.0
•20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
AGE (days)

Figure 1. Concentration of zymogens (mean values) in fundic tissue from 22 days

before birth to 36 days of age in control and ACTH-treated pigs. # : Differences
between ACTH-treated and control pigs were significant (P<0.05). See text for
details of pigs and treatments. Prochymosin: In control pigs (—•—) and ACTH-
treated pigs (—D—). Pepsinogen: In control pigs (—#—) and ACTH-treated pigs
(—<>—)•Progastricsin: In control pigs (—A—) and ACTH-treated pigs (—A—).

The pentagastrin-stimulated secretion of milk-clotting and general proteolytic

activities (Figure 2) showed a development which reflected concentrations of the
relevant zymogens in fundic tissue (Figure 1). However, there were no significant
differences between ACTH-treated and control pigs in the secretion of either
activity.

37
 600r 150
Milk-clotting activity General proteolytic activity
O) 500 125
400 100
'S
CT 300
d> 75
I
£
c 200 50
Q.
'3<5D 100 25
O.

0-1 5-7 9-11 16-18 23-25 34-36 0-1 5-7 9-11 16-18 23-25 54-36
AGE (days) AGE (days)
Figure 2. Maximal gastric outputs per hour of milk-clotting and general proteolytic
activity per unit stomach weight in response to pentagastrin infusion at 4 and 8
fig/kg/h. See text for details of the pigs and treatments. Control pigs (•); ACTH-
treated pigs (D).
Discussion

In the present study the highest tissue concentrations of prochymosin were found
at or just around birth which agrees with the results of Foltmann et al. (1987). In
the earlier study by Foltmann et al. (1981), the peak in tissue prochymosin
concentration occurred during the 3 weeks before birth. The discrepancy between
this observation and that in the present study could .be due to inaccuracies
associated with the methods of estimating fetal age by Foltmann et al. (1981) or to
differences between pigs from different sources.
The physiological significance of chymosin being the predominant gastric
protease in the first week of life is probably related to several factors. Whereas
pepsin and gastricsin exert maximal general proteolytic activity at pH 2-3 chymosin
is fully active at pH 3-5. During the first week after birth the acid secretory
capacity is low (Sangild et al., 1989; Xu & Cranwell, 1990) and the synthesis of
prochymosin may therefore ensure that the stomach of the pig has a high milk-
clotting capacity in this period. The low general proteolytic activity of chymosin
could be of importance for the newborn pig to prevent detrimental hydrolysis of
immunoglobulins and other essential factors present in sow colostrum (Cranwell &
Moughan, 1989). Furthermore, the casein clot allows the whey fraction of sows'
milk, which includes the immunoglobulins, to pass rapidly to the small intestine
(Noakes, 1971) where they are either taken up by enterocytes or act locally.
Formation of a firm clot by chymosin would, in addition to regulating gastric
emptying (Decuypere et al, 1986), also result in a degree of gastric distension
which could be important to stimulate development of the stomach through
physical effects or via an increased gastrin release (Stadaas & Schrumpf, 1974).
Apart from the studies of Foltmann et al. (1981, 1987) investigations into the
development of gastric proteases in the young pig have relied on the measurement
of general proteolytic activity in gastric mucosa, gastric contents and gastric
secretions or measurements of the digestion of protein in the stomach (for a
review see Cranwell & Moughan, 1989). Such studies have shown that the
concentration of general proteolytic activity in gastric mucosa and gastric
secretion, and the degree of digestion of protein in the stomach are low in pigs up
to 3-4 weeks of age and then undergo a rapid increase. Thus, this reflects the
transition from chymosin to pepsin as the predominant gastric protease during the
first five weeks after birth (Figure 1).

38
 Twice daily injections of ACTH stimulated the release of Cortisol to levels which
were within physiological limits although the responses may have been slightly
higher than that produced by stressful conditions such as restricted feeding, cold
exposure or chasing (Baldwin & Stephens, 1973; Rafai & Fodor, 1980). Treatment
with ACTH stimulated the synthesis of the predominant zymogen of the gastric
mucosa i.e. prochymosin in early life and pepsinogen and progastricsin in late
development (Figure 1). Thus, the treatment seemed to increase the overall
synthesis of gastric zymogens and did not affect the timing of the ontogenic
changes from prochymosin to pepsinogen and progastricsin.
The secretory responses of milk-clotting activity and general proteolytic activity
in the ACTH-treated pigs were often greater than those in control pigs but at no
time were the age group means significantly different (Figure 2). There was a
large variation between pigs within treatments and age groups, particularly at the
two older ages. The extent of this variation was probably due, in part, to the
nature of enzyme secretion which occurred in short bursts rather than
continuously, as is the case for the pentagastrin-stimulated acid secretion (Sangild
et al, 1989; Xu & Cranwell, 1990). The enzyme secretory capacity was therefore
expressed as output per hour for the entire period of pentagastrin stimulation.
However, it is also possible that pentagastrin did not produce maximal stimulation
of either activities due to lack of gastrin receptors on the cells which produce the
various zymogens involved. There is considerable variation between species in the
occurrence of gastrin receptors on chief cells, i.e. the cells primarily responsible
for the synthesis and secretion of pepsinogen. Distinct receptors for gastrin and
CCK have been identified on chief cells from guinea pigs (Cherner et al., 1988)
but gastrin receptors have not been found on chief cells from dogs (Soil et al.,
1984). The authors are not aware of any published studies in which receptors to
the various regulatory peptides and other secretagogues have been identified on
porcine chief cells. As regards the ACTH-stimulated increase in zymogen synthesis
and secretory capacity the present data correspond to those obtained with young
rats injected with glucocorticoids (Ikezaki & Johnson, 1983; Yahav et al., 1986).
However, the precocious maturation of chief cells reported in rat studies was not
observed after treatment of young pigs with ACTH.
Earlier studies have indicated that stomach function in the young pig is
influenced by age, intake of solid food and weaning (for reviews see Cranwell &
Moughan, 1989; Sangild, 1990). In addition, the present results show that
hormones such as ACTH and Cortisol can stimulate the development of gastric
proteases. The importance of such effects on gastric digestion in young pigs
remains to be investigated.
References
Axelsson CK., N.H. Axelsen, P.B. Szeczi & B. Foltmann, 1983. Determination of
pepsin (EC 3.4.23.1) and gastricsin (EC 3.4.23.3) in gastric juice by rocket
immunoelectrophoresis. Clinica Chemica Acta 129:323-331.
Baldwin B.A. & D.B. Stephens, 1973. The effects of conditioned behaviour and
environmental factors on plasma corticosteroid levels in pigs. Physiology and
Behaviour 10:267-274.
Cherner J.A., V.E. Sutliff, D.M. Grybowski, R.T. Jensen & J.D. Gardner, 1988.
Functionally distinct receptors for cholecystokinin and gastrin on dispersed chief
cells from guinea pig stomach. American Journal of Physiology 254:G151-G155.
Cranwell P.D., 1985.The development of acid and pepsin (EC 3.4.23.1) secretory
capacity in the pig; the effects of age and weaning. 1. Studies in anaesthetized
pigs. British Journal of Nutrition 54:305-320.
39
r

Cranwell P.D. & P.J. Moughan, 1989. Biological limitations imposed by the
digestive system to the growth performance of weaned pigs. In: J.L. Barnett &
D.P. Hennessy (Ed.): Manipulation of Pig Production II. ..Australasian Pig
Science Association, Werribee, Victoria, Australia, p. 140-183.
Decuypere J.A., R.M. Dendooven & H.K. Henderickx, 1986. Stomach emptying of
milk diets in pigs. - A mathematical model allowing description and comparison
of the emptying pattern. Archives of Animal Nutrition 36:679-696.
Foltmann B., 1981. Gastric proteinases - structure, function, evolution and
mechanism of action. Essays in Biochemistry 17:52-84.
Foltmann B., P.D. Cranwell, M. Newport & G.L. Howarth, 1987. Ontogeny of pig
gastric proteases; observations on fetal, stillborn, unsuckled newborn, suckled
and growing pigs. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 46:26A.
Foltmann B., A.L. Jensen, P. L0nblad, E. Smidt & N.H. Axelsen, 1981.A develop-
mental analysis of the production of chymosin and pepsin in pigs. Comparative
Biochemistry and Physiology 68B:9-13.
Foltmann B., P.B. Szecsi & N.I. Tarasova, 1985. Detection of proteases by clotting
of casein after gel electrophoresis. Analytical Biochemistry 146:353-360.
Ikezaki M. & L.R. Johnson, 1983. Development of sensitivity to different secre-
tagogues in the rat stomach. American Journal of Physiology 244:G165-G170.
Lawrence R.C. & W.B. Sanderson, 1969. A micro-method for the quantitative
estimation of rennets and other proteolytic enzymes. Journal of Dairy Research
36:21-25.
Linderstr0m-Lang K., H. Holter & A.S. Ohlsen, 1934. Distribution of enzymes in
the gastric mucosa of pigs. Comptes Rendus Travaux du laboratoire Carlsberg
20:65-124.
Noakes D.E., 1971. Gastric function in the young pig. PhD Thesis. University of
London.
Rafai P. & E. Fodor, 1980. Studies on porcine adrenocortical function. Acta
Veterinaria Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 28:433-454.
Samloff I.M. & M.S. Kleinman, 1969. A radial diffusion assay for pepsinogen and
pepsin. Gastroenterology 56,30-34.
Sangild P.T., 1990. Development of gastric proteases in the young pig. The effects
of age, ACTH treatment and early weaning. PhD thesis. The Royal Veterinary
- and Agricultural University, Copenhagen, Denmark.
Sangild P.T., P.D. Cranwell & L. Hilsted, 1989. The effect of ACTH treatment on
gastric acid secretion and gastric regulatory petides in young pigs. Acta
Veterinaria Scandinavica (Supplement) 86:64-67.
Soll A.H., DA. Amirian, L.P. Thomas, T.J. Reedy & J.D. Elashoff, 1984. Gastrin
receptors on isolated canine parietal cells. Journal of Clinical Investigation
73:1434-1447.
Stadaas J. & E. Schrumpf, 1974. Intragastric pressure/volume relationship and
gastrin release after distension of separate parts of the stomach. Scandinavian
Journal of Gastroenterology 9:781-785.
Xu R.-J. & P.D. Cranwell, 1990. Development of gastric acid secretion from birth
to 36 days of age: The response to pentagastrin. Journal of Developmental
Physiology (in press).
Yahav J., P.C. Lee & E. Lebenthal, 1986. Ontogeny of pepsin secretory response
to secretagogues in isolated rat gastric glands. American Journal of Physiology
250:G200-G203.

40
EFFECTSOFMETHODOFFEEDINGANDMEALSIZEONTHE
POSTPRANDIAL GASTRINRESPONSEINPIGS
R-J. Xu*1 , P.D. Cranwell» and D.P. Hennessy**

*School of Agriculture, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3083, Australia

**Veterinary Research Institute, Attwood, 475-485 Mickleham Road, Attwood,
Victoria 3049, Australia

Abstract
In Experiment 1 the effects of two different feeding methods (group v.
individual) on the postprandial gastrin response were studied. Four groups of
pigs (n = 4-6; 13 weeks - 3.5 years) were used, the animals were either housed
and fed together or were housed and fed individually. In all pigs plasma
gastrin concentration increased significantly within 15 minutes of
commencement of feeding and remained elevated throughout the 3 hour
period. Pigs housed and fed together had postprandial gastrin responses
significantly greater than pigs housed and fed individually.
In Experiment 2 the effects of meal size on the postprandial gastrin response
were studied. Pigs (n = 8; 12-13 weeks) were either fed a set meal of 500g or
were allowed ad libitum access to feed for a period of 1 hour during which
time their mean intake was 829 ± 127g. Postprandial gastrin responses, similar
to those observed in Experiment 1, were observed for all pigs irrespective of
meal size. Maximal increases in plasma gastrin, and integrated postprandial
gastrin responses, were significantly greater following a 1 hour feeding period
than a 500g meal. Meal size has a significant positive effect on the postprandial
gastrin response in the pig.

Keywords: Gastrin response; feeding method; meal size; young pig; sow

Introduction
Gastrin has dual effects on the gastrointestinal tract in that it stimulates the
secretion of acid by the stomach and the proliferation of the mucosa in the
stomach and small intestine (Walsh & Grossman, 1975; Johnson, 1987). In
humans, following the introduction of amino acids or peptone solution into
the stomach, gastric acid output has been shown to be highly correlated with an
increase in serum gastrin concentration (Feldman et al. 1978; Lam et al. 1980).
Also, increases in circulating gastrin concentration in response to feeding have
been well documented (Walsh & Grossman, 1975),but little is known about the
magnitude of the increase under different feeding regimes. In humans and
pigs there is some evidence that meal size and the amount of protein ingested

1
Present address: Department of Physiology and Anatomy,Massey University, Palmerston
North, New Zealand.

41
influences the postprandial gastrin response (Blair et al'. 1975;Woussen-Colleet
al. 1977;Rerat et al. 1985). The aims of the present studies were to examine the
effects of feeding pigs either individually or in groups, and varying the amount
of food ingested on the postprandial plasma gastrin response.
Materials and Methods

Experiment 1

A total of 19Large White xLandrace pigs were divided into four groups as
follows: Group 1.4pregnant sows,3.5years old; Group 2.6pigs,34weeks old;
Group 3. 4 pigs, 24.5 weeks old; and Group 4. 5 pigs, 13 weeks old. Pigs in
Groups 1and 3were housed individually in pens measuring 1.5 m x 1.8 m, and
pigs inGroups 2and 4were kept astwo separategroups intwo pens measuring
2.5 m x 3m. Using procedures described by Xu (1989),each pig was prepared
with a chronic venous catheter placed in a marginal ear vein or in a femoral
vein one week prior to the experiment. Pigs were fed once daily with a
commercial pelleted ration containing 15% crude protein (Barastoc, Victoria,
Australia). The daily feed allowance was 4-5%of body-weight for the growing
pigs, and 3 kg for the pregnant sows. After an overnight fast all pigs received
their daily ration. Blood samples were taken at recorded intervals from 30
minutes before until 180minutes after the start of feeding.

Experiment 2

Eight Large White x Landrace pigs, 10-13 weeks old and 17to 26 kg body-
weight, were housed in individual pens and fed once daily with a commercial
ration containing 18% crude protein (Barastoc, Victoria, Australia) at 4-5%of
body weight. Approximately one week prior to the experiments each pig was
prepared with a chronic venous catheter placed in an external jugular vein
according to the procedure described by Cranwell & Hansky (1980).
Experiments were performed when thepigs were 12and 13weeks old. On two
separate days in each week, and following an 18-22 h fasting period, the pigs
weregiven either free accesstofood for onehour or a setmeal of 500g of food.
Blood samples were taken at recorded intervals from 30 minutes before until
180minutes after the start of feeding.
Plasma gastrin concentrations were measured by radioimmunoassay using
antiserum PRN 1651 (Amersham,U.K.). The antiserum recognizes the mid-to-
C-terminal region of G17 and has an equal cross-reactivity with both the G17
and G34 forms of human and porcine gastrin. The intra- and inter-assay
coefficients of variation were 6.1-8.6% and 11.9-14.1% respectively. Statistical
analyses were performed using paired and unpaired Students t-tests, and the
least significant difference (LSD)testdescribedbySteel&Torrie(1980).

42
Results
Experiment 1

Following an overnight fast, differences in basal plasma gastrin

concentrations between the different groups of pigs were not significant(Table
1). In all pigs, the plasma gastrin concentration increased significantly (P<0.05)
within 30 minutes after the start of feeding and remained elevated for the next
150 minutes (Figure 1).

Table 1. Basal concentrations, and maximal and integrated increases in plasma

gastrin in individually-fed and group-fed pigs (Mean±SEM).
Basal Maximal Integrated
Group Age Feeding concentration response* response*
No n regime (fmol/ml) (fmol/ml) (fmol/ml/min)
1 4 3.5 years Individual 22±2 16±la 9 + ia
2 6 34 weeks Group 17±1 29±6b 19±3b
3 4 24.5 weeks Individual 20 ± 1 17±4a 1Q+ Ia
4 5 13 weeks Group 17±2 33+6b 21+2a
# Peak concentration minus basal concentration.
*Mean integrated response of plasma gastrin above basal concentrations for a
period of 3 hours after the start of feeding. Means within a column with
different superscripts (a,b)weresignificantly different (P<0.05).

300

< cc 250
<z:
mai
ujg
200
°8
<Z
Uj cc
CO H
< co 150
LU <

g°
100
30 60 90 120 150 180
TIME AFTER FEEDING (min)

Figure 1. Mean percentage increase above basal plasma gastrin concentration

in four 24.5-week-old pigs (-fc) and four 3.5-year-old pregnant sows (*), which
were housed and fed individually, and in five 13-week-old (o) and six34week
old pigs (• ), which were housed and fed in groups. The basal concentration of
plasma gastrin was taken as100%.

43
rr
There was no apparent relationship between the age of animals and their
postprandial increase in plasma gastrin concentration. Howeyer, there was an
approximately two-fold difference in the postprandial gastrin response between
individually-fed pigs and group-fed pigs. Similarly, the integrated gastrin
responses were also significantly greater in the group-fed pigs than in the
individually-fed pigs (Table1).

Experiment 2

Feed intake during the one hour period in which pigs were given free access
to food (Table2) was positively correlated with body-weight at both 12 and 13
weeks (P<0.05;P<0.01 respectively).

Table 2. Meal size, and basal and postprandial increases in plasma gastrin
concentration in eight pigs at 12 and 13weeks of age (Mean ± SEM).

12 Weeks 13 Weeks
Set meal l h access Set meal l h access
Food consumed (g) 500 806± 144 500 850 ±109
Gastrin:
Basal (fmol/ml) 29± 1 30± 1 32±1 30+1
Maximal response* 11+ 2 * 1 8 ± 2 7+2 ** 22 ± 3
(fmol/ml)
Integrated response^ 5± 1 * 9± 1 2± 1 ** 13+ 3
(fmol/ml/min)
+ Peak concentration minus basal concentration, +.See Table 1.
Differences between treatments within weeks were significant (* P<0.05;
** P<0.01).

O 50
H
<
I—o

PO w*
* 'Q'
y-2-2--ç>....ç
O 30

CO O1-
f _l _i_ _i_ j

< -30 0 60 120 180 - 3 0 0 60 120 180

TIME AFTER THE START OF FEEDING(min)

Figure 2. Plasma gastrin concentration before and after commencement of
feeding in eight pigs at 12 weeks (A) and 13 weeks (B) of age (mean ± SEM).
Following an overnight fast, the pigs were allowed either access to food for one
hour ( • ) or a restricted meal of 500g (o).

44
 Ingestion of food following fasting evoked significant rises in plasma gastrin
concentrations in all pigs on both feeding regimes (Figure 2). However, when
pigs were given free access to food, the maximal and integrated gastrin
responses were significantly greater than when they were given a 500 g meal
(Figure 2;Table 2);the latter was usually consumed within a 30minute period.
Discussion

Although competition for food may be a contributory factor in causing the

greater postprandial gastrin response in group-fed pigs in Experiment 1, it is
probable that the size of the meal eaten during the period of blood sampling
was the major factor responsible for the difference between group- and
individually-fed pigs. All pigs were given a similar amount of food per unit
body-weight but it was observed that the group-fed pigs consumed their daily
food allowance within a period of about one hour's duration, whereas the
individually-fed pigs consumed their daily allowance in several meals over a
period of eight hours.
A direct positive relationship between meal size and the postprandial gastrin
response was demonstrated in Experiment 2 in which 12-13 week old pigs,
restricted to a 500 g meal, had significantly lower maximal and integrated
responses than when they were allowed ad libitum access to food for a 1hour
period and ate much larger quantities of food (829+127g). Although no other
evidence of the effect of meal size on the gastrin response in pigs could be
found in the literature, similar results have been reported by Woussen-Colle et
al. (1977) in humans in which the postprandial release of gastrin, measured as
the integrated gastrin response,was positively related to meal size.
The precise effect that meal size has on the postprandial gastrin response was
not determined in the present study. However, it could be related to the extent
of gastric distension since Stadaas &Schrumpf (1974) and Stadaas et al. (1974)
have reported that stepwise gastric distention causes progressive increases in
serum gastrin concentrations in pigs. The effects of meal size on the
postprandial gastrin response may also be related to the amount of certain
nutrients ingested. Rerat et al. (1985) observed that a positive relationship
existed between postprandial gastrin production and the amount of protein
ingested by pigs. Another factor related to the magnitude of the postprandial
gastrin response is the buffering capacity of ingested food. According to the
results of recent studies by Bolduan et al. (1988) the commercial pelleted rations
used in the present experiments would have considerable buffering capacity.
Antral gastrin release is inhibited at low gastric antral pH (Walsh &Grossman,
1975). Thus,by increasing the amount of food eaten the quantity of acid which
is buffered would be increased, the pH of gastric contents would remain
relatively high and this in turn would prolong the stimulation of antral gastrin
secretion.
The results of the present study have demonstrated that feeding regime, i.e.
the pattern of food intake and the amount of food ingested during ameal,has a
marked influence on gastrin secretion and thus on gastric digestive function.
Further studies to determine more precisely how such factors as meal size,
buffering capacity of the diet, type and amount of protein, and other

45
r^

components of the diet influence gastrin secretion, subsequent gastric function

and the action of other gut hormones and regulatory peptides should provide
information useful for designing optimum feeding strategies for growing pigs.

References
Blair, E.J., J.R. Greenwell, E.R. Grund, J.D. Reed & D.J. Sanders, 1975. Gastrin
response to meals of different composition in normal subjects. Gut 16:766-
773.
Bolduan, G., H. Jung, E. Schnabel & R. Schneider, 1988. Recent advances in the
nutrition of weaner piglets. Pig News and Information 9:381-385.
Cranwell, P.D. & J. Hansky, 1980. Serum gastrin in newborn, sucking and
weaned pigs. Research in Veterinary Science 29:85-88.
Feldman, M., J.H. Walsh, H.C. Wong & C.T. Richardson, 1978. Role of gastrin
heptadecapeptide in the acid secretory response to amino acids in man.
Journal of Clinical Investigation 61:308-313
Johnson, L.R. (1987) Regulation of gastrointestinal growth. In: L.R. Johnson
(Ed.) Physiology of the Gastrointestinal Tract, Vol. 1. 2nd edition, Raven
Press,New York. p.301-333.
Lam, S.K., J.I. Isenberg, M.I. Grossman, W.H. Lane & J.H. Walsh, 1980. Gastric
acid secretion is abnormally sensitive to endogenous gastrin released after
peptone test meals in duodenal ulcer patients. Journal of Clinical
Investigation 65:555-562.
Rerat, A., J.A. Chayvialle, J. Kande, P. Vaissade, P. Vaugelade & T. Bourrier,
1985. Metabolic and hormonal effects of test meals with various protein
contents in pigs. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 63:1547-
1559.
Stadaas, J. & E. Schrumpf, 1974. Intragastric pressure/volume relationship and
gastrin release after distention of separate parts of the stomach.
Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology 9:781-785.
Stadaas, J., E. Schrumpf & J.F.W. Haffner, 1974. The effect of gastric distention
on gastric motility and serum gastrin in acutely vagotomized pigs.
Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology 9:127-131.
Steel, R.G.D. & J.H. Torrie, 1980. Principles and procedures of statistics. 2nd
edition. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Walsh, J.H. & M.I. Grossman, 1975. Gastrin. New England Journal of Medicine
292:1324-1332,1377-1384.
Woussen-Colle, M.C., G. Willems, & J.D. Graef, 1977. Relationship of the
gastrin response to the amount of food ingested in normal subjects.
Digestion 15:322-328.
Xu, R-J. (1989). Studies on the physiology of gastrin in the young pig. Ph.D.
Thesis, La Trobe University.

46
DOES PANCREATIC POLYPEPTIDE AFFECT GALLBLADDER
FUNCTION IN THE PIG?
Annik LANGLOIS1, Catherine JUSTE 1
, Tristan CORRING1, Catherine
PHILIPPE', Jean-claude CUBER , Jean-Alain CHAYVIALLE2
2

1
Laboratoire d'Ecologie et Physiologie du Système Digestif, I.N.R.A.,
Jouy-en-Josas, 2 INSERM, Hôpital E. Herriot, Lyon, France

Abstract
PP was shown to inhibit bile acid secretion in the pig. The present
study aimed to determine if gallbladder function was affected by PP.
Pigs were fitted with biliary and duodenal fistulae and a catheter
was placed in a jugular vein for peptide infusion. Following a 8-day
recovery period , infusion studies were performed after an overnight
fast. Then, gallbladder was removed and experiments were repeated.
PP did not affect basal biliary secretion either before or after
cholecystectomy. On the contrary bile acid output stimulated by
secretin and cholecystokinin was significantly inhibited by PP while
bile flow rate was not affected. The magnitude of the decreases in
bile acid output was in the same extent before and after
cholecystectomy but in cholecystectomized pigs, inhibition of bile
acid ouptut was delayed. It is concluded that PP did not affect
mainly the gallbladder function.
Key words: biliary secretion, gastrointestinal peptide.
Introduction
The present study was undertaken to determine in the pig the
effects of porcine pancreatic polypeptide (PP) upon basal and
stimulated biliary secretion in the same animals before and after
cholecystectomy.
Materials and Methods
Ten growing castrated male Large White pigs, weighing 40.6 + 1.6 kg
were fitted with biliary and duodenal fistulae. Bile was automatically
restituted to the animals and continuously sampled for analysis on
experimental days. Furthermore, a catheter was placed in a jugular
vein for peptide infusion. Following a 8-day recovery period, infusion
studies were performed after an overnight fast. Then gallbladder was
removed and experiments were repeated in the same pigs.
In a first assay, we determined in 5 pigs the effect of a
physiological dose of PP (LANGLOIS et al., 1990) on basal biliary flow
and bile acid secretion. Isotonic saline solution containing 0.5% of
porcine serum albumin was infused throughout the assay. 40 min
after the start of infusion, 600 pmoles/kg/h of PP was infused for 60
min. Then NaCl infusion was continued for one hour more.
A second assay was performed to determine the effect of PP on
stimulated biliary secretion in 8 pigs. Biliary secretion was stimulated
by physiological doses of secretin (36 pmoles/kg/h) and of CCK-8 (600
pmoles/kg/h) (LANGLOIS et al., 1990) throughout the assay. 40 min
47
 after the start of the infusion, 600 pmoles/kg/h of PP were infused
for 60 min. Secretin plus CCK-8 infusion was continued for 1 h after
PP infusion was stopped.
4% of the secreted bile were continuously removed and pooled as
10-min aliquots. In all bile samples, total bile acids were
enzymatically determined.
Results and discussion
Before and after cholecystectomy, basal bile flow rate, bile acid
concentration and output were quite similar and were not affected
by intravenous PP infusion. In spite of a decrease in gallbladder
pressure, ADRIAN et al (1982) found same results in bile flow during
intravenous infusion of physiological doses of PP.

-
f S•C ' S • C <• P ï

h' n
| 100.

i 80.

40.

-1— —1
120 160

ao
Minutes

Fig.1. Kinetics of bile flow rate, bile acid concentration and bile acid
output during intravenous infusion of 36 pmoles/kg/h of secretin and
600 pmoles/kg/h of CCK-8 (S+C) and during concomitant infusion of
600 pmoles/kg/h of porcine PP (S+C+P) in 8 pigs before (• •)
and after (• • ) cholecystectomy. P<0.05 relative to the 0-10
48
min period of secretin plus CCK-8 infusion. P<0.05 relative to the
30-40 min period of secretin plus CCK-8 infusion before the start of
PP infusion.

Secretin plus CCK-8 infusion induced significant rise in bile acid

secretion both before and after cholecystectomy, but after
gallbladder removal this increase was delayed (Fig.1). Before
cholecystectomy PP infusion decreased bile acid concentration and
output without affecting bile flow, and bile acid secretion remained
dramatically reduced 60 min after the end of PP infusion (Fig.1) as
previously shown (LANGLOIS et al., 1990). PP also inhibited bile acid
concentration and output without affecting bile flow after
cholecystectomy but these falls were retarded when compared to
intact animals (Fig.1). But, cholecystectomy never caused any
significant difference. At the end of the study, the magnitude of bile
acid concentration and output decreases was in the same extent
before and after gallbladder removal. So, PP does not appear to act
only at gallbladder level in pigs. Until now, experiments were not
conducted to determine the effect of PP on hepatic bile acid secretion
or on intestinal bile acid absorption. However, specific PP receptors
are present on basolateral membrane of the canine small intestine
suggesting that PP participates in the regulation of nutrient
absorption (GILBERT et al., 1988). Thus, it will be interesting to
evaluate the effect of intravenous PP infusion on intestinal
absorption of bile acid.
In conclusion, PP had no effect on basal biliary secretion but
significantly inhibited stimulated bile acid secretion without affecting
bile flow rate, both before and after cholecystectomy. It can be
suggested that PP actively participates to postprandial regulation of
biliary secretion in the pig and that it does not act mainly at the
level of gallbladder. In fact, gallbladder has a minor role in bile
delivery into the duodenum in this animal species (data not shown).
References
ADRIAN T.E., MITCHENERE P., SAGOR G., BLOOM S.R.,1982.
Effect of pancreatic polypeptide on gallbladder pressure
and hepatic bile secretion. Am. J. Physiol., 6: G204-G207.
GILBERT W.R., FRANK B.H., GAVIN J.R., GINGERICH R.L.,
1988. Characterization of specific pancreatic polypeptide
receptors on basolateral membrane of the canine
small intestine, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sei. U.S.A., 85: 4745
-4749.
LANGLOIS A., CORRING T., LEVENEZ F., CUBER J.C., CHAYVIALLE
J.A.,1990. Effects of pancreatic polypeptide on biliary
flow and bile acid secretion stimulated by secretin and
cholecystokinin in the conscious pig. Regul. Pept., 27:
139-147.

49
P I G ILEAL DIGESTIBILITY ASSOCIATED WITH
ANTTNUTRinONAL FACTORS AND PROTEIN QUALITY IN
PHASEOLUS BEANS AND SOYABEANS
A.F.B. van der Poel1, B.Kemp 1 , E.R. Wähle1and D.J. van Zuilichem2

1
Department of Animal Nutrition, Agricultural University,
Haagsteeg 4, 6708 PM Wageningen, The Netherlands.
2
Department of Food Technology, section Process Engeneering,
Bomenweg 2, 6703 HD Wageningen, The Netherlands

Abstract

Feeding of Phaseolus beans, steam processed at high temperature (HT; -136 °C) for a
short time (ST; 1.5min) to piglets caused a large increase in the ileal digestibility of nitrogen.
The positive effect of this HTST treatment is not likely to be attributed to differences in the
residual levels of lectin proteins and trypsin inhibitors present in heat processed beans. These
factors were virtually eliminated with the used processing conditions. The increase in in vivo
digestibility, therefore, may be attributed to qualitative changes in the properties of the bean
storage proteins after heating. In contrast to Phaseolus beans, the ileal digestibility of protein
from soyabeans was shown to beless temperature dependant. The processing time at a certain
temperature obviously is an important variable to control an optimal ileal digestibility of
soyabean protein.
The effects of the different processing methods on the utilization of lysine and other
amino acids from heated beans in metabolism, remain to be investigated.

Introduction
Animal feed manufacturing involves the use of a variety of raw materials to produce
completediets.Thesedietsaredefined according tonutritional and technological specifications
to meet the requirements of several animal species. Some raw materials, for example certain
legume seeds, can satisfy these specifications only after some form of processing.
The genus Phaseolus vulgaris includes allspecies of legume seeds normally known as common
beans. The protein nutritional value of most bean-type designations of these beans (Kidney,
Great Northern, Navy etc.) is limited in a number of aspects compared with animal proteins
(Sgarbieri &Whitaker, 1982).Thisisalsothe casefor theprotein nutritional valueof soyabeans
(Glycine max)The presenceof toxicproteinsandother so-called antinutritional factors (ANF)
may influence the protein utilization of these beans. These factors are mainly associated with
lectins, protease inhibitors and in some varieties also with polyphenols. In additions to ANF,
the Phaseolus bean protein itself is somewhat resistant to enzymatic attack (Liener and
Thompson, 1980;Van der Poel, 1990) and/or antinutritional properties (Santoro et al.. 1989).

50
The upgrading of beans by processing is largely based on thermal treatments which are
effective to decrease the level of lectins (Antunes & Sgarbieri, 1980) and the activity of
protease inhibitors (Rackis et al.. 1986). The possible change in susceptibility of the bean
proteins itself to proteolysis after heat treatment and the subsequent impact on ileal in vivo
protein digestion, however, has not yet been clarified (Van der Poel, 1990).
The results presented here estimate the magnitude of different steam treatment procedures for
whole Phaseolus beans and soyabeans. Analytical aspects of bean proteins and ANF from
Phaseolus have been reported previously (Van der Poel et al.. 1990).The effects of inclusion
of steam treated beans in diets for piglets on the ileal digestibility of protein were evaluated.

Materials and Methods

Steam processing was carried out using a laboratory-scale pressurized toaster provided
with an inlet and adischarge sluiceasdescribed by Vander Poel&Van Zuilichem (1991).This
type of equipment enables high temperature/short term (HTST) processing in addition to low
temperature/ long term (LTLT) treatments. After steaming to the desired pressure
(temperature), batches of beans were metered in the inlet sluice.This sluice wasoperated at a
feed rate providing a single layer of beans on the belt conveyor. The batch was held for
different residence times under specific heating conditions with maximum temperature
tolerances of 0.5°C being attained. Beans were processed in a randomized order. After steam
processing all samples were immediately air-dried (35°C for 24 hours) prior to milling
(stepwise: 6 and 1mm, resp.), storage (4°C).
Twoinvivo experiments were carried outwith castrated malepigletsfitted with apost-
valvular T-caecum (PVTC) cannula (Van Leeuwen et al.. 1988). Ileal digestibility was
determined using 5 animals per treatment with an average weight of 21.5 ± 1.2 kg (Phaseolus
trial) and 30.0 ± 1.7kg (soyabean trial).
The experiments comprised a 100%control diet as well as experimental diets in which
20% of the control diet was replaced by beans, steam processed at different conditions of
intensity.Thecontroldiet wasformulated tosupply dietaryprotein bycaseinand herring meal.
The Phaseolus beans and soyabeans used in the experiment were steam heated with processing
conditions shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Processing temperature and duration (min) for steam treatments 1

Pressure (temperature)

100 kPa(102 °C) 300 kPa(119 °C) 400 kPa2

10 20 40 60 80 2 5 7 1.5

Phaseolus beans * * * * * *

Soyabeans * * * * * *

1
Laboratory-scale toaster 2(135°C)

51
r -

Alldiets were pelleted without steam addition and weresupplied at afeeding level of 2.6 times
the energy requirement for maintenance.
The animals were accustomed to the experimental diets for 11days. Ileal chyme was collected
in plastic pouches 12 h a day and for 5 days following the adaptation period. Apparent ileal
digestibility coefficients were calculated with reference to chromic oxide (Cr 2 O s ) as the
indigestible marker.

Results

The average values for apparent digestibility of Phaseolus beans are presented in Figure 1.

10CH A ANitrogen
A ANitrogen

75

50
ÇJ1

25-

—i I 1 1— --V-
102 102 102 102 119 136 Temperature (°C)
20 40 60 80 5 1.5 Heating time (min)

Figure 1. Apparent ileal digestibility of protein from steam processed common beans
(Van der Poel et al.. 1991; Livest. Prod. Sei.. In Press)

The apparent ilealdigestibility coefficients of dry matter and nitrogen from Phaseolus
beans showed large differences between the diets at 20% inclusion level. Steaming of beans
showed consistent differences (P<0.05) for the digestibility values with respect to the
temperature/time pattern of heating. Heating at 102°C or at 119°C did affect the diet ileal
digestibility of dry matter and nitrogen significantly (P<0.05) as compared to the control diet.
For soyabeans data on the apparent ileal digestibility of dry matter, nitrogen and ether
extract for piglets in relation with processing conditions are given in Figure 2.

52
 o - Ether extract
• - Nitrogen
" - Dry matter
100

.S> 5 0
XI

-A/- 120
102
10
102
20
102
40 2
120
7.5
-v- 140
1.5
Temperature (°C)
Time (min)

Figure 2. Apparent ilealdigestibilityof drymatter, nitrogen andether extractfrom steam

processed soyabeans ,

The steaming of whole soyabeans at 102 °C and 120 °C for longer processing times
clearly increases the apparent digestibility of nutrients under investigation. Obviously, the
highest ileal digestibility values obtained for dry matter, nitrogen and ether extract are similar
withineach temperature treatment.Thus,noclearadvantagewasobservedfor HTSTprocessing
in view of in vivo digestibility.

Discussion
A comparison was made of beans, heat processed at different temperatures and
processing times.The heat processed beans had previously shown to inactivate lectins (ELISA)
and TIA to a similar low level (Van der Poel et al.. 1990). Processing times, while ensuring
more or less complete destruction of heat sensitive lectins and TIA may result in nutritional
damage (Bender, 1984).It was shown that short processing e.g. at 119°C, needed to inactivate
~95% of lectins resulted in a relatively small decrease in in vitro lysine availability.
HTSTsteaming proceduresof beansdid restoreilealdigestibility of nitrogen and lysine
in beans diets tothe levelof the control group.These results lead to the conclusion that the low
level of both lectins and TIA in beans, after steam processing at different conditions, cannot
be a significant cause for the relatively large differences in ileal digestibility found for these
beans. Presumably, changes in the storage protein (Glycoprotein II; Phaseoline) with HTST
processing contribute to higher digestibility values.This effect isnot observed for steaming at
102°Cwhich can be explained by the presumably higher temperature needed for denaturation
of the storage protein at the relatively low moisture levels used at steaming.
For soyabeans, however, the results show that the inactivation of ANF (particularly TIA) is
rather complete under different temperature/time relationships of steam heating, all of them
which to ensure similar values for ileal digestibility for dry matter, protein and ether extract

53
 in piglets of 30 kg of age. In the case that different temperature/time regimes establish
similarity for bean quality in relation with ileal digestibility values, HTST treatments are in
favour in view of higher throughputs of the steam processing equipment.
Inconclusionitissuggested toemployHTST-procedures rather than LTLT-procedures
for steaming of both Phaseolus beans and soyabeans, based on the kinetics for ANF
inactivation. The former conditions will increase the in vivo protein digestibility of Phaseolus
beans as determined in pig experiments. The effect of processing on the bioavailability of
amino acids, lysine in particular, requires further investigation.

References
Antunes, P.L. & V.C. Sgarbieri, 1980. Effect of heat treatment on the toxicity and nutritive
value of dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris var. Rosinha G2) proteins.J. Agric. Food Chem.,
28, 935-938.

Bender, A.E., 1984.Protein quality.Determination and usefulness. Proc.M.O.C.C.A.,vol II: 83-

90.

Liener, I.E. &Thompson, R.M., 1980.In vitro and in vivo studies on the digestibuility of the
major storage proteins of the Navy bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). Qual.Plant. Plant Food
Hum. Nutr., 30, 13-25.

Rackis, J.J., W.J. Wolf & E.C. Baker, 1986. Protease inhibitors in plant foods: content and
inactivation. In:Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology Series. M. Friedman
(Ed), Plenum Press, New York, pp. 299-347.

Santoro, L.G., Grant, G and Pusztai, A., 1989.Degradation of Glycoprotein II(Phaseolin) the
major storage protein of Phaseolus vulgaris seeds. In: Recent Advances of Research on
Antinutritional Factors inLegume Seeds (J.Huisman, A.F.B, van der Poel,I.E. Liener,
Eds), PUDOC, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 363-367.

Sgarbieri, V.C. & J.R. Whittaker, 1982. Physical, chemical and nutritional properties of
common bean proteins. Adv. Food Res., 28:93-166.
*
Van Leeuwen, P.,J.Huisman, M.W.A.Verstegen, M.J.Baak, D.J. van Kleef, E.J. van Weerden
& L.A. den Hartog, 1988.
A new technique for collection of ileal chyme in pigs. Proceedings of the 4th
International Seminar onDigestive Physiology in the Pig, Jablonna, Poland, 289-296.

Van der Poel,A.F.B., 1990.Effects of processing onantinutritional factors (ANF)and protein

nutritional value of dry beans(PhaseolusvulgarisL.).Areview. Anim. Feed Sei. Tech.,
2 9 , 3 - 4 : 179-208.

Van der Poel, A.F.B., J. Blonk, D.J. van Zuilichem & M.G. van Oort, 1990. Thermal
inactivation of lectins and trypsin inhibitor activity during steam processing of dry
beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and effects on protein quality. J. Sei. Food Agric, 53,
215-228.

Van der Poel, A.F.B. & D.J. van Zuilichem, 1991. A small-scale pressurized toaster for
upgrading grain legumes and oilseeds. Int. J. Food Sei. Techn., submitted for
publication.

54
STIMULATORYEFFECTOFDIETARYCHANGESATWEANING
ON THE EXOCRINE PANCREAS IN DEVELOPING PIGS
B.R.Weström,S.G.Pierzynowski,J.Svendsen&B.W.Karlsson

DepartmentofAnimalPhysiology,UniversityofLund,Helgonavägen 3B,S-
22362Lund,Sweden.

Abstract
Tostudytherelationshipbetweenthetimeforabruptweaningandthe
inductionofmaturationofthepancreasfunction,SwedishLandracepigs
weresurgicallypreparedwithchroniccatheterspermittingsamplingof
pancreaticjuiceandbloodonconsciousanimalsduringtheirpostnatal
developmentuptoandafterweaning.
Thedataobtainedshowthattheincreaseinpancreassecretionduring
postnataldevelopmentisindependentofageatweaning (4or6weeks)
butratherappearstoberelatedtothedietarychangefromsowmilk
(thepigletswerenotcreep-fed)todrysolidfood.Otherfactors,e.g.
lossofregulatingfactorsinmilkand"stress"factorsreleasedat
weaning,mayinfluencethechangesinpancreasfunction. '
Keywords:Exocrinepancreas,amylase,trypsin,lipase,postnatal
development,weaning.

Introduction
Inthepostnatalpigmarkedincreasesintheenzymecontentsof
pancreatichomogenatesandinintestinalcontentshavebeenreportedto
occur,aswellasqualitativechangesinenzymaticcomposition (Corring
etal.,1978;Owsleyetal.,1986;Weströmetal., 1987).The
observationswererecentlyextendedinstudiesonpurepancreaticjuice
obtainedfrompigletsinacuteexperiments (Haradaetal.,1988)and
frompigswithchronicpancreasductcatheters (Pierzynowskietal.,
1990).Inthelatterstudymarkedquantitativeandqualitativechanges
intheexocrinepancreasfunctionwasnotedafter4-5weeksofage,
i.e.,atthetimeforweaning.Moreover,theingestionofsowmilkhad
littleeffectonthepancreassecretion,whileingestionofsolidfood
afterweaninghadamarkedpost-prandialstimulatingeffect.Sincethe
studywasperformedunderstandardmanagementalconditionsandthe
pigletshadaccesstocreepfedfromthe2ndweekoflifeitwas
impossibletodetermineiftheobserveddevelopmentalchangesin
pancreaticfunctionwasduetoageordietarychanges.
Thepresentinvestigationwasundertakentostudytheeffectofabrupt
weaning,ateither4or6weeksofage,onthedevelopmentofthe
exocrinepancreasinpigsonlynursedbytheirsowuptoweaning.

Materials and Methods

EightpurebredSwedishLandracepigletswerefittedatanageof14-15
dayswithpancreaticcathetersandduodenalfistulaeforperiodic
externalsamplingofpancreaticjuice,andajugularveincatheterfor
bloodsamplingaccordingtothemethoddescribedbyPierzynowskietal.
(1988).Ineachof2litters4pigswereoperatedandreturnedtotheir
sow, usuallywithin12h,togetherwith4unoperatedlittermates.The

55
pigletswerenurseduptoweaningateither4or6weeksandnocreep
feedingwasgiven.Afterweaning,thepigswerehousedinseparatecages
withvisualcontactwitheachother,andwereofferedadryweaningfood
âd.Ü b (Växfor,Lantmännen,Stockholm,Sweden).
Beginning2daysaftersurgery,pancreatic juicewascollectedtwicea
weekbeforeandafterfoodingestion.Startingforthenursingpigs1h
afterremovalfromthesowandfortheweanedpigsafterovernight
fasting,'basal'secretionwascollectedduring4x15minperiods.The
pigswerethenfedduring30min;thenursingpigsobtainedsowmilkby
suckingtheirsowsandtheweanedpigsweregivenastandardmealof
10gVaxfor/kgb.wt.Thenanadditional4x15minpostprandial
collectionsweremade.Thevolumeofthepancreatic juicefromeach
collectionwasdeterminedandsampleswerestoredat-20°Cand
analysed.

Analysis
Thepancreatic juicesampleswereanalysedfortotalproteincontent
usingamicro-adaptationoftheLowrymethod.Trypsin (EC.4.4.21.4)
activitywasdeterminedafterenterokinaseactivationusingNa-benzoyl-
DL-arginine-p-nitroanilideassubstrate,whereoneunit (U)wasdefined
astheamountofenzymewhichhydrolyses1Hmolsubstratepermin
(Pierzynowskietal., 1990).Amylase (EC.3.2.1.1)activitywasanalysed
accordingtoCeska&Birath (1969)usingthePhadebasAmylasereagent
(Pharmacia,Uppsala,Sweden).Lipase (EC.3.1.1.3)activitywas
determinedbyapH-stattitrationmethodusingtributyrinassubstrate
(Erlanson-Albertssonetal.,1987)andexpressedasnmolesfattyacids
releasedperminandml.

Results
AsshowninTable1,thebasalpancreatic juiceoutflowaswellasthe
outputoftotalproteinandlipasewereconstantduringthewhole
experimentalperiod,whilethebasaloutputofamylaseandtrypsin
activityslightlyincreasedafterweaning.
Forthenursingpiglets (preweaned),noresponsetofeedingwas
obtained,sincethepostprandiallevelswereequaltothebasallevels
forallparametersstudied.However,afterweaninginpigletsweanedat
either4or6weeks,asignificantincreaseinallparameterswere
obtainedafterfeedingsolidfood.

Discussion
Thedataobtainedinthepresentstudyusingchronicallycatheterised
pigsconfirmedpreviousobservationsandshowed,inaddition,that
abruptweaningcantriggermaturationofthesecretorycapacityofthe
pancreas,independentlyofweaningat4or6weeksofage.
Somedifferencesinthedevelopmentoftheindividualenzymescouldbe
noted,sinceanincreasedbasalsecretionafterweaningwasobserved
onlyfortrypsinandamylase,whilethebasallevelsremainedunchanged
forlipase.Inaddition,thetrypsin/proteinandamylase/proteinratios
increasedinthepancreatic juiceafterweaning,whereasthe
lipase/proteinratiowasstableduringthewholeperiodstudied.The
observedgeneralincreaseinenzymesecretionandtheproportional
increaseoftrypsinandamylaseproductionindicatedthattherewasboth
anincreaseinthenumberofacinarcellsinthepancreasperkgbody
weightwithdevelopmentandaspecialisationofthecellswithahigher
geneexpressionforsomeenzymeswithage.Thesechangesofthe

56
Table 1. Levels (mean+SD,n= 8)ofpancreatic juice outflow (ml/kg/h),
output of totalprotein (mg/kg/h), trypsin,amylase and lipase (U/kg/h),
during 1hbefore feeding (basal)and 1h after feeding sowmilk before
weaning or solid food after weaning (post-prandial) in chronically
catheterized pigs.

A: weaning at 4w.

Age 3-4 w 5-6 w 7-8 w

(preweaned) (weaned) (weaned)

Volume basal 1.3 + 0.6 1.4 ± 0.5 1.4 ± 0.1

postpr. 1.0 ± 0.5a 3.2 ± 1.7 b * 3.5 + 1.0 b *

Protein basal 3.9 ± 3.7 3.4 ± 1.7 5.4 ± 2.4

postpr. 3.8 ± 2.3 a 12.7+ 8.4 b * 31.0± 6.2C*

Trypsin basal 0.6 + 0.6a 1.5 ± 1.4 b 2.9 ± 1.6 b

postpr. 0.7 ± 0.5a 5.4 ± 4.1 b * 18.1+ 5.5 C *

Amylase basal 90± 110 a 250± 250 b 340± 320 b

a
postpr. 60+ 40 670± 560 * b
2300± 1800 c *

Lipase basal 280± 120 480± 370 380+ 340

postpr. 320+ 170 a

1100± 670 * b
2800 + 2300 b*

B: weaning at 6w.

Age 3-4 w 5-6 w 7-8 w

(preweaned) (preweaned) (weaned)

Volume basal 0.9 ± 0.5 1.2 ± 0.7 1.4 + 0.7

postpr. 1.0 ± 0.7a 0.9 + 0.6a 2.9 ± 1.8 b *

Protein basal 3.1 ± 2.8 2.7 ± 2.0 4.4 ± 3.6

postpr. 3.5 ± 3.2 a 3.3 ± 2.7 a 14.1± 7.1 b *

Trypsin basal 0.5 ± 0.6a 0.7 + 0.6a 2.0 ± 2.0 b

postpr. 0.6 ± 0.7 a
0.8 + 0.7 a
5.8 + 4.1 b *

Amylase basal 50± 70 a 40± 30 a 390+ 230 b

postpr. 50± 70 a 50+ 50 a 1100+ 530 b *

Lipase basal 320± 330 400± 330 700± 440

postpr. 340± 320 a 580+ 670 a 2100 ± 1500 b *

Statistically significant differences were evaluated between basal and

postprandial values (vertical)usingpaired Student's t-test, where
*p< 0.05, andbetween age groups (horizontal) with Student's t-test,
where different letter superscripts indicate differences at thep < 0.05
levelsbetween theparameters.

57
pancreaticfunctionduringpostnataldevelopmentcanbeexplainedas
adaptationofthepancreastoadietofsolidfoodcontaining2-3times
moreproteinandcarbohydratesthanfatascomparedtosowmilk.
Theincreasedpancreasfunctioninthepigletappearstobeindependent
ofage (4or6weeks),butrathertobedependentonthedietarychange
fromsowmilktodrysolidfoodatweaning.Severalpossibilitiesfor
themechanismsofinductionofpancreasmaturationatweaningcanbe
suggested.Firstly,changesingastro-intestinalhormonalreleaseasa
responsetothedietarychangemightfunctionastriggeringfactors.
ResultsobtainedbyKorcetal. (1981)andWickeretal. (1984)support
this,sincefoodcomponentswereshowntoselectively stimulatethe
productionofhormonesaffectingtranscriptionalprocessesintheacinar
cells,e.g.,ahighcarbohydratedietincreasestheinsulinlevelsthat
influencethepancreaticamylase.Secondly,thepresenceofmilk
componentsormilkdigestiveproductsintheintestinesmaydelaythe
maturation;theirdisappearanceatweaningcouldbeconsideredasthe
factorinitiatingthedevelopmentoftheexocrinepancreas.Thirdly,
abruptweaningwithasurgeof"stress"hormonescouldplayaroleas
initiatingfactors.Glucocorticoidsprovokedmaturationofexocrine
pancreasfunctionaswellasotherGItractfunctionsinboththerat
(Henning,1987)andinthepig (Chappieetal.1989).However,
preliminaryresultsonbloodserumCortisollevelsinthedeveloping
pigletshowedthattheydecreasedatweaning,afactwhichwouldargue
againstthelatterhypothesis.
Inconclusion,ourresultssuggestthatthedevelopmentofthe
pancreasfunctioninpigsdependedonthedietarychangefromsowmilk
todrysolidfoodatweaningratherthanonage,sinceweaningateither
4or6weeksofagegavethesameresults.Moregenerally,these
developmentalchangesappeartoberelatedtoprofounddietarychanges,
sinceithasbeenshownthatnursingpigletsreachpancreaticmaturation
concomitantwiththestartofingestionofsignificantamountsofcreep
feed (Corringetal., 1978).

Acknowledgements:FinancialsupportwasprovidedbytheDirectorA.
PâhlssonsFoundationandtheSwedishCouncilforForestryand
AgriculturalResearch.

References
Ceska,M.&K.Birath,1969.Anewrapidmethodfortheclinical
determinationofalpha-amylaseactivitiesinhumanserumandurine.
Optimalconditions.Clin.Chim.Acta26:437-444
Chappie,R.P.,J.A.Cuaron&R.A.Easter,1989.Temporalchangesin
carbohydratedigestivecapacityandgrowthrateofpigletsinresponse
toglucocorticoidadministrationandweaningage.J.Anim.Sei.
67:2985-2995.
Corring,T.,A.Aumaitre,&G.Durand,1978.Developmentofdigestive
enzymesinthepigletfrombirthto8weeks.Nutr.Metab.,22:231-234.
Erlanson-Albertsson,C,A.LarssonSR.-D.Duan,1987.Secretionof
pancreatic lipaseandcolipasefromratpancreas.Pancreas2:531-535.
Harada,E.,H.Kiriyama,E.Kobayashi&H.Tsuchita,1988.Postnatal
developmentofbiliaryandpancreaticexocrinesecretioninpiglets.
Comp.Biochem.Physiol.91A:43-51.
Henning,S.J., 1987.Functionaldevelopmentofthegastrointestinal
tract.In:JohnsonL.R.,ed.PhysiologyoftheGastrointestinalTract.
NewYork:RavenPress,pp.285-300.

58
!

Koro,M.,D.Owerbach,C.QuintoSW.J.Rutter,1981.Pancreaticislet-
acinarcellinteraction:AmylaseMessengerRNAlevelsaredetermined
byinsulin.Science213:351-353.
OwsleyW.F.,D.R.Orr&L.F.Tribble,1986.Effectsofageanddieton
thedevelopmentofthepancreasandthesynthesisandsecretionof
pancreaticenzymesintheyoungpig.J.Anim.Sei.63:497-504.
PierzynowskiS.G.,B.R.Weström,B.W.Karlsson,J.Svendsen&B.
Nilsson,1988.Pancreaticcannulationofyoungpigsforlongtermstudy
ofexocrinepancreatic function.Can.J.Anim.Sei.68:953-959.
PierzynowskiS.G.,B.W.Weström,J.SvendsenandB.W.Karlson,1990.
Developmentofexocrinepancreasfunctioninchronicallycanulated
pigsduring1-13weeksofpostnatallife.J.Pediatr.Gastroenterol.
Nutr.10:206-212.
WeströmB.R.,B.OhlssonSB.W.Karlsson,1987.Developmentofporcine
pancreatichydrolasesandtheirisoenzymesfromthefetalperiodto
adulthood.Pancreas2:589-596.
WickerC , A.Puigserver,G.Scheele,1984.Dietaryregulationoflevels
ofactivemRNAcodingforamylaseandserineproteasezymogensinthe
ratpancreas.Eur.J.Biochem.139:381-387.

59
EFFECTS OF PEA ANFS AND PEA CARBOHYDRATES ON
ILEALPROTEINDIGESTIBILITY OFPIGLETS
J. Huisman 'andM.PLeGuen;
1)TNO-InstituteofAnimal NutritionandPhysiology (IGMB-Dept. ILOB),
POBox15, 6700AAWageningen,The Netherlands.
2)EURETEC GIE, 12,Avenue George V, 75008Paris,France.

Abstract
A studywasmadetoinvestigatewhether the lowapparent ileal protein
digestibilityofrawpeasisrelatedtoantinutritional factors (ANFs;
mainly trypsin inhibitors andlectins)ortocarbohydratesortoboth
fractions.Tostudy this the following preparations were made from a
spring and from a winter pea variety (FINALE and FRIJAUNE,
respectively):
1.pea protein isolate from which the ANFs andcarbohydrates were
removed;
2.pea ANF-concentrate containing high levelsoftrypsin inhibitorsand
lectins;
3.fraction consisting exclusivelyofpeacarbohydrates.
Apparent ileal digestibilityofthese threefractionswas measured in
experiments with young piglets. In the first experiment pea
carbohydrates were included in diets differing in protein sources:
casein + fish or protein isolate from FINALE peasorprotein isolate
from FRIJAUNE peas.Therewasnoreduction in apparent ileal protein
digestibility due to the addition of pea carbohydrates.Thesmall
intestinal chyme flow, however,was increased when pea carbohydrates
were included inthediets.
Inthe second experiment, ANF concentrate (consisting mainly of
trypsin inhibitorsandlectins)wasincluded inadiet withpeaprotein
isolate from FINALE.Asignificant reduction inapparent ileal protein
digestibility andweight gainwas found.

Introduction
Reduction ofperformanceinpigletsfedahigh levelofPisum sativum
in dietshasbeen reportedbyvarious authors (Castaing and Grosjean,
1985; Fekete et a].., 1984;Benqala-Freireetal.. 1989;Grosjeanand
Castaing, 1983;Grosjeanetal., 1986;GrosjeanandGatel, 1986, 1989).
In previous studies it was shown that the apparent ileal protein
digestibility of pea protein isolate (from which ANFs and the
carbohydrates were removed)wasdistinctly higher thaninrawpeas. The
aim of the present investigation was to study whether ANFs or
carbohydrates are responsible for these marked differencesinileal
protein digestibility.Therefore, the following fractionswere prepared:
pea protein fraction containing lowlevelsofANFsandnocarbohydrates,
a pea ANF-concentrate containing high levelsoftrypsin inhibitors and
lectins,andafraction consistingofamixtureofsolubleandinsoluble
pea carbohydrates.Thesefractionswere used inexperimentswith piglets
to study which factor is responsible for thedifferences inileal
protein digestibility between rawpeaandpea protein isolate.

60
 Two ileal digestibilityexperimentswith pigletswere carried out.In
thefirstexperiment peacarbohydrateswere included indiets differing
inprotein sources.Theaimwasto investigatewhether pea carbohydrates
doaffect ileal protein digestibilityand totestwhether there is an
interaction betweeneffectsofthecarbohydratesandtheproteinsource.
Inthe second experiment,anANF-concentratewas added to a diet with
pea protein isolatefrom FINALE astheprotein source.Theobjectivewas
to test whether pea ANFs affect the apparent ileal protein
digestibility.

MaterialsandMethods

a Preparation of pea protein isolate, ANF concentrate and the

carbohydrate fraction.
The pea protein isolatewasprepared at INRA-Nantes (France)according
toGuëguen (1983). Thecarbohydrate concentrates consisted of a mixture
of the insoluble carbohydrates fraction produced during the isolate
process and the soluble carbohydrates prepared by50°6L aqueousethanol
extraction (temperature 70 °C)oftherawpeafour intheratio/3/l v/w,
themixture being then spray-dried.Thequantities ofthetwo components
of the mixture were chosen to give about the sameproportionsof
insoluble/soluble carbohydrates as inraw peas.

Table 1.Chemical composition (%) ofthepeaprotein isolates andANF-

concentrate.

Nutrient FINALE FRIJAUNE ANFCONCENTRATE 4)

Drymatter 96.5 95.9 96.0
Ash 2.3 2.8 4.0
Crude protein 89.5 88.3 61.9
Crudefat 8.0 8.0 n.d.
TIA 1) 0.6 1.6 49.1
Lectins 2) 1394 1604 101944
Tannins 3) <0.1 <0.1 <0.1
1)TIA: mg inhibited trypsin pergproductmeasured according toVan
Oortet al. (1989)
2)ELISA |xg/gproduct
3)% catechins, measured with the vanillin sulphuric acid method
according toKuhla and Ebemeier (1981).
4)MixofANF concentrates fromthe varieties FINALE and FRIJAUNE
n.d.= not determined.

61
Table 2.Chemical composition (%) ofthepea carbohydrate..(insolubleand
soluble)fractions.

FINALE FRIJAUNE
Drymatter 96.6 96.8
Crudeash 1.8 1.3
Crude protein 4.6 2.5
Crudefibre 8.0 11.4
Saccharose 2.5 1.0
Raffinose 0.2 0.1
Stachyose 1.2 0.8
Lectins 1) 6.3 8.5
TIA 2) 0.2 0.3
Tannins 3) <0.1 <0.1
1)ELISA:(iglectins/gproduct
2)TIA:mg inhibited trypsin pergproduct
3)% catechins,measuredwith thevanillin sulphuric acidmethod.
bDiets and treatment groups.
Inexperiment 1, thefollowing experimental groupswere formed:
I :protein source: casein and fish; carbohydrate source: mix of
cornstarch +dextrose
II :protein source: casein and fish; carbohydrate source: mix of
cornstarch +dextrose +pea carbohydrates
III: protein source:peaprotein isolate FINALE; carbohydrate source:
mixof cornstarch +dextrose
IV :protein source:pea protein isolate FINALE; carbohydrate source:
mixof cornstarch +dextrose +pea carbohydrates
V :protein source:pea protein isolateFRIJAUNE;carbohydrate source:
mix ofcornstarch +dextrose
VI :protein source:pea protein isolateFRIJAUNE;carbohydrate source:
mix ofcornstarch +dextrose +peacarbohydrates.
The carbohydrate composition oftestdiets II,IVand VIwasmade up as
close as possible tothecarbohydrate composition intherawpea diets
used inpreviousstudies.
In experiment 2, twodietswereformulated;acontrol dietwith low
levelsof trypsin inhibitors and lectins,and a test diet with high
levels of theseANFs. Theprotein source inboth dietswas pea protein
isolatefrom FINALE,which had a lowANF activity.A high level of ANFs
in the test dietwas obtained bythe inclusionofANF concentrate.The
carbohydrate sources inthedietswere cornmaize starch and dextrose.
The diets in both experimentswere balanced for contentsofprotein,
amino acids,energy andminerals.
The diets of both experimentswere pelletedwithout steam atabout
50°C.The pellet sizewas 3mm.

62
cAnimals and experimental procedure.
Thepiglets inboth experimentswere of the crossbred Dutch Landracex
Dutch Yorkshire. They arrived atthe Institute at an age of4weeks.
Theirmean liveweight on arrival was approximately 8 kg in both
experiments. After an adaptation period of 6days, the piglets were
surgically fitted with apost-valve Tcannula (PVTC) according to van
Leeuwen et al. (1988). After surgery, the pigletswere allowed to
recover from surgery and adapt to theexperimental diets for 19 days.
Following this period, the ileal chymewas collected on8 consecutive
days, 12hours per day, inexperiment 1,and during 5consecutive days,
also 12 hours per day, in experiment 2. The collection period in
experiment 2was shorter than that of experiment 1,because the amount
of ANF concentrate available was limited.The chymewas collected in
plastic bags attached tothe cannula, and weighed every hour before
being immediately stored in afreezer (-20 °C).Before analysis,the
total collected chymewas pooled per animal, homogenized and sampled.
The age of the piglets during the ileal chyme collection period,was
about8 to 9weeks. Their mean liveweightwas about 15kg.
In both experiments, the piglets werefed restrictedly at 2.6 times
theirmaintenance energy requirement. Feed was administered twice daily.
Waterwas freely available from nipple drinkers. /
d Statistical analysis.
The results are given asmeanswith their standard deviations (Tables
3 and 4 ) . Analysis of variancewere carried out according to procedures
described by Steel and Torrie (1960). The differences between treatments
were analysed using the Student's t-test. The values in Table 3 were
analysed according to a two-way analysis of variance according to
Snedecor and Cochran (1967).

ResultsandDiscussion
Inclusion of pea carbohydrates in the diets did not affect the
apparent ileal protein digestibility (Table 3). Drymatter digestibility
of the test dietswith pea carbohydrates was significantly lower (P<.05)
compared with the control diets containing no pea carbohydrates.This
effectwas observed with each protein source (Table 3 ) .The results of
the dry matter digestibility indicate that the ileal digestibilityof
the pea carbohydrates is lower than that of cornstarch + dextrose. The
dry matter content of ileal chyme of the piglets fed the pea
carbohydrates,was lower (P<.05)compared with the piglets fed the diets
containing no pea carbohydrates (Table 3).The amounts of ileal chyme,
excreted by the piglets fed the three diets containing pea
carbohydrates, was higher (P<.05) than those fed the control diets
without pea carbohydrates.The increased chymeflowmay be related to
the fact that the pea carbohydrates were incompletely digested inthe
small intestine.

63
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64
Table 4. Apparent ileal Ndigestibility, and liveweight gain measured
inexperiment 2.

Diet Number IlealN Livewe ght gai

of digesti bility
animals
mean SD g/day SD
PPI diet 5 86.0a 2.3 277a 29
PPI diet + 5 78.9b 2.8 229b 25
ANF concentrate
PPI= Pea protein isolate.
Meanswith superscripts thatdonot have acommon letter in the same
column,differ significantly (P<0.05)
As aresult,more osmotic active components will be present in the
chyme. The osmotically active carbohydrates inthe chymewill cause an
inflowofwater intothe intestinal lumen inorder to maintain osmotic
equilibrium between blood and lumen content.The results of Table 4
clearly demonstrate, thatwith the addition of the pea ANF-concentrate
containing high levels oftrypsin inhibitors and lectins to diets, the
ileal protein digestibility isreduced.As could be expected with a
lower ileal protein digestibility, the dailyweight gain inthe piglets
was significantly lower (17%)with the dietenriched with ANFs (Table
4). Summarizing theresults, itcan be concluded thatANFs are related
tothe lowapparent ileal protein digestibilitywith raw peas and pea
carbohydrates arenot.

References
Bengala-Freire, J.P.,Hulin,J.C., Peiniau,J. and Aumaitre,A. (1989).
Effet de la cuisson-extrusion du pois de printemps sur la
digestibilité des aliments de sevrage précoce du porcelet et
conséquences sur lesperformances jusqu'à l'abattage. Journées de la
Recherche Porcine en France,21, 75-82.
Castaing,J. and Grosjean,F. (1985). Effet de forts pourcentages de
pois de printemps,dans desrégimes pour porcs charcutiers,àbase de
maïs ou d'orge eten complément detourteau decolza.Journées de la
Recherche Porcine en France,17,407-418.
Fekete,J., Castaing,J., Lavorel, 0. Leuillet, M. and Quemere, P.
(1984). Utilisation des pois protéagineux par leporcelet sevré.
Journées de laRecherche Porcine en France,16,393-400.
Grosjean, F. and Castaing, J. (1983). Recherche d'amélioration de la
valeur alimentaire du pois d'hiver pour leporc charcutier. Journées
de laRecherche Porcine en France,15,335-346.
Grosjean,F. and Gatel, F. (1986). Peas for Pigs. Pig News and
Information, 7,4 ,443-448.

65
Grosjean, F. and Gate!, F. (1989). Feeding valueof Pisum sativum for
pigs: -influence of technology, -influence of genotype (trypsin
inhibitor activity). In: Recent advances of research in
antinutritional factors in legume seeds.[J. Huisman,A.F.B, van der
Poel and I.E. Liener, editors]. PUDOC,Wageningen, The Netherlands.,
239-242.
Grosjean,F., Castaing, J. and Gatel, F. (1986). Utilisation comparée de
différentes variétés depoisetd'uneassociation pois deprintemps-
féverole par leporc charcutier.Journées de laRecherche Porcine en
France, 18,47-56.
Guéguen,J. (1983). Legume seeds protein extraction, processing and end
product characteristics. Qualitas Plantarum. Plant Food for Human
Nutrition,32,267-303
Hamer,R.J., van Oort,G. and deJager,M.A. (1990). A Functional Lectin
Immunoassay (FLIA).Analytical Biochemistry. Submitted.
Kuhla, S. and Ebmeier, C. (1981). Untersuchungen zumTanningehalt in
Ackerbohnen. Archiv für Tierernährung, 31,573-588.
Snedecor, G.W. and Cochran, W.G. (1967). Statistical methods,7th
edition, Iowa State University Press,ArnesIA.
Steel, R.G. and Torrie, J.H. (1960). Principles and procedures of
statistics:A biochemical approach (2nd Ed.). McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York.
Van Leeuwen,P., Huisman,J., Verstegen,M.W.A.,Baak,M.J., van Kleef,
D.J., van Weerden,E.J. and den Hartog,L.A. (1988). A new technique
for collection of ileal chyme in pigs. Proceedings of the 4th
International Seminar on Digestive Physiology inthe pig,Jablonna,
Poland,289-296.
Van Oort, M.G., Hamer, R.J. and Slager, E.A. (1989).The trypsin
inhibitor assay: Improvement of an existing method. In: Recent
advances of research in antinutritional factors in legumeseeds.
[J.Huisman,A.F.B, van der Poel and I.E. Liener, editors.). PUDOC,
Wageningen, The Netherlands,110-113.

66
SIMULTANEOUS HEPATIC AND GUT BALANCES OF AMINO
ACIDS IN THE PIG
C. SIMOESNUNES, I.GALIBOIS",A.RERAT and L.SAVOIE"

Département NASA, INRA-CRJ, 78352 Jouy-en-Josas Cedex,France and

"Département NHC,Université Laval,Québec,G1K7P4 Canada

Abstract
In vivo hepatic and intestinal balances of amino acids,insulin and
glucagon were studied in six pigs after ingestion of casein (13.9*-CA
12or 27.8% - CA 24)or rapeseed proteins (23.2*-RA 12).Amino acids
(aa)from all diets were verywell absorbed. Hepatic uptake of total aa
(taa) in 12h expressed as apercentage of absorbed quantities was 13*
for CA 12,66*for CA 24and 25*forRA 12.Differences in the hepatic
extraction rate of essential aa (eaa)appeared between the two levels
of casein ingestion and forARG between the twoprotein sources.The
liver showed always anet production ofASP and GLU. The production and
hepatic balance of insulin were the lowest after ingestion of RA 12
whilst no differences were noted for glucagon. Independently of the
nutritional situation, thehepatic extraction rate of insulin appeared
x
tobe higher than that of glucagon.
Keywords:Amino acids,liver,balances, insulin,pig.

Introduction
In the pig there are numerous experimental data on the fluxes of
nutrients and other substrates inthe portal-drained viscera (Rératet
al., 1984; 1985). However, thehepatic fluxeshave only considered some
substrates (Simoes Nunes et al., 1984; 1989). Estimation of aa fluxes
in the splanchnic areahas beenmade in thedog (Elwynet al., 1968;
1972; Barrett et al., 1986) whilst inother species including man
(Wahren et al., 1976) the data are either very fragmentary or
inexistant. The aim of the present workwas toevaluate the entering
and leaving liver fluxes of aa in the pig, the role of the liver in
their metabolisation as well as in that of two pancreatic hormones -
insulin and glucagon -after ingestion of twovery different proteins,
casein and rapeseed concentrate.

Materials and Methods

Six pigs (64±4.8kg)were fitted with three catheters,placed in the
portal vein, brachiocephalic artery and right hepatic vein,
respectively as well as with two electromagnetic flowprobes,one
around the portal vein and the other around the hepatic artery as
described by Simoes Nunes et al. (1989). After apreliminary adaptation
to each diet, the animals received at a one-week intervals and
according to a double latin square design,three testmeals of 800g
each, one containing 23.2* rapeseed concentrate (dietRA 12)and the
others 13.9 or 27.8*hydrochloric casein (dietsCA 12and CA 24)( table
1). Each observation period lasted for 12h.Portal vein and hepatic
artery blood flow-rates were recorded continuously and blood was
sampled fourteen times simultaneously from the three vessels for aaand
hormone determinations.

67
w

Table1.Compositionofexperimentaldiets(*) andlevelofaminoacid
(aa)intake (mg)fromeachtestmeal.
CA12 CA24 RA12

Hydrochloriccasein(UCCP) 13.9 27.8

Rapeseedconcentrate (CETIOM) 23.2
Peanutoil 6 3 3
Maizestarch 65.5 54.6 62.7
Purifiedcellulose 6 6 2.5
Micapowder 5 5 5
Mineralmixture 2.5 2.5 2.5
Vitaminmixture 1 1 1
Antioxidant 0.1 0.1 0.1

eessentialaa 51792 100872 48496

enonessentialaa 58408 113968 56352
etotalaa 110200 214840 104848

Results
The absorbed quantities of taaafteringestionofdietCA24were
about twofold higherthanthoseabsorbedafteringestionoftheother
two diets (hourly means: 18241±1222mg-CA 24,9048±1188mg-CA 12and
9057±1324mg-RA 12). After 12h,thesequantitiesrepresentedforall
diets approximately thesumofingestedindividualaa.Thequantities
of individualeaaabsorbedafteringestionofCA24weresignificantly
larger thanthoseabsorbedafterCA12andRA12exceptforMET.There
was no significant differencebetweenthequantitiesofeaaabsorbed
after ingestion of diets CA 12 and RA 12.GLNshowedanegative
absorptionafterCA12andRA12andslightlypositiveafterCA24.The
absorptionpercentagesofASPandGLUappearedtobeverylow.Opposite
/tothat,thoseofALAandGLYappearedtobeveryhigh.Thequantityof
aa entering theliverafteringestionofdietCA24wasapproximately
10% higherthanthatmeasuredafterdietCA12.Thelatterrepresented
120* of the fluxofaaenteringtheliverinanimalsfeddietRA12.
Whateverthediet,theeaa accountedfor about40*ofthe mixtureof

Table2.Hourlymeans (mg)ofthequantities ofaminoacids (aa)taken

upbytheliverandpercentage (%)ofabsorbedaatakenupbytheliver
in12hinthepigafteringestionofdietsCA12,CA24andRA12.
CA12 CA24 RA12

Essentialaamg/h 1591*562coa 5814±842u 1689±365a

Totalaamg/h 1149±745a 12072±2057l 2240±624a
Essentialaa* 36±13 t2)a 67±10b 40±9a
Totalaa* 13±8" 66±llb 25±7a

1
J 'Mean±standarddeviationofthemeanof6determinations.
C2:>
Mean±standarddeviationofthemeanof6determinations
expressedasapercentageoftheabsorbedquantity.
a.b.Significantlydifferentatthelevelof1*.

68
taa entering the liver.The quantities of eaa and taa taken up by the
liver after ingestion of CA 24were significantly higher than those
taken up after CA 12 and RA 12.Thiswas true in terms of real amounts
of aa aswell as in percentage of the absorbed quantities of aa (table
2). Within the mixture of aa taken up by the liver, the eaa represented
138, 48, and 75%, respectively of themixture of taa for CA 12,CA 24
and RA 12.Among the eaa, the quantities ofVAL, THR, PHE,LYS and HIS
retained by the liver were significantlyhigher after intake of CA 24
than after CA 12and RA 12 (table3 ) .There was anegative hepatic

Table 3.Hourly means (mg)of the quantities of some amino acids taken
up by the liver (HB)and mean hepatic extraction coefficients (HEC)in
the pig after ingestion of diets CA 12,CA 24and RA 12.
CA 12 CA 24 RA 12

VAL HB (mg) 48±173 Cl >a 927±410 b -22±54 a

HEC l±2 a 9±4 D -0.2±0.7 a
PHE 290±109 a 839±lll b 255±9Q a
ll±4 a 23±3 D 12±3 a
LYS 239±2Q6 a 1181±255 b 310±122 a
2±2 a 11±2 D 4±2 a
MET 107±77 127±92 57±39
7±6 6±4 4±3
ARG 104±85 a 462±141 b 324±9
§h
3±3 a 13±4 D 9±2ab
ASP -384*108 -259±178 -258±112
-30±8 -21±14 -25±11
GLU -2374±432 a -1125±399b -1810±461 ab
-37±7 -23±8 -31±7
ALA 890±181 a 1450±183 b 648±319 a
15±3 a 31±4 D 12±6 a

Ci) Mean ±standard deviation of the mean of 6determinations.

a.b Significantly different at the level of 5%.

uptake (liver output exceeding liver input)ofVAL after ingestion of

RA 12. The quantity ofARG retained by thehepatic parenchyma after
diet RA 12 was significantly higher than after CA 12.Among theeaa,
PHE showed the lowest nonhepatic tissue uptake (32and 25%)and VAL
the highest (92 and 104%) after ingestion of CA 12 and RA 12
respectively. In the case of CA 24,the two aa showing the extreme
values for nonhepatic tissue uptake were PHE (11%)andMET (72%). The
quantity of aa leaving the liver after intake of CA 24was only 3%
higher than that measured after CA 12.This small difference was due to
a proportionally higher hepatic aa uptake after ingestion of CA 24than
after that of CA 12.The hepatic output of aaafter intake of CA 12
accounted for 119%of that observed inanimals fed dietRA 12.Inside
the aa mixture leaving the liver,the eaaaccounted for 36%of the sum
of aa after ingestion of CA 12andRA 12;after that of CA 24,they

69
accounted for41*.Thehepatic uptake of noneaa (neaa)after intake of
CA 24 feedingwas generally higher than thatmeasured for..theother two
diets (table 3 ) . Nevertheless, the individual differences werenot
significant forASP,GLY,PRO,P-SER,TAU andORN. The hepatic balances
ofASP and GLUwere negative after all the three diets,but the hepatic
production ofGLU wasmuch smaller after ingestion of CA 24than after
that of theother twodiets.The lowest mean production of insulin was
observed after ingestion of diet RA 12 (table4 ) .This production
represented only 72* of that noted after ingestion of the two casein
diets. Thehepatic extraction coefficients of the produced insulin and
of the hormone exposed to the liver appeared tobe very similar for all
the three diets (table 4 ) . No significant difference between the three
diets appeared concerning the production, kinetic profile of
production, liver input fluxe and hepatic extraction coefficient of
glucagon.

Table 4. Hourly means of productions (P), hepatic balances (HB)of

insulin (mU/h )and glucagon (ng/h )and mean hepatic extraction
coefficients according to the produced quantity of hormone (HEP)or
according to the quantity of hormone exposed tothe liver (HEC)inthe
pig after the ingestion of diets CA 12,CA 24andRA12.
CA 12 CA 24 RA 12

Insulin p 2735±270^ 1>a 2723±230a 1972±220Î'

HB 1656±200 a 1569±190 a 1146±150 D
HEP 54±10 58±9 58±3
HEC 21±7 25±5 24±2
Glucagon P 24938±5875 28800±5712 26870±5493
HB 12849±3867 11566±6468 10715±3660
HEP 52±5 40±1 40±8
HEC 11±1 8±3 9±2

<1
> Mean ± standard deviation of the mean of 6determinations.
a.b. Sign ificantly different at the level of5S>.

Discussion
Blood plasma is themain interorgan vehicle ofmost aa.Nevertheless,
some aa such as GLU,GLN and TAU are found inhigher concentrations in
the red cells than in blood plasma and thus canparticipate in
intertissue aa transfers (Elwynet al.,1972). This was the reason why
we used the measurement of free aa inthewhole blood.A good aa
absorption balance was observed after ingestion of the casein based
diets. That findingwas largely expected since casein isagood quality
protein. More surprising was the absorption balance of taameasured
after rapeseed concentrate feedingwhich appeared particularly high for
a plant protein especially if considereing what was observed with
cereal proteins (Rérat et al.,1979). The absorption percentages noted
twelve hours after the test meals suggest an optimum uptake and
transport of oligopeptides and aa resulting from the intraluminal
digestive hydrolysis of dietary and endogenous proteins aswell as from
those resulting from the metabolism of thegut wall. The absorption
percentages were higher than those observed byGaliboiset al. (1989)

70
eight hours after intake of similar diets. Interesting differences
between the two sources of proteins concerned the balances of
individual neaa appearing in the portal vein. The low absorption
coefficients ofASP and GLU aswell as the high absorption coefficients
of ALA and GLY were the result of deamination and transamination
reactions in the intestinal wall during the absorptive process
(Windmueller and Spaeth, 1980). The intestinal balance of GLN was
either slightly positive or negative indicating a large metabolic
utilization of this aa by the intestinal wall. CITandORN were
synthetized by the intestinal wall. CIT seemed tooriginate from
metabolisation of GLN and ORN from that of dietary and blood ARG
(Windmueller and Spaeth, 1980).
Whatever thediet ingested by theanimals,PHE,ALA, and SER showed
the highest hepatic uptake coefficient.Among the branched chainaa,
VAL showed the lowest hepatic uptake and the highest non hepatic tissue
uptake. A lowhepatic uptake of branched chainaawas also observed in
the dog suggesting a large participation of these aa in nitrogen
transfers from the liver to the nonhepatic tissues (Elwyn,1970;
Bloomgarden et al., 1981;Barrett et al., 1986).
It was of considerable interest that the hepatic extraction level
of METwas notmodified by the quantity of ingested protein. Hence the
quantity of MET reaching and utilized by thenonhepatic tissues was
larger after ingestion of CA 24 than after that of CA12.
The very high hepatic productions ofASP and GLU (Gelfand et al.,
1986) in the three different nutritional situations must be underlined.
It seems that hepatic behaviour ofASP and GLU in thepig is different
of that of the dog inwhichduring thepost-prandial period there isa
hepatic extraction of bothdiacids.
Two of the glucose forming aa,ALA and SER, showed the highest
level of hepatic extraction. This level appeared also to be highly
increased by the ingestion of ahigh casein diet.Both aaare carbon
sources for glucose synthesis (Kaplan and Pitot,1970)and the N H 2
radicals ofALA participate in the observed high hepatic productions of
GLU.
The differences noted in the hepatic extraction level according to
the quantity and natureof ingested proteins underline that the liver
profoundly modifies theprofile of theaamixtures entering theorgan.
The "buffer" role of the liver in the availability of dietary and
endogenous aa for thenonhepatic tissues cannomore be considered as
"uniform", but as being rather selective.
The lowest mean hourly production of insulinwas observed after
ingestion of rapeseed proteins. The lower glucose absorption after
intake of this diet (SimoesNunes et al., 1989)wasvery likely the
main reason for the difference observed between casein and rapeseed
diets.
Independently of the nutritional situation,the level of hepatic
extraction of circulating insulin was proportionally much higher than
that of glucagon. In the dog, the hepatic extraction coefficient of
insulin was also much higher than that ofglucagon (Rojdmark et al.,
1978; Ishida et al., 1983).

References
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71
 ingestion in the dog.Metabolism, 35, 709-717
Bloomgarden Z.T., Liljenquist J., Lacy W.& Rabin D., 1981.Amino acid
disposition by the liver and gastrointestinal tract after protein and
glucose ingestion. Am. J. Physiol., 241,E90-E99.
Elwyn D.H., 1970.The role of the liver in regulation of amino acid and
protein metabolism. In:H.N. Munro (Ed):Mammalian Protein Metabolism
IV.Academic Press,NewYork. p.523-557.
Elwyn D.H., Parikh H.C.& Shoemaker W.C., 1968.Amino acid movements
between the gut, liver and periphery in unanesthetized dogs.
J. Physiol., 215,1260-1275.
Elwyn D.H., LaunderW.J., Parikh H.C. & WiseE.M., 1972. Roles of
plasma and erythrocytes in interorgan transport of amino acids in
dogs.Am. J. Physiol., 222,1333-1342.
Galibois I., SimoesNunes C , Rérat A. & Savoie L.,1989.Net appearance
of amino acids inportal blood during digestion of casein or rape-
seed proteins in the pig. Can.J. Physiol.Pharmacol., 67,1409-1417.
Gelfand R.A., Glickman M.G., Jacob R., Sherwin R.S.& De Fronzo R.A.,
1986. Removal of infused amino acids by splanchnic and leg tissues in
humans. Am. J. Physiol., 250,E407-E413.
Ishida T., Chou J., Lewis R.M., Hartley C.J., Entman M. &Field J.B.,
1983.The effect of ingestion ofmeat on hepatic extraction of insu-
lin and glucagon and hepatic glucose output in conscious dogs.Metab.
Clin. Exp., 32,558-567.
Kaplan D.H. & Pitot H . C , 1970. The regulation of intermediary amino
acid metabolism in animal tissues. In:H.N. Munro (Ed.): Mammalian
ProteinMetabolism IV.Academic Press.NewYork. p.388-443.
Rérat A., Vaissade P. & Vaugelade P., 1979. Absorption kinetics of
amino acids and reducing sugars during digestion of barley and wheat
meals in the pig: preliminary data.Ann. Biol.anim. Bioch.Biophys.,
19, 739-747.
Rérat A., Vaissade P. &Vaugelade P., 1984.Absorption kinetics of some
carbohydrates in conscious pigs. 2 - Quantitative aspects.Br. J.
Nutr., 51,517-529.
Rérat A., Chayvialle J.A., Kandé J., Vaissade P. Vaugelade P. &
Bourrier T., 1985. Metabolic and hormonal effects of test meals
with various protein contents inpigs.Can.J. Physiol.Pharmacol.,
63, 1547-1559.
Röjdmark S., Bloom G., Chou M.C.Y., Jaspan J.B. & Field J.B., 1978.
Hepatic insulin and glucagon extraction after their augmented
secretion in dogs.Am. J. Physiol., 235,E88-E96.
Simoes Nunes C , Rérat A., Vaugelade P. & Vaissade P., 1984.Etude
simultanée de bilans d'absorption intestinale et demétabolisation
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technique. Diabète etMétabolisme, 10,349.
Simoes Nunes C , Rérat A., Galibois I., Vaugelade P. & Vaissade P.,
1989. Hepatic and gut balances of glucose, amino-nitrogen, ammonia
and urea in thepig after the ingestion of casein or rapeseed
proteins.Nutr.Rep. Intern., 40,901-907.
Wahren J., Felig P. &Hagenfeldt L., 1976.Effect of protein ingestion
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diabetes mellitus.J. Clin. Invest., 57,987-999.
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225, 107-112.

72
DEVELOPMENT OF INTESTINAL DISACCHARIDASES,
INTESTINALPEPTIDASESANDPANCREATICPROTEASESIN
SUCKING PIGS. THE EFFECTS OF AGE AND ACTH
TREATMENT
P.T. Sangild1, P.D. Cranwell2, H. S0rensen3, K. Mortensen3, O. Noren4, L.
Wetteberg4 & H. Sjöström4
1
Department of Animal Science and Animal Health, Royal Veterinary and
Agricultural University, Rolighedsvej 23, DK-1958 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
2
School of Agriculture, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3083, Australia
3
Chemistry Department, Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Thorvald-
sensvej 40,DK-1871Frederiksberg C, Denmark.
Department of Biochemistry C, The Panum Institute, University of Copenhagen,
Blegdamsvej 3c, DK-2200 Copenhagen N, Denmark

Abstract
Three disaccharidase activities (lactase, sucrase, maltase) and three peptidase activities
(aminopeptidase N, dipeptidyl peptidase IV, aminopeptidase A) were measured in mucosal extracts
of the proximal small intestine from sucking pigs. The activities of two proteases (trypsin and
chymotrypsin) were measured in extracts of pancreatic tissue. Forty-one Large White x Landrace pigs
from birth to 5 weeks of age were used in the experiments; littermate pairs were treated with either
physiological saline or adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) from 3 days after birth. Sucrase and
maltase activities were low in newborn pigs but increased with age. At 5 weeks the ACTH-treated
pigs had significantly higher activities than the control pigs. The activities of lactase and the three
peptidases were well developed at birth, decreased during the postnatal period and were not affected
byACTH treatment. Trypsin and chymotrypsin activities increased from birth to 5 weeks of age. Pigs
treated with ACTH tended to have higher trypsin activities at 5 weeks than control pigs. The results
indicate that hormones such as ACTH and glucocorticoids may influence the postnatal development
of sucrase, maltase and trypsin activities in the young pig.

Keywords: Small intestine; pancreas; disaccharidases; peptidases; proteases; development; ACTH

treatment; Cortisol

Introduction
The mucosa of the small intestine and the pancreatic glands produce a number
of hydrolases which play an important role in the final digestion of nutrients
(Norén et al, 1986; Alpers, 1987). The postnatal development of the different
hydrolases varies among species but in general it reflects the changes in dietary
intake from milk during the suckling period to solid food after weaning. Intestinal
lactase activity is high in newborn pigs and decreases after birth (Hartmann et al.,
1961; Manners & Stevens, 1972). Sucrase, maltase, trypsin and chymotrypsin
activities are low at birth, but they increase during the postnatal period (Hartmann
et al, 1961; Corring et al., 1978; Weström et al., 1987). Intracellular peptidases
has been found in the intestinal mucosa of both fetal and sucking pigs (Lindberg
& Karlsson, 1970). There are no reports on the development of brush border
peptidases in the pig.
Development of digestive enzymes may be influenced by factors such as the
external environment, feed intake, genetics and hormonal regulation. Treatment of
young rats with glucocorticoids is known to induce early maturation of some
intestinal and pancreatic enzymes (for a review see Henning, 1981). In the present
73
study we investigated the effect of ACTH treatment on some enzyme activities in
the small intestine of sucking pigs: lactase (ß-D-galactosidase, EC 3.2.1.23),
sucrase (sucrose ot-D-glucohydrolase, EC 3.2.1.48), maltase (isomaltase & maltase-
glucoamylase; oligo-l,6-glucosidase & a-D-glucosidase, EC 3.2.1.10 & EC
3.2.1.20), aminopeptidase N (microsomal aminopeptidase, EC 3.4.11.2), dipeptidyl
peptidase IV (EC 3.4.14.5) and aminopeptidase A (aspartate aminopeptidase, EC
3.4.11.7). Furthermore, trypsin (EC 3.4.21.4) and chymotrypsin (EC 3.4.21.1)
activities were measured in pancreatic tissues.

Materials and Methods

Forty-one Large White x Landrace pigs from 7 litters were used in the experi-
ments. The pigs were reared entirely by the sow; they had no access to solid food,
no bedding was provided and water was available ad lib. Eleven pigs were used to
study enzyme development from birth to seven days of age; the remaining 30 pigs
were divided into littermate pairs and used to study the effects of age and ACTH
treatment from 9 to 36 days. One pig from each pair was injected intramuscularly
with ACTH (12.5 jig/kg0-75) twice daily from 3 days of age. The other pig of each
pair (control) was injected with physiological saline. Littermate pairs were killed at
9-11, 16-18, 23-25 or 34-36 days of age with an overdose of sodium pentobar-
bitone. Two newborn pigs were fasted for only 8 hours but the remaining pigs
were fasted for approximately 24 hours before they were killed. The fasting period
was necessary to prepare the pigs for studies on gastric function (Sangild et al.,
1989). The abdomen was opened, the pancreas removed, and a 10 cm segment of
the small intestine excised 20 to 30 cm from the pyloro-duodenal opening
(proximal jejunum). The intestinal segment was opened lengthwise and gently
rinsed in cold physiological saline. The tissues were stored at -20°C until analysed.
After thawing, mucosa of the intestinal segment was scraped off the underlying
muscular layers, homogenized and sonicated in aqueous 1% Triton X-100. After
centrifugation this procedure was repeated with the sediment and the two
supernatants were combined and used for analysis. Lactase, sucrase, maltase,
aminopeptidase N, dipeptidyl peptidase IV and aminopeptidase A activities were
determined using the methods described by Sjöström et al. (1978) and S0rensen et
al. (1982). The respective substrates used in the assays were lactose, sucrose,
maltose, L-alanine-4-nitroanilide, glycyl-L-proline-4-nitro-anilide and L-a-glutamic
acid 4-nitroanilide. Protein concentration was determined in the mucosal
homogenate by the method of Lowry et al. (1951). Intestinal enzyme activities
were expressed as units per mg of mucosal protein. One unit was equal to 1 irniol
substrate hydrolyzed per minute.
While frozen, pancreatic tissue was cut into fine pieces and proenzymes were
extracted in a Tris-HCl buffer (pH 8.0). After centrifugation and activation of
proenzymes (Elnif et al., 1988) enzyme activities were measured in the
supernatant (Geiger & Fritz, 1984). The substrates used to detect trypsin and
chymotrypsin activities were N-a-benzoyl-L-arginin-4-nitroanilid-hydrochloride and
glutaryl-L-phenylalanin-4-nitroanilid. The activities were expressed as units per mg
of tissue and one unit was equal to 1pmol substrate hydrolyzed per minute.

Results
In the treated pigs each injection of ACTH raised plasma Cortisol levels 6-8
times above basal levels for 3-4 hours. Such Cortisol levels are comparable to
those following stressful conditions such as restricted feeding and chasing (Baldwin

74
& Stephens, 1973;Rafai &Fodor, 1980).Saline injection had no effect onplasma
Cortisol in the control pigs. Treatment with ACTH had no significant effects on
bodyweight or stomach weight at specific ages.
Intestinal enzyme activities are shown in Figure 1.After the first postnatal week
sucrase and maltase activities increased significantly with age (P<0.05) and at34-
36 days the activities were significantly higher in ACTH treated pigs than in
control pigs (P<0.05). Lactase and peptidase activities decreased with age and
there were no significant effects of ACTH treatment. At 34-36 days of age these
enzyme activities were significantly lower (P<0.05) than the average activities
duringthe first week after birth.
DISACCHARIDASES: PEPTIDASES:

125 100,
Aminopeptidase N
80

fc j: I
20

0 ^ Essa ESS

40
Dipeptidyl peptidase IV
30

20
I
j_10

1°
Ü
•••••II 10
T

30
Aminopeptidase A

20

10 I

0-1 3 5-7 9-11 16-18 23-2534-36 0-1 3 5-7 9-1116-18 23-2534-36

AGE (days) AGE (days)
Figure 1. Development of disaccharidase activities (lactase, maltase, sucrase) and
peptidase activities (aminopeptidase N, dipeptidyl peptidase IV, aminopeptidase
A) in the small intestine of suckingpigs. (Mean ± SEM, n=3-4). ( • ; B) control
pigs;( • ) ACTH-treatedpigs.
75
 Protease activities measured in extracts of pancreatic tissues are shown in Figure
2. The specific activity of chymotrypsin increased significantly wjjh age (P<0.05).
Age had no consistent effect on the activity of trypsin and a temporary decrease in
trypsin activity was observed at 23-25 days (P<0.05). The ACTH-treated pigs
tended to have higher trypsin activities than the control pigs at 34-36 days but no
significant differences between the two treatment groups were detected.

0-1 3 5-7 9-11 16-18 23-2534-36 0-1 3 5-7 9-1116-18 23-2534-36

AGE (days) AGE (days)
Figure 2. Development of pancreatic trypsin and chymotrypsin activities in sucking
pigs. (Mean ± SEM, n=3-4). (W) control pigs; ( • ) ACTH-treated pigs.

Discussion
The observed intestinal disaccharidase and peptidase activities showed a large
variation among pigs of the same age and treatment which is consistent with
findings in earlier investigations (Lindberg & Karlsson, 1970; Manners & Stevens,
1972; Corring et al., 1978; Kidder & Manners, 1980; Chappie et al., 1989). The
distribution of each enzyme along the intestine is also known to vary with age and
among species. In general, lactase activity is most abundant in the proximal small
intestine and absent in the distal ileum. Most other enzymes are found along the
entire length of the intestine with maximal activities in the proximal and middle
regions (Kidder & Manners, 1980; Norén et al., 1986; Alpers, 1987). In the
present investigation, enzyme activity measurements were restricted to the
proximal small intestine and the observed developmental pattern can therefore be
used only as a rough guide to what occurs along the entire intestine.
The decrease in lactase activity and increases in maltase and sucrase activities
(Figure 1) are in agreement with the findings in earlier studies (Hartmann et al.,
1961; Manners & Stevens, 1972; Corring et al., 1978; Chappie et al, 1989). The
parallel postnatal increase of sucrase and maltase activities is expected because
the enzyme complex sucrase-isomaltase (EC 3.2.1.48 and EC 3.2.1.10) is
responsible for all intestinal sucrase activity and a large part of the maltase activity
(Sorensen et al., 1982; Norén et al., 1986). The remaining maltase activity mainly
originates from the enzyme maltase-glucoamylase (EC 3.2.1.20).
The changes in disaccharidase activities can be accelerated by weaning and by
feeding diets rich in sugar and starch (Manners & Stevens, 1972; Kidder &
Manners, 1980). Specific enzymatic changes also take place in fetal and sucking
animals but without any obvious "substrate induction". Enzymatic development is
therefore controlled not only by diet but possibly also by genetic and hormonal
factors. Treatment of sucking pigs with ACTH or glucocorticoids had no consistent
effects on the development of sucrase and maltase activities in the recent study of
Chappie et al. (1989). However, the observed stimulatory effects of ACTH on
maltase and sucrase activities at 5 weeks of age in the present study (Figure 1)

76
indicate a potential regulatory role of adrenal hormones in the postnatal
development of such disaccharidase activities. Discrepancies with the findings of
Chappie et al. (1989) could be explained by differences in sources of animals,
treatments, sampling methods and tissueanalysis.
The activities of the three brush border peptidases appeared to decrease with
age although the trend was less pronounced for aminopeptidase A than for the
other enzymes (Figure 1).This postnatal development corresponds to that of the
intracellular dipeptidases. These enzymes increase in activity during late gestation
with peak values occurring in newborn pigs (Lindberg & Karlsson, 1970). During
the fetal period peptidases may have a physiological role to ensure intestinal
hydrolysis of thevarious small peptides and amines in amniotic fluid swallowedby
the fetus. An early fetal development of peptidase and lactase activities may also
explainwhyACTHtreatment did not influence these enzyme activities after birth.
The activities of pancreatic proteases increased during the first 5 weeks of age
but this trend was more clear for chymotrypsin than for trypsin (Figure 2). The
temporary decrease in trypsin activity at 23-25 days was unexpected and there
could be a connection to the slightly increased lactase and peptidase activities
(Figure 1) and increased gastric chymosin activity (Sangild et al., 1989) at this age.
Other investigators have reported similar postnatal developments of trypsin and
chymotrypsin activities (Hartmann et al., 1961;Corring et al., 1978; Weström et
al., 1987). These studies have shown that major increases in pancreaticprotease
activities also occurinthe fetal period and after 5weeks ofage.
Treatment with ACTH had no effect on chymotrypsin activitybut ACTH tended
to stimulate trypsin activity at 34-36 days of age. At this age the ACTH-treated
pigs also had higher concentrations of cathionic trypsinogen in plasma than the
controlpigs (53±6versus27±6 ng/ml) (Sangild &Weström,unpublished results).
However, further studieswith more age-groups and animals are needed to confirm
our observations on the effects ofACTH treatment.
Results from other studies have shown neonatal decreases in protease activity
from pancreatic tissue (Weström et al., 1987), intracellular dipeptidase activity
(Lindberg & Karlsson, 1970) and some mucosal transport parameters (Henriques
de Jesus & Smith, 1974) when newborn pigs were allowed access to sow's milk
(colostrum). These observations were explained by sucking-dependent secretion of
pancreatic enzymes and changes in the mucosal structure resulting from the first
exposures of the mucosa to nutrients (colostrum). In the present study the
activities of pancreatic enzymes did not decrease within the first week (Figure 2)
but most of the intestinal enzyme activities (Figure 1) appeared to have higher
values at birth (0-1days) than afew dayslater (3and 5-7 days).Twoof thepigsin
the 0-1 day group had particularly high activities of all enzymes and this may be
explained bya shorter period of fasting for these pigs (8hours) compared with the
other pigs in that group (approximately 24 hours). In mature animals fasting and
feeding are known to either decrease or increase enzyme activities depending on
the enzyme,the diet and the length of the fasting period (Alpers, 1987).However,
the effects offasting and feeding could be different in newbornunsuckled animals.
Further studies are needed elucidate the role dietary and hormonal factors in the
postnatal development of intestinal and pancreatic enzymesin theyoungpig.
References
Alpers D.H., 1987. Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates andndproteins. In:
L.R. Johnson (Ed.): Physiology of the Gastrointestinal Tract, 2 ed. Raven
Press,NewYork.p.1469-1487.

77
Baldwin B.A. & D.B. Stephens, 1973. The effects of conditioned behavior and
environmental factors on plasma corticosteroid levels in pigs. Physiology and
Behavior 10:267-274.
Chappie R.P., J.A. Cuaron & R.A. Easter, 1989. Response of digestive
carbohydrases and growth to graded doses and administration frequency of
hydrocortisone and adrenocorticotropic hormone in nursing piglets. Journal of
Animal Science 67:2974-2984.
Corring T., A. Aumaitre & G. Durand, 1978. Development of digestive enzymes in
the piglet from birth to 8 weeks. I. Pancreas and pancreatic tissues. II.
Intestinal disacharidases. Nutrition and Metabolism 22:231-255.
Elnif J., N.E. Hansen, K. Mortensen & H. Sorensen, 1988. In: Biology, Pathology
and Genetics of Fur Bearing Animals. 4 t h International Scientific Congress in
Fur Animal Production, Toronto & Wisconsin, p. 308-319.
Geiger R. & H. Fritz, 1984. Chymotrypsin, Trypsin. In: H.U. Bergmeyer (Ed.):
Methods of Enzymatic Analysis, 3 ed., Enzymes, vol. III. Verlag Chemie,
Basel, p. 99-129.
Hartmann P.A., V.W. Hays, R.O. Baker, L. Neagle & D. Catron, 1961. Digestive
enzyme development in the young pig. Journal of Animal Science 20, 114-123.
Henning S.J., 1981.Postnatal development: coordination of feeding, digestion and
metabolism. American Journal of Physiology 241:G199-G214.
Henriques de Jesus C. & M.W. Smith, 1974. Sodium transport by the small
intestine of newborn and suckling pigs.Journal of Physiology 243:211-224.
Kidder D.E. & M.J. Manners, 1980. The level and distribution of carbohydrases in
the small intestine mucosa of pigs from 3 weeks of age to maturity. British
Journal of Nutrition 43:141-153.
Lindberg T. & B.W. Karlsson, 1970. Changes in intestinal dipeptidase activities
during fetal and neonatal development of the pig as related to the
ultrastructure of mucosal cells. Gastroenterology 59:247-256.
Lowry O.H., N.J. Rosebrough, & R.J. Randall, 1951. Protein measurement with
the Folin phenol reagent. Journal of Biological Chemistry 193:265-275.
Manners M.J. & J.A. Stevens, 1972. Changes from birth to maturity in the pattern
of distribution of lactase and sucrase activity in the mucosa of the small
• intestine of pigs. British Journal of Nutrition 28:113-127.
Noren O., H. Sjöström, E.M. Danielsen, G.M. Cowell & H. Skovbjerg, 1986. The
enzymes of the enterocyte plasma membrane. In: P. Desnuelle, H. Sjöström &
O. Noren (Eds.): Molecular and Cellular Basis of Digestion. Elsevier,
Amsterdam, p. 335-366.
Rafai P. & E. Fodor, 1980. Studies on porcine adrenocortical function. Acta
Veterinaria Acedemiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 28:433-454.
Sangild P.T., P.D. Cranwell, R.-J. Xu & D.P. Hennessy, 1989. Gastric acid and
enzyme secretion in young pigs following chronic administration of
adrenocorticotrophin (ACTH). Proceedings of the Australian Physiological and
Pharmacological Society 20:5IP.
Sjöström H., O. Noren, L. Jeppesen, M. Staun, B. Svensson & L. Christiansen,
1978. Purification of different amphiphilic forms of a microvillus
aminopeptidase from pig small intestine using immunoadsorbent
chromatography. European Journal of Biochemistry 88:503-511.
S0rensen S.H., O. Norén, H. Sjöström & E.M. Danielsen, 1982. Amphiphilic pig
intestinal microvillus maltase/glucoamylase. Structure and specificity. European
Journal of Biochemistry 126:559-568.
Weström B.R., B. Ohlsson and B.W. Karlsson, 1987. Development of porcine
pancreatic hydrolases and their isoenzymes from the fetal period to adulthood.
Pancreas 2:589-596.

78
ABSORPTION OF FREE OR PROTEIN-BOUND LYSINE AND
THREONINE IN CONSCIOUS MULTICANNULATED PIGS
J.T.Yen 1 ,R.A.Easter2andB.J.Kerr 2
!u.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Agric. Res.Service,R.L.Hruska,
U.S.MeatAnimal Research Center,Clay Center,NE,U.S.A.
2
UniversityofIllinois,Urbana,IL,U.S.A.

Abstract
Six gilts,weighing48kg,having chronic cannulas placedinthe
hepatic portal vein,carotid arteryandileal veinandtrainedto
consume once daily1.2kgoffeed,were usedinacross-over design
employinga16%CPcorn-soybean meal dietanda12%CPcorn-soybean
meal diet supplemented with free lysine,threonineandtryptophanto
levels equaltothose containedinthe16%CPdiet. Basedonthe
appearanceofpeak concentrationsofplasma lysineandthreoninein
theportalorarterial samplesandpeak netabsorptionoflysineand
threonine intotheportal vein,itisconcluded that free lysineand
threonineareabsorbed more rapidly than protein-bound lysineand
threoninebypigsafterfeeding.
Keywords: portal vein,absorption,lysine,threonine,pigs.
Introduction
Moreandmore free,crystalline amino acids (AA)areusedto
supplement dietsfor pigs. Theefficiencyofutilizationoffree
lysineindietsforpigs,however,isaffectedbyfeeding frequency.
When diets supplemented with free lysinewerefedtopigs once daily
thansixorthree timesaday,liveweight gain,carcass gain,feed
conversionornitrogen retentionofpigswere reduced (Batterham,
1974,Batterham&O'Neill,1978;Batterham&Murison,1981,Cooket
al., 1983,1985). Using [ 14 C] phenylalanineasanindicatorto
monitor amino acidmetabolism,Batterham&Bayley (1989)observed
greateroxidationoflabelled phenylalaninebypigsfedonce dailya
diet containing free lysine. These authors suggested that therewas
a differenceintherateofabsorption between freeandprotein-bound
lysinebypigsfedonce dailyandthatanimbalanceofamino acids
occurredatthesitesofprotein synthesisasaresultofmore rapid
absorptionoffree lysine. However,directmeasurementofthe
absorptionoflysinewasnotconducted.
The objectiveofthe present studywastomeasure directlythe
absorptionoflysineandthreonine intothehepatic portal veinin
pigsfedadiet containing protein-bound lysineandthreonineorboth
freeandprotein-bound lysineandthreonine.

Materialsand Methods
Chronic cannulaswere placedinthehepatic portal vein,carotid
arteryandileal veinofsix growing crossbred (ChesterWhitex
LandracexLargeWhitexYorkshire)gilts,trainedtoconsume once
daily1.2kgofareference dietmixed with1.2literofwaterat

79
 0930. The reference diet contained 76.3%corn, 19.6% soybean meal
(44% CP),2.4%dicalcium phosphate,0.5% limestone,0.4%.iodized
salt,0.4% trace mineral premix,0.2%vitamin premix and 0.2%choline
chloride. Detailed information regarding the construction of the
cannulas and procedures of surgery has been reported previously (Yen
and Killefer, 1987;Yen et al., 1989). After the pig had regained
its preoperation appetite for at least 7days,itwasweighed 6h
postprandially and placed into a rectangularmetabolism cage. On the
following day, the pig was assigned to receive either a test 16%CP
corn-soybean meal diet (16%CP)or a 12%CP corn-soybean meal diet
supplemented with free lysine,threonine and tryptophan (12%CP+ AA)
to the levels equal to those contained in the test 16%CP diet (Table
1).
Table 1. Composition of testdiets.
Diets
Item 16% CP 12% CP+AA
Ingredients, %
Corn 76.90 86.16
Soybean meal, 48%CP 20.65 10.80
Dicalcium phosphate 0.91 0.97
Limestone 1.09 1.03
Trace mineral mix 0.35 0.35
Vitamin mix 0.10 0.10
L-lysine-HCl — 0.35
DL-tryptophan — 0.08
L-threonine — 0.16
Analyzed composition
Dry matter,% 88.8 88.3
CP,% 15.7 12.3
Calculated composition3
Lysine, % 0.83 0.83
Threonine, % 0.67 0.67
Tryptophan, % 0.19 0.19
a
Based on analyzed amino acid composition ofcorn and soybeanmeal,

The 1.2-kg test dietwas mixed with 1.2 liter ofwater and given to
the pig at 0930. Portal and arterial blood samples were obtained
simultaneously before feeding,once every 30-min during the first 4
postprandial hand hourly during the 5to 6postprandial h. The
plasma concentrations ofamino acidswere determined by ion-exchange
chromatography. The net portal absorption of lysine or threonine was
calculated bymultiplying the porto-arterial plasma concentration
difference of the amino acid by the portal plasma flow rate. The
portal plasma flow ratewas estimated by an indicator-dilution
technique employing p-aminohippuric acid as the indicator and infused
into the ileal vein (Yen & Killefer, 1987;Yen & Pond, 1990).
After the first sequence ofmeasurements,the pigwas returned to

80
 Figure 1. Portal and arterial plasma concentrations of lysine and
threonine In pigs fed a diet containing protein-bound lysine and
threonine (16%CP) or a diet containing both free and protein-
bound lysine and threonine (12%CP + AA).

140- • '> Portal (12%CP+AA)

*-- Arterial(12%CP+AA)
c
o 120- Portal (16%CP)
<S ^^^^v_ *— Arterial(16%CP)
e 100-
0)
o
/ / *~~^__^—V
II 80-
/ / y° * ~ ^ 2 ^ . X_
£ co 60-
/* y x"*-^"
/ /x ——"** **^ ^^""O- — ' -r, / ~ ~ ~ - *
<0 40-
E
20 -j r
0- 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 (- 1 1 1 1
2 3 4
Time From Feeding (h)

c 140-1
o —• Portal (12%CP+AA)
--*— Arterial(12%CP+AA)
120 —o Portal (16%CP)
0) —*— Arterial(16%CP)
o
c 100
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O £.
oS
£—
'c —•
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Time From Feeding (h)

81

1
 its home pen and fed the reference diet oncedaily for 2d. Itwas
then weighed 6hpostprandiale and again placed into a.rectangular
metabolism cage. On the following day,the pig was fed the other
test diet at 0930 and the second sequence ofmeasurements were
conducted. The pigsweighed 47.7+ 1 . 6 and 48.0± 1.3 kg,
respectively, when they were fed the 16%CPtest diet and the 12%CP
+ AAdiet.
Thedatawere analyzed as across-over design with theGLM
procedure of SAS (1989). Type III sum of squares was used for data
analysis.
ResultsandDiscussion
As shown in Figure 1,both theplasma lysine concentrations in the
portal and arterial samples rose after feeding and attained the
maximum level at 1hpostprandialewhen pigswere given the 12%CP+
AA diet,containing both free and protein-bound lysine,threonine and
tryptophan. Whereas,when pigswere fed the 16%CPdiet containing
protein-bound AA, the portal and arterial plasma lysine
concentrations reached the peak level at 2.5 hpostprandiale-
During the 0.5- to 1.5-h and at6-h postprandial periods,the rise of
portal plasma lysine concentration was greater (P<0.05)when the12%
CP+AA diet than the 16%CPdietwas fed. Likewise,during the 0.5-
to3-h postprandial period, the arterial plasma lysine concentration
was greater (P<0.05)when pigswere given the 12%CP+AA diet than
the 16%CPdiet.
The portal plasma threonine concentration roseto themaximum level
at0.5 hafter feeding when pigswere given the 12%CP+AAdiet but
at 2.5 hpostprandialewhen theywere fed the 16%CPdiet. During
1-hand 5-h postprandial periods,the rise ofportal plasma threonine
concentration was greater (P<0.05)when pigswere given the 12%CP+
AAdiet than the 16%CPdiet. The arterial plasma threonine
concentration reached the peak level at 1.5 hafter feeding when pigs
were given the 12%CP+AA diet but at 2.5 hpostprandialewhen the
16%CPdiet was fed. During the 0.5- to 4-h postprandial period, the
arterial plasma threonine concentration was greater (P<0.05)when
pigswere given the 12%CP+AAdiet than the 16%CPdiet.
The portal vein plasma flow rate ofpigsduring the 6-h
postprandial period isdepicted in Figure 2and showed no difference
(P>0.05)whether pigswere given the 12%CP+AA diet orthe 16%CP
diet. When the portal vein plasma flow ratewasmultiplied by the
porto-arterial concentration difference of lysine orthreonine to
calculate the net absorption ofthe amino acid into the portal vein,
the peak portal absorption oflysine and threonine appeared at 0.5 h
after feeding when pigswere given the 12%CP+AA diet but at 2.5 h
postprandiale when they were fed the 16%CPdiet.
Because the 12%CP+AA diet and the 16%CPdiet were calculated to
contain the same amounts of lysine and threonine,the earlier
appearance of peak portal concentrations ofplasma lysine and
threonine and the peak net portal absorption of lysine and threonine
inpigswhen they were given the 12%CP+AA diet than the 16%CP
diet would suggest that the free lysine and threonine inthe 12%CP+
AAdiet were absorbed and transported into the portal vein more
rapidly than the protein-bound lysine and threonine inthe 16%CP
diet.

82
T

Figure 2. Portal vein plasma flow rate and net portal absorption
of lysine and threonine in pigs fed a diet containing protein-bound
lysine and threonine (16%CP) or a diet containing both free and
protein-bound lysineandthreonine(12%CP+AA).

12%CP+AA
16%CP

2 3 4
Time From Feeding (h)

12%CP+AA
16%CP

2 3 4
Time From Feeding (h)

83

1
 References
Batterham,E.S., 1974. The effect of frequency of feeding on the
utilization offree lysine bygrowing pigs. Br.J. Nutr.
31:237-242.
Batterham,E.S.,and H.S. Bayley, 1989.Effect of frequency of
feeding of diets containing free or protein-bound lysine on the
oxidation of [^Cjlysine or [^(^phenylalanine by growing
pigs. Br.J. Nutr.62:647-655.
Batterham,E.S.and R. D.Murison,1981.Utilization of free lysine
by growing pigs. Br.J. Nutr.46:87-92.
Batterham,E.S. and G. H.O'Neill,1978. Theeffect of frequency of
feeding on the response by growing pigs tosupplements of free
lysine. Br.H.Nutr.39:265-270.
Cook,H.,G. R. Frank,D.W.Giesting and R.A. Easter,1983.The
influence ofmeal frequency and lysine supplementation ofa
low-protein dieton nitrogen retention of growing pigs.J. Anim.
Sei. 57(Suppl.1):240-241.
Cook,H.,D.W.Giesting and R.A. Easter,1985.The influence of
feeding frequency and crystalline lysine supplementation on
performance of finisher pigs.J.Anim. Sei. 61(Suppl. 1):319.
SAS, 1989.SAS/STAT User's Guide,Version 6, Fourth Edition,Volume
2,SAS Institute Inc.,Cary,NC.
Yen,J. T.and J. Killefer,1987.Amethod for chronically
quantifying netabsorption ofnutrients and gutmetabolites into
hepatic portal vein inconscious swine.J. Anim. Sei.64:923-934.
Yen,J. T.,J. A. Nienaber,D.A. Hill and w.G. Pond, 1989.Oxygen
consumption by portal vein-drained organs and bywhole animal in
conscious growing swine.P.S.E.B.M.190:393-398.
Yen,J. T.and W. G. Pond, 1990. Effect ofcarbadox on net
absorption ofammonia and glucose into hepatic portal vein of
growing pigs.J. Anim. Sei. (In press)

84
AMINO A O D ABSORPTION AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE FOR
PROTEIN SUPPLY INTHEPIG
1 1 1 2
M.Schmitz ,F.Ahrens ,Jutta Schön ,H.Hagemeister
1 ISForschungsgesellschaft fürexperimentelle Tierphysiologieund
Tierernährung,Wahlstedt, Germany
2 Institut fürPhysiologieu.Biochemie derErnährung,
Bundesanstalt fürMilchforschung, Kiel, Germany

Abstract
Thesignificanceofapossible absorption ofamino acidsinthelarge
intestine forprotein supply ofthepigwasinvestigated. Homoarginine
(HA)wasusedasamodelasnaturally HAisdetected onlyintracesin
blood. Thereforeitsabsorptioncanbeverified bydetectioninblood.
HAwasinfused intothecaecumorwasfedinthesamedoseatonly
10 %and5 %ofthisdoseasHA-containing casein. Infusionandfeeding
ofHA-containing casein were followed bydetermination ofHAconcen-
trationinblood. /
After infusionofHA-containing casein intothecaecum (0,36mmolHAper
(kgbodyweight) 0,75 )n 0 ^ w a s detectable (detection limit:
0.005fimol/ml)atanytimeofblood sampling (0,1,5and24hafter
startofinfusion). Incontrasttothishigh concentrationsofHA were
determined inblood after feeding thesame amountofHA-containing casein
(1hpostprandial:0.085^mol/ml,5hpostprandial:0.121u.mol/ml,
24hpostprandial:0.096 |imol/ml).Also after feeding only10 %ofthe
amountofcasein infused intothecaecum HAwasclearly detected inblood
(1hpostprandial:0.029^mol/ml,5hpostprandial:0.039|imol/ml,
24hpostprandial:0.031^.mol/ml).After feeding5%ofthedose infused
intothecaecum therewasnoHAdetectableinblood.Theresults show that
ifanyamino acidswere absorbed inthelarge intestine thepercentageis
lessthan10 %oftheamount infused into caecumandlessthan3 %ofthe
proteinmaintenance requirementofthepig.Itisconcluded thattheab
sorptionofamino acidsinthelarge intestine isinsignificantfor
protein supply inthe pig.

Introduction
Significant amountsofproteinandamino acidsarepresentinthelarge
intestineofthepig.Inprinciple amino acidscanbeabsorbed inthecolon
(Niiyamaetal.1979)andcaecum (OlszewskiandBuraczewski,1978)ofthe
pig.Ontheother hand Zebrowska (1975)demonstrated that83 %ofthe
nitrogen from hydrolyzed casein infused intotheterminal ileumwas
excreted with urine.Thisshowsthedegradation ofamino acidstoammonia
and amines,whichareabsorbedandexcreted with urine.Justetal. (1981)
indicated that lysine,whichwasinfused intothecaecum,wasnotabsorbed
markedly. Inthepresent investigation thequestionofamino acid absorp-
tioninthelargeintestine shouldbeanswered usingtheamino acid
homoarginine (HA).HAisdetected naturally onlyintracesinblood
(Katoetal., 1989). Thereforetheabsorptionofeven small amountsof
HAaredetectable.HA-concentration inblood after infusionof
HA-containing casein intothecaecumisrelated toHA-concentration
inblood after feeding 100%,10 %and5 %oftheamountofHA-containing
casein infused intothecaecum.

85
Materials and Methods
Inall partaafthe experiment HA was given as HA-contatining casein
(0,460mmol HA per g casein). HAwas formed incasein from lysine by
guanidination. Guanidination wasperformed with a0,2 MO-methyl-isourea
solution at pH 10.5 and 4 D C for 96 h (Hagemeister and Erbersdobler,
1985). Four adult Göttingen miniature pigs (bodyweight 50 -60 kg)with
T-cannula at the caecum were used in the experiment. Inthe first part
ofthe experiment 0,36 mmol HAper (kg bodyweight) 0,75 were infused into
the caecum of the animals in five equal parts from 8.00 a.m. to 13.00 p.m.
Inthree further independent parts ofthe experiment the pigswere fed with
the morning meal 0,36, 0,036, and 0,018 mmol HA per (kg bodyweight)0>75 ;
corresponding to 100 %, 10 %and 5 %of the amount infused into the caecum.
Between each part of the experiment there was an adaption period of two
weeks. Before start of infusion or feeding of HA-containing casein and
after 1, 5and 24hHA-concentration in blood was determined. Blood serum
samples were centrifuged (4000xg for 10 min). 4ml serum were
deproteinized with 1ml sulfosalieylicacid (0,78mol/1)and centrifuged
again asdescribed above.

Results and Discussion

HA-concentration in blood serum ofminipigs following caecal infusion
or feeding of HA-containing casein isshown in table 1.

Table 1. Homoarginine (HA)concentration in blood serum of

Göttingen miniature pigs after caecal infusion or feeding of
HA-containing casein (values aremeans+/- s,n=4 animals).

Time after caecal

start of infusion feeding
infusion 0,36 0,36 0,036 0,018
or feeding mmolper (kg bodyweight) 0>75

h timol/ml-

0 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.

1 n.d. 0,085+/-0.020 0,029+/-0,028 n.d.
5 n.d. 0,121 +/-0,021 0,039+/-0,016 n.d.
24 n.d. 0,096+/-0,027 0,031 +/-0,021 n.d.
n.d. =not detectable,dectection limit:0,005ixmol/ml

Before start of infusion or feeding no HA was dectectable. After feeding

0,36 mmol HA per (kg bodyweight) 0 ' 7 5 1,5and 24h postpandrially
HA-concentration in blood serum was 0,085, 0,121 and 0,096fimol/ml
respectively. After feeding 10 %of this dose (0,036|imol (per kg body-
weight) U ï ' ^ HA-concentration 1,5and 24hpostpandially was 0,029,
0,039and 0,031 ixmol/mlblood serum, respectively. When the amount ofHA
fedwas reduced to0,018 mmolper (kg bodyweight) 0,75 n o HAwas found in
blood serum at any time of taking blood samples.After infusion of
HA-containing casein into the caecum noHAwas detectable inblood serum
at any time ofblood sampling.
Former investigations (Schmitz,1988)showed arapid rise of postprandial
HA-concentration in blood following intake of HA-containing casein. This
proofs the fast proteolysis of the protein and the absorption of HA from

86
the small intestine.Zebrowska (1975)and Justet al. (1981)demonstrated
thehigh proteolytic capacity ofthe large intestine measuring a nearly
complete degradation ofcasein infused into the caecum. Therefore it can
beexpected that HAwas liberated in the large intestine after the
caecal infusion ofHA-containing casein and was avaiblable for absorption
in the large intestine.After infusion of HA-containing casein into the
caecum no HAwas detected in blood. Incontrast to this feeding only 10%
of the dose infused into the caecum led tomarked HA-concentrations in
blood. Asafter feeding 5 %ofthe dose infused into the caecum there was
no HA detectable in blood it can only be concluded that the amount ofHA
possibly absorbed inthe large intestine is lessthan 10 %ofthe amount
infused. The HA-containing casein infused into the caecum amounted to
30 %ofthe protein maintenance reguirement ofthe pigs. Therefore,if
any amino acidswere absorbed from the large intestine the amount was less
than 3 %of the maintenanece requirement of the pigs. The results are in
accordance with results of Zebrowska (1975)and Just et al. (1981), who
showed that the absorption of amino acids in the large intestine is
insignificant for protein supply.

References
Hagemeister,H. &H. Erbersdobler, 1985.Chemical labelling of dietary
protein by transformation oflysine to homoarginine: anew technique to
follow intestinal digestion and absorption. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 44 :133A.
Just,A., H. Jorgensen & J. A.Fernandez,1981.The digestive capacity of
the caecum-colon and the value of the nitrogen absorbed from the hindgut
for protein synthesis in pigs. Br.J. Nutr.46:209 -219.
Kato, T.,M. Sano & N.Mizutani, 1989.Homocitrullinuria and homoarginuria
in lysinuric protein intolerance. J. Inher.Metab.Dis.12:157-161.
Niiyama,M.,E.Deguchi,K. Kagota &S. Namioka, 1979.Apperance of
15N-labeled intestinal microbial amino acidsin the venous blood ofthe
pig colon.Am. J. Vet.Res.40:716 -718.
Olszewski,A.& S. Buraczewski,1978.Absorption of amino acids in iso-
lated pig caecum in situ.Effect of concentration ofenzymatic casein
hydrolysate on absorption of amino acids.Acta Physiol.Pol.29:67- 77
Schmitz,M. 1988.Möglichkeiten undGrenzen der Homoargininmarkierungs-
methode zur Messung der Proteinverdaulichkeit beimSchwein. Diss. Agr.
F a c , Univ. Kiel,1988.
Zebrowska, T., 1975.The apparent digestibility ofnitrogen and individual
amino acids in the large intestine ofpigs. Rocz. Nauk. Roln. B97-1:
117-123.

87
 THE KINETICS OF PLASMA LYSINE AFTER ORAL AND
PARENTERALADMINISTRATION TOPIGS

J.M. Fentener van Vlissingen1*,J.G.M. Bakker1, L.P.Jager2,

N.P. Lenis1,H.deVisser1,F.G.M.Rüssel3,J.E.vanDijk2
1
Research Institute of Livestock Nutrition, P.O. Box 160,
8200AD Lelystad,TheNetherlands
2
CentralVeterinary Institute,Lelystad,TheNetherlands
'Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and
Dentistry,University ofNijmegen,TheNetherlands
Presentaddress:
TNO Institute of Animal Nutrition and Animal Physiology,
P.O. Box 15,NL6700AAWageningen,Netherlands.
Abstract
The fate of lysine, administered to growing pigs (± 45 kg
live weight) via oral or parenteral routes,was quantified
by pharmacokinetic analysis of systemic plasma concentra-
tions. Elimination rate after rapid intravenous admini-
strationhad ahalf-life of 2.0 ± 1.6 hrs.Absorption ofan
oral dose of lysine from the intestine (half-life of 3.6 ±
0.9 hrs) was slower than elimination (half-life of 0.9 ±
0.3 hrs).No significant liver first-pass effects could be
detected and bioavailability of lysine after enteral uptake
wasfoundtobe82± 6%.
Analysis of plasma kinetics of amino acids may provide a
valuable tool to evaluate bioavailability of dietary amino
acids. Furthermore, it can be used to quantify absorption
rate, elimination rate, and intestinal or hepatic
metabolism.
Introduction
The growth of animal tissuesdepends onthe availability of
substrates and a complex of growth regulatory mechanisms
(Buttery & Lindsay, 1980). Animal nutrition research
typically studies the supply of substrates by feed. The
maximal attainable bioavailability of substrates for tissue
growth is reflected by the digestibility of nutrients from
feed, asmeasured by thedisappearance from digesta (Rerat,
1985; Sauer & Ozimek, 1986). The bioavailability depends
also on themetabolic economy of intestinal microflora,and
enteral andhepaticfirst-passmetabolism.
The concentration of substrates in the systemic blood is
determined by: 1. increase kinetics, dependent on
gastrointestinal and liver processing of nutrients (Rerat,
1985); 2. degradation products from tissue catabolism
(Edmonds et al., 1987;Kimura et al., 1987); 3. elimination
kinetics determined by metabolism inmany different tissues
(biosynthesis,oxidation) and 4.excretion ofthe substrate

88
oritsmetabolites (Condon,1986;Tsuchiyaetal., 1989).
Although the mechanisms, which influence the kinetics of
blood concentrations, are extremely complex (Istfan et al.
1988), the blood concentrations, as measured directly, are
relevant for the availability of nutrients at the tissue
level. Pharmacokinetic analysis provides parameters on
uptake rate, total bioavailability, elimination rate, and
putative first-pass effects.Quantitative parameters may be
instrumental to indicate, though not identify, different
metabolicroutes.
The present experiment was designed to determine the
kinetics of plasma lysine after oral, portal and systemic
administration. The applicability of a pharmacokinetic
approach to the evaluation of bioavailability of nutrients
isdiscussed.
MaterialsandMethods
2.1Animals
Three pigs (cross-bred of Dutch Landrace * Large White),
aged 15 weeks,were housed individually in pens. Catheters
(refer to Fig. 1 for catheter positioning) were/placed
surgically while the animal was under general inhalation
anesthesia.
FIGURE1
Schematic drawing of position of portal, caval and jugular
cathetersand surgicalaccesstotheabdominalcavity.
Shaded vessels are arteries and open vessels are veins
(portalorsystemic).
Abbreviations: Ao = aorta; CMA = caudal mesenteric artery;
H = heart; HV = hepatic veins, draining into the caudal
caval vein; i = incision; K = Kidney; L = liver; PHV =
portalhepaticvein.
Location of tip of catheters: 1 = portal; 2 = caval; 3 =
jugular.

89
The caudal mesenteric vein was approached by a vertical
incision inthe right flankand exposed byblunt dissection
of the descending mesocolon. The catheter (Tygon, ID 1.0
mm,OD 1.8 mm, fromTalas)was introduced intothevein and
advanced cranially over a distance of approximately 12 cm,
corresponding to aposition ofthetipnearthe junctionof
the caudal mesenteric and cranial mesenteric veins. The
blood from the caudal portion of the vein drained to the
rectal veins via préexistent anastomoses without any
apparent obstructions.The catheterwas exteriorized at the
back. In one out of three animals, the sham-operated
control, the catheter was introduced into a lumbar branch
of the caudal caval vein, within the same region of the
abdomen. The left deep jugular vein was subsequently
catheterized similarly and exteriorized atthe right dorsal
aspect of the neck. Catheter exteriorization sites were
decontaminated with 70% (v/v) ethanol and covered with
adhesivebandage.
No antibacterial or analgesic therapy was indicated.
Catheters were flushed daily with physiological saline
containing 250 IU heparin per ml. Slow intravenous
infusions were administered through a disposable IV-
infusion device. Rapid infusions were performed with 60 ml
syringes. Heparinized blood samples (4 ml) were each
immediately transferred to a centrifugetube cooled onice.
After centrifugation (1600 *g, 10minutes,4°C)theplasma
was transferred to microvessels and frozen at -20'C prior
todeproteinization.
After completion of the series of experiments each animal
was killed by an intravenous injection ofbarbiturate (3to
4 g of Sodium Pentobarbital. Immediately prior to injection
of the barbiturate a 20% (v/v) suspension of Indian Ink in
saline was injected into the portal/caval catheter for
postmortal evaluation of its intravital position.
Macroscopic postmortem examination included the surgical
sites, organs, and evaluation of the position of the
catheters. The presence of ink particles in systemic and
portal blood samples was estimated in a semi-quantitative
manner after centrifugation of a dilute (10%) blood sample
after hypotonic emolysis. Hepatic tissue was examined
histopathologically.

2.2 Experimental Procedures

Feedwasgiven ata level just exceeding animal maintenance
requirements, from the day of surgery onwards. This was
aimed to prevent a substantial increase in body weight
during the experimental period and to ensure rapid intake
ofthedaily ration,whenthiswasoffered. Protein content
of the diet (16.1%)was rather low in order not to obscure
blood lysine concentrations by high lysine levels derived
from the feed. In order to maximize the utilisation of
dietary amino acids for protein synthesis, dietary amino
acid supply did hardly exceed the need for maintenance.
Energy content of the diet (2150 kCal net energy per kg

90
feed) was somewhat higher as compared to protein, in order
tominimize the oxidation ofprotein asa source ofdietary
energy. The feed was composed as follows: 77.7% barley,
19.4% tapioca, 1.5% calcium hydrogen phosphate, 0.7%
calcium carbonate, 0.25% sodium chloride, 0.20%
vitamin/mineral supplement, 0.15% L-threonine, 0.10% DL-
methionine.The animalsweregiven 48g ofthe experimental
feedperkgmetabolicweight (kg0-75)at8a.m.. This amount
was saturated withwater 20minutesbefore feeding.Most of
the meal was finished within half an hour. The animals had
freeaccesstowater.
Crystalline L-lysine (Fluka Chemie AG) was administered at
a daily dose of 0.53 g/kg metabolic body weight (kg0-75) ,
corresponding to 62or 63mmolper animalweighing 44 or45
kg respectively, and was prepared for oral or intravenous
administration as follows. Lysine was dissolved in
distilled water at an initial concentration of 150 g/L,
yielding apH ofapproximately 10.1.ThepHwas adjusted to
7.5 with a 5 M HCl-solution. The solution was then
sterilized over a 20 jum cellulose acetate sterile filter
unit (Nalge Co.) and diluted 3 times, yielding a slightly
hypertonic solution as compared to plasma. The solutions
for intravenous administration were brought to 37'C
immediatelybeforeuse.
L-lysine was administered to each animal in four different
ways on consecutive days and then the treatments were
repeated once. Within each series the order of the
different treatments was randomized. The oral dosage was
included in the meal, provided at 8 a.m., and intravenous
infusions included slow jugular infusion from 9to 10 a.m.,
rapid jugular infusion from 9.00 to 9.10 a.m. and slow
portal/caval infusion from 9 to 10 a.m.. When lysine was
given orally a jugular intravenous dose of 300 ml saline
was infused from 9to 10a.m.. Blood samplingwasdone at8
a.m., at 9 a.m., at 9.10 a.m. (treatment C only), every 30
minutesupto 11a.m., atnoon,andat2,4,and 6p.m..

2.3AminoAcidAnalysis
Heparinized plasma samples were prepared for amino acid
analysis according to Condon (1986) with some slight
modifications. Norleucine was added as an internal
standard. Amino acid concentration was measured by
chromatography on aLKB 4151Alpha Plus amino acid analyzer
with the recommended sodium citrate buffer system.
Validation of the method included evaluation of storage
effects and recovery of lysine added to blood/plasma
samples. Recovery of lysine added to plasma ranged from 91
to 106%and recovery fromheparinized blood ranged from 108
to 122%, indicating that the uptake of lysine by blood
cells during 20 minutes equilibration at room temperature
was less than proportional to equilibration in the plasma
compartment.

91
2.4 DataAnalysis
Analysis of kinetic parameters of lysine absorption and
elimination was done by three different models, dependent
on the best mathematical description of the rough data.
Plasma concentration-time curves of lysine after
intravenous bolus injection or slow infusion could be
described best by a two-compartment model with elimination
from the central compartment. The curves obtained after
oral administration were adequately described by a one-
compartment model with first-order absorption. For standard
equations to these models,see Gibaldi & Perrier, 1982.To
account for the endogenous lysine levels in plasma, the
basal plasma level (CB)was added to each of the equations
used. Plasma levels of each subject were fitted to the
appropriate models using the nonlinear least squares
regression program NONLIN (Metzler et al., 1974), in which
all data were reciprocally weighed (1/C2).From these fits
basicpharmacokinetic parameterswerecalculated.

Results
Recovery from surgery by the animals and subsequent
experiments were uncomplicated. The animals were never
feverish and somatic growth (increase of body weight, as
assessed after an overnight fast) during the experimental
period ranged from l to 4 kg and corresponded to the
restricted feeding regimen. Gross aspect and weight of
organs provided no indication of functional disturbances.
Catheter position as evaluated by dissection and recovery
of inkparticles indicated thattwoanimals (Piand P2)had
the catheter in the portal venous system with the tip at
the junction with the cranial mesenteric vein, and one
•animal (C)had the catheter incavalposition.This control
animal proved valuable with respect to the causal
explanation ofhepatic changes,asdetected inthe portally
catheterized animals, but not in the cavally catheterized
animal. These changes of the liver were characterized by
cellular swelling, associated with extensive glycogen
storage and causing partial occlusion of the liver
sinusoids.
Elimination kinetics after rapid intravenous (jugular)
infusion of lysinewerebestdescribed by a two-compartment
model. The deduced kinetic parameters are presented in
Table 1 and an example ofplasma lysine concentration as a
function of time, and fitted curve, is shown in Figure 2A.
The data indicate that lysine was eliminated quite rapidly
from the plasma under these circumstances. Initial volume
of distribution averaged 0.18 1/kg while the volume of
distribution at steady statewas 0.43 L/kg. Thus, after an
initial rapid distribution over the plasma (blood)
compartment, there is some expansion to a second, larger
compartment, including other extracellular and intra-
cellular fluidcompartments.

92
 FIGURE2.
Plasma lysine concentration (Y-axis, logarithmic, mmol/L)
in relationship to time (X-axis, linear, hours) after
administration of 0.53 g/kg0-75 of lysine via different
routes and at different rates. Typical examples of each
treatment (animal PI) are shown,presenting both the rough
data and the curves fitted according tothemodels referred
in the Materials and Methods section. Refer to Table 1 for
pharmacokineticparameters.
A: jugular bolus injection; B: slow jugular infusion; C:
slowportal infusion;D:oraladministration.

10

10

10 20 10 20

93

L
 Kinetics of plasma lysine concentration after slow
intravenous (jugular, caval, or portal) infusion were also
analysed by a two-compartment model, but infusion and
elimination kinetics were calculated separately (Table 1).
An example of plasma concentration after jugular infusion,
as a function of time, and fitted curve, is presented in
.Figure 2B. The data obtained after portal infusions (Fig.
2C) were similar to those found after jugular or caval
infusion. The area under the curve (AUC) ranged from 4.24
to 6.54 mmol/hr*L after infusion into a systemic vein and
from 3.85 to 5.29 mmol/hr*L after portal infusion,
indicating that no detectable liver first-pass effects were
present.Mean residence time (MRT)and clearance (CL)after
slow intravenous infusion are similar to these parameters
after jugular bolus injection as well. Therefore, the data
obtained after slow intravenous infusion by either route
were combined in Table 1. Distribution volume in the
central compartment tends to be somewhat larger after slow
intravenous infusion than after jugular bolus injection,
indicating progression to steady state distribution during
the infusionperiod.

TABLE1.
Pharmacokinetic parameters of lysine after intravenous
(jugular) bolus injection, intravenous infusion (jugular or
caval), andoraladministration.Mean±SD.

pharmaco- intravenous intravenous oral

kinetic bolus infusion administration
parameter (n= 6 ) (n=8) (n= 6)

F 1.00 0.91 ± 0.16 0.82 + 0.06

CL 0.24 ±0.03 0.25 ± 0.04 0.24 ± 0.04
V, 0.18 ±0.02 0.26 ± 0.03
Vss 0.43 ±0.25 0.62 ± 0.22 0.29 ± 0.10
MRT 1.9 ± 1 . 4 2.6 ± 1 . 2 6.5 + 1.4
MAT 4.5 + 1.8
t 1/2z 2.0 ±1.6 3.7 ± 1.9 0.9 + 0.3
1/2A ——— 3.6 + 0.9
CB ' 0.24 ±0.02 0.23 ± 0.03 0.22 ± 0.03

Abréviationsand units:F=bioavailability; CL= clearance

(L/hr*kg); V,= initialvolume ofdistribution (L/kg);Vss=
volume of distribution at steady-state (L/kg); MRT = mean
residence time (hr);MAT = mean absorption time (hr);t1/2z
= half-life of the terminal exponential phase (hr);t1/2. '=
half-life of the absorption phase (hr); CB = basal lys'ine
concentration (mmol/L).

94
The kinetics of plasma lysine concentration after oral
administration are presented in Table 1 and Figure 2D.
After oral administration of lysine the concentration in
the systemic blood increased with a time constant (rte)of
3.8 to 7.6 hours and an absorption half-life of 2.6 to 5.3
hours (Table 1 ) , indicating that absorption from the
intestine takes several hours and is dependent on
absorption kinetics rather than enzymatic digestion, which
clearly isnot anessential step inthedigestion of lysine
monomers. The oral uptake of lysine derived from the basal
ration is negligible as compared to the experimental oral
dose and was present during comparative intravenous dosage
schedules and therefore treated as an endogenous level in
data analysis.Elimination kinetics of lysine after an oral
dosewere similar to elimination kinetics after intravenous
administration (Table1 ) .
Bioavailability of lysine after an oral dose was deduced
from kinetic parameters and presented in Table 1. The mean
area under the curve after oral administration in each
animal was divided by the mean area under the curve after
intravenous bolus injection in the same animal and
expressed as the fraction absorbed. The oral bio-
availabilitywas82±6%. '

Discussion
The present experiment was designed to explore the
potential of a pharmacokinetic approach to determine amino
acid absorption and metabolism (bioavailability) by
analysisofchanges inplasmaconcentrations.
Thehepatic changes observed inthose animals thathad been
infused with lysine through the portal vein, contrasting
with the control animal thathad been infused intracavally,
remain unexplained. No direct hepatotoxic effects from
lysine have been documented so far, and ionic strength and
pH of the solution were not likely to cause any tissue
damagewhen infused atarate so slow.The intravenous load
of lysine per se did not cause any excessive hepatic
glycogen storage in the control animal, so hepatic changes
were apparently associated with the portal route of
introduction and may depend on a regional endo-/paracrine
mechanism. The distribution of lysine overblood plasma and
cellular compartments,invivo and invitro, indicated that
lysine initially occupied the extracellular fluid
compartment. Later, amino acids including lysine can be
enriched in tissues and blood cells as compared to plasma
(Edmonds &Baker,1987;VanBerlo, 1988).
The quantification of enteral uptake of lysine by plasma
kinetic parameters seemsto be suitablewhen various routes
of administration are compared. The enteral absorption
kinetics show that uptake occurred at a substantial rate
during several hours after intake, starting quite rapidly.
Half of the lysine was absorbed after three to fivehours.

95
Enzymatic hydrolysis of protein, often thought to be the
rate limiting step in protein digestion, did_not play a
role in this model and it is thus concluded that enteral
absorption was the rate limiting step in the process of
transfer of lysine to the systemic pool. This corresponds
to the observations of Buraczewski et al., 1980, who
measured the rate of disappearance from the digesta
directly. The rate of absorption corresponded well to
portalabsorptiondataobtainedbyRerat (1985).

Elimination of plasma lysine occurred at a similar rate

after each route of administration. This does not proof,
but suggest, that elimination mechanisms involved may be
identical in each case. Apparently, elimination rate was
not enhanced when plasma concentrations of lysine were
excessive. Elimination of lysine from plasma may occur in
different ways, for example conversion to other amino acids
by reduction of the part of the molecule that is specific
to lysine, by desamination and/or decarboxylation, by
oxidation (Imura & Walser, 1988; Reiser et al., 1988;
Jahoor et al., 1988), by excretion, or by incorporation
intopeptides/proteins. The incorporation of labeled lysine
administered orally or intravenously inhuman milk proteins
was somewhat faster after intravenous bolus injection but
cumulative incorporation after several hours was identical
(Irving et al., 1988). Urinary excretion may be a function
ofplasmaconcentration (Tsuchiyaetal.,.1989).
Hepatic metabolism seemed to be quantitatively insig-
nificant, while no liver first-pass effect was detected by
the methods used. The bioavailability of an oral dose of
lysine was high, indicating that enteral metabolism is
limited. Digestibility of synthetic lysine was not
quantified in this experiment, but generally free amino
acids added to the feed have disappeared by 100% from the
digestawhen these arriveattheend ofthe small intestine
(Sauer & Ozimek, 1986). The amount of 18% of the lysine
that isnot availableto theanimal correspondswell tothe
proportion metabolized by the intestinal microflora, as
reportedbyDiericketal. (1986a& 1986b).

Although amino acids may not be stored by the animal as

effectively as fat or glucose,the slow characteristics of
absorption and elimination kinetics account for a
circulating pool that well covers the usual between-meals
intervals. During extended intervals between meals (24
hours in this study) tissue proteins are degraded to
provideadequate levelsofcirculating aminoacids.
The approach of quantification of bioavailability of
nutritional amino acids by studying plasma kinetics may be
a useful tool in the prediction of nutritional value of
feeds and feedstuffs, when the limitations of the method
arerespected. Firstly,not all aminoacids show adistinct
postprandial peak (Fentener van Vlissingen et al., 1990).
It seems that only the uptake of amino acids with distinct
changes in postprandial plasma concentrations can be
evaluated this way. Secondly, although this experiment on

96
lysine did not reveal a hepatic first-pass effect, this
does not predict such an effect to be absent with respect
to other amino acids to be studied (Rerat, 1985). The
research on functional plasma amino acid levels may also
lead to the definition of desirable (recommended) plasma
amino acid patterns in relationship to growth. This would
provide a method to evaluate feeds, but also feeding
strategies, with respect to bioavailablity of dietary
protein for animal production. It is,however,a field that
has hardly been explored yet and that only comes within
view by the introduction of more efficient methods of
quantification ofaminoacids.

Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to H. Everts and A.M. van Vuuren for
surgical assistance, to J.Th.M. van Diepen for preparing
theexperimental feed,toT. Koorn and R. Terluin and staff
for animal care and to S. Klaver and Mrs.A.J. Steinmeijer
foraminoacidanalyses.

References

Berlo,C.L.H.van,1988.Splanchnicaminoacidand ammonia
metabolism - studies in the pig. Doctoral Thesis,
Maastricht,Netherlands,99pp.
Buraczewski, S., 1980. Aspects of protein digestion and
metabolism in monogastric animals. Proceedings of the
Third Symposium of the European Association of Animal
Science,Vol. 1p. 179-195.Bundesforschungsanstalt für
Landwirtschaft FAL,Braunschweig.
Buttery, P.J. & D.B. Lindsay, Eds., 1980. Protein
deposition in animals. Butterworths, London, Boston,
305pp.
Condon, G.D., 1986. Amino Acid Analysis - Theory and
Laboratory Techniques. LKB Biochrom Ltd., Cambridge,
U.K., 62pp.
Dierick, N.A., I.J. Vervaeke, J.A. Decuypere & H.K.
Henderickx, 1986a. Influence of the gut flora and of
some growth-promoting feed additives on nitrogen
metabolism in pigs. I. Studies in vitro. Livestock
Production Science 14:161-176.
Dierick, N.A., I.J. Vervaeke, J.A. Decuypere & H.K.
Henderickx, 1986b. Influence of the gut flora and of
some growth-promoting feed additives on nitrogen
metabolism in pigs. II. Studies in vivo. Livestock
ProductionScience 14:177-193.
Edmonds, M.S. & D.H. Baker, 1987. Effects of fasting on
tissue amino acid concentrations and urea-cycle
enzymatic activities in young pigs. Journal of Animal
Science 65:1538-1552.

97
FentenervanVlissingen,J.M., J.G.M.Bakker,L.P.Jager,
N.P. Lenis, H. de Visser, F.G.M. Rüssel.& J.E. van
Dijk, 1990. Kinetics of plasma lysine after oral and
parenteral administration to pigs. Netherlands Journal
ofAgricultural Science38:623-639.
Gibaldi,M. &D.Perrier,1982.Pharmacokinetics.Marcel
DekkerInc.,NewYork,494pp.
Imura,K. &M.Walser,1988.Rateofwholebodyprotein in
the rat as calculated from fractional oxidation of
leucine,valine,ormethionine.Metabolism 37:591-596.
IrvingC.S.,E.W.Malphus,M.R.Thomas,L.Marks &P.D.
Klein, 1988. Infused and ingested labeled lysines:
appearance in human-milk proteins. American Journal of
ClinicalNutrition 47:49-52.
Jahoor, F., A.A. Jackson & M.H.N. Golden, 1988. In vivo
metabolism of nitrogenprecursors forurea synthesis in
the postprandial rat. Annals of Nutrition and
Metabolism 32:240-244.
Kimura,R.E.,T.R. LaPine,J.Johnston &J.Z. Ilich,1987.
The effect of fasting on rat portal venous and aortic
blood glucose, lactate, alanine, and glutamine.
PediatricResearch 23:241-244.
Metzler,C M . , G.K. Elfring &A.J.McEwen,1974.Apackage
of computer programs for pharmacokinetic modeling.
Biometrics 30:562-563.
Reiser,W.,J.Vogt &J.R. Reichl,1988.Growthmodel for
the pig on the basis of amino acid composition of the
diet. Journal ofAnimal Physiology andAnimal Nutrition
60: 96-101.
Rerat,A.A., 1985.Intestinal absorptionofendproducts
from digestion of carbohydrates and proteins in the
pig.ArchivesofAnimalNutrition 35:461-480.
Sauer,W.C. &L.Ozimek, 1986.Digestibility of amino acids
in swine: results and their practical applications. A
review.Livestock ProductionScience 15:367-388.
Tsuchiya,H.T.Hayashi,M.Tatsumi,Y.Hoshino,S.Ohtani
& N. Takagi, 1989. High-performance liquid-chromato-
graphic analysis for serotonin and tryptamine excreted
in urine after oral loading with L-tryptophan.
Clin.Chem. 35:43-47.

98
 ANTIBODIES FORMATION AGAINST PEA PROTEINS IN
PIGLETS
M.P. Le Guen1, G.H. Tolman2 andJ. Huisman2

1 G.I.E. EURETEC, 12avenue GeorgeV, 75008 Paris, France

2 TNO-Instituteof AnimalNutrition andPhysiology (ILOB), PO Box 15, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands

Abstract
In young piglets given a raw pea-based diet, circulatory antibodies developped against pea
legumin and vicilin. The maximum was reached in about 3 weeks after commencement of
experimental feeding. The initial and thereafter antibody levels were higher when the mother's
diet contained peas.

Introduction
In normal physiological conditions, the gut-wall prevents the passage of dietary antigens from
the intestinal lumen into the blood circulation (Walker et al. 1975). In preruminant calves fed
rawpea flour, Nunes do Prado et al. (1988) however observed a formation of antibodies against
peaprotein, along with an increased gutpermeability to macromolecules. /
The objective of the present study was to determine if piglets develop an immune response to
raw pea protein as calves do. It was also attempted to check the influence of the sow's diet on
this response.

Materials and Methods

Animals. Two groups of three piglets were used in the experiment. The piglets of one group
(groupI) were weaned from sows fed a diet containing raw pea. Their live weight and age one
week after arrival was 5.7 kg and 4 weeks. The other group (groupII) were piglets of 7.5 kg
live weight and 5 weeks of age, coming from sows fed a pea-free diet for at least 9 months
before parturition. They werehoused individually in metabolism cages.

Diets. One semi-purified diet was formulated (Table 1). The proteins were provided by the
winter pea Frijaune and the pea protein concentrate obtained by air-classification of the same
peas. The chemical composition ispresented inTable 2.
All the piglets were fed restrictedly at 2.2 times their maintenance energy requirement (ARC,
1981) which was 4% of the body weight. The feed was offered twice daily (08.00h, 16.00h) as
dry pellets (3 mm 0 ; pelleting temperature 50-55°C). Water was freely available from nipple
drinkers.

Table 1. Composition of the diet (in %).

Ingredients
Rawpeas" 25.0
Air-classified pea" 17.8
Maize starch 30.7
Dextrose 15.0
Sunflower oil 2.0
Cellulose 3.0
Vitamin/Mineral mix" 5.9
a
Formoredetail, seeHuismanetal.(1990).
Inaddition:DL-methionine .29%,L-threonine ,06%,L-tryptophan.06%

99
Table2. Calculated chemical composition (in %), analysed trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA, mg
inhibited trypsin/g) and analysed lectin content Qiglg).

Items

Net energy (kCal/kg) 2463

Crudeprotein (Nx 6.25) 16.3
Crude fat 2.9
Crude fibre 5.0
Ash 6.2
Calcium 0.99
Available phosphorus 0.57

TIA 1.9
Lectin 1.9
RawpeaFrijaune : TIA = 2.1 mgt.i./g, Lectins — 3.6^g/g

Blood sampling. Blood samples were taken via tubes from the vena cava cranialis before the
16.00h meal, on theday of the arrival of thepiglets (week w0)and then once a week at the same
timeduring 7 weeks (wj...w7). After centrifugation, about 3 ml serum was separated and kept at
- 20°Cuntil analysis.

Antibodies. The indirect ELISA method has been applied to the serum to detect IgG antibodies
against Pisum sativum legumin and against vicilin purified according to Guéguen et al. (1984).
The method consists in coating ELISA microtiterplates (96 weis, NUNCbrand) with legumin or
vicilin solution, washing and incubating with thepiglet serum. Thepiglet antibodies fixed on the
pea antigens are detected using IgG raised against porcine antibodies and conjugated with
Peroxydase. The colorimetric reaction between the Peroxydase and an added substrate is
measured at 492 nm. The absorbance is proportional to the amount of antibodies raised by the
piglets againstpea legumin or vicilin.

No statistical analysis wereperformed as the number of animals was small.

Results and Discussion

Performances
Datas concerning the growth performances are presented in Table 3. They concern only two
groups of three piglets without controls. Therefore they can not be generalized to piglets on a
growth trial. The piglets of group I had a daily weight gain of 178g vs. 207 g in group II, for a
daily feed intakeof 341g and 437 g, respectively.

Table 3. Weight gain and feed conversion of piglets fed the raw pea diet during 7 weeks; piglets
comingfrom asowfedrawpeas(groupI)orfromasownotfedrawpeas(groupII).

Liveweight... Initial Final Weight gain Feed conversion

Group I 577kg 14.5 kg 178g/d L92
Group II 7.5 kg 17.7 kg 207 g/d 2.11

100
Grculatory antibodiesagainstpea protein

Theabsorbance values of group I and group IImeasured individually have beenpooled and the
mean was calculated to get one value per pea protein and per week (cf. Figure 1). Serum
antibody responses to pea legumin or pea vicilin were detected in all six piglets. An increase of
up to 122% (legumin) and 134% (vicilin) was recorded within three weeks of commencement of
feeding raw pea diet. The levels of antibodies decreased after week w3 but increased again
during weekw7. Theresponsewas similar for both globulin proteins.
Inpiglets of 4 to 8weeks old, immune responsehasbeen shown to occur by means of egg white
lysozyme inoculation (Hammerberg et al. 1989). Feeding a milk-substitute diet containing raw
peaflour to calves led also to humoral antibody response against legumine and vicilin (Nunes do
Prado etal. 1988). Intheir study the rateof increaseof antibodies decreased four weeks after the
startof the experimental diet.
The humoral response possibly indicates an increase of gut permeability to macromolecules or
large polypeptides, meaning defects in the mucosal barrier. Increased gut permeability to
macromolecules has been shown in veal calves fed raw pea flour, using ß-lactoglobulins, large
molecules that normally do not go through the gutwall (Nunes do Prado et al. 1988). Toullec &
Grongnet (1990) did not observed however thepassageof ß-lactoglobulins in calves fed wheat or
maizeproteins, although aformation of antibodies against these dietary proteins was detected.
An enhancement of antigen uptake could result from toxic agents (Van Dijk et al. 1988). Lectins
present in raw pea are maybe harmfull enough for the mucosal barrier to modify the
permeability. Phaseolus bean lectins have been shown to stimulate the disruption of the
microvilli inthejejunum of pigs (King et al. 1983). '
Also a long-term presence of dietary proteins, which are not digested, may lead to an increased
antigen uptake (Van Dijk et al. 1988). The protein of the actual diet had a low apparent ileal
digestibility of 72% (Huisman et al. 1990).

Absorbance

0.5

T weeks
Fig. 1. Absorbance values measured at 492 nm for legumin ( o ) and vicilin (•) in serum of
piglets (pooled group I and II)

Influenceof themother's diet

The relation between the antibodies formation in piglets and their mother's diet can be
evaluated onthe starting point (w0)and on the evolution of the response (HJ to w?).
The absorbance values measured for each group of piglets before they received any test feed (w0)
were low, and existed even when thepiglets had not been in contact with pea proteins (group II)
(Table 4). Prior to experimental feeding, low antibody titers were also found in veal calves
against wheat or maize proteins (Toullec & Grongnet, 1990), or soya proteins (Barratt et al.
1978, Kilshaw and Sissons 1979, Guilloteau et al. 1986),or pea proteins (Nunes do Prado et al.
1988). A non-specific absorption of antibodies onto the antigen on the titerplates may be the
reason.

101
When the piglets mother were fed peas (group I), the absorbance values at week w0 were higher
: + 77% for legumin, + 172% for vicilin. These animalshad aprior experience of pea protein;
either a passive transfer of antibodies from the sow via the colostrum or a co-eating of the sow
diet bypiglets.

Table 4. Influence of the sow's diet on the absorbance values at week w0 when testing piglet
serum for antibodies againstpea legumin and pea vicilin.

Absorbance Group I Group II

Anti-legumin .643 (n=l) .364 (n=3)
Anti-vicilin .682 (n=3) .251 (n=3)
n :number of observations. Group I: piglets motherhad peas. Group II:piglets mother had no peas.

The evolution of the immune response differed according to the groups. In group I, the
response of thepiglets was not only characterized by ahigher starting point but also by a higher
increase of antibodies formation against pea legumin than in group II (Figure 2). The increased
difference was maintained from w3to w7. For vicilin, the evolutions for group I and II were less
clear (Figure3).

Absorbance
1.5,

weeks

Fig. 2. Evolution of the absorbance values measured at 492 nm for legumin in serum of piglets
of group I (o) and II (•) fed rawpeas from week 0 until week 7.

Absorbance
15.

i weeks

Fig. 3. Evolution of the absorbance values measured at 492 nmfor vicilin in serum of piglets of
group I (o) and II (•) fed raw peas from week 0 until week 7.

102
Conclusions
This small scale experiment revealed that antibodies against pea legumin and vicilin are being
madeby piglets fed rawpeas. The intensity of the immune response is difficult to estimate as no
negative control was used. No indication is available as for the gut permeability. The use of a
largemolecule (ß-lactoglobulin) as amarker or the analysis of immunoreactive legumin or lectin
inthe serum mighthave indicated whether thegut permeability was increased or not.
Theobserved immune reaction doesnot meana food allergy; thepiglets mayhave established an
immunological tolerance (VanDijk etal. 1988).If therehad been afood allergy, gastrointestinal
signs would have appeared; diarrhoea, weight loss, poor growth.
As for the mother's diet, the part of responsibility between maternal immunity or co-eating of
thepea diet of the sow needs to be cleared up.

References
Agricultural Research Council (ARC), 1981.The nutrient requirements for pigs. Commonwealth
Agricultural Bureaux, England.
Barratt, M.E.J., P.J. Stracham &P. Porter, 1978. Antibody mechanisms implicated in digestive
disturbances following ingestion of soya protein in calves and piglets. Clin. Exp. Immunol.
31:305-312.
Guéguen, J., A.T. Vu &F. Schaeffer, 1984. Largescalepurification and characterization of pea
globulins. Journal of Science, Food and Agriculture 35:1024-1033.
Guilloteau, P., T. Corring, J.A. Chayvialle, C. Bernard, J.W. Sissons & R. Toullec, 1986.
Effect of soya protein on digestive enzymes, gut hormone and anti-soya antibody plasma
levels inthepreruminant calf. Reproduction Nutrition Développement 26:717-728.
Hammerberg, C., G.G. Schurig & D.L. Ochs, 1989. Immunodeficiency in young pigs.
AmericanJournal of Veterinary Research 50:868-874.
Huisman, J., M.P. Le Guen, J. Guéguen, G.M. Beelen &A.F.B, van der Poel, 1990. Digestive
response of piglets to isolated fraction from peas. PhD thesis, Agricultural University of
Wageningen, TheNetherlands, p. 81-97.
Kilshaw, P.J. &J.W. Sissons, 1979. Gastrointestinal allergy to soybean protein in preruminant
calves. Antibody production and digestive disturbances in calves fed heated soyabean flour.
Research Veterinary Science27:361-365.
King, T.P., R. Begbie &A. Cadenhead, 1983. Nutritional toxicity of raw kidney beans in pigs.
Immunocytochemical and cytopathological studies on the gut and the pancreas. Journal of
Science,Food and Agriculture 34:1404-1412.
Nunes doPrado, I., R. Toullec, J. P. Lalles, L. Hingand and J. Guéguen 1988. Anticorps contre
les protéines alimentaires et perméabilité intestinale aux macromolécules chez le veau
préruminant recevant de la farine de pois. Reproduction Nutrition Développement 28(Suppl.
1): 157 -158.
Nunes do Prado, L, R. Toullec, P. Guilloteau & J. Guéguen, 1990. Digestion des protéines de
pois dans la caillette et l'intestin grêle du veau préruminant: résultats préliminaires.
Reproduction Nutrition Développement, Suppl.2:195s-196s.
Toullec, R. &J.P. Grongnet, 1990. Remplacement partiel des protéines du lait par celles du blé
ou du maïsdans les aliments d'allaitement: influence sur l'utilisation digestive chez le veau de
boucherie. INRAProductions Animales, 3:201-206.
VanDijk, J.E., A. Fledderus, J.M.W.M. Mouwen & C. Holzhauer, 1988. Gastrointestinal food
allergy and its role in large domestic animals. Veterinary Research Communications,
12(l):47-59.
Walker, W.A., M. Wu, K.J. Isselbacher & K.J. Bloch, 1975. Intestinal uptake of
macromolecules. Ill - Studies on the mechanism by which immunization interferes with
antigenuptakes. Journal of Immunology 115:854-861.

103
MUCOSAL CATHEPSIN B AND D ACnVTITES AND THE
RELATION TO INTESTINAL MACROMOLECULAR
ABSORPTIONDURINGPOSTNATALDEVELOPMENTINPIGS
B.R.Weström,G.M.Ekström,N.Pantzar&B.W.Karlsson

DepartmentofAnimalPhysiology,UniversityofLund,Helgonavägen3B,
S-22362Lund,Sweden.

Abstract
Theaimofthisstudywastoinvestigatethepossibleroleofan
alterationintheintracellularproteolyticcapacityoftheenterocytes
inthemechanismofmacromoleculartransmissionandgutclosure.The
intestinalmucosaluptakeandtransmissionoffedmacromoleculesinto
bloodwasevaluatedinpigletsofseveralagegroupsandtheactivityof
cathepsinBandD,thetwomajorlysosomalproteinases,wasmeasuredin
mucosalhomogenatesfromtheproximalanddistalsmallintestine.
Theresultsshowednosignificantdifferencesintheactivityof
cathepsinBandDbetweennewbornpigletsandpigs24hoursold,the
latterhavingaconfirmedpostclosurestatus.Furthermorethe
proteolysis-resistantmarker,FITC-dextran,showedthesametransferto
thebloodbeforeandafterclosureasthatoftheproteinmarkers.Thus,
itisimprobablethatintestinalclosureisduetoanincreasein
mucosalintracellulardegradationofinternalizedmacromolecules.
Keywords:Intestinalclosure,CathepsinBandD,Pig,Development

Introduction
Thehightransmissionofmilk-derivedmacromoleculesfromthesmall
intestineintothebloodoftheneonatalpigceases18-36hafterbirth
atintestinalclosure (Weströmetal.,1984;Baintner,1986).The
presentstudywasperformedtoinvestigatethepossibleroleofan
alterationintheintracellularproteolyticcapacityoftheenterocytes
inthemechanismofgutclosure (Ekström&Weström,1990).The
intestinalmucosaluptakeandtransmissionoffedmacromoleculesinto
thebloodwasevaluatedinpigletsofseveralagegroupsandthe
activityofcathepsinBandDwasmeasuredinmucosalhomogenatesfrom
theproximalanddistalsmallintestine.

Materials and Methods

NineteenSwedishLandracepigletsobtainedfrom5litterswerestudied
inthefollowingagegroups:newborn,unsuckled0-3hold;24hold;6
daysoldand;4-8weeksold.Theintestinalcapacitytointernalizeand
transmitmacromoleculesintothebloodwasevaluatedbygavagefeedinga
markersolutioncontainingbovineIgG (BIgG),bovineserumalbumin
(BSA),andFITC-conjugateddextran70,000 (FITC-dextran).Fourhlater
thepigswereanaesthetized,abloodsamplewastakenbypunctureofthe
anteriorvenacavaandlaparatomywasperformed.Mucosalscrapingsfrom
theproximalanddistalsmallintestinewerefrozeninliquidnitrogen
andstoreduntilanalysis.Forhistologicalexamination,2 x 2 mmpieces
werecutfromthesamesections.
Electroimmunoassayandradialimmunodiffusionwereusedtodetermine
theBSAandBIgGserumlevels,andfluorescencespectrophotometryfor
theFITC-dextranlevels,asdescribedearlier (Weströmetal., 1984).

104
CathepsinBandDactivitiesinthemucosalscrapingsweredetermined
accordingtoDavies&Messer (1984)afterhomogenisationinice-cold
0.15Msaline (1:1w/v)andcentrifugationat16,000xgfor30minutes.
Thetissuesampleswerefixedinethanol/aceticacid (99/1)overnight
at4°C,paraffinembeddedandcutinsections5 \Smthick,whichwere
fixedinparaformaldehydevapor (55-60°C)for1.5hour.Immuno-
histologicaldetectionoftheproteinswascarriedoutinthesections
afterdeparaffination,rehydrationandincubationwithprimaryantibody,
rabbitanti-BSAoranti-BIgGandincubationwithsecondaryantibody;
TRITC-conjugatedgoatanti-rabbit-IgG.EvaluationofFITC-fluorescence
wasmadeafterdeparaffinatingthesections.

Results
NosignificantdifferencesinthemucosalactivitiesofcathepsinB
andDwerefoundbetweentheagegroups (Table 1). Inmostcases,the
activitypresentinthedistalintestinalmucosawashigherthaninthat
fromtheproximalsection.
Thetransmissionofallthemarkerstotheblood4hafterfeeding
werehigherinthenewbornpigsthaninolder,post-closurepigs,allof
whichonlyhadminuteamountsofthemarker (Table 2).Noapparent
differenceinthemucosaluptakeofmarkerscouldbedetectedbetween
thenewborn,preclosureandpostclosurepigs24hold.Allthreemarkers
appearedtogetherinavesicularpatternintheenterocytesintfhe
proximalportionandwithinalargevacuoleinthoselocatedinthe
distalportion.Inthe6day-oldpigs,uptakewasonlyfoundinthe
distalsmallintestine,whereasnouptakecouldbefoundinthepigs
4-8weeksofage.

Table1.MucosalactivityofcathepsinBandD (mean±SD)intheproximal
anddistalsmallintestineduringpostnataldevelopmentinthepig.
SpecificactivityforcathepsinBisgiveninnmolesp-nitroanilin/mg
protein/minandforcathepsinDin|i.gdegradedhemoglobulin/mg
protein/min.

Age n Region CathepsinB CathepsinD

Newborn 7 Proximal 1.2 + 0.4 156± 43

Distal 2.6 + 1.1 220± 43
24 hours 7 Proximal 0.6 ± 0.3 120± 20
Distal 0.6 + 0.3 97± 15
6 days 2 Proximal 0.8 + 0.3 155± 106
Distal 2.1 ± 1.3 280+ 18
4-8 weeks 3 Proximal 1.1 + 0.5 105+ 21
Distal 1.0 ± 0.2 280± 7

Discussion
Previousstudiesofneonatalanimalshavesuggestedthatthereisa
relationshipbetweenthepresenceofmucosallysosomalactivityandthe
transferofmacromoleculesacrosstheintestineintotheblood.This
associationhasbeenstudiedinpigs (Brown&Moon,1979);itwas
observedthatthecathepsinBactivitywashigherinpigs2daysold
thaninthose24hold.However,thecapacityformacromolecular
transferwasnotstudiedinthosepigsnorwasthecathepsinDactivity.

105
Table2.Meanbloodserumlevels ((ig/ml)ofmarkers4haftergavage
feedingpigletsofvariousages.

Age n BSA BIgG FITC-dextran

Newborn 7 2000+460 2700±810 310±20

24hours 7 109+100 87+109 9±9
6days 2 _1 - +2
— —
4-8weeks 3 +

1 2
undetectable; traceamounts

Theresultsofthisstudyshowednosignificantdifferencesinthe
activityofthetwomajorlysosomalproteinases,cathepsinBandD,
betweennewbornpiglets,andthatofpigs24hoursold,whichhada
confirmedpostclosurestatus.Theproteolysis-resistantmarker,FITC-
dextran,showedthesametransfertothebloodbeforeandafterclosure
asthatoftheproteinmarkers,furtherweakeningthesuggestionthat
intracellularproteolysisplaysamajorroleinthemechanismof
intestinalclosure.
Afterclosure,theinternalizedmacromoleculeswillremaininthe
vacuolestobedegradedortofinallydisappearfromthemucosadueto
cellsheddingfromthevillustip.Thefetal-typeenterocyteshavinga
highendocytoticactivitywillbereplacedbynewadult-typecells
havinglessendocytoticactivity (Smith&Jarvis,1977).Thiscell
replacementproceedsinaproximal-distaldirection,beingcompletedin
theproximalportionbythetimethepigis6daysofage,asobserved
inthisstudy.Distally,therewillstillbeuptakeofmacromolecules,
butbythetimethepigsare4-8weeksoldthiswillnotoccurdueto
completereplacementofthecells.
Inconclusion,proteolyticactivityintheformofcathepsinBandD
ispresentinthesmallintestinalepitheliumoftheyoungpig.Since
_theactivityoftheseenzymesdonotchangeatclosure,itisimprobable
thatclosureisduetoanincreaseinintracellulardegradationof
internalizedmacromolecules.

Acknowledgements. ThisworkwassupportedbygrantsfromtheSwedish
NaturalScienceResearchCouncilandtheSwedishCouncilforForestry
andAgriculturalResearch.

References
BaintnerK.,1986.Intestinalabsorbtionofmacromoleculesandimmune
transmissionfrommothertoyoung.CRCPressInc,BocaRaton,
Florida,1986
Brown,H.H.& H.W.Moon,1979.Localisationandactivitiesof
lysosomalenzymesinjejunalandilealepithelalcellsoftheyoung
pig.Am.J.Vet.Res.40:1573.
Davies,P.H.sM.Messer,1984.IntestinalcathepsinBandD
activitiesofsucklingrats.Biol.Neonate45:197-202.
Ekström,G.M. &B.R.Weström,1990.CathepsinBandDactivitiesin
intestinalmucosaduringpostnataldevelopment inpigs.Relationto
intestinaluptakeandtransmissionofmacromolecules.Biol.Neonate,
inpress.

106
Smith,M.W. &L.G.Jarvis,1977.Growth and cell replacement inthe
newbornpig intestine.Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B206:69-89.
Weström, B.R., J. Svendsen,B.G.Ohlsson,C. Tagesson & B.W.Karlsson,
1984. Intestinal transmission ofmacromolecules (BSAand FITC-
labelled dextrans) inthe neonatalpig. Influence of age of piglet
andmolecular weight ofmarkers.Biol.Neonate 46:20-26.

107
 ANIMAL SPECIES DIFFERENCES IN ANTINUTRITIONAL
EFFECTSOFRAWPHASEOLUSVULGARISBEANSANDPISUM
SATIVUM:COMPARISONOFPIGLETS,RATS,CHICKENS AND
MICE
i) 2) 3)
J. Huisman ',A.F.B, van der Poel'and A.C.Beynen'
^TNO-Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology (ILOB), P.O. Box 15,
6700AA Wageningen, The Netherlands.
'Department of Animal Nutrition, Agricultural University, Haagsteeg 4,
6708PM Wageningen, The Netherlands.
'Department of Laboratory Animal Science, State University, P.O. Box
80.166, 3508TD Utrecht, The Netherlands.

Abstract
Experiments with young and older pigs,rats, chickens and mice were
carried out to compare antinutritional effectsofraw Phaseolus vulgaris
beans andrawPisum sativum. Weight gain inyoung pigs was much more
negatively affected than in rats and chickens. Thedifference in
sensitivity to ANFs inraw Phaseolus vulgaris between piglets, rats and
chickens could not be explainedby differences in physiologicalage.
There wasno reduction inweight gain ofmice fed with raw Phaseolus
beans.
Feeding rawPhaseolus beans and Pisum sativum causedanhypertrophy of
the pancreas inrats and chickens.Thiswas not observed in piglets.
The weight of the spleen wasdecreased inpiglets with feeding raw
Phaseolus beans, thiswas not found inrats and chickens.
Feeding Phaseolus beans and raw Pisum sativum causedadecreased weight
of the thymus in piglets, but notin rats and chickens. The results
.demonstrate that digestive physiological and biological responses should
be studied in the target animal. Ifthis isthe pigalternative small
animal models should not be used.

Introduction
Many seeds contain substances which are referredto as antinutritional
factors (ANFs) (Chubb, 1983;Friedman, 1986; Huisman, 1989; Huisman et
al., 1990; Liener, 1980). This term isused because these factors can
disturb metabolic processes and reduce the utilization of nutrients in
the animal. The modeofaction of ANFs has been studied mainly inrats,
chickens and mice. Onlyafew studies have been carried out with pigs.
In view ofthis,animportant question iswhether the results obtained
inrats and other small laboratory animals can be extrapolated to the
pig. Studies byCombsetal. (1967)and Yenetal. (1977) suggest that
the rat and piglet respond differently toANFinrawsoya beans.
Visitpanich etal. (1985)found different effects when chickpeas (Cicer
arietinum) were fed.There isnotenough information about the
sensitivity of various animal species toANFsinlegume seeds.
Therefore experiments were carried out with rats, chickens and piglets
fed Phaseolus vulgaris beans and peas (Pisum sativum)to compare the
effects on weight gain and weight of organs.

108
In this paper theresults (Huisman et al. 1990a,b,c)are summarized,
expandedwith recentresultsobtainedwith mice (Klaasenet al.. 1991).

Materialsand M e t h o d s
a.Experimentswith piglets,ratsandchickens.
In experiment 1, acomparisonwasmade between rats and pigletsfed
rawand toasted Phaseolusvulgarisbeans.Threedietswereformulated,a
control diet containing nobeansand twotestdiets containing 20%raw
beansor 20%toasted beans.A batchwith amedium,high lectin content
was selected. Part ofthesebeanswere steam heated for40minutesat
104°Cand 19%moisture inthebean.Thedietswere balanced for total
protein (about 18%), lysine,methionine+cystine,netenergy,Ca and P.
Each dietwasfed to 15ratsand to 15piglets.The pigletswereof the
crossbred Dutch Landrace x Dutch Yorkshire; the rats wereWistar
animals.Weight gain inthepigletswasmeasured intheperiod of4 to7
weeks of age and intherats intheperiod of 5to8weeks ofage.At
termination of thegrowth experiment,from each treatment8 piglets and
8 ratswere taken randomly fordissection andweighing differentorgans.
With sixrats and six piglets, not used for dissection, a faecal
digestibility trialwas carriedout.Both theratsand pigletswerefed
restrictedly ata level ofabout2.2 timesmaintenance requirement for
energy.More detailsaredescribed inHuismanet al. (1990a).
Inexperiment 2,theeffectof inclusion ofextracasein in the diet
containing rawPhaseolus vulgariswas studied.Thefollowing treatments
were involved: I,control dietcontaining casein andfishmeal asprotein
source; II,testdietcontaining 20%rawbeans+extra casein;III,test
dietcontaining 20%rawbeans;IV, test diet containing 20% toasted
beans.
The diets I, III,and IV were balanced for contents of digestible
protein, amino acids,netenergy,Caand P.
Thedigestibilityofprotein in the toasted beans was found to be
approximately 60%. This digestibility coefficientwas used tobalance
thediets I, III and IVfor digestible protein. In diet II, the same
amount of casein and fishmeal was included as inthecontrol diet.The
digestibilityofprotein inthebeanswas assumed tobezero. For more
details, seeHuisman etal. (1990b). Each dietwasfed to 12piglets,15
ratsand 60chickens.Thepigletswereofthecrossbred Dutch Landracex
Dutch Yorkshire, the rats were Wistars and thechickenswereHybro
birds.Theweight gainwasmeasured inpiglets during 2 weeks in the
period of4to6weeksof age,theratsduring 3weeks intheperiod of
5 to8weeks and thechickens during 3weeks intheperiod of 1 to 4
weeks of age. Thethreeanimal specieswerefed on arestricted basis
according to aschemebased on 2.2 times maintenance requirement for
energy.Attheendofthegrowth periodfromeachtreatment 7piglets,7
rats and 12chickenswere taken randomly and dissected for collectionof
variousorgans.

109
 In experiment 3, the effect of inclusion of peas in"the diet was
compared in rats, chickens and piglets.Two diets were formulated: a
control diet containing casein and fish meal as protein source and a
test diet inwhich apart of the casein was replaced by 30%peas.
Both dietswere balanced for digestible protein, amino acids, net
energy, Ca and P. Each diet was fed to 12piglets of the crossbred Dutch
Landrace x Dutch Yorkshire, 12Wistar rats and 60 Hybro chickens.Weight
gain of the piglets was measured in the period of 4 to 6weeks of age,
in the rats in the period of 5to8weeks of age and in the chickens in
the period of 1 to 4 weeks of age. At termination of the growth
experiment, 7piglets, 7rats and 12chickenswere randomly chosen for
dissection and collection of the organs.For more details, see Huisman
et al. (1990c).
b. Experiment with mice
The sensitivity of mice to antinutritional factors in Phaseolus
vulgaris beans was tested with raw and boiled beans.Three diets were
formulated: control diet containing no beans, test diet containing 20%
raw Phaseolus beans and a test diet containing 20%boiled Phaseolus
beans. The mean lectin content inthe raw beanswas 43500 u.g/g product
and in the boiled beans 458 u.g/g.Three experiments with mice were
carried out. In each experiment each diet was fed to 10 mice. In
experiment 1 six weeks old BALB/C mice were used and inexperiments 2
and 3, seven weeks old Cpb:SE mice.After oneweek of adaptation, the
diets were fed ad libitum during 30 days.More détails are described in
Klaasen et al. (1991).

ResultsandDiscussion
The results of experiments 1, 2and 3with piglets, rats and chickens
are summarized in Table 1.Detailed results can be found in Huisman et
al. (1990a,b and c ) .These results clearly show that weight gain of
piglets was distinctly more reduced than in rats and chickens with
feeding raw Phaseolus vulgaris beans.The piglets lost weight. Inclusion
of extra casein in adiet with raw beans (experiment 2)did not preclude
theweight loss in piglets. In rats, there were hardly any negative
effects on growth with extra casein. With peas, there was growth
reduction in piglets but not in rats and chickens. For comparison of
effects between animal species it is important that the design is
monofactorial and that identical diets are used. The diets were
therefore designed so that the only variable factor was the inclusion of
beans. In our experiments, the feeding level for the three animal
species was based on a similar low level related to metabolic weight.
Especially for chickens this feeding level was very low. It may be
possible that with higher feeding levels somewhat more negative effects
in rats and chickens would be observed.

no
Table 1 Summary of the effectsofANFs inpiglets,ratsand chickens
given dietscontaining rawPhaseolusbeansandpeas

Diet Measurement Effect

Piglet Rat Chicken
20%rawPhaseolus Weightgain -/0 -/0
vulgaris Weightpancreas* -/0 +
Weight spleen* -/-- 0
Weightofthymus* 0
Proteindigestibility — N.D.
30%Pisum sativum Weightgain 0
Weight pancreas* 0 +
Weightofthymus* 0
Weight spleen* 0 0

0 = no effect; + = increase; -/—/—/- =decrease;N.D.=not

determined;*=%of liveweight.

In literature therearereports showing distinctnegativeeffectson

weight gainofratsfed raw Phaseolus beans. In these experiments,
however, the diets mainlycontained lowlevelsofprotein (often 10%)
and high levelsofrawbeans (50% of more). In our experiments the
protein levels ofthedietswere between 16and21%,and the inclusion
level oftherawbeans inthedietswasmorerealistic,namely20%.
The results with mice show (Table 2) that theseanimalswerenot
sensitivetofeeding ofrawPhaseolusbeansunder theconditionsof the
experiments.Theresultsobtainedwith rats,miceandchickens showthat
under our experimental conditions there are no pronounced
antinutritional effects with rawbeansorrawpeas.Piglets,however,
showdistinctlymoreantinutritionaleffects.
Table2 Body weights (grams)ofmicefedtheexperimental dietsfor30
days.

Experiment Initial Final bodyweights (±SD,n=10)

bodyweight
Control Rawbeans Boiled beans
1 14.1 15.6 (±2.2) 15.4 (±1.5) 17.0 (± 1.8)
2 24.3 25.7 (±3.3) 27.4 (±2.7) 26.9 (± 3.2)
3 26.1 27.8(±2.3) 27.2 (±2.6) 27.2 (± 2.2)

111
 For a full evaluation of the differential sensitivityof animal
species,this should be studied atasimilarphysiological age. It is
possible that a difference inphysiological age isassociatedwitha
difference insensitivity between rats and piglets.Thepiglets used in
our studies were 4to7weeksold and theratswere 5to8weeksold.
Thephysiological ageofratsofacertain agewill bedifferent tothat
of pigs of the same age.Therefore,effectsofthe inclusion ofraw
beans onweight gainwere alsotested inpigsofother ages: 8 (Period
PI), 12 (P2)and 16weeks (P3),respectively (Table3 ) .
Table 3 Meanfeed intake,weight gain andfeed conversion ratio (kgfeed
per kgweight gain)with SDmeasured inpigs during 14days

Treatment Period PI Period P2 Period P3

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Feed intake (g/day)
control diet 836a 13.4 1437a 6.2 2074a 20.3
rawbean diet 325b 37.7 621b 51.3 907b 127.1
Weight gain (g/day)
control diet 448a 32 626a 36 801a 53
raw bean diet -65b 22 -154b 54 -128b 94

Means inthe same columnforthe sameparameterwithout acommon letter

differ significantly (P<0.05)
At the three ages, thepigs lostweightwhenfed rawcommonbeans.
Theseresults suggest thatthedifferences in response between young
rats and piglets cannot beexplained byadifference inphysiological
age.
In rats and chickens ahypertrophy ofthepancreaswasobserved when
thedietswith rawbeansor peas were fed; this was not found in
piglets (Table 1 ) .The hypertrophy inrats and chickensmayberelated
with to presence oftrypsin inhibitors inbeans and peas (Liener and
Kakade, 1980). The results with piglets are inagreementwith the
literature showing that there isno hypertrophy ofthepancreas due to
trypsin inhibitors in largeranimalssuch aspigs (LienerandKakade,
1980). The pancreas weight of the piglets fed the raw beans in
experiment 1 was significantly lowercomparedwith thatofthe piglets
fed the control diet.There are indications thatthis is related with
the low protein digestibility of therawbean diet (Huisman et al..
1990a). With extra casein (experiment 2 ) ,pancreasweightofthe piglets
was notreduced.With raw beanstheweightofthe spleenofpigletswas
significantly reduced,butnot inrats and chickens. With peas there
were noeffects on theweightofthespleen inthethree animal species.
Theweightof thethymuswas significantlyreduced in piglets when
raw beans and peaswerefed.Thiseffectwas notobserved inratsand
chickens.

112
 The results summarized in this paper show that piglets are more
sensitive to antinutritional factors in legume seeds than rats,mice and
chickens. Moreover some biological responses in piglets are different
from those observed in rats, mice and chickens. Therefore it is of
importance to study digestive physiological and biological responses in
the target animal, ifthis isthe pig, and not in alternative small
animal models.

References
Chubb, L.G. 1983. Anti-nutritive factors in animal feedstuffs. In:
Recent advances in animal nutrition, pp 21-37. [W.Haresign, editor].
Butterworth, London
Combs, G.E., R.G. Connes,T.H. Berry and H.D.Wallace. 1967. Effect of
raw and heated soybean meal on gain, nutrient digestibility, plasma
amino acids and other blood constituents of growing swine.Journal of
Animal Science 26,1067-1071.
Friedman, M. 1986.Nutritional and toxicological significance of enzyme
inhibitors in foods.Plenum Press, New York,U.S.
Huisman, J. 1989.Antinutritional factors (ANF) in the nutrition of
monogastric farm animals [E.J. van Weerden and J. Huisman, editors].
PUDOC, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Huisman, J., A.F.B.van der Poel,M.W.A. Verstegen and E.J. van Weerden.
1990. Antinutritional factors (ANF) in pig nutrition. World Review of
Animal Production 25,77-82.
Huisman, J., A.F.B.van der Poel,P. van Leeuwen and M.W.A. Verstegen.
1990a. Comparison of growth, nitrogen metabolism and organ weights in
piglets and rats fed on diets containing Phaseolus vulgaris beans.
British Journal of Nutrition 64,743-753.
Huisman, J., A.F.B. van der Poel,J.M.V.M.Mouwen and E.J. van Weerden.
1990b. Effect of variable protein contents in diets containing
Phaseolus vulgaris beans.British Journal of Nutrition 64,755-764.
Huisman, J., A.F.B. van der Poel,M.J.L.Kik and J.M.V.M.Mouwen. 1990c.
Performance and organ weight of piglets, rats and chickens fed diets
containing Pisum sativum. Journal of Animal Nutrition and Animal
Physiology 63,273-279.
Klaasen, H.L.B.M., J.P.Koopman, M.E. van den Brink, P.M. Scholten, J.
Huisman and A.C.Beynen. 1991. Influence of diets containing native or
boiled Phaseolus vulgaris on segmented filamentous bacteria in the
small intestine of mice.Microbial Ecology in Health and Disease. In
press.
Liener I.E. 1980. Toxic constituents of plant foodstuffs. Academic
Press, Inc. New York, U.S.
Liener I.E. and M.L. Kakade. 1980. Protease inhibitors. In: Toxic
constituents of plant foodstuffs, pp 7-71. [I.E.Liener, editor]. New
York, Academic Press.502 pp.
Visitpanich, T., E.S. Batterham and B.W. Norton. 1985.Nutritional value
of chickpea (Cicer arietum)and pigeonpea (Ca.ianus ca.ian) meals for
growing pigs and rats. II.Effect of autoclaving and alkali treatment.
Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 36,327-335.
Yen, J.T., A.H. Jensen and J. Simon, 1977.Effect of dietary raw soybean
and soybean trypsin inhibitor on trypsin and chymotrypsin activities
in the pancreas and in the small intestinal juice of growing swine.
Journal of Nutrition 107,156-165.

113
PLANT PHOSPHORUS RESPONSES TO SUPPLEMENTAL
MICROBIALPHYTASEINTHEDIETOFTHEGROWINGPIGS
MattiNasi
DepartmentofAnimal Husbandry, UniversityofHelsinki, Finland

Abstract
Theeffectofmicrobialphytasesupplementationonphytin-phosphorus(P)
availability forgrowing pigs on phytase deficient maize-soybean meal
dietswasmeasured intwodigestibility andbalance experiments.Apparent
digestibility ofPindietswithout inorganic-P supplementation orwith
lowaddition(0.18oftotalP)wassignificantly lower thaninthecontrol
diets(0.16,0.23and0.42;P<0.01), respectively.Phytase supplementation
improved P digestibility (P<0.01) suchthat plant-Pdigestibility(0.40
and0.28)rosetothesamelevelasthecontroldiet.Pretentionwasalso
increasedsignificantlybyphytasesupplementation.Calcium digestibility
and retention werehigher inphytasetreated diets.Duetoitseffecton
phytate-P availability,phytase treatment offeedstuffs allowsagreater
proportionofthepig'sPrequirement tobemetbyPofplant origin.

Introduction
Incerealsandvegetable protein sources halftothree quartersofthe
phosphorus (P) occurs organically bound with phytic acid in form of
phytates.Theavailabilityofplantphytate-P islowerforpigsthan that
ofnon-phytate-Pinplantsorinorganic Pofmineralsourcesanditshows
variability among different plant feeds asreviewed byCROMWELL1980,
1989, JONGBLOED 1987.Inorderforthepigs toutilize thephosphorus
from phytate itmustbehydrolysed byphytate-degrading enzymestoyield
phosphates. Moreover, phytic acid binds strongly to other essential
dietary minerals, such as calcium, zinc, magnesium, iron and copper,
reducing their availability inthedigestive tract ofmonogastrics(ZHU
et al. 1990).

Although,phytaseactivityoccursinmicrobesandmicrobialphytasescan
be produced biotechnically, there areno reports of improved plantP
utilization bypigs receiving phytase supplements (SHURSON et al.1983
JONGBLOED 1987). However, in broilers phytase supplementation of diet
(KIISKINEN and PIIRONEN 1990)and in chicks the addition of phytase
producing organismstothediet hasresulted inamarked improvementin
theutilization ofphytate-P (NELSONetal. 1971). Inpigs, similarat-
temptstosupplementthedietswithadriedyeast producthavebeenunsuc-
cessful (CROMWELL 1989).

Theobjectiveofthisstudywastoevaluatethepossibilityofimprove
thetheusageofphosphorusfromplantingredientsbyaphytasesupplement
producedbyAspergillusniqerwithanewtechnology. Amaize-soybeanmeal
pigrationcontaining lownaturally occurringphytaseactivitywaschosen
asthetest diet.Attentionwasalsopaidtothereductionofphosphorus
contentofinpigexcrementinordertoavoidtheaccumulationofphospha-
tesinsoils.

Materials and Methods

Twoexperientswereconductedwithsixcastratedgrowingpigs, inwhich

114
r Table1. Phosphorusexcretion,apparentabsorptionandretentioninpigs.

Exp.1

Treatments 1 2 3 SEM Statit.

Control No phytase Phytase signif.

P intake 17.16a 9.30b 9.34a 0.107 ***

P excret. infaeces 9.69a 7.12b 6.71b 0.197 ***
P absorption, g/d 7.47a 2.18b 2.63b 0.207 ***
P digestibility 0.434a 0.235b 0.284ab 0.0216 ***
P excret.inurine 5.59a 0.38b 0.20b 0.317 **
P retained, g/d 2.23 1.79 2.43 0.380 NS
of intake 0.128 0.193 0.261 0.0312 NS
of absorption 0.312c 0.828ad 0.927bd 0.0315 **
g/kgmetab.weight 0.07a 0.06a 0.09a 0.063 NS

Exp.2

Treatments 1 2 3 SEM Statist.

Control No phytase Phytase /signif.

P intake 17.19a 7.54b 7.65a 0.103 ***

P excret.in faeces 10.07a 6.33b 4.59c 0.293 **
P absorption, g/d 7.11a 1.21b 3.06c 0.276 ***
P digestibility 0.414a 0.162b 0.400a 0.0271 ***
P excret. inurine 3.37a 0.16b 0.06b 0.094 ***
P retained, g/d 3.72a 1.04b 3.00a 0.212 ***
of intake 0.217a 0.139a 0.392b 0.0206 ***
of absorption 0.523a 0.877b 0.979b 0.0283 ***
g/kgmetab.weight 0.12a 0.03b 0.10a 0.007 ***

a -c: *P<0.05,** P<0.01, *** P<0.001

the effect of added microbial phytase on the availability of plant

phosphorus (P )wasmeasured using balanceassay.

The experimental dietswere composed of maize (880 g/kg) and soybean

meal (120g/kg)and thedaily allowanceswere2500-2700g. Thecontrol
dietsinbothexps.weresupplementedwithdicalciumphosphatetogive 6.5
g/kgtotal phosphorusintheration.Inexp.1diets2and 3weresupple-
mentedwith 3.3g/kg ofdicalcium phosphate toprovide 0.50of totalPof
thecontroldiet mixture.In exp.2 no inorganic P-supplementationwas
added todiets 2and 3.Incontrol diets,maize and soybeanmealcontri-
buted0.44ofthetotal supplyofPanddicalciumphosphate 0.56. Calcium
wasadded in all of the rations toprovidediets withacontent of 0.80
% total calcium. The trace elements and vitamins were supplemented
accordingtoFinnishrecommendations(SALOetal.1982)inalltreatments.

PhytaseproductFinase-F (producedbyAlkoLtd.,Rajamäki, Finland)was

used inboth experiments. The level of supplementation in dietno 3 in

115
 Exp.1was100000Pu/kg feed(1Puistheamountofenzymethat liberates
1nmolofinorganicphosphorus fromsodium-phytate-inoneminute,37°C,
pH5.0)and500000Pu/kg inExp. 2,respectively. Itwas addedtothe
rationin liquid form just before feeding. Finase-F preparationispro-
ducedbyAspergillusnicrervar.andthephytaseisacidandheatresistant
overbroadpHandtemperature ranges (pH2.0-6.0andupto60"C).

Theexperimenthada3x3x2Latinsquaredesignsandthepigshadan
average liveweightof78and98kginexp.1and2,respectively. Each
period wascomprised of6days of adjustment and 6days of faecesand
urinetotal collection. Thechemical analysesof feedsandfaeceswere
performedaccordingtotheofficialprocedures. Phyticacidcontentswere
analysedusingthemethodofCAMIREandCLYDESDALE (1982). Phosphoruswas
determinedafterdryashingbythemethodofTAYSSKYandSHORR(1953)and
mineralswere measuredonthediet ingredients,faeces andurine witha
VarianTechtronAA1000atomic-absorption spectrophotometer.

Resultsand Discussion
Averagedrymatter intakeofthepigswas79ginExp.1and75gin
Exp.2perkgW ".Dailyphosphorusintakesofpigsreceivingthecontrol
dietwere17.2g.Pigsondiets 2and3inExp.1consumed9.3 gP/day,
andinExp.2consumed7.5g/day.Dicalcium phosphatecontributed0.56of
thetotalPsupply incontroldietsand0.18oftotalPindiets2and3
of Exp.1. Nosupplemental phosphoruswasaddedinExp.2ondiets2and
3;allofthePsupplywasofplant origin (Table 1 ) .

Organicmatter digestibilitywasnotdifferent betweenthetreatments

in either experiment (P>0.05). Finase-F also contains some proteinase,
amylaseandpectinase activity, however,digestibility wasnotaffected
inthistrial.Theashdigestibilitywasimprovedsignificantlybyphytase
supplementation (P<0.01)inExp.2.andshowedsimilar tendencyinExp.1.
Nitrogen digestibility was significantly higher in Exp. 2. in pigs
receivingdietswithoutphosphorussupplement (P<0.05).However,therewas
noeffectonNbalance.Anumberofotherinvestigations havepointedout
*that thereisoftenstrong bindingbetweenphytic acidandprotein (ZHU
1990)butinthisstudyphytasetreatmentdidnotresultanyimprovement
inproteindigestibility.

TheapparentdigestibilityofPonthecontroldietaveraged0.42inthe
both trialsanditwassignificantly higher (P<0.05,0.01)thanthatof
thediets without inorganic phosphorus supplementation (Exp.2)orwith
low(0.18contributionoftotalP)phosphateadditioninExp.1(Table1).
Phytasesupplementationofthediet resultedasignificant improvementin
phosphorus digestibility (P<0.01) compared with that oftheunsupple-
menteddiet.Phytaseimprovedplant-Pdigestibilitysuchthatitroseto
thesamelevelastheinorganic-Psourcesupplementeddiet (Exp.2 ) .Also
inExp.1phytaseenhancedapparentdigestibility ofPbyfivepercentage
units (P>0.05). Theapparentdigestibility assayofthePinthetotal
diet, however, poses some difficulties inthe interpretation ofthe
results, particularlywhenPsuppliesaredifferentasinpresentstudy.
EndogenousPsecretionsalsocomplicatethemeasurement.Anapproximation
of these daily P-lossesinpigis1.5-2.5g/100kgbodyweight(ARC
1981).

SimilarlowapparentPdigestibilitiesasinpresentmaize-soybeanmeal
dietshave been reported incerealsorcereal-based diets containingno

116
r supplementalP(PIERCE et al.1977, CALVERTetal.1978,JONGBLOED1987,
OKSBJERG 1988). Phosphorus from phytate cannot be absorbed in its ori-
ginal form by pigs and so it must first be released by hydrolysis by
phytate-degrading enzymes toyield inositol and phosphoric acid. Almost
all vegetable feed ingredients posess phytase, although with different
levels ofactivity (NELSON 1969). Maize has reported tohave very low
contentsofnaturalphytase(CALVERTetal.1978,POINTILLARTetal.1984,
1988, OKSBJERK 1988),which iswhy thisdietwaschosen totestmicrobial
phytase supplementation eventhoughmaize isnot used in pig feeding in
Finland. In contrast to this the seed coats of wheat and barley have
relatively high phytase activity. The optimum pH for plant phytase is
about 5.0 (JONGBLOED 1987) therefore plant phytase probably does not
survive theacid conditionsofthestomach.

P digestibility in maize-based diets has been improved by treatments

other than mirobial phytase supplementation.GUEGUEN andBAGHERI (1984)
haveshownthatabsorption coefficientsofphosphorusinamaizeSBMdiet
without added Pwasincreased from 0.36 to0.48 by introduction 200g/kg
wheatbran in thediet. Similarly, FOURDINet al. (1988)reported that
ryebransupplementation (200g/kg) improvedPretention40-50%inpigs
on lowP maizediets.Inhigh-moisture maizetheP is3to4 timesmore
available thanin driedgrain (BOYDet al. 1983). The improvementswith
those treatments have been similar or better than that of the^present
studyofmicrobial phytase supplementation.

Besidesbeing present inthe feedstuffs, phytases areproduced by the

microbesintheintestineandalsosecreted bytheintestinaltractofthe
pig and intestinal alkaline phosphatase can hydrolyse some phytate
(POINTILLARDet al. 1984).However, ithasbeenconcludedthat intestinal
phytasedoesnot seem to beofgreat significance forthe hydrolysisof
phytate (POINTILLARTet al. 1984). Inthelarge intestinewithits rich
mirobial flora phytate can be hydrolysed by the bacterial phytases.
However,thepig'sabsorptionofphosphorusinthelargeintestineisvery
limited and no Por only alimited amount ofP was absorbed beyond the
ileum fistula (JORGENSENet al 1985).

Theretentionofphosphoruswas0.13 -0.22 of P intakeonthecontrol

dietsand 0.14 -0.19 ondietswithout inorganic Psupplementation.This
low availability is in accordance with existing literature. Microbial
phytasesupplementationimproved retentionsofphosphorustothe levelof
0.26-0.39 and thedifferencewassignificant (P<0.01)comparedwiththe
untreated non P-supplementeddiet.Retention of the absorbed Pwas very
high (0.93-0.98) indietssupplemented withphytaseand theywere 0.10
higher relativeto theuntreated diets (P<0.05 in thefirst Exp). Some
low-molecular weight myoinositol phosphates were probably absorbed but
couldnot beutilized bythepig.

TheretentionofPinExp.1wasconsiderable lowercompared toExp.2,

butthereasonfor thisremainsuncertain. Theeffect ofphytasesupple-
mentationwasdifferentbetweenthetwoexperimentsduetotheapplication
level,whichwasfive-foldinthesecond trial.Thephosphorusavailabil-
ity inmostinorganic phosphate supplements approaches 0.7 to 1.0 (CROM-
WELL 1989,JONGBLOED 1987,DENHARTOG et al. 1988).

Calcium digestibility was improved bythe phytase supplementation and

retainedCawas significantly (P<0.01)higher comparedtountreateddiet.
WhentheintakeofCa isadequatebutthatofPinadequate,the retention

117
of Ca falls (JONGBLOED 1987). Digestibility ofmagnesium also tended to
beincreasedbythephytasetreatmentbutretentionwasnotaffected. Iron
supplywashigher inthecontrol diet duetothehigh content of iron in
dicalciumphosphate. Fedigestibility wasnot different betweendietsbut
retention in the control diet was significantly higher.Copper and zinc
digestibility and retention were higher in diets without phosphate
addition but phytase supplementation did not affect any difference in
utilization. Phytic acid readily formscomplexes withseveral essential
minerals such as calcium, iron, zinc and manganese and also protein
impairing their utilization by theanimal (NELSON 1971).

Therearenopreviousreportsofsuccessful additionofmicrobialphyta-
setopigdiets.However,manyof thefungi,bacteriaandyeastsaregood
sources of phytase. Attempts to improve phytate utilization in pigsby
including a dried yeast product in the diet have been unsuccessful
(CROMWELLandSTAHLEY1978).Incontrast,severalstudieswithchickshave
demonstrated thattheadditionofphytase-producing organismstothe diet
canresult inamarkedimprovement intheutilizationofphytatephospho-
rus (NELSON et al. 1971,CROMWELL 1980). SHURSON et al. (1983)wasnot
able to improve phytateutilization inpigsby including ayeast phytase
in the diet. It is possible that the additions of phytase have been
insufficient or thatthephytaseused hasnotbeen resistantto lowpH in
stomachofthepig.Inthisstudy100000Pu/kgwasnotsufficientbecause
increasingphytaseactivitygavehigherresponseintheExp.2. TheFina-
se-Fpreparation isthermotolerant andacid-resistant to apHvalueof2.
In poultry successful treatments has been also reported. NELSON et al.
(1971)added phytase produced by aculture of Aspergillus ficium tothe
diet of chickens and found an increase in bone äshcontent compared to
control. KIISKINEN and PIIROINEN (1990) showed improved plant-P diges-
tibility inbroilers afterphytase supplementation.

Inconclusion, the results of present study demonstrate that addition

ofmicrobialphytate degradingenzymeinmaize-soybean meal-diet enhances
theabsorptionofvegetablephosphorusandotheressentialminerals. More
ofthepigs'requirement forphosphoruscouldbemetbyPinmaizeandSBM
ifphosphoruscouldbeconvertedtoanavailableform. Phosphoruscontent
inpigmanurecould be reduced followed the improved plant-P utilization
with the present phytase treatment of the feed. Accumulation of P in
cultivated fields is increased by using manures with high P content.
Wheather the plant phosphate released by the enzymatic treatment is of
economiallyfeasiblecomparedtoothersourcesofphosphorusaddedtofeed
remains tobe determined.

References
ARC.1981.Thenutrientrequirementsof pigs.Agricultural Researchcoun-
cil. 307p.
BOYD,R.D.,HALL, D. &WU, J.F. 1983.Plasma alkaline phosphatase as a
criterion for determining availability of phosphorus for swine. J.
Anim.Sci. 57:396 -401.
CALVERT,C.C.,BESECKER,R.J.,PLUMLEE,M.P.,CLINE,T.R.&FORSYTH, D.M.
1978. Apparent digestibility of phosphorus inbarley and corn for
growing swine.J.Anim. Sei.47:420-426.
CAMIRE,A.L. &CLYDESDALE, F.M. 1982.J. Food Sei. 47:575 -578.

118
CROMWELL,G.L.1980.Biological availabilityofphosphorus infeedstuffs
forswine. Feedstuffs 52(9): 38-1989.Requirements, biological avail
abilityofcalcium,phosphorusforswineevaluated. Feedstuffs61:16-
25.
- &SHURSON, G.C. 1978.Effects ofdried yeastonphosphorus utiliza
tion inpigs.J.Anim. Sei. 47 (Supp. 1 ) : 78.
FRAPE,D.L.,WAYMAN,B.J.,TUCK,M.G.1979.Theutilizationof phosphorus
and inwheat offal bygrowingpigs.J.Agric. Sei. 93:133-146.
FOURDIN, A.,CAMUS, P., CAYRON, B.,COLIN, C, & POINTILLART,A. 1988.
Improvementoftheutilizationofproductswithahighphytaseactivity:
ryeandwheat bran. J. Recher.Pore. France 20 :327-331.
HARTOGden,L.A., TOLvan der,J.J., BOER, H.&VERSTEGEN, M.W.A.1988.
PhosphorusdigestibilityofsomeanorganicP-sources inpigsdetermined
byquantitative collection of faecesandwith amarker. Proc. 4th
Intern.Sem.DigestivePhysiology inPigs.PolishAcademyofSciences,
Jablonna328-335.
JONGBLOED,A.W. 1987. Phosphorus inthefeeding ofpigs. Effect of
diet onthe absorption and retention of phosphorus by growing pigs.
I.V.V.O.Rep.No.179.343p.Lelystad,TheNetherlands.
JORGENSEN,H., JUST,A. &FERNANDES,J.A.1985. The influenceofdietary
supplyofmineralsonapparent absorption and retentionofmineralsin
growingpigs.Beretn.StatensHusdyrbr.forsogNo580:360-363.
KIISKINEN,T.&PIIROINEN,J. 1990.Inprint.
NELSON, T.S.,FERRARA, L.W. & STORER,N.L. 1969. Phytate phosphorus
content of feed incredientsderived fromplants. Poult.Sei. 47: 1372
- ,SHIEH, R.R., WODINSKI,R.J. & WARE,J.H. 1971. Effect of supple
mental phytaseontheutilizationofphytatephosphorusbychicks.J.-
Nutr. 101:1289 -1293.
OKSBJERG,N. 1988. Digestibility oftotalphosphorus andphytatephosh-
porus incereals forgrowing pigs.Proc.4th Intern.Sem.Digestive
Physiology inPigs.PolishAcademyofSciences,Jablonna. 352-356.
PIERCE,A.B.,DOIGE, C E . ,BELL,J.M. &OWEN, B.D. 1977. Availability
ofphytatephosphorus tothegrowingpigreceiving isonitrogenousdiets
based onwheat orcorn.Can.J.Anim. Sei. 57:573-583.
POINTILLART,A. 1988. Phytatephosphorus utilization ingrowing pigs.
Proc. 4thIntern.Sem.Digestive Physiology inPigs.PolishAcademyof
Sciences, Jablonna.319-326.
- .FONTANE,N. &THOMASSET,M. 1984. Phytate phosphorus utilization
and intestinal phosphatases inpigs fed lowphosphorus:Wheat or corn
diets.Nutr.Rep.Inter.29:473-483.
SALO,M-L.,TUORI,M. &KIISKINEN,T. 1982.Rehutaulukot jaruokintanor-
mit.
SHÜRSON,G . C , KU, P.K. &MILLER, E.R. 1983. Evaluation of ayeast
phytaseproduct for improving phytatephosphorus bioavailability in
swinediets.Mich.StateUniv.Res.Rep.AS-SW -8324.
TAYSSKY,H.H. & SHORR,E. 1953. Amicrocolorimetricmethod forthe
determination of inorganicphopsphorus.J.Biol.Chem.202:675-685.
ZHU,X.S.,SEIB, P.A.,ALLEE,G.L. &LIANG,Y.T. 1990. Preparationofa
low-phytatefeedmixture andbioavailability of itsphosphorusto
chicks.Anim. Feed Sei.Techn.27:341 -351.

119
 ULTRASONICAND ELECTROMYOGRAPHICMEASUREMENTS
OFTHEEFFECTSOFFEEDINTAKEONDIGESTAFLOWAND.
GASTROINTESTINAL MOTILITY INPIGS

J.W.Sissons and C.L.Jones

AFRC Institute forGrassland andAnimal Production,
Shinfield,Reading RG29AQEngland

Abstract
Simultaneous recordingsweremade ofgastric motility and
digesta outflow inpigs fed either 1050g or 2250g ofawet
'grower' ration.Recordings showed that increasing feed
intake raised the contractile activity ofgastricmuscle and
the frequency ofgushes ofdigesta entering the duodenum,
buthad little effectongush size.They also indicated that
these gastric muscleswerequiescent and flow ceased during
the initiation ofaperistaltic wave onthe duodenum. Itis
concluded thatthe stomach regulates the emptying ofdigesta
by increasing thenumber ofcontractionswhich propagate
through the antral-duodenal junction,instead of termination
atthepylorus.Peristalsis intheduodenum alsoplaysa
regulatory role.

Introduction
Several factors areknown toinfluence gastric emptying of
digesta including central and local innervation ofthe
"stomach,contractile rhythmsof themusclewall,mealsize,
viscosity and composition.Few studieshave examined the
dynamics ofgastric digesta outflow inthepig orgained
understanding oftheprecise relation between contractile
behaviour and digesta passage from the stomach.

Observations ofdigesta flow fromgastric and duodenal

cannulas suggest thatmeal size affects the rate ofpassage
during theearlyphase ofdigestion (Lowet al. 1985).But,
itisuncertain whether theprocess of cannulation disturbs
thenormal physiology ofthe stomach.For example,adhesion
ofthe gastric orgutwall tothebodywall islikelyto
restrict thenormal contractions of the smoothmuscle.Also
opening acannula to collectdigesta may introduce abnormal
pressure changeswithin thelumen.
Toovercome theseobjections,relatively non-invasive
methodswereused inthepresentwork to study the effects
ofmeal size ongastric function.Muscle contractions atthe
gastro-duodenal junctionweremeasured by electromyography
whilst simultanous recordings ofdigesta movement inthe

120
 proximalduodenumweremadeusing anultrasonic flowsensor.

Materials and Methods

Three male pigs (LargewhitexLandrace)weighing about
25kgwere surgicallypreparedwithwire recording
electrodesandanultrasonic flowsensor (ID-12mm)whilst
maintaining oxygen/halothane anaesthesia.The electrodes
were implanted onthe serosal surface ofthepyloric antrum,
pyloric sphincter andproximalduodenum oneither sideof
the flowsensorwhichwasplaced around thegutwall.The
animalswere fedapelleted 'grower'ration containing
(g/kg)580.0,200.0,150.0,50.0,12.5,5.0,2.5 ofbarley,
wheat,soyabeanmeal, fishmeal,mineral-vitamin pre-mix,
di-calciumphosphate,andlimestone respectively.

Twoweeks after surgerythepigswere fedatestmealof

either 300gor600gofthe 'grower'rationmixedwith 750ml
or1500mlwater respectively.Duringa6hperiod after
feeding,simultaneous recordingsweremade ofmyoelectric
activityusing amulti-channel polygraph (Grass Instruments
model 7,Mass.)andofdigesta flowfrom thesensoru^ingan
ultrasonic flowmeter (Transonic Systems Inc.modelT101,
Ithaca).Variations inmyoelectric potentials andultrasonic
flowwerequantifiedusingasummatingintegrator.
Theeffectsofmeal sizeongastric functionwere compared
frommeasurements ofduration and intensity ofmyoelectric
activityduring successivepost-prandial phasesofantral
motility,totaldigesta flowduringeachmotilityphase,
ratesofdigesta outflow,gush sizeand frequency ofgushes
intheproximal duodenum.Thesignificance oftreatment
differenceswasassessedusingapaired t-test.

Results and Discussion

Thepigswere kept for 4weeks.Theywere atnotime
"restricted intheirmovements intheirpens.They gained,on
average,18kgliveweight.Post-mortum examination revealed
nounusual tissue growthoftheduodenum inthe regionof
the sensor.This indicates thatthesurgical preparations
hadnoadverse effects ondigestive physiology orgrowth.

Motility ofthegastro-duodenal junction

Observations ofmyoelectric activity showed thatmuscular
contractions of thepyloric antrum occured indistinct
phases.Successive phaseswere punctuated by the development
ofduodenal electrical activity of increased amplitude and
regular rhythm (Fig.1).Thisactivity isknown tobe linked
with theonsetofaperistalticwave (Ruckebusch &Bueno,
1976). Theduration ofeachmotor phase recorded up toabout
6hafter feeding from theantralwall isshown inTable1.

121

I
 Fig.1- f i Antrum e.m.g. (-2cm) 200 mV
r

:t
-•t-'-r ^ l 1 't ' ' * "\ #--*- - t - -»t—*—*—?—»-

Pylorus e.m.g. (Ocm)

/ i Duodenum e.m.g. (•
200 mV
iiliWtit*«
M#ii|»jHpHN-t|!*^
Duodenum flow (+5cm)
500.ml/min

Duodenum e.m.g. 08cm)

liillliiiiiiiiii'iwwii'*

Figure 1:Electromyographic (e.m.g.)activity recorded from

the antrum, pylorus andduodenum (valuesin
parenthesis aredistances from thepylorus)and
digesta flowthrough the sensor.Duodenal
recordings show the initiation and propogation of
myoelectric activity linkedwith aperistaltic
wave.

Fig.2. I f Antrum e.m.g. ( - 2 c m ) 1 ; l >J J j i l l

i<
.-200 mV
.1, .

i#=#tM l K M f f l ^i
Duodenum e.mg. (*2cm) , . , . , 200 mV1

Duodenum flow (+5cm)

i i
•-Î-- f 4 i '
Duodenum emg (+8cm) 2 0 0 mV
^4i'i*ii-n-(—|ih

Figure 2:Electromyographic (e.m.g.)activity recorded from

the antrum, pylorus andduodenum (valuesin
parenthesis aredistances from thepylorus)and
digesta flowthrough the sensor.These recordings
showaclose relation between propagations of
myoelectric activity from thepylorus throughto
theduodenum and gushes ofdigesta detected bythe
sensor.

122
Table 1.Duration ofsuccessive post-prandial phaseof
antralmotility (h)
Post-prandial phase ofmotility
Feed —
intake (g): 1 2 3 4 5
1050 1.6 0.7 1.0 1.0 0.6
2250 1.8 0.6 0.9 1.0 1.2
Treatmentdifferenceswerenot significant (P>0.05)

Theduration ofthe firstpost-prandial phase ofmuscular

activity on thepyloric antrumwasmarkedly longer than
subsequentphases.This response tofeedinghasbeen
reported elsewhere (Ruckebusch &Bueno,1976).

Table 2.Integrated antralmyoelectric activity (mV.s/h)

Post-prandial phaseofmotility
Feed
intake (g): 1 2 3 4 5
1050 3.4 2.8 2.8 2.6 1.8
2250 3.6 5.2 5.0 5.8 5.6
Treatment differences forphases 3,4 and 5were
significant (P<0.05)

Although theamountoffeedconsummeddidnotaffect
theduration ofeachphaseofantralmotility, increasing
themeal sizedidenhance the intensity ofthemyoelectric
eventsduring the secondand subsequentmotor phases (see
Table 2). Thesealterations inelectrical potentials are
thought toinvolve tension receptorsacting onthemyenteric
plexusand.thevago-vagus reflex.

Passage ofdigesta
Theamounts ofdigesta flowing fromthe stomach tended to
increasewith enlargement ofmeal size,inparticular during
the firstphase ofstomachmotility following ingestion
(seeTable 3 ) .Overall,during the6h recording period 2100g
and 2860g ofdigesta,onaverage,passed through the flow
sensor after giving 1050gand 2250g ofwetmeal
respectively.

123
 Table 3.Totaldigesta entering theduodenum (ml)
Post-prandial phaseofmotility
Feed
intake (g): 1 2 3 4 5
1050 828 361 415 314 184
2250 1041 483 446 485 403
Treatment differences forphases 3and 4were
significant (P<0.05)

Results given inTable 4showthatthe flow rateof

digestawasgreatestduring the first twophasesof gastric
motilityand thendeclined.An increaseoffeed intakeled
toa rise indigesta outflowduring eachofthe 5phasesin
the 6h recording period.These changes inflowwerenot,
however,proportional toadoubling ofthemealsize.

Table 4.Digesta flow rate (ml/h)

Post-prandial phase ofmotility
Feed
intake (g)s 1 2 3 4 5
1050 530 590 430 330 300
2250 600 790 520 460 340
Treatment differences forphases 4and 5were
significant (P<0.05)

Thepattern ofoutflowofgastricdigestawas tosome

extent related tovariations inthe sizeofgushespassing
through thepylorus.Thesewere found toincreaseduringthe
first three phasesofantralmotility.Thereafterthey
decreased.

Table 5.Gush size (ml)

Post-prandial phase ofmotility
Feed
intake (g): 1 2 3 4 5
1050 5.0 6.2 6.0 5.0 4.1
2250 5.1 6.4 6.7 5.3 3.9
Treatment differenceswerenot significant (P>0.05)

Itisnoteable thatthemeangush sizedidnot correspond

124
tothe intensity ofantralmotility.Thismaybe explained
from recordingswhich showthat theoccurance ofagush
requires acontraction topass fromthe antrum, through the
pyloric sphincter and onward totheproximal duodenum (see
Pig.2).An exception tothisaboral propagation wasnoted
during theearly phase ofpost-prandial activitywhen fora
period ofabout 0.5h digesta movements oscillated, somewhat
irratically, between forward and retrograde flow.
The frequency ofgushesalsovaried with timeafter
feeding, butunlike changes ingush size,theoccurrence of
the gusheswas greatest during the firstmotor phaseand
thendecreased progressively.Also the frequency ofaboral
digesta movements increased inmost ofthemotor phases in
response toaraised intake of feed.
Table 6. Frequency ofgushes (no./h)
Post-prandial phase ofmotility
Feed
intake (g): 1 2 3 4 5
1050 109 94 72 68 73 '
2250 120 93 93 90 88
Treatment differences forphases 3,4 and 5were
significant (P<0.05)

Inconclusion, gastric emptying ofdigesta isnota

continuous process,but occurs indiscrete gushes.These
gushes arepropelled bymuscle contractionswhich originate
in the antrum. The frequency of thegushes isset by (1)the
frequency ofantral contractions and (2)whethera
contraction ispropagated through totheduodenum, rather
than being terminated atthepylorus.Thebulkiness ofa
meal provides astimulus tothispropagation and itappears
to increase withmeal size.Gastric outflow ceasesduring
the development ofa regular myoelectric rhythm onthe
proximal duodenum suggesting that innervation ofthe
gastro-duodenal junction controls digesta emptying througha
'dual'mechanism.

References
Low,A.G., Pittman,R.J. &Elliot,R.J. (1985).Gastric
emptying ofbarley-soya-bean diets inthepig:effectsof
feeding level, supplementary maize oil,sucroseor
cellulose, andwater intake.Br.J.Nutr. 54:437-447.
Ruckebusch, Y.&Bueno,L. (1976).The effect of feedingon
themotility of the stomach and small intestine inthe
pig.Br.J.Nutr.35:397-405.

125
 THEEFFECTOFDIFFERENTDIETARYPROTEINLEVELSON
WATERINTAKEANDWATEREXCRETIONOFGROWINGPIGS
Angelika Pfeiffer &H. Henkel

Institute of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science University of Kiel,Germany

Keywords: protein level, water intake, water excretion, N -excretion, ileal

digestibilities, urea N, ammonia N

Abstract
A higher daily protein level results in an increased (P< 0.05) water con-
sumption of the animals, which is corresponding with an increased volume of
the daily urine excretion associated with higher concentrations of urea and
ammonia N . Moreover a higher protein intake per day ends in a signifi-
cantly higer flowrate of chyme at the terminal ileum as well as it contains
significant higher ammonia- (P< 0.01) and urea- (N.S.) N concentrations.

Introduction
It is a well known fact that the daily water intake of an animal depends on a
lot of factors. A very important parameter is the environmental temperature
(MOUNT et al., 1971; AUMAITRE, 1965; STRAUB et a l . , 1976; NIENHABER
&HAHN, 1984). An other critical point which should be taken into conside-
ration is the feeding level (LEPKOVSKY et al., 1957; BARBER et a l . , 1963;
BROOKS et al., 1984; YANG et al.,1984) associated with the liveweight and
the age of the animals (AUMAITRE, 1965). The composition of the applied
diet should be also considered (KRACHT et al., 1978/79; BROOKS et
al., 1984)
Two experiments were conducted to study the effect of different protein
levels on water intake and water excretion of growing pigs.
The objective of the first experiment was to examine the effect of diets with
different crude protein contents on water excretion in growing pigs.
The aims of the second experiment were a) to study the apparent ileal
digestibilities of nitrogen compounds in barley and soybean meal b) to
estimate the effect of protein level on daily water intake and the excretion of
water in the urine and faeces c) to measure the effect of protein level on
the daily flowrates at the terminal ileum.

Materials and Methods

Pigs and their treatment

In both experiments the pigs were housed in metabolic crates. The environ-
mental temperature was in a range of 18 to 20°C and relative humidity was
60 to 80%for the two studies. Water was supplied ad libitum and was measu-
red per animal and day in gram.

126
 Table 1. Initial weight and duration of measuring
per iocs
Experiment 1 experiment 2
Treatment A S i II

protein Ievel low high low high

NoofanimaIs 8 a 8 8
PERIOD1
initial weignt c*ÇD 45,8 45,8 20,0 20,0
duration Cdays):
water &N balance 5 5 7 7
ileal chyme collection 3 3
feed g/d Cäry matter) 1742 1747 864 860
PERIOD2
initial weight C k 93 68,5 58,5 25,0 25,0
duration Cdays)
water 8iNbalance 5 5 7 7
ileal chyme collection 3 3
feedg/dCdry matter) 2089 2076 977 875

Experiment 1
Experiment 1 was conducted in the Institute of Animal Nutrition and Feed
Science of the University of Kiel, Germany.
The experiment was carried out with 8 barrows from 20 to 100 kg liveweight
in a cross over design (see table 1) respectively. The diets were based on
barley and soybean meal and were calculated to be isoenergetic for metabo-
lizable energy . The pigs were fed twice daily in two equal portions at the
3.1 maintenance level.
Treatment A: Barley + soybean meal with 18.5% crude protein (76%
barley, 20% soybean meal) in period 1 and 14,4% crude
protein (87% barley, 9% soybean meal in period 2
respectively; supplemented with synthetic amino acids
(Ly, Met, Thr and Tryp)
Treatment B: Barley + soybean meal with 25%crude protein (62% barley
35% soybean meal in period 1 and 2 respectively.
After an adaptation period of 3 weeks urine was collected quantitatively
over a period of 5 days. The urine was trapped in 10%H2SO, to avoid any
ammonia losses. Faeces were also collected during the same 5 day period by
means of spot sampling and they were immediately stored at -25°C.
Acid- insoluble ash (3.5 N HCl) was used as a digestibility marker.
Experiment 2
Experiment 2 was undertaken in cooperation with the Department of Animal
Nutrition of the Agricultural University of Wageningen and the Institute for
Cereals, Flour and Bread TNO in Wageningen (The Netherlands).
For this trial 8 barrows from 20 to 30 kg liveweight were fed in a cross
over design (as shown table 1) respectively. The pigs were fitted with
post - valvular - T - cannulas at the terminal ileum (VAN LEEUWEN et al.,
1988).
The diets were applied as a barley diet supplemented by minerals (diet I)
and as a semisynthetic diet based on soybean meal and starch (diet II).
The animals were fed twice daily at the 2.5 maintenance level.
Treatment I: barley diet with 12.54% crude protein
Treatment II: soybean - starch diet with 23.79% crude protein (45%
soybean meal)

127
After an adaptation period of 7 days the Heal digesta were collected quanti-
tatively in bottles which were cooled on ice and stored at -*20°c. The chyme
collection was practised for 3 days per period and for 24 hours per day
with a 24 hours' interval between separate collecting days. Unrelated to
these phases the daily water intake of each animal was measured during 7
days and urine and faeces were collected quantitatively for the same time.
Analytical procedures
Diets of both experiments were analyzed for dry matter, crude protein and
ash. The data of the barley diet and the soybean starch diet were comple-
ted by the analysis of the pattern of amino acids.
A representative digesta-, urine- and feaces sample for each animal were
analyzed for d r y matter, crude protein and ash. The chyme data were
supplemented by measuring the amino acids. The content of urea and
ammonia - N in chyme and urine were also determined.
All analyses were carried out according to VDLUFA (NAUMANN et
al. ,1976) except urea - N SIGMA TEST COMBINATION No 535) and ammonia
- N analyses (BRANDT, 1979 modified according to NAUMANN et al.1976).
Data were analyzed by analyses of variance with the LSD - Test, SAS
PROGRAMME (GLM - Procedure) 1988.

Results and Discussion

Table 2 provides data on the daily nutrient intakes per animal and day.

Table 2. Water and nitrogen baIances.*

g per animal and day

Experiment 1 Experiment 2
Treatment A B I II
protein level low nign low nign

dry matter 1914 MS 1910 870 « 857

crude protein 313 ** 433 109 *** 206
water Întake 4318 » 5427 3286 ** 4577
H20 excretion
urine 1373 * 2893 1BB2 ** 2999
faeces 1186 H3 1189 363 *** 209
N Intake 49.7 TOO, 76.7 17.5 ».» 33.0
Naxcretioh; urine 13,3 M K 32,1
Ursa Nexcretion; urine 10,0 AAA 26,5
NH3 Nexcretion; urine 0,S ** 0,8
hiexcretion; faeces 12,9 * 16.0 25.6 « 25.a

+ least square means

* p < 0.05; x* P < 0.01; *** p <0 001; N.S. P > 0.1

There are significant differences in contents except in dry matter (P>

0.1). Crude protein and amino acid intakes were different among treat-
ments within each experiment (P< 0.05). As shown in table 2 the higher
protein intake resulted in a clear difference in water intake of the pigs in
experiments 1 and 2 (P< 0.05 and P< 0.01 r e s p . ). This fact illustrates that
there exists a powerful dependence of the animals' water requirement on
the protein content in the diet (AUMAITRE, 1965; WAHLSTROM et a l . ,1970;
BROOKS &CARPENTER, 1990). There are three responsible factors for the
close correlation between protein and water consumption. Firstly protein
metabolism in the urea - cycle leads to heat increment of the organism.
This results in higher water requirement (CRAMPTON & LLOYD, 1954;
LLOYD et al., 1978; BROOKS & CARPENTER, 1990). Secondly there is a
128
high water requirement of the organism for excreting urea and ammonia via
the kidneys (LLOYD et al.,1978). Moreover, there are the osmotic proper-
ties of the amino acids in the small intestine requiring water.
Corresponding to the higher water intake there was a higher urine
excretion (P< 0.05; P< 0.01 for experiments 1 and 2 resp.; see Table 2).
As shown in Table 2 the higher nitrogen - intake resulted in an increased
nitrogen - excretion (P< 0.001) by urine. This is associated with increased
urinary urea (P< 0.001) and ammonia - N (P< 0.01) concentrations.
Urea - N - excretion constitutes the major part of daily nitrogen excretion.
After change from the high to the low protein level two animals in each
experiment maintened their daily water consumption (see Figures 1and 2).

water intake (kg/d)

11,a
•
11 change from low to change from high t o low I
10,2 high level
s,<
»,6
7,8
7
3,2
5,4
".S
3,a
3
71 73 75 77 72 74 78 78

animal number

m I ow p r o t e i n l e v e l RSCT ligh protein level

Figure 1. Reaction t o t h e d a i l y water i n t a k e due t o applied

p r o t e i n amount (Experiment 1 ) .

water intake (kg/d)

7,5
change from lowto change from high tolowlevel
7
8.S high level
S
5,S
S
4.5
4
3.S
3
a,5
2

animal number

lowprotein level HBB high protein level

Figure 2. Reaction to the daily water intake due to applied

proteinamount (Experiment2 ) .

129
 Table 3. Dai ly intake Of nutrients as weI I as
flowrate ana disapparancô at tna terminal Ileum. •.
Exper ment 2

i n t a k e ana % dlsapparence
f lowrate a t t h e I leum
Treatment l 11 l lI
p r o t e i n level low hign low nigh
per animal / d
g Miter intaku 3886 ~ 4577
g water;1leum 1640 »« 2280 43,87 45,64
g c r y matter i n t a k e 870 M 867
g d r y m a t t e r ; 1letm 211 « 208 75,75 76,01
g o r g a n i c matter I n t a k e 82S « 809
g o r g a n i c m a t t e r ; 1 leun 186 « 174 77,48 76,49
g crude p r o t e i n i n t a k e 109 *~ 206
g crude p r o t e i n ; Ileum 26.,t ~ 41,7 75,78 79,76
breakdown p r o d u c t s
ing Urea N; i leum 347,0 m 605,9
mg Aimonlo; 1 leum 240,3 - 430,8

t l e a s t square means
* P < 0.03; * * P < 0 . 0 1 ; Ä * * P < 0 . 0 0 1 ; N.S . P > 0.1

This is not only valid for the time during the N-balance but also for the
whole period (28 days). This reaction can be explained in the following way
: It might be not necessary for an organism to lower the water intake when
the protein level is decreasing. In contrast, it is essential to increase
water consumption when the protein level is increasing. A water restriction
causes a reduction in feed intake and in growth rate (CRAMPTON &
LLOYD, 1954; KEANE et a l . , 1962).
Not only the daily flowrates of nutrients as given in Table 3 are significant
higher for the soybean starch diet, b u t also the daily flowrate of break-
"down products (Table 3) was increased, this was significant to ammonia -
N (P< 0.01). But not for urea - N, there was a large but not significant
increase (P >0.07). Moreover there are remarkably differences in flowrates
of water at the terminal ileum (see Table 3) between the diets . This is
related to the higher water consumption of the animals consuming the diet
with the higher protein level, and it is also resulting in higher water
excretion.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the scientific and technic support
provided by Prof. M. Verstegen, Department of Animal Nutrition of the
Agricultural University of Wageningen and D r . J . Huisman Institute for
Cereals Flour and Bread TNO in Wageningen (The Netherlands). The
technical assisctance of Mrs. I. Kuhlhoff is greatly appreciated.

References
Aumaitre, A . , 1965. Der Wasserbedarf des Ferkels, z. Tierphysiol.
Tierernährg.u.Futtermittelkde. 20:, 210 - 217
Barber, R . S . , R. Braude and K.G. Mitchell, 1963. Further studies on the
water requirements of growing pigs. Anim. Prod. 5:, 277 - 282

130
Barber, J . , P.H. Brooks and J . L . Carpenter, 1988. The effect of water
delivery rate and drinker number on the water using of growing pigs.
Anim. Prod. 46:, 521
Brandt, M., 1979. Versuche zur Quantifizierung der mikrobiellen Protein-
synthese ( mit Hilfe von t s N) bei Verwendung harnstoffhaltiger Ratio-
nen. Diss. Agrarw. Fak. Chr. Albrechts Universität Kiel 115 pp
Brooks, P . H . , S.J. Russell, J . L . Carpenter, 1984. Water intake of weaned
piglets from three to seven weeks old. The Veterinary Record 115:,
513 - 515
Brooks, P.H. & J. L. Carpenter, 1990. The water requirement of
growing - finishing pigs - theoretical and practical considerations. In:
Recent Advances in Animal Nutrition Butterworths, London, p . 115 - 136
Crampton, E.W. &L.E. Lloyd, 1954. The effect of water resricüon on the
food intake and food efficiency of growing r a t s . J. Nutr. 54:, 221 - 224
Keane, K.W., C.J. Smutko, C.H. Krieger and A.E. Denton, 1962. The
addition of water to purified diets and its effect upon growth and
protein efficiency ratio in the r a t . J. Nutr. 77:, 1 8 - 2 3
Kracht, W., H. Ohle and E.Otto, 1978/79. Die Auswirkungen des Trocken-
substanzgehaltes der Futterration auf die Mastleistung der Schweine.
Tierernährg. u. Fütter. 1 1 : , 115 - 126
Leeuwen, P . , J. Huisman, M.W.A. Verstegen, M.J. Baak, D.J. van Kleef,
E . J . van Weerden and L.A. den Hartog, 1988. A new technique for
collection of ileal chyme in pigs." Digestive Physiology in the Pig" Proc.
of 4th Seminar, Jablona, Poland 1988
Lepkovsky, S., R.L.D. Fleming, M. Nagumo and Mildred M. Dimick, 1957.
Gastrointestinal regulation of water and its effect on food intake and rate
of digestion. Amer. J. Physiol. 188:, 327 - 331
Lloyd, L. E., E. Mc Donald and E.W. Crampton, 1978. Protein and its
metabolism. In: Fundamentals of Nutrition. 2nd Edn. W.H. Freeman and
Company, San Francisco, p . 103 - 132
Mount, L.E., C.W. Holmes, W.H. Close, S.R. Morrison and I . B . Start,
1971. A note on the consumption of water by the growing pig at several
environmental temperatures and feeding levels. Anim. Prod. 13:, 561 -
563
Naumann,K., R.Bassler, R.Seibold, K. Barth, 1976. VDLUFA Methoden-
buch. Verlag J.Neumann - Neudamm
Nienhaber, J. A. &G. LeRoy Hahn 1984. Effects of water flow restriction
and environmental factors on performance of nursey - age pigs. J.Anim.
Sei. 59:, 1423 - 1429
SAS Procedure Guide, 1988. Release 6.03 Edition, SAS Institute Inc. Cary
NC, USA
Straub, G., J.H. Weniger, E.S. Tawfik and D.Steinhauf, 1976. The effect
of high environmental temperatures on fattening performance and growth
of boars. Livest. Prod. Sei. 3 : , 6 5 - 7 4
Wahlstrom, R. C , A.R. Taylor and R.W. Seerley, 1970. Effects of lysine
in the drinking water of growing swine. J. Anim. Sei. 30:, 368 - 373
Yang, T. S . , M.A. Price and F.X. Ahrene, 1984. The effect of level of
feeding on water turnover in growing pigs. Applied Anim. Behavior Sei.
12:, 103 - 109

131
 INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL TEMPERATURE AND
DIETARYPROTEINLEVELSONAPPARENTDIGESTIBILITYOF
PROTEIN AND AMINO ACIDS AND ENERGY BALANCE IN
GROWING PIGS
EliasT. Fialho 1 andTilfordR. Cline 2

1-Dept.SwineNutr..NationalResearch Center Swine and

Poultry,EMBRAPA/CNPSA.,Concordia,SC. ,Brazil
2-Dept.Anim.Sei..PurdueUniversity,W.Lafayette.INUSA

Abstract
Thirty-six crossbred barrows weighing 23.1 0.4 kg were randomly
assigned to one of six environmental-dietary protein combinations. The
treatmentswere produced by a 2 x3 factorial arrangement of treatments
involving two environmental temperatures (25.°C and 35 C) with three
dietary protein levels (15%, 19%and 23% crude protein). The pigs were
housed individually in steelmetabolism cages in temperature controlled
rooms. The datawere analyzed asa split plot designwith one complete
replication. The data show that environmental temperature had a
significant effect on ration intake and dry matter excreted, whichwere
higher at 25 C. The variables nitrogen retention blood urea nitrogen,
apparent digestibility of protein, net protein utilization and
biological value,were significantly (P< 0.01) higher for pigs housed at
25C than those at 35C. Increasing of protein level resulted in
significant (P< 0.01) effects on those variables. The apparent
digestibility of essential and nonessential amino acids were not
influenced significantly (P> 0.05) by environmental temperature.For the
diets with 15%, 19% and 23% of crude protein the average apparent
digestibility of essential amino acids were 81.7, 86.7 and 88.5%,
respectively. The digestible energy, metabolizable energy and ME/DE
ratio values werehigher at 25 C than at 35 U C . Digestible energy was
significant (P> 0.01) increased as protein level in the diet increased
from 15% to 23%. According to the results of this experiment it is
concluded that environmental temperature and dietary protein level have
an influence on nitrogen retention, protein and energy utilization in
growing pigs.

Keywords:swine,environmental temperature,fecal digestibility

i-Present address:Dept.Swine Nutr..NationalResearch Center Swine and

Poultry,EMBRAPA/CNPSA., P.0 Box 21,89700 Concordia, SC. ,Brazil

132
Introduction
Swine react to temperatures extreme by adjustments in feed intake
and heat exchange with their environments.
Hot environmental conditionswhich reduce feed intake or cold
conditions which stimulate feed intakemay necessitate dietary changes
inprotein and energy if animal performance istobemaximized. If
thermal stress affects protein requirements,thepercentage of crude
protein in thediet should beadjusted. There is some evidence that
nitrogen retention is affected only by extreme environmental conditions,
either invery cold (Close andMount, 1976)or inveryhot environmental
conditions (Holmes, 1973).
Data in the literature indicate that digestibility of protein,
amino acids and energy can be influenced by the environmental
temperature in which the animals are exposed. Considering that the
thermal stress affects nitrogen metabolism, protein levels in thediets
may need to be adjusted. Further research on determination of the
digestibility of nutrients in pigs under thermal stress conditions is
required to improve ourunderstanding of these subjects.
Metabolism trials were designed to quantify the interaction
between environmental temperature and dietary protein level on energy
and nitrogen balance as well as blood urea nitrogen, apparent
digestibility ofprotein and amino acids ingrowing pigs.

Materials and Methods

This experiment involved a total of thirty-six crossbred (Landrace
xYorkshire),barrows,having an average initial weight of 23.1 -0.4 Kg
were obtained from and housed at the Swine Research Facility at Purdue
University.
The treatments were arranged as a 2 X 3 factorial involving two
environmental temperatures (25 and 35C)with three diets of different
protein content (15%, 19%and 23% crude protein)being conducted during
two different phases (block 1 and 2) at each environmental temperature.
There were, therefore, six environmental-dietary protein combinations.
Themetabolism assays involved a total of thirty six animals,with three
animals being assigned to each of thedifferent treatment combinations.
The pigs, were housed in environmentally controlled room in a
total of twenty seven consecutive days.. The rooms, were maintained
within 0.20 C of the desired temperatures. During all metabolism
assays, the pigs were kept individually in stainless steel metabolism
cages (110 X 82 cm). The diets,were calculated toprovide vitamin and
mineral levels to meet or exceed the recommendations of the National
Research Council (NRC, 1979).Nitrogen retention,apparent digestibility
of dry matter, protein and amino acids, and digestible and
metabolizable energy values were calculated from values based on the
total collection of feces andurine.
The data were analyzed as a split plot design with one complete
replication. The data were analyzed by using the General Linear Models
Procedure of SAS (1985). Student-Newman-Keuls' Multiple range testwas
used topartition treatmentmeans.

133
 a

U 4J
O c
UH a)
to <1)
C*w
CO M-l

S-a

S-M
CO
•a3 O Aä
)-i nj
>»4J 4-) 4J
a >, Û.TH
Q M < Q S M
am su

134
Results and Discussion
The effects of environmental temperature and dietary protein,
daily ration intake (RI), daily dry matter intake (DMI), daily dry
matter excreted (DME), drymatter of feces (DMF), apparent digestibility
of dry matter (ADDM), apparent digestibility of protein (ADP), daily
nitrogen intake (NI), daily fecalnitrogen (FN),daily urinary nitrogen
(UN), daily nitrogen retention (NR), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), net
protein utilization (NPU), and biological value (BV) are studied.
Therefore only the variables RI, DMI, ADDM, ADP, NI, NR, BUN, are
presented inTable 1.
The data show that environmental temperature had a significant
(P< 0.01) effect on RI, DMI and DME. All values were higher at 25°C
than at 35C. Dietary protein levels had no significant affect (P>
0.05) on these variables.
The variable FN was not significantly (P> 0.05) influenced by
environmental temperature. However, NI, UN and NR were significantly
(P<0.01) influenced by environmental temperature.The increase ofUN in
the hot environment would suggest that protein catabolism was probably
increased inthehot environmental temperature (35 C ) . It isknown that
very high temperatures induce an increase in body protein catabolism
resulting in increased urinary N excretion (Munro 1964). The increase
ofurinary nitrogen in ahot environment,was also reported inprevious
studies by Holmes (1973, 1974), who found that the hot temperature
significantly increased urinary nitrogen with a corresponding reduction
innitrogen retention.
Nitrogen intake, FN, UN and NR showed a consistent protein
response, being increased significantly (P< 0.01), as dietary protein
levelwas increased from 15%to23%. There was,however, a significant
(P< 0.01) interaction between environmental temperature and dietary
protein level for UN and NR, as shown in Table 1. The response was
greater at 25 C than at 35 C. The response also increased as dietary
protein level increased in both variables analyzed. The interaction
showed a greater increase withan increase in the dietary protein level
at 25°C than 35°C.
From nitrogen balance data (Table 1 ) ,it can be calculated that
pigs fed lowprotein diet excreted less nitrogen in theurine than those
fed thehighproteindiets.
Data from Table 1 show that BUN values were influenced by the
environmental temperatures being greater (P<0.01) forpigs housed at 25
C as compared to those kept at 35 C. Inaddition, BUN values showa
consistent protein response. The values increased significantly (P<
0.01), when protein levelswere increased from 15% to 23% CP. High BUN
levels seemed to be directly related with increased urinary N losses
which alsowere increased by the increase inprotein content indiets at
both environmental temperatures. According toReeds et al. (1981), the
urinary nitrogen is derived from the catabolism of protein and amino
acids by the animal, thus consumption of high protein results in
increasing of urinary nitrogen and subsequent enhanced in BUN
concentrations.

135
 The data (Table 1) show that ADP as well NPU and BV were
significantly (P<0.01) higher forpigs housed at 25 C than those at 35
°C.
The lower ADP at the higher temperature (35 °C) show that
increasing the dietary protein levels also increased protein intake at
both temperatures (25 and 35 C ) ,but the difference in intake became
smaller as the temperature increased (35 C ) . This isdue to changes in
diet intakewith the 35 C temperature adversely affecting intake.
According to the literature it appears that the reduction in N
retention,ADP,NPU and BV ofdiets in thehot environmental temperature
(35 C)isareal effect but thephysiological reasons havenot yet been
established.
The data (Table 1) show that increasing levels of protein in the
diet results in significant (P< 0.01) effects on ADP . Apparent
digestibility of protein values increased significantly (P< 0.01) by the
enhanced dietary protein levels,whereas NPU valueswere increased only
from 15% to 19% CP. However,the BV values were not significantly (P>
0.05) affected by increased dietary protein level. The possible
explanation for that may be is related to the relation between amino
acids in terms of g/16g N that was maintained constant in all diets,
which should have resulted in similar BV.
In this experiment the increase in nitrogen retention, BUN, ADP
and NPU due to dietary protein levels and environmental temperatures
were consistent. The positive effect ofdietary protein levels on these
variables show that the diets should be higher in protein content to
compensate for the low feed intake in reaction to heat stress, in
attempting to achieve an absolute crude protein intake. If feed intake
is depressed by high ambient temperature it seems logical that there
would be an improvement inprotein utilization during thermal stress,by
feeding animals with higher levels of dietary protein. Thus, when
protein level is adjusted,growth rateduring thermal stress should not
be restricted due toaprotein deficiency.
The influence of environmental temperature and dietary protein
level on apparent digestibility of the essential amino acids are
partially presented inTable 1.
In general, the apparent digestibility of essential (ADEAA) and
non-essential (ADNEAA) amino acids, was greatest forJ?igs exposed to
25 C environmental temperature compared to those in 35C, although the
differences failed to reach significance (P> 0.05). Although, not
significant, these findings are ingeneral agreement with those reported
by Wallis and Balnave (1984) who found, lower digestibility of most
amino acids inbroilers reared athigher temperatures.
The apparent digestibility of amino acids, values increased (P<
0.01) only asprotein in the dietwas increased from 15%to 19% CP;no
further significant improvement (P> 0.05) were seenwhen protein levels
were increased from 19%to23%CP.
The average of apparent digestibilities of essential amino acids
were 81.7;86.7and 88.5 fordietswith 15%19%and 23% .respectively .
The effect of environmental temperature and dietary protein level
on gross energy intake (GEI), daily fecal energy excreted (FE),daily
urine energy excreted (UE),digestible energy (DE),metabolizable energy
(ME) and digestible energy to metabolizable energy (ME/DE)ratio, part
of these results are presented inTable 1.

136
 Ingeneral all data related toenergetic valueswere significantly
higher (P< 0.01) for pigs housed at the thermoneutral environmental
temperature (25C) in comparison with those above the upper critical
temperature (35 C ) . This was expected, since at high ambient
temperature the animal may have toactivate heat loss mechanisms,which
require additional metabolism that might result in lowering the
efficiency of energy utilization.
Pigs exposed tohot environment conditions showreduced GEI,which
is an attempt to lower the physiological burden of dissipating excess
body heat inorder to maintain body temperature. The DE and ME values
were decreased as environmental temperatures were increased from 25 to
35°C.
The data show that the GEI and FE values were not significantly
influenced (P> 0.05) and DEvalueswere significantly (P< 0.01) enhanced
by increasingdietary protein levels from 15%to 23%CP.The improved DE
(Table 1) efficiency was dependent on protein level in the diet. The
higher protein supplied in the diet, the higher were the DE values.
There was a significant interaction (P< 0.01) between environmental
temperatures and dietary protein levels for the variables urine energy
(UE), metabolizable energy (ME) and ME/DE ratio . The response was
greater at 25C thanat 35C. The ME values were not significantly (P>
0.05) influenced by increasing dietary protein levels for pigs exposed
to 25C, however they increased significantly (P< 0.01) as protein
levels increased from 15% to 19% CP at 35°|C. The ME/DE values were
decreased significantly (P< 0.01) as protein levels increased from 15%
to 19% CP at 25°C, however they were not significantly (P> 0.05)
influenced by increasing dietary protein levels for pigs exposed to
35°C.
The results of ME (Table 1) are apparently related to the heat
production which must be dissipated under warm conditions (Verstegen et
al. 1973;Noblet and LeDividich, 1982). The reduced energy utilization
during thermal stress was expected, since maintenance requirement for
energy,according to those authors,increases during heat stress.
Ingeneral, dietswith 19% crude protein fed to pigs housed at 25
C seem to be adequate in terms of efficiency of protein and energy
utilization. Based on the improvement of NR, ADP, NPU as dietary
protein level increased in high environmental temperature of 35 C
(although less than in thermoneutral temperature), it seems that the
protein concentration during heat stress should be increased in growing
pigskept inmetabolism cages.

137
References
HOLMES, C. W. 1973. The energy and protein metabolism of pij
growing at ahighambient temperature. Anim. Prod.16:117.

HOLMES,C.W. 1974.Further studies on the energy and protein metabolism

of pigs growing at a high ambient temperature including
measurements with fasting pigs.Anim. Prod.19:211.

MUNRO,H.N. 1964.InMammalian ProteinMetabolism,Vol.1P. 381 H. N.

Munro and J. B.Allison, (Editors),London,Academic Press.

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL-NRC. 1979. Nutrient Requirements of Swine.

National Academy Press,pp.52.Washington, D.C.

NOBLET,J. AND J. LEDIVIDICH. 1982.Effect of environmental temperature

and feeding level on energy balance traits of early-weaned
piglets.Livest.Prod. Sei. 9:619.

REEDS, P. J., M. F. FULLER, A.CADENHEAD, G. E. LOBLEY,D J. MACDONALD.

1981. Effects of changes inthe intakes and non-protein energy on
whole-body protein turnover ingrowing pigs. Br.J. Nutr.45:539.

SAS. 1985. Sas User's Guide. Statistical Analysis System. Institute,

Inc.,Cary,N.C.

VERSTEGEN, M. W. A., W. H. CLOSE, I. B. START AND L. E. MOUNT. 1973.

The effects of environmental temperature and plans ofnutrition on
heat loss, energy retention and deposition of protein and fat in
groups of growing pigs.Br.J. Nutr. 30:21.

WALLIS, I. R., AND D. BALNAVE. 1984. The influence of environmental

temperature, age and sex on the digestibility of amino acids in
growing broiler chickens.Br.Poult.Sei.25:401.

138
CDMPARISONBETWEENTHEILEALANDFECALEXCRETION
OFBILEACIDSANDNEUTRALSTEROIDSINPIGS

A.C. Beynen 1 , 2 ,J. Huisman3 &C E . West 2

Department of Laboratory Animal Science, State University,Utrecht,

Department of HumanNutrition,Agricultural University, Wageningen and
TNO-Institute forAnimal Nutrition and Physiology (ILOB), Wageningen,
The Netherlands

Abstract
Pigs fitted with re-entrant ileo-cecal cannulas fed purified diets
containing either casein or soybean protein were used to study ileal
and fecal excretion of neutral steroids and bile acids. Ileal and fecal
excretion of neutral steroidswas diminished inpigs fed casein,when
compared with those fed soybean protein, suggesting that cholesterol
absorption was stimulated bydietary casein. The output of bile acids
inthe feces of pigs fed caseinwas decreased,whereas the ileal output
wasnot significantly affected. This could be attributed to increased
uptake of bile acids from the cecum and/or colon,whichmay inpart be
related to the indirectly observed decreased formation of secondary
bileacids.

Introduction
Pigs fed casein have been shown to excrete fewer bile acids and
neutral steroids, that is cholesterol and its bacterial metabolites,
with feces than their counterparts fed soybean protein (Kimet al.
1980). It isnot yet known how, inmolecular terms, dietary casein and
its digestive products interactwith neutral steroids and bile acids in
the gastrointestinal tract. It also remains to be established where
such interactions occur in the gastrointestinal tract. The present
experiment using pigs fed diets containing either casein or soybean
proteinwas conducted to address the questionwhether dietary casein
interacts with intestinal bile acids and neutral steroids inthe ileum
or in the distal part of the digestive tract. The information thus
obtained may also provide general insight into the digestive physiology
of neutral steroids and bile acids. This study has been published in
detail elsewhere (Beynen et al. 1990).

Materials and Methods

Twelve barrows derived from across between Dutch Landrace and Large
White pigs were used. The animalswere purchased from Coveco (Rheden,
TheNetherlands). On arrival theywere 14wk old and weighed about 35

139
kg. At 16wk, 14pigs were surgically fittedwith a re-entrant ileo-
cecal cannula asdescribed (Beynen et al. 1986). The pigs were housed
inmetabolism cages (40x80x70 cm)constructed of stainless steel with
wire mesh bases in a room with air conditioning (19 °C), 60-85%
relative humidity and controlled lighting (0800-2000 h, light; 2000-
0800h,dimmed light). At the age of about 6 mo, all swine were
transferred to the soybean protein diet for abase-line period of 10d.
Subsequently, ond 0 of the experiment, the barrows were randomly
divided into two groups each of six animals. One group was fed the
diet containing soybean-protein isolate and the other group was fed the
casein diet; their body weights (means ± SE,n=6)were 56.2± 1.9 and
56.4± 2.0 kg. The composition of the purified diet containing soybean
protein (or casein) was as follows (g): soybean isolate, 237.6;
methionine, 2.4 (casein, 240);maize starch, 386 (377); soybean oil,0
(13); coconut fat, 195 (192); cholesterol, 2 (2);cellulose, 101
(99.5); calcium carbonate, 0 (1.5); sodium chloride, 6 (8);and
mineral, trace element and vitaminmixture, 74 (74).The composition of
thismixture can be found elsewhere (Beynen et al. 1990).
Food was provided each day at 0900h. The powdered dietwas mixed
withwater ina 1:2 ratio inaslop.During the 10-d base-line period,
eachanimal received 1200g ofair-dry feed/d. During the experimental
period the amount of feed provided to each pig was equivalent to 2.4
times itsmaintenance requirement. The pigs consumed all their food
within 10min. On average,the pigs received 1218g of air-dry feed per
day. In addition,at 1600h eachday 2L ofwaterwas supplied.
Feceswere collected quantitatively fromd 11to d 18 and stored at
-20 °C. Ileal chyme was collected quantitatively through the distal
part of the cannula placed at the end of the small intestine from d 19
to d 21 and from d 24tod 26.The loss of fluid with ileal chyme was
compensated by infusing saline continuously (60 mL/h) into the cecum.
Aliquots (10%) of chyme produced during bothcollection periods were
pooled per corresponding hour and per animal thus producing a sample
representative of 24-h chyme production. Chyme sampleswere frozen
immediately (-20 °C)until analysis.Bile acids and neutral steroids in
.feces and chyme were measured by gas chromatography as described
(Beynen et al. 1984).

Results
Bodyweights of the pigs fed soybean protein tended to be slightly
higher than that of the animals fed casein.On d 18and 28body weights
(means ± SE,n=6)were 68.0 ± 2.0 and 73.6 ± 1.1 versus 65.8 ± 1 . 4 and
72.3 ± 0 . 7 kg. The difference did not reach statistical significance.
Fecal excretion of total bile acidswas about 35%lower inpigs fed
casein than in those fed soybean protein (Table 1 ) . This could be
attributed partly to decreased excretion of lithocholic and
isolithocholic acid, although the former did not reach statistical
significance. Group mean excretion of total bile acids in ileal chyme
was not significantly different in the two groups. Therefore, the
calculated group mean net absorption of bile acids in the cecum plus
colonwas higher inpigs fed the casein diet than in the soybean-
protein group (1718 ±455versus 1108± 243 umol/d,means ± SEM,n=6).
Both ileal and fecal output of neutral steroids-were lower inpigs
fed casein than inpigs fed soybean protein, the decrease being 50%and
40%, respectively (Table 2 ) .The lower output of ileal neutral steroids
was caused mainly by lowered excretion of cholesterol,whereas in feces
the content of coprostanol was diminished. The latter effect was

140
related to a significantly lowerproduction of coprostanol in the cecum
plus colon of casein-fed pigs (641 ±84versus 1961 ± 182umol/d, means
± SE, n=6). In the pigs fed soybean protein, significantlymore
cholesterol disappeared inthe cecum plus colon than inthe pigs fed
casein (2415 ±353versus 753 ± 204umol/d,means ± SEM,n=6).

Table 1. Ileal and fecal output of bile acids incannulated pigs fed
purified diets containing either soy protein orcasein.

Output with Output with

ileal chyme feces

Soybean Casein Soybean Casein

protein protein
Bile acid

Cholic acid 8+ 4 11± 11 7± 1 4+ 0 b

Chenodeoxycholic acid 773± 79 850±170 58+ 8 22± 6 b
Deoxycholic acid 59± 5 5± 2 b 14± 3 9± 3
Lithocholic acid 20± 2 12± 6 634±178 429+ 62
Hyocholic acid 1725±152 1426± 97 n.d. n.d.
Hyodeoxycholic acid 12311105 1179±260 922±177 908±186
Ursodeoxycholic acid n.d. n.d. 9± 3 9+ 1
Isochenodeoxycholic acid n.d. n.d. 14± 3 4± l b
12-ketolithocholic acid n.d. n.d. 79± 15 0± 0 b
Isolithocholic acid n.d. n.d. 275± 76 122± 20 a
Unknown bile acids n.d. n.d. 797± 37 253± 5 2 b
Total bile acids 3817±258 3483±460 2709±440 1765±278a

Results are expressed asmean ± SEM (n= 6 ) .n.d. =not detectable.

Significantly different from the soybean-protein group (one-sided
t-test): a , p <0.05; b , p 0.01.

Cholesterol intakes (means ± SEM,n=6) of the pigs fed casein and

soybean protein were 6003 ± 95 and 5776 ± 122 umol/d. The lower fecal
output of steroids in pigs fed casein resulted inapositive steroid
balance (+2284±401 umol/d) (i.e., these animals appeared to retain
steroids). In contrast, their counterparts fed soybean protein on
average had a slightly negative steroid balance (-147 ±477 umol/d).

Discussion
Inkeeping with data reported by Kim et al. (1980), dietary casein
significantly reduced the fecal excretion of bile acids and neutral
steroids compared with soybean protein. Our data further suggest that
absorption of bile acids inthe cecum and/or colon isenhanced in swine
fed casein, compared with those fed soybeanprotein (Table 1 ) .This
might be caused by less efficient formation of lithocholic and
isolithocholic acid. These secondary bile acids are not as rapidly
absorbed as others (Danielson & Sjövall 1975). Differences inthe
conversion of primary bile acids are possibly the result of
differences in the bacterial flora of thegut of swine fed casein or
soybean protein.

141
Table 2. Ileal and fecal output ofneutral steroids incannulated pigs
fed purified diets containing either soybean protein orc.asein.

Output with Output with

ileal ;hyme feces

Soybean Casein Soybean Casein

protein protein
Neutral steroid

umol/d
Cholesterol 3370±271 1666±287b 955±106 913±302
Cholestanol 33± 3 34± 2 77± 9 73+ 4
Coprostanol 28± 2 17± 3 b 1989±182 658± 8 5 b
Epicoprostanol
+ coprostanone 12+ 3 2± 2 a 164± 61 301±121
Total 3442±276 1720±290b 3213±177 1954±279b

Results are expressed asmean ±SEM (n=6 ) .

Significantly different from the soybean-protein group (one-sided
t-test): a , p <0.05; b , p <0.01.
No epicoprostanol was found in ilealchyme.

Dietary casein decreased the ileal output of cholesterol (Table2 ) .

Theoretically, this could result from a decreased biliary cholesterol
efflux in casein-fed swine. However,whenHagemeister et al. (1985)
collected bile directly from the ductus choledochus, they did not
observe a difference in cholesterol excretion betweenminiature pigs
fed either casein or soybean protein ina cholesterol-enriched diet.
Thiswould imply that the difference in ileal output of cholesterol
reflects adifference inefficiency of its ileal absorption rather than
inthe excretion in bile.This isconsistent with data from studies
.with rabbits (Huff & Carroll 1980) showing that dietary casein
stimulates cholesterol absorption when compared with soybean protein.

References
Beynen, A.C., A. Boogaard, H.L.J.M. Van L a a c k & M . B . Katan,1984.
Cholesterol metabolism in two strains of rats with high or low
response of serum cholesterol to a cholesterol-rich diet.J. Nutr.
114:1640-1651.
Beynen,A.C.,J. Huisman,C E . West,E.J. VanWeerden &P. Van Leeuwen,
1986. Re-entrant ileocecal cannulation of swine: validation and
application in studies of protein digestion and cholesterol
metabolism. In: M.E.Tumbleson (Ed.): Swine inBiomedical Research
vol. 2.Plenum,NewYork. pp. 1031-1039.
Beynen, A.C., C E . West, C.J.K. Spaaij, J. Huisman, P. VanLeeuwen,
J.B. Schutte & W.H.L. Hackeng, 1990. Cholesterol metabolism,
digestion rates and postprandial changes in serum of swine fed
purified diets containing either casein or soybean protein.J. Nutr.
120:422-430.
Danielson,H. &J. Sjövall, 1975. Bile acid metabolism. Ann.Rev.
Biochem. 44:233-253.
Hagemeister,H., K. Scholz, E.Kinder & C . A . Barth, 1985.Digestion,
transit time and biliary secretion following different dietary

142
 proteins in the adult pig.Beret. Statens Husdyrbrugsfors.580:124-
127.
Huff, M.W. & K.K. Carroll, 1980. Effects of dietary protein on
turnover, oxidation and absorption of cholesterol, and on steroid
excretion in rabbits.J. Lipid Res.21:546-558.
Kim, D.N., K.T. Lee,J.M. Reiner &W.A. Thomas, 1980.Effects of asoy
protein product on serum and tissue cholesterol concentrations in
swine fed high-fat,high cholesterol diets.Exp. Mol. Pathol.29:385-
399.

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SESSION 2
Endogenous losses during digestion in pigs
ENDOGENOUS NITROGEN LOSSES DURING DIGESTION IN
PIGS
W.B. Souffrant

Research Centre of Animal Production Dummerstorf-Rostock

Division of Animal Nutrition "Oskar Kellner", Rostock, Germany

Abstract
For the evaluation of the capacity of feed proteins to supply amino acids it is essential to
know the real protein digestibility and/or the amino acid absorption especially at the end of
the ileum. For the assessment of these parameters it is necessary to measure the endogenous
proportion of the nitrogen or amino acids in ilealchyme.The digestive tract and its exocrine
glands secrete various amounts of nitrogen and amino acids in the lumen, part of which will
be reabsorbed during the passage of the digesta through the gut. There are few methods to
measure endogenous nitrogen (amino acids) in digesta at the terminal ileum of animals fed
a protein containing diet. By means of the 15N tracer technique this phenomenon can be
studied. The results of such studies show that endogenous nitrogen losses also depend on the
nature and level of the feed protein and on antinutritional factors present in the feed.

Keywords: pigs, endogenous nitrogen, endogenous amino acids, ileal digesta,

nitrogen-free feeding, regression method, homoarginine method, isotope
dilution method, recycling.

Introduction
Protein is an important component in the fulfilment of the nutritional requirements of
monogastric domestic animals. In contrast with the other nutrients -fat and carbohydrates-
which serve primarily as energy sources, the protein in feed is mainly incorporated as
structure mass (Möllgard, 1955). For the synthesis of body protein amino acids are needed
which must be ingested with the feed protein. A transition of feed protein in the organism
can only occur in the form of amino acids and small peptides (Newey & Smith, 1964;
Friedrich, 1982,1989).The protein components of thefeed must bedegraded inthe digestive
tract to smaller molecules which can be absorbed and utilized by the animal.
The digestive processes in the alimentary canal are complex. They comprise secretion of
digestive enzymes, enzymatic breakdown of feed components, microbial fermentation and
finally absorption of the degradation products and utilization in the body cells.
According to Crane (1969) digestion and absorption cannot be considered as separate
processes.Digestion and absorption in the digestive tract are closely related and affect each
other,sotheycanbestudiedseparately onlyfor veryspecific questions(Young, 1970).Protein
digestibility and amino acid absorption are calculated from the ingested (with the feed) and
the excreted (with faeces or chyme) amounts of crude protein and amino acids. With this
method all crude protein (or all amino acids) found in faeces or chyme are assumed to
originate from the ingested feed. However, a definite part of the crude protein and amino
acids present in the faeces and chyme issecreted into the digestive tract during the passage
of the feed/chyme. This is why calculation of digestibility from crude protein (or amino
acids)in the feed and infaeces or chyme yields the "apparent" digestibility and/or "apparent"
absorption. Important parameters for the evaluation of the quality of feed proteins are the
digestibility of thecrude protein and theabsorption of the aminoacids.These parameters are
used both for the calculation of adequate diet compositions and for the evaluation of

147
 technological treatments.
A more precise estimation and evaluation of feed proteins with respect to their true
digestibility and their capacity to supply amino acids is only possible when more knowledge
is gained on the endogenous contribution of nitrogen and amino acids present in digesta or
faeces.

Definition

Inthepast years,many research dataon endogenous nitrogen and aminoacids inchyme and
faeces have been published. Irrespective of the methods used, the authors define endogenous
nitrogen or amino acids as the proportion of nitrogen or amino acids in chyme or faeces that
does not originate from the feed. The classical definition of endogenous nitrogen comes from
Mitchell (1924).
According to his definition endogenous nitrogen is the nitrogen found in chyme or faeces
when a nitrogen-free diet has been fed. This nitrogen is added to the digesta as enzymes,
mucins,amides,amines,bacteria and mucosa cellsduring thepassage of feed/chyme through
the digestive tract. This definition excludes the endogenous nitrogen reabsorbed proximal to
the site of chyme/faeces collection.

Sources of endogenous nitrogen and endogenous amino acids

In recent literature many experiments are described on assessment of endogenous nitrogen

secretion in pigs. Some authors have focussed on the endogenous secretion by particular
organs (e.g. Corring, 1975, 1979; Just et al., 1979; Tkacev, 1980; Schumann et al., 1983;
Zebrowska et al., 1983, 1985) while others have studied the endogenous nitrogen content in
several sectionsof the gastro-intestinal tract(Nässetand Ju, 1961;Nässet, 1964, 1972;Köhler
et al., 1978;Souffrant et al., 1981;Taverner et al., 1981;Darcy et al., 1982, 1983).
The first addition of endogenous nitrogen takes place with the saliva. The nitrogen content
of porcine saliva has been published only by Archipovec (1956) and Corring (1980).
According to Archipovec (1956) the nitrogen content of saliva from pigs 107 - 110 days of
age varies between 0.625 and 0.95 mg/ml, depending on feed intake.Per 100gingested feed,
between 9.31 and 15.36 mg nitrogen is secreted with the saliva. For a pig of 30 - 40 kg live
weight (daily feed intake 1.5 - 2.0 kg) this amounts to 162- 216mgof nitrogen secreted with
the saliva every day.
Corring (1980) found with oesophagus-fistulated pigs of 45 kg live weight a maximum
nitrogen secretion of about400mg/day.Thisamount accountsfor approximately0.8%of the
daily intake of nitrogen with the feed. Further data on saliva composition - amino acids and
urea - were not given by these authors.
The gastric secretion in pigs has been studied using different methods with respect to pepsin
and gastric juice secretion. Values given for gastric nitrogen secretion in swine show much
variation due todifficulties in experimental techniques.The nitrogen sources in gastric juice
are enzymes, mucins and cells sloughed off from the mucosa. Data on endogenous nitrogen
secretion in the stomach are given by Tkacev (1980). In his experiments with pigs he found
a daily endogenous nitrogen secretion in the stomach of about 9.6 g. Zebrowska et al. (1981)
found endogenous nitrogen amounts of 2 g in mixed secretions of saliva and gastric juice.
This amount accounted for ca 5%of the ingested nitrogen. In further experiments with 15 N-
labelled wheat Zebrowska et al. (1982) measured ca 1.67 g of endogenous nitrogen in saliva
and gastricjuice over aperiod of 12hours,corresponding with adaily amount of 3.3 g, being
8% of the daily amount of nitrogen ingested. Similar results - 20.4 g crude protein per day
- wereobtained by Simon et al.(1986) in experiments using the 14 C-leucine tracer technique
with pigs weighing ca 35 kg and fed a cereal/milk powder diet. A description of the
composition of gastric juice with respect to protein and amino acids cannot be found in the
literature. Snary & Allen (1971) and Starkey et al. (1974) report data on the chemical
composition of the cardial mucosa, indicating that threonine, glycine, glutamic acid, alanine

148

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 and serine are important constituents whereas histidine and aromatic amino acids are present
in low amounts.
As compared to the sources of endogenous nitrogen secretion mentioned, data on pancreatic
nitrogen secretion areabundant. Depending ontheresearch method used the dataon nitrogen
secretion in the duodenum vary considerably. Values between 1and 5.6 g/day have been
reported (Corring & Jung, 1972; Corring, 1979; Tkacev, 1980; Gebhardt et al., 1981;
Zebrowskaetal., 1981;Partridgeetal., 1982;Zebrowska, 1985;Ozimeketal., 1985; Souffrant
et al., 1985), albeit most values are between 1 and 3 g nitrogen per day. Only the value
, reported by Tkacev (1980) (5.6 g/day) lies outside that range. This high nitrogen secretion
value undoubtedly hastobe ascribed to thefact that the author collected the pancreatic juice
without reintroduction into the duodenum, thus causing hypersecretion of the pancreas due
to a negative feedback mechanism. From the results of Corring & Jung (1972) it can be
derived that 60 %of the nitrogen in pancreatic juice is protein bound. The remaining 40%
mainly consists of urea (Mosenthin, 1987). Schumann (1985) investigated the amino acid
composition of pancreatic juice in response to different protein sources in the feed. The
results of this study aswell asdata reported by Corring &Jung (1972)show high amounts of
aspartic acidand glutamic acid, while methionine and histidine levelsarelow.To what extent
| the amino acid composition of pancreatic juice is affected by the composition of the feed
| remains unclear, although data from Schumann (1985) suggest a relationship. The feed
j composition certainlyaffects thedaily amount of nitrogen secreted with pancreaticjuice.The
I amount of nitrogen in pancreatic juice is lower in pigs fed a semi-synthetic diet than in pigs
I fed a simple diet. Both Zebrowska et al.(1981)and Partridge et al.(1982)found a difference
of 0.4 g nitrogen secreted per day between the two types of diet. A higher dietary protein
content resulted in an increase in protease activity in pancreatic juice but not in a'significant
change in the amount of nitrogen secreted (Corring, 1979). In contrast to this finding,
| different protein sources or differently treated proteins influence the nitrogen secretion by
porcine pancreas (Schumann, 1985;Zebrowka et al., 1985).
The crude fat and crude fibre contents of the diet also affect the amount of nitrogen in the
pancreatic juice of the pig. Ozimek &Sauer (1984) observed at a dietary fat content of 15 %
an increase in the amount of nitrogen secreted of 0.4 mg as compared to a fat-free diet. An
increase in dietary crude fibre content from 2.0 to 6.4% resulted in an increase of daily
nitrogen secretion in pancreatic juice from 2.5 to 3.0 g (Zebrowska, 1985).
Bile secretion in the small intestine of pigs has been studied by Laplace & Ouaissi (1977),
Sambrook (1978), Just et al. (1979) and Just (1982). Their results indicate that bile secretion
is virtually independent of feed intake. The data on daily amounts of nitrogen secreted with
the bile range from 1.8 - 1.9 g (Sambrook, 1981) to 2.8 - 3.0 g (Just, 1982) for pigs of 40 kg
i live weight. 75%of nitrogen in bile is a-amino nitrogen, 95%of which is glycine. One third
' of the remaining 25%of nitrogen is in the form of ammonium sulphate. The remaining two
third has not yet been identified (Just, 1982).
The secretion of nitrogenous substances by the small intestinal mucosa consists of enzyme
proteins and mucosa cells(Kidder &Manners, 1978;Aumaitre &Corring, 1978).Urea isalso
secreted by the gut mucosa (Rerat et al., 1979;Rerat &Buraczewska, 1985).Horszczaruk et
al. (1974) studied the amount and composition of the intestinal secretion in swine using
isolated gut loops. After feeding a diet containing 16%crude protein they calculated a daily
amount of N inthesmallintestinal secretions of 10to 12g.After feeding anitrogen-free diet
only 8 to 10 g of N was secreted daily. The authors calculated these data assuming that the
secretion rate in the isolated gut segment reflected the total small intestinal secretion. The
results of Buraczewska (1979a), however, show that this assumption is not correct. She
observed daily Nsecretion of 0.97 g/m in the proximal small intestine and of 0.48 g/m in the
ileum. The total endogenous N secretion in the small intestine was found to be 14.4 g per 24
h (Buraczewska, 1979a). Low (1982), using data on protein synthesis and turnover given by
Simon et al.(1978)and Edmunds et al.(1980), aswell asthe statement of McNurlan that50%
of the synthetized protein is secreted in the gut lumen, calculated that the daily N secretion
of the small intestinal mucosa is 9.5 g. Research data on the characterization of the

149
r
composition of endogenous nitrogen secretions in the small intestine are presented by
Buraczewska (1979b) who fitted pigs with two re-entrant cannulae in the small intestine to
study the composition of the secretions in the isolated part of the gut. She.found that 86-90%
of the secreted N was soluble, of which 50 - 70%was a-amino N, which consisted of free
aminoacids (2/3) and protein (1/3).The remaining soluble Nhasnot yet been identified, but
will probably consist of amides, amino sugars and/or urea. The insoluble N in the gut
secretions consists mainly of epithelial cellssloughed off from the brush border region of the
small intestinal mucosa. Because of the short life cycle of these cells - McDougall (1966)
reports turnover times of 50to 80hours - they form arelatively large proportion of the small
intestinal secretion. Data on the amino acid content of small intestinal juice are reported by
Horszczaruk etal.(1974)and Buraczewska(1979b).Theyfound ahigh proportion of glutamic
acid and aspartic acid and low proportions of methionine and histidine. The amino acid
composition of the proteins in porcine pancreatic juice, bile and small intestinal secretions
is given by Juste (1982) (Table 1).

Table 1. Amino acid composition of pancreatic juice, bile and small intestinal juice
(Juste, 1982) (in %of total amino acids).

amino acid pancreatic bile2 small intestinal

juice 1 juice 3

Asp 11.3 0.43 10.01

Thr 5.9 0.25 6.14
Ser 7.8 0.26 5.96
Glu 10.2 1.10 14.38
Pro 5.4 0.25 5.77
Gly 5.9 94.86 5.51
Ala 5.8 -- 5.63
Val 6.5 0.30 6.19
Ile 5.1 0.21 4.36
Leu 8.1 0.40 9.68
Tyr 5.5 0.19 3.26
Phe 4.7 0.24 4.96
Lys 5.5 0.34 8.39
His 2.5 0.23 2.61
Arg 5.1 0.27 6.50
Cys 3.4 0.56 --
Met 1.2 0.09 1.37

1
Corring & Jung (1972)
the sum of the 17 amino acids was 74.3 g per 16g N
2
Juste, Corring & Calmes (unpublished)
the sum of the 16amino acids was 65.45 g per 16g N
3
Buraczewska (1979)
the sum of the 16amino acids was 50 - 70 g per 16g N

150
From the data in Table 1it appears that the proportion of amino acids in endogenous crude
protein is65 - 75%.The remaining 25- 35%islargely accounted for predominantly by urea.
According to Rerat & Buraczewska (1986) 4.6 - 6.1 g urea is secreted into the gut lumen
during the first 8 hours after feed intake.

Studies on the direct measurement of endogenous N secretion in the large intestine have not
been published to date. However, since the mucosa of the colon and caecum secretes mucins
as well, endogenous N secretion in the large intestine can be expected to some extent. Low
(1982)calculated - in thesame manner aswith small intestinal secretion - adaily endogenous
N secretion in the large intestine of ca 3.0 g.
Another source of endogenous nitrogen and amino acids are microbes of the digestive tract.
Itisquestionable whether their contribution can beregarded asendogenous; it isnot secreted
by the digestive tract or its exocrine glands, but it is always found in faeces and chyme.
Microbes usefor their metabolism nitrogen sourcesof bothendogenousand exogenous origin.
When the classical definition of "endogenous" is used microbial nitrogen should be included
(Columbus, 1951).
The amount of bacterial nitrogen in faeces and ileal chyme has been assessed in studies with
pigsfed protein-containing orprotein-free diets.Mason etal.(1976)found that 50%of faecal
nitrogen originated from bacteria. Mosenthin(1979)found, bothwithasimpleandacomplex
diet, aproportion of 60%and Poppe(1982)aproportion of 50%.Meinl&Kreienbring (1985)
found 67%of faecal nitrogen to be of bacterial origin in pigson acereal diet. With miniature
pigs as a model Ahrens &Kaufmann (1985) demonstrated that bacterial fermentation in the
large intestine, and hence the proportion of bacterial nitrogen in faeces, highly depends on
the flow of carbohydrates into the large intestine. The amount of bacterial N carf be much
larger than the amount of endogenously secreted N. Ahrens &Kaufmann (1985) found with
nitrogen-free feeding a bacterial N share of 90%.
Auclair(1986)summarized avastamount of literature dataonseparatesourcesof endogenous
N and their proportions of the entire endogenous N secretion in pigs (Table 2).

Table 2. Proportion of total and a-amino nitrogen of various endogenous N secretion

sources in pigs (Auclair,1986).

source of endo- total N a-amino N

genous N
g/24h % g/24h %

salivary secretion ] - -
2.0 - 3.3 9 - 11
gastric secretion J - -

pancreatic secretion 2.5 - 6.7 11-23 1.5 - 4.0 15 - 30

bile secretion 1.8 - 3.0 8 - 10 0.5 - 0.9 5- 7

small intestinal 14.4 65 - 49 7.8 5 9 - 77

secretion
sloughed cells 1.4 - 2.0 6-7 0.3 - 0.4 3- 5

entire endogenous 22.1 - 29.4 100 10.1 - 13.1 100

secretion

soluble protein +free amino acids

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r
From these data (Table 2) Auclair calculated the endogenous N secretion into the porcine
digestive tract in relation to N intake (Table 3).

Table 3. Endogenous nitrogen secretion into the digetive tract of pigs, asa percentage
of nitrogen intake (Auclair, 1986).

salivary secretion
5.0 - 8.0
gastric secretion J

pacreatic secretion 4.0 - 15.6

bile secretion 4.5 - 6.5

small intestinal 22.0 - 26.5

secretion
sloughed cells 2.5 - 3.5
entire endogenous 38.0 - 60.1
secretion

Depending on the literature consulted, data on the entire amount of N secreted into the
digestive tract during the passage of digesta vary between 16and 33 g. This endogenous N
does not remain in the chyme up to exretion, but is reabsorbed, at least partly. The
endogenous secretion of nitrogen and amino acids by the digestive tract and its glands is of
special interest for research on nutitional physiology. The endogenous proportion of amino
acids and nitrogen in different sections of the digestive tract, on theother hand, isof interest
for the assessment of true protein digestibility and amino acid absorption.

Assessment of endogenous nitrogen in digesta and faeces

The classical method for the assessment of the endogenous pro-portion of nitrogen and
amino acids is to measure nitrogen and amino acids in digesta and faeces of animals fed a
N-free diet. Many authors have used this method in their studies (e.g., Holmes et al.; 1974,
Pastuszewska etal., 1974;Sauer etal., 1977;Wünsche et al., 1979;Taverner etal., 1981;Darcy
et al., 1982; Leibholz, 1982; Darcy-Vrillon & Laplace, 1984; Kies et al., 1986; De Lange et
al., 1989).Wünscheetal.(1979)reviewed theliteratureontheendogenous nitrogen and amino
acid content of ileal digesta from pigs.They compared their own results with data from 16
literature sources. Without making allowance for different diets, different methods for
collecting ileal chyme and different live weights, they calculated the amounts of endogenous
crude protein and amino acids (Table 4).

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Table 4. Mean amounts of endogenous protein and endogenous amino acids in digesta
from the terminal ileum and in faeces from pigs (Wünsche et al., 1987)
(Values in mg/100 g dry matter intake).

Ileal digesta Faeces

* *
mean SD n mean SD n

Crude protein 1387 551 18 851 195 15

Asp 78.0 22.1 18 79.7 22.3 19
Thr 50.8 8.9 16 38.7 9.0 18
Ser 46.8 10.9 16 38.5 13.3 19
Glu 82.9 15.9 16 85.0 18.9 18
Pro 251.0 187.9 17 31.4 10.8 16
Gly 118.3 56.6 18 41.0 14.3 19
Ala 51.0 12.7 18 49.2 14.7 19
Val 40.0 9.9 16 44.7 13.3 19
Ile 24.3 8.0 16 37.0 10.2 19
Leu 49.6 17.8 18 52.5 15.7 19
Tyr 25.3 11.0 13 21.2 7.8 13
Phe 32.1 8.0 13 33.0 9.5 14
Lys 37.8 12.8 18 45.2 11.5 18
His 17.9 7.5 13 12.6 3.6 14
Arg 44.1 12.2 18 26.0 6.7 18
Met 10.4 4.4 17 18.8 6.4 18
Cys 20.5 10.3 10 15.2 5.2 11
Trp 18.3 3.3 4 8.0 1.0 3

number of single values

From the literature data they calculated an endogenous N loss in ileal chyme and faeces of
2.2 and 1.4grespectively per kg dry matter intake. The observed difference between chyme
and faeces indicates that with N-free feeding approximately 0.8 gN isab-sorbed per kg dry
matter intake.According toZebrowska et al.(1978)noaminoacid absorption occurs after the
end of the ileum. All N-containing compounds reaching the large intestine will be broken
down by microbes and hardly be utilizable for the pig, because they are either used for
synthesis of bacterial protein and free amino acids or absorbed as ammonia (Holmes et al.,
1974; Mason et al., 1976; Sauer et al., 1977a,b). Part of the absorbed ammonia can re-enter
the digestive tract in the form of urea (Rerat et al., 1979, 1985). It is not yet clear if amino
acids syn-thetized in the large intestine can be reabsorbed, although results of Niiyama et al.
(1978a,b) point in that direction.
The amino acid composition of small intestinal digesta from pigs fed N-free diets especially
differs from the composition of faeces with regard to proline and glycine. According to
Horowitz (1967), Corring & Jung (1972) and Low (1982) glycoproteins secreted with saliva
and bile are rich in proline and glycine.The major part of these endogenous amino acids will
be reabsorbed as bile acids during passage through the terminal ileum and proximal colon
(Legrand-Defretin etal., 1986).Comparison of theaminoacid composition of small intestinal

153
 chyme and faeces showsahigher amount of methionine, isoleucine and lysine in faeces. This
can be due to either proportional changes caused by absorption or metabolic action of
microbes in the large intestine explaining the resemblance between the amino acid
composition of faecal crude protein and that of bacterial protein (Poppe &Meier, 1983).
It is questionable if these broad mean values can be used to calculate true ileal and faecal
protein digestibilities or amino acid absorption if it istaken into account that the amount of
endogenous N at the terminal ileum can be affected by numerous factors. Bergner et al.
(1975) and Taverner et al. (1981) found an increase in endogenous N losses with increasing
dietary crude fibre content. De Lange et al. (1989) measured the endogenous nitrogen and
aminoacids at the terminal ileum and in faeces of pigs fed N- free diets with differing crude
fibre and crude fat contents.Although they found high amounts of endogenous nitrogen (3.2
g N/kg dry matter intake) in their control group as compared to literature values, they did
not find significantly increased Nlosses in ileal chyme neither with the fat-rich nor with the
fibre-rich diet. However, the amount of endogenous N in faeces did increase when the
fibrous diet wasfed. Asignificant increase in endo- genous Nin ileal chyme coinciding with
a change in amino acid composition of the endogenous protein - especially with regard to
glycine and proline - was found when a pectin-rich diet was fed. This was attributed to an
increase in saliva and bile secretion.
An important disadvantage of the use of N-free feeding to assess endogenous nitrogen or
amino acids in digesta or faeces is that it is not possible to investigate quantitatively or
qualitatively relations between protein feeding and endogenous losses. Apart from the fact
that N-free feeding isnot a physiological condition and could evoke specific reactions in the
animal body, it is not clear if data obtained with this method can be extrapolated towards
different circumstances with regard to protein supplies.
De Lange et al. (1989b) recognized this point and studied endogenous nitrogen and amino
acids in ileal chyme of pigs fed N-free dietsand given intravenously an adequate mixture of
amino acids to meet the needs of the animals. Under these conditions they observed a
significant reduction in endogenous protein at the terminal ileum from 18.5 to 12.7 gper kg
dry matter intake. As for the amino acids, they found a decrease only in proline from 3.6 to
0.6 g per kg dry matter intake. It is certainly not sensible to generalize these finding to oral
protein supply. Nevertheless, the results of De Lange et al. indicate that a quantitative and
qualitative relationship between protein supplyandendogenous Nlossesatthe terminal ileum
can be expected.
Another method to measure endogenous N in digesta or faeces when protein- containing
•diets are fed is the regression method. Hereby, it is assumed that the proportion of
endogenous N isconstant when a protein-containing diet is fed, irrespective of the quantity
of protein in the diet. With increasing protein levels in the feed the amount of N (or amino
acids) in ileal chyme or faeces ismeasured and extrapolated to zero(linear regression) to find
the endogenous N (oramino acid )secretion.This method hasbeen used toassesstrue protein
digestibility or amino acid absorption at the ileal or faecal level (Mitchell, 1964; Kristen,
1968; Poppe et al., 1969; Taverner et al., 1981;Moughan et al., 1987; Leibholz & Mollah,
1988).
Leibholz (1982)established with this method - by means of the slaughter technique to obtain
ileal chyme - the endogenous nitrogen in ileal digesta of piglets. She calculated for a
casein-containing diet approximately the same amount of ileal endogenous N as was found
with N-free feeding (3.4 resp. 3.0 g N / kg dry matter intake). In a further trial Leibholz &
Mollah (1988)investigated the endogenous nitrogen and amino acids inileal chyme of piglets
fitted with a T cannula at the terminal ileum and fed a protein- free diet or a diet based on
cottonseed meal or milk. With the protein-free diet endogenous N at the terminal ileum
amounted to 1.12 g/ kg dry matter intake, while the milk- and cottonseed meal-based diets
resulted in 0.94 and 0.89 g / kg dry matter intake, respectively. These differences were not
significant, nor were the differences in amounts of endogenous essential amino acids. The
differences in results between the two experiments were explained by differences in digesta
collection methods and differences in live weight of the piglets (Leibholz &Mollah, 1988).

154
Because feed intake of the piglets was about ten times higher in the second study, it cannot
be ruled out that endogenous secretion does not change in a linear manner with feed intake.
Taverner et al. (1981) also used the regression method in their studies on ileal and faecal
amino acid availability of cereal-based diets.They calculated endogenous N amounts in ileal
chyme of 2.3 g per kg dry matter intake, but also noted that with diets balanced for crude
fibre lower endogenous N levels were found than with N-free diets.
The regression method for calculating endogenous N and amino acids in chyme and faeces
yields better results than the technique of N-free feeding: the former method makes it
possible to assess the effects of protein quality and specific protein components (e.g.,
antinutritional factors). However, itseemsnot likelythat alinear relation exists between feed
intake and amounts of endogenous Nor amino acids in digesta or faeces. Besides,an increase
in the protein level in the feed is always connected with changes in the composition of the
othercrude nutrients and other feed ingredients,thus hampering the interpretation of results
with regard to causes and effects.
Hagemeister & Erbersdobler (1985) published a new method based on labelling of feed
protein, thus enabling discrimination between endogenous and exogenous protein in chyme.
This method isknown in the literature asthe "homoarginine method"in accordance with the
labelling procedure chosen.Thefeed protein isguanidinated sothattheprotein-bound amino
acid lysine contained in the feed reacts with methyl-iso-urea thus forming homoarginine.
Under natural conditions homoarginine is found only in traces in animal organisms. In
contrast with other markers (15N, 13 C, 14 C), it is not built in into endogenous protein, so
intestinal scales and pancreatic protein are free of homoarginine. After absorption
homoarginine isreconverted into lysine by arginase, an enzyme predominantly found in the
liver; during that process urea is released. Provided that guanidinated protein and native
protein are broken down enzymatically at similar rates in the digestive tract and that
homoarginine is absorbed in a similar manner as the other protein-bound feed amino acids,
the true ileal digestibility of feed proteins and - by comparison with the apparent ileal di-
gestibility - the endogenous proportion of nitrogen in ileal chyme can be calculated on the
basis of the amount of homoarginine that disappears during the chyme's passage up to the
terminal ileum.
Hagemeister &Erbersdobler (1985, 1987) have investigated the ileal digestibility of casein
and soya isolate in Göttinger miniature pigs. The homoarginine method enabled them to
demonstrate that the true digestibility for both feed protein and endogenous protein was
99.5% and that more than 90% of the nitrogen found in the ileum was of an endogenous
origin. For heat-damaged casein the authors found a reduced true ileal absorption of 93 -
97%.The homoarginine method can beapplied only tofeed proteins whose lysine is blocked,
and hence cannot be labelled quantitatively, due to any heat treatment if there is no
difference in ileal digestibility between labelled protein and protein inacessible to labelling.
Hagemeister & Erbersdobler conclude that further experiments are needed to answer this
question as well as tostudy the effect of alkaline treatments (as in the case of guanidination)
on the digestibility of the protein involved. Schmitz (1988), who has used the homoarginine
method extensively,arrivesattheconclusion that the method isapplicable toabsorption trials
only if certain conditions are met. For example, lysine must be evenly distributed over the
protein and be almost entirely convertible into homoarginine to achieve representative
labelling of the protein. Except in case of heat damage, such an even distribution holds for
most feed proteins (more than 80%for casein, soyaisolate, lactoferrin and soya bean meal in
Schmitz's experiments). The true ileal digestibility of non-representatively labelled proteins
cannot be calculated from the elimination rate of homoarginine in the ileum.
Rutherford & Moughan (1990) have reported systematic experiments on guanidination of
various feed proteins. They studied the effects of pH and protein level on the extent of
guanidination of casein, gelatine and soya protein isolate. Lysine was not entirely converted
intohomoarginine inanyof theseproteins.Sinceguanidination washighest for gelatine(95%)
these authors concluded that gelatine is an adequate protein source for the direct assessment
of intestinal endogenous lysine secretion. Moughan &Rutherford (1990) found the extent of

155
 guanidination of the test protein to be unrelated to the endogenous lysine flow in the ileal
chyme of rats. There was no significant difference between partially and completely
guanidinated dietary gelatine. Moughan &Rutherford applied the homoarginine method to
trace endgenous lysine in ileal chyme of rats on diets varying in protein supply. They
determined the endogenous lysine level of the ileal chyme upon adiet of either guanidinated
gelatine, enzymatically produced casein hydrolysate, or aprotein-free diet. The endogenous
lysine flow did not differ significantly between both protein diets (487 and 522 pg
respectively per gdry matter intake), but both the endogenous proportion of ileal lysine (238
/ig/g dry matter intake) and the levels of other amino acids, except for glycine, were
significantly lower for the N-free diet. The authors concluded that application of the
traditional method with N-free diets leads to underestimates for endogenous nitrogen and
amino acid values.
The homoarginine method is an appropriate method available to estimate the proportions
of endogenous protein and amino acids in ileal chyme. The method of facilitates the
assessment of the effects of protein content and quality on endogenous nitrogen and amino
acid levels in the chyme at the terminal ileum alongside with the use of protein-free diets.
Any drawbacks of the method can be removed by further systematic trials and its direct
application to trials with farm animals.
Onepossibility todiscriminate between theexogenousandendo-genous portionsof nitrogen
in chyme or faecesafter feeding aprotein diet isthe useof tracers, in particular of the stable
15
N tracer.This method allowstwoapproaches which are distinguished in that either the feed
protein is labelled or the animal's nitrogen pool is labelled prior to the trials. Among those
who have determined the endogenous portion of nitrogen in pig's chyme or faeces by means
of 15N-labelled feedstuffs are Krawielitzki &Smulikowska (1977), Köhler et al.(1978) and
Souffrant et al.(1981). However, because 15N-labelled feedstuffs are rather hard to obtain,
15
N labelling of the Npoolof the experimental animals with various 15N-labelled substances,
administered either orally or intravenously, has been chosen as an alternative (Souffrant et
al., 1981;Berger et al., 1984;Krawielitzki et al., 1984;de Lange et al. 1990).The endogenous
Nproportion infaeces orchymecould becalculated bymeansof isotopedilution. Irrespective
of the approach for 15N labelling chosen, the accuracy of endogenous Ndata depends on the
question to what extent two prerequisites are met. First - a condition that can be assumend
to be met indeed -, the absorption behaviour of labelled and unlabelled amino acids must be
comparable. Second, the calculation can be reliable only if the endogenous N secretion does
not undergo a significant change in extent of labelling by the absorbed nitrogen during the
•course of the experiment. The latter condition cannot always be considered realistic and
implies that the calculated endogenous N values trend to be underestimates.
The use of the 15 N dilution technique for absorption trials has been reviewed by Souffrant
et al. (1982) who also pointed at systematic problems. The applicability of the method is
limited primarily by the cost of the 15N-labelled substances. Particularly critical aspects on
the 15N dilution method are labelling of the animal's N pool, selection of the nitrogenous
compound to be labelled,the method of application of the tracer substance, and selection of
thesubstancewhoselabelling levelisconsidered inthecalculations toequalthelabelling level
of total endogenous nitrogen.
15
N-enriched ammonium salts and amino acids are suitable for labelling the N pool of
experimental animals.Bergner et al.(1984),who supplemented the feed over aperiod of nine
dayswith amixture of[15N]ammonium acetate and[15N]ammonium chloride,achieved both
in faeces and in blood of pigs 15N labelling levels enabling an exact evaluation of the results.
Herrmann et al. (1986) fed rats over a period of nine days on a ration enriched with
15
N-labelled amino acids (lysine or leucine). Krawielitzki et al. (1990) labelled the N pool of
pigs with [15N] ammonium sulphate as tracer substance, which was administered twice daily
with the feed.
Souffrant et al. (1981) used [15N] glycine and [15N] leucine administered via continuous
intravenous infusion to mark the N pool of pigs over a period of 8 - 9 days.Gebhardt et al.
(1983)assessedthe usefulness of variousaminoacidsfor labellingof the Npoolby continuous

156
infusion. They recommend a mixture of 16N-labelled amino acids, which is hardly feasible
for economic reasons. In selecting the amino acids for usein an infusion one should take into
account that they could be subject to transamination (so that the 16N can be transmitted to
other amino acids), that feed intake should not be impaired by the procedure, and that the
method does not lead to imbalances. According to Gebhardt et al., glycine is not suitable as
traceraminoacidfor experimentsaimed atestablishing endogenousnitrogen,whichislimited
by the high selective secretion with the bile. 15N-labelled leucine can successfully be used to
label the N pool of pigs; a daily dose of 40 mg [ 15 N]-L-leucineper kg live weight has been
found to be suitable for continuous intravenous infusion over 8 - 9 days.
The aim of oral adminstration or infusion of 15N is to achieve a 15 N steady state in the N
pool of experimental animals. Such a state is achieved only when the level of markers in
faeces, urine and blood hardly increases any longer (Krawielitzki & Bock 1976) so that
exogenous and endogenous N can be distinguished accurately in faeces or chyme.Since the
extent of labelling of the N pool of experimental animals cannot be measured directly one
must rely on a reference substance assumed to approximate the 15 N affinity of endogenous
nitrogen. Both urine and blood - also because of their ease of sampling - are obvious
matrices. However, because 15N labelling of urine isinfluenced by many factors, such as the
intermediary utilization of feed proteins,it yields unrealistic values when used asa reference
for the calculation of endogenous nitrogen in chyme or faeces ( Herrmann et al. 1986). For
various reasons, the TCE- soluble blood plasma fraction appears to be a more favourable
reference for measuring 15N labelling. That fraction reflects the poolof amino acids required
for protein synthesis, and hence for the formation of endogenous proteins, irrespective of
whether these derive from intermediary protein conversion or have been Supplied by
absorption of this fraction. Also, the urea contained in the TCE-soluble fraction is an
important component of endogenous N secretion (Rerat et al. 1979). Departing from these
arguments, Herrmann et al. (1986) and Souffrant et al. (1981, 1986) have used the
TCE-soluble fraction of blood plasma as a reference for the assessment of 15N labelling of
chyme.
The results obtained sofar with the 15Ndilution method permit toconclude that the method
can successfully be applied to the calculation of endogenous nitrogen in chyme or faeces. In
combination with other experimental procedures, in particular experimental animal surgery,
the method not only facilitates measurement of endogenous nitrogen in chyme or faeces, but
also allows statements to be made as to recycling of endogenous nitrogen (Souffrant et al.
1986; Krawielitzki et al. 1990).
Recently, the proportion of endogenous amino acids in chyme or faeces could not be
established directly withthe 15Ndilution method.Published dataontrueprecaecalamino acid
absorption were calculated by attributing the amino acid composition analysed in the ileal
chyme upon a N-free diet to the amount of endogenous protein found (Souffrant 1986; de
Lange et al. 1990).Although the direct assessment of endogenous amino acids in chyme and
faeces with the 15N tracer technique appears to be possible in principle, many problems
remain to be solved.

Endogenous nitrogen inchvmeand faeces intheterminal ileum of piesfed onvarious protein

carriers

There isavast body of literature on theproportion of endogenous nitrogen in the ileal chyme
of pigson aprotein diet determined bymeans of the 15Ndilution method (Köhler et al. 1978;
Souffrant et al. 1981a, b; Krawielitzki et al. 1990; de Lange et al. 1990; Huisman 1990).
Köhler et al. (1978) investigated the proportion of endogenous nitrogen in pigs with a live
weight of 50 kg by means of re-entrant cannulae in the proximal and terminal lileum. The
only dietary protein source in their trials was 15N-labelled dry curd. In the ileal chyme they
found 2.9 g of endogenous nitrogen within 24 hours after feeding. Centrifugation and
selective separation techniques enabled them to demonstrate that 30% of the endogenous
nitrogen in the chyme at the terminal ileum was in the form of protein, 14% in the form of

157
 peptides,and 29%in the form of free amino acids (Table 5).In the proximal part of the small
intestine they found 12.5 g endogenous nitrogen within 24 hours.

Table 5. Contribution of nitrogenous compounds toendogenous nitrogen in the chyme

of the proximal and terminal ileum of pigs, in g N per 24 hours.
(After Köhler et al. 1978).

Total N Protein Peptides Free amino acids

Proximal ileum 12.5 3.1 2.6 3.5

Terminal ileum 2.9 0.9 0.4 0.8

Souffrant etal.(1981a)feeding thesame protein diet (drycurd) topigsvarying in live weight

between 15 and 27 kg found in the chyme of the terminal ileum 1.1 g N per day on the
average, 60%of which wasin a TCE-soluble (and hence absorbable) form. Whenlive weight
istaken into account the amount of endogenous nitrogen derived from 15N-labelled dry curd
was in fair agreement with Köhler et al.'s data (58.0 vs. 56.6 g N per kg live weight).
Krawielitzki et al. (1990) investigated the endogenous proportion of nitrogen in the chyme
of the terminal ileum of pigsfed soybean meal.Oral dosesof [15N] ammonium sulphate were
used to label the animal's N pool. The amount of endogenous nitrogen in the ileal chyme
recovered by means of the isotope dilution method was 3.8gper day, or 1.7 gper 100gcrude
protein intake.
Various research groups have recently investigated endogenous nitrogen in the ileal chyme
of growing pigs by using prolonged infusion of [15N]leucine and a wide variety of protein
.compounds (Souffrant et al. 1981b; de Lange et al. 1990; Huisman 1990). Their results are
summarized in Table 6.

158
Table 6. Endogenous nitrogen in the ileal chyme of pigs fed various protein feeds.

Protein source Endogenous nitrogen recovered

g/day g/100 g g/kg dry

protein intake matter intake

Soybean meal1 5.8 2.2 4.1

Rapeseed meal 1 7.3 2.9 4.9
Wheat1 5.8 3.1 4.4
Barley1 5.6 4.0 4.4
Peas cv. Finale 2 1.6 2.7 4.9
Peas cv. Frijaune 2 1.8 3.0 5.4
Phaseolus beans2 5.1 10.8 16.1
Casein3 2.4 2.0 4.1
Field bean protein
isolate3 5.6 3.4 5.3
Soybean protein isolate4 2.0 3.3 5.7
Soybean meal4 1.4 2.2 4.2
Field bean cv. Blandine4 1.6 2.5 4.8
Field bean cv. Alfred4 1.8 2.7 5.2
Fish meal4 1.6 2.6 4.6
Dried skim milk4 0.7 1.3 2.2

1
De Lange et al. (1990); pigs' average live weight 40 kg.
2
Huisman (1990); pigs' average live weight 10 kg.
3
Souffrant et al. (1981b); pigs' average live weight 40 kg.
4
Heinz et al. (19..); pigs' average live weight 10 kg.

The absolute amounts of endogenous N in the chyme of the terminal ileum found in these
studies varied between 0.7 and 7.3 g. These values are not directly comparable due to the
variation both in live weight and in dose levels of protein and dry matter. Comparison of the
various values is facilitated when the intake of dry matter or protein is accounted for.
However, since the amount of endogenous nitrogen present in the ileal chyme could not, or
not exactly, be determined on the basis of protein feeding, all values found so far were
related to intake of dry matter. Many groups have found by regression analysis highly
significant associations between endogenous nitrogen in the ileal chyme and dry matter
intake. For assessment of the association between protein source and endogenous nitrogen
level in the ileal chyme the relation with protein intake looks more promising. The lowest
valueof endogenous nitrogen wasfound for dried skim milk asthe protein source (1.3 g/100
g crude protein intake). The highest value (10.8 g/100 g) was found for Phaseolus beans.
These extreme values are directly comparable and reflect the specific reaction of piglets to
these protein sources which are extremely divergent with regard to protein quality and
content of antinutritional factors.
Theprecision of the 15N dilution method for the determination of the endogenous proportion
of nitrogen in ileal chyme or the sensitivity of the piglets with regard to the reaction of their
digestive tract to the intake of feedstuffs varying in content of antinutritional factors can be
assessed on the basis of the results obtained with both varieties of peas and field beans. Pea
cv. Frijaune has a considerably higher trypsin inhibitor content than cv. Finale, and the
tannin content of field bean cv. Alfred ist higher than that of cv. Blandine. The results
obtained with soybean meal, however, show that the relative proportion of endogenous

159
nitrogen is equally high in the chyme at the terminal ileum of pigs varying in live weight.
It can be concluded from Table 6that the content of endogenous nitrogen in ilealchyme of
pigs ist not an invariable, but rather is affected by many factors. Besides the composition of
crude nutrients in the diet, protein quality, the content of antinutritional factors, and the
animals'ageorliveweight areimportantfactors affecting thecontent of endogenous nitrogen
in the chyme of the terminal ileum. Another factor capable of affecting the amount of
endogenous nitrogen in ileal chyme is re-absorption of endogenous nitrogen.

Reabsorption of endogenously secreted nitrogen in the pie's digestive tract

There isa vast body of literature on endogenous secretion of nitrogen and amino acids in the
digestive tract andon the endogenous proportion of nitrogen in thechyme in various sections
of the gastro-intestinal tract of pigs. In contrast, studies on reabsorption of endogenous
nitrogen are scarce. This contrast can be explained by the fact that studies of the latter type
are relatively hard to achieve and take much material and money. Low (1982)attempted to
calculatetheamountof reabsorbed endogenousnitrogen during thepassageof digesta through
the pig'sdigestive tract. He based hiscalculations on various reports on endogenous secretion
of the intestinal walland itsexocrine glands'and on the nitrogen content of chyme in various
parts of the gastro-intestinal tract. Low thus calculated that a daily intake of 40 g nitrogen
results in an endogenous secretion of 18.1 g N, 78% of which ist reabsorbed before the
terminal end of the large intestine. Although the latter value issomewhat theoretical it fairly
agrees with results directly obtained in animal trials by other authors. Reabsorption of
endogenously secreted nitrogen can be determinded only by combining several experimental
methods and by using the tracer technique. Souffrant et al. (1986) reported on a combined
trial with pigs which yielded data on endogenous pancreatic and biliary secretion as well as
ileal and postileal absorption. In the same study they obtained data on reabsorption of
endogenous nitrogen in the digestive tract too (Figure 1). In their studies casein was used as
the sole protein source. Using the blood flow method and measuring the porto-arterial
concentration differences they found a total N absorption of 29.7 g for a single N intake of
23.6g.Theycould demonstrate by meansof the 15N dilution method that allof thecasein fed
had been re-absorbed in the terminal ileum and that the amount of nitrogen (2.2g) found in
the chyme of the terminal ileum was exclusively of endogenous origin. These data served to
balance the recycling of endogenous nitrogen. Souffrant et al. found that a total amount of
7.4 g nitrogen had been secreted endogenously where of the re-absorption rate was 70%up
•to the terminal ileum and 82%up to the rectum.

Secretion Absorption
other endogenous
N-sources blood
3,8 29,7 _.6,1 endoq.

•5,2 endoq.

intake digesta

Fig. .1. Recycling scheme for endogenous nitrogen in pigs, in g N (After Souffrant et al.
1986).

160
 Krawielitzki et al.(1990) have reported on another combination of methods which enables
to measure the endogenous proportion of nitrogen in chyme at different parts of the
gastro-intestinal tract and the endogenous nitrogen secretion in various intestinal sections.
They used three pigs fitted each with re-entrant cannulae in the duodenum and the terminal
ileum. The N pool of one animal was labelled with 15 N. By means of chyme exchanging
between the pigs and based on the isotope dilution method, both the nitrogen flow and the
secretion and reabsorption of endogenous nitrogen could becalculated for eachsectionof the
digestive tract. Soybean meal was used asthe protein source. They found a total endogenous
N secretion of 16.1 g for a daily N intake of 35 g. Up to the duodenum 33% of this nitrogen
amount was secreted into the lumen of the digestive tract. Endogenous nitrogen secretion
between the proximal and terminal small intestine accounted for 56% of total endogenous
nitrogen secretion, whereas the proportion of endogenous nitrogen secreted in the large
intestine was 11%. The reabsorption rate for the nitrogen secreted endogenously up to the
terminal ileum was found to be 73%; for the whole of the digestive canal this rate was 90%.
Although the results found are almost identical for both experimental set-ups it cannot be
concluded that these values are invariables. In further trials the parameters of recycling of
endogenous nitrogen should be investigated upon a diet of poorly digestible proteins.

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EXOCRINE PANCREATIC SECRETION OF ENZYMES IN
GROWING PIGS GIVEN DIETS BASED ON BARLEY, PEA,
LUPIN OR FIELD BEAN
1 2 1 1
Lucyna Buraczewska ,UtePöhland ,Jolanta Gdala ,W.Grala ,
Grazyna Janowska andW.B. Souffrant
Institute ofAnimal Physiology andNutrition, Jablonna,
„Poland
Research Centre ofAnimal Production, Department of Animal
Nutrition, Dummerstorf-Rostock, Republic of Germany

Abstract
Fourpigs,initially33-39kgliveweight,werepreparedwithaduode-
nalpouchforcollectionofpancreaticjuicetoassesstheinfluenceof
feedingpigswithpea,lupinandfieldbean,ascomparedtobarley,on
exocrinepancreaticsecretion.Fourisonitrogenous (about10.5%ofNx
6.25)dietswerefedtoeachpig:dietB(barley),dietBP(1:1Nofpea
and barley),dietLB(1:1Noflupinandbarley)anddietFS(fieldbean
andwheatstarch).Meanvolumeofpancraticjuicewas3.91, when
expressedper1kgofDMintake,andwasnotaffectedbydietchanges.
Theaveragedailyprotein,trypsin,chymotrypsinandamylaseoutputwas
similarforB,PBandLBdiets,butsignificantly lowerforFSdiet.
LipasesecretionwasloweredbyfeedingBandFSdiets.Proteinsecret-
ion(g/h)andtrypsinandchymotrypsinactivitiesofpancreaticjuice
(U/mlorh)weredecreasingwithtimeafterameal.Measurementsofspe-
cificenzymeactivities(U/mgprotein)showedsignificantlyhighertryp-
sinactivityinpigsfedPBthantheotherdietsandcomparativelythe
highestchymotrypsinspecificactivityforLSdiet.Itwasconcludedthat
thevolumeofpancreaticjuiceanditsenzymeoutputwerenotappreciably
alteredbyPBandLBdiets,ascomparedtoBdiet.Thereisno clear
explanationfordecreasingeffectonenzymesecretionoftheFSdiet,
fedtopigsasasemi-syntheticone.
Keywords:pancreaticsecretion,pigs,pea,fieldbean.

Introduction
Legumeseedscontainsubstanceswhicharereferredasantinutritional
factors,becausetheyinterferewithnutrientavailabilityorcauseother
undesirableeffects.Mostlyknownaretrypsininhibitors,lectins,tan-
ninsandalkaloids.LienerandKakade (1989)summarized dataregarding
theeffectoftrypsininhibitorsonthepancreasindifferentanimals
showing thatnopancreashipertrophy occursinlargeranimalslikethe
pigandthecalf.However,ingestionofraw,soybeandietbythepigin-
ducedanoverallincreaseinvolumeofpancreaticjuice,ascomparedto
aheated soybeandiet,andledtounsignificant increasesintotalpro-
teinandtrypsinactivity (Corringetal.,1985;Éebrowskaetat.,1985).
Itispossiblethatafeedbackmechanism (Corring,1974)isinvolvedin
theresponseoftheexocrinepancreastofeedscontaining antinutritive
componentssuchastrypsininhibitorortannins.Therearenoevidences
whetherotherthansoyalegumineseedsmayinfluencepancreaticsecretion
ofpigs.Thisexperimentwasdesignedtostudytheeffectoffeedinggro-
wingpigswithpea,fieldbeanandlupin,ascomparedtobarley,onthe
167
 volume and enzyme a c t i v i t y of pancreatic j u i c e .

Materials and Methodsi

Fourfemalepigsof33-39kglivebodymasswereequipped withare-
-entrantcannula linkingaduodenalpouchwiththeduodenum.Thesurgi-
calprocedurewassimilartothatdescribedbyHeeetal. (1985).
Fourdietswereprepared (Table 1), eachcontainingtenper centof
proteinfromdifferentsources:barley,white-flowered pea "Opal",yellow
lupin "Topaz"andfield bean "Dino".Dietsweresupplemented withmost
limiting aminoacids.Fromabout 10thdayafter surgerythepigswere
fedaccordingtotheirmetabolicbodyweight.

Table1.Compositionofdiets*.

Ingredients, g/kg Dietswith: field

barley pea lupin
bean
Barley 959.5 _ _ _
Pea,var."Opal" - 523.0 - -
Yellow lupin, var. "Topaz" - - 265.0 -
Fieldbean,var.' Dino" - - - 425.0
Wheat starch - 415.8 686.3 515.3
Cellulose - 6.0 - 4.0
Dicalcium phosphate 10.0 16.0 18.0 15.0
Calcium carbonate 15.0 10.0 8.0 11.0
vit-min.mixture, "PolfamixP" 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
Sodium chloride 3.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
Soyaoil - 13.9 8.6 14.7
LysineHCl 2.45 - - -
Methionine - 1.26 - 0.84
Tryptophan - - 0.11 -
Peaandlupindietsweremixedwithbarley diet 1:1to
increasetheintakeofthefeedbypigs.Proteinandtannin
contentsinthedietswereasfollows:pea-barley diet10.7
and0.19%,lupin-barley diet 10.8and0.17%andfieldbean
10.6and0.56%,respectively.NDFcontentintheingredients
was:inbarley 14.5%,inpea12.3%,inlupin20.6%andin
fieldbean 13.4%.
*NoLyswasaddedtothepea-barley mixture

Itisworthtonotethatthemealsoflegumeseedswereverywellaccep-
tedbypigswhenfedwithbarleyduringpreliminary checkingoftheir
palatability. Replacing barleybystarchinexperimental dietsreduced
theintakeofpeaandlupindiets,anditappeard necessarytofeed the-
sedietswiththebarley dietinproportion 1:1.Atthebeginningofthe
experiment thepigswerefedtheexperimentaldietsaccordingtoLatin
squaredesign.Thedietsweregiventothepigstwicedaily,at8.00and
at20.00hinequalportionsaftermixingwithwater (about1:1)immedia-
telybeforefeeding.Waterwasavailableatalltimes.Eachpigreceived
eachdietfor14days.
Pancreaticjuicewascollected every2weekondays12and14offeed-
ingthesamediet,each timefor24h(from8.00to8.00 h). Theweight
168
ofjuicewasmeasured everyhourand5-10%samplesweretakenforpool
samplesrepresentativeofthethreeconsecutiveperiods:2,6and4hours
aftereachmeal.Atthe sametimedailysamplesfor eachpig,eachdiet
andeachdayofcollectionwerebulked.Thesampleswerestoredat0C
toawaitanalysis.Theremainingjuicewasreintroducedbymeansofpe-
ristalticpumpataratesimilartotheoutflow.Fourenzymesandprotein
weredeterminedinthe samplesnextdayafterthejuicecollection.
ProteinwasestimatedbythemethodofLowryetal. (1951)usingpor-
cineserum albumineasareference.Trypsinandchymotrypsinweremeasu-
redaccordingtoHummel (1959)andamylase accordingtoBernfield (1951).
TheprocedureusedforlipaseanalysisisbasedonthemethodofTietz
andFiereck (1966).ActivityoflipasewasexpressedinSigma-TietzUnits
whichareequaltothemlof0.05NNaOHrequiredtoneutralizethefatty
acidsliberated during6hoursofincubationwith3mllipasesubstrate,
accordingtoSigma Diagnostics.Forestimation,1mlofthe juicewasdi-
luted50foldswithTrisbuffer0.2M,pH8.0.Lipaseandalsoamylase
wereestimated onlyinthe dailysamples.

Resultsand Discussion
Thejuicewasdripping continuouslyanddietary treatmenthasnosigni-
ficanteffectonitsvolumesecretedin24h(Table2)whichwasinave-
rageabout3.91whenexpressedper1kgdrymatter intakeofallthe
diets.However,largevariationsinvolumeofpancreaticjuicewereob-
servedforeachdiet,bothbetweenpigsandbetweenthetwodaysofcol-
lection.AsitwaspresentedbyHeeetal. (1985)considerable variation
(1.2to5.01)hasbeenreportedintheliterature,fordaily volumeof
pancreaticjuicecollected fromgrowing pigs.Valuesobservedinthepre-
sentstudies,forfourpigsduring theirgrowth from33to74kg,fall
withinthe upperrangeofthe reported volumesanddidnotproveany ten-
dencyforanincreaseofjuicesecretionbytheleguminousfeeds.

Table2.Meandailyoutputofpancreaticjuiceandsomeofitsenzymes
expressedper1kgDMintakeofdifferentdiets.
.*
Diets
pea+ lupin+ field
barley
barley barley bean

Pancreaticjuice,ml 3752 4142 3721 3918

Trypsin,Ux10" 163.8a 170.6A 172.6A 117.3Bb

a a A
Chymotrypsin,Ux10" 49.8 46.8 63.4 28.3B
Amylase,Ux10" 963a 631a 748a 466b
Lipase,Ux10" 746 ac
1159 b
1139 bc
693a

Fordetailsofdiets,seeTable1.Meanswithdifferent superscript
lettersinbetweendietcomparisonsdiffersignificantly (a,b,c
P<0.05;A,B P<0.01)

Themeanvolumeofpancreaticjuicesecreted duringthe firstandthe

second12hperiodsafterthemealsgivenat8.00and20.00hweresimi-
lar,andthiswassofar eachofthediet.The hourlyvolumesofjuice

169
 werevery variable,andshowednoclearresponsetofeedingandnocon-
sistantdiurnalpatternforthediets,whatwasconsistantwithsome
otherfindings (Partridgeetal.,1982;2ebrowskaandDlugolecka, 198B).
Meanvaluesforenzymeactivity (U/24h)ofpancreaticjuicepresented
inTable2showthattryptic,chymotrypticandamylolyticactivitieswe-
renotappreciably alteredafterthepea-barleyandlupin-barleydiets,
ascomparedtothebarleydiet.The only significantdifference was
foundforlipaseactivitywhichwaslower forbarley thanforthebarley-
-legumeseeddiets.Moreover,allthebarleycontainingdietsaffected
significantlyhigherdailyoutputoftheenzymesthanthesemi-synthetic
field beandiet.Similardietaryrelationswerealsofound forprotein
secretion (Table3 ) .

Table3.Rateofproteinsecretioninpancreaticjuicecollected during
threecosecutiveperiods (2,6and4h)aftermealsgivenevery twelve
hours,at8.00and20.00h.Valuesareexpressed per1kgDMintakeof
eachdiet.
Diets
Collection Protein/
pea+ lupin+ field
period time barley - - ^ bean

Periodsafter
themeals:
2hours g/2h 1.26 1.06 •1.53 1.06
6hours g/2h 1.00a 0.91a 0.98a 0.67b
4hours g/2h 0.84 0.72 0.76 0.61
Daily* g/24h 12.94a 10.59a 12.75Ab 8.76Bb

•ProteinasNx6.25.Meanswithdifferentsuperscriptlettersin
betweendietcomparisonsdiffersignificantly (A,B P^O.01or0.001;
a,b P<0.05)

Thesechanges,bothinproteinandinenzymedailysecretion,mighthave
beenelicitedbychangesinthetypeofdietary fiberor/and,tosome
extent,bydifferencesinproteinsandstarchesofthediets.However,
thisdoesnotexcludeapossibilityofdepressingeffectofantinutri-
tionalfactorsofthefieldbeanseeds.Recently,Hasdaietal. (1989)
found thatthepancreasofguinea-pigsfedraworheatedsoya-beanflour
wassimilarinweghtbutsecreted lesstrypsin,chymotrypsinandamylase
inrawsoya-beanfedanimals.The authorsconcluded thatthemechanism,
bywhichrawsoya-beannegatively effectsthe activityofenzymes,dif-
fersfromthatsuggestedforratsandchicksbutissimilartothatof
pigsand calves.
Nosignificantdifferenceswereobservedintrypsinandchymotrypsin
activityinpancreatic juicesecretedduringthedayorthenight12h
periodsandthepatternofenzymesecretionwassimilarafterthemorn-
ingandafterthe eveningmeals.
Proteinsecretion (Table3)andtrypsinandchymotrypsin activities
ofpancreaticjuice (Table4)weredecreasingwithtimeafterameal.
Itisproved thatproteinorenzyme-reachjuiceissecretedinresponse
toproductsofproteindigestionpassing theduodenum,whereasdigesta

170
 oflowpHstimulatessecretionoflowproteinpancreaticjuice(Harper,
1967).Studiesinpigshaveshownthatupto70%ofdietaryproteinmay
leavethestomachduringthefirst5-6hafteramealwitharateconti-
nuouslydecreasing,andmuchofthiscanbeintheformofpeptides(2e-
browskaandBuraczewska,1972).

Table4.TrypsinandchymotrypsinactivityexpressedinUper1mlof
pancreaticjuicecollectedduringthreeconsecutiveperiods(2,6and
4h)afterthemealsgiveneverytwelvehours.
Diets :
Consecutive
lupin+ pea+ field
periods,h barley
barley barley bean

Trypsinactivity
53.1+13.1 68.6+18.5 50.1+20.0 56.7+13.9
41.7+10.0 44.7+11.4 40.9+12.0 28.5+4.1
36.8+12.6 37.6+10.0 34.2+_7.0 30.0+7.0
Chymotrypsinactivity
16.6+.4.5 26.9+4.3 13.2+.6.0 15.2+3.1
13.1+3.5 16.1+3.9 11.8+6.4 7.6+3.0
11.4+3.4 12.7+4.0 8.8+3.2 5.4+1.6

Theratioofenzymeactivitiestoproteininpancreaticjuicewascon-
stantinallthecollectedsamplesafteradiet.Calculatedmeansofspe-
cificactivityofenzymes(U/mgprotein),onthebasisofresultsfor
threeconsecutiveperiods(2,4and6h)afterthemeals,showed(Table
5)significantlyhighertrypsinspecificactivityinpigsfedpea-barley
dietthantheotherdiets,andalsosignificantdifferencesinchymotry-
psinspecificactivities;thehighestforlupin-barleydietandthelow-
estforfieldbeandiet.

Table5.Meansofspecificactivityoftrypsinandchymotrypsin(U/mg
protein)inpancreaticjuicecollectedduringthreeconsecutiveperiods
(2, 6and4h)afterthemealgiveneverytwelvehours.
Diets:
Enzymes pea+ lupin+ field
barley barley barley bean
A A
Trypsin 13.53* 16.21 8 13.90M 13.49*
Chymotrypsin 4.27* 4.33* 4.93B 3.18C
Meanswith different superscript lettersinbetween dietcomparisons
differ significantly; P-<0.01or 0.001

Conclusions
Theresultsofthepresentstudyindicatethat,underconditionsof
constanttotaldietaryproteinintakeforabout5percentofbarleyand
about5percentofpeaorlupinprotein,pancreaticenzymeoutputwas

171
rr-

notsignificantly affected ,ascompared to 10per-centbarley proteinin

a diet.Consumption of thesemi-synthetic dietcontaining.10percentof
field bean protein significantly lowered pancreatic secretionof allthe
measuredenzymes.

References
Bernfield,P., 1951.Enzymesofstarchdegradation and synthesis.Adv.
Enzymol. 12:379-420.
Corring,T.,1974.Regulation delasecretionpancréatiqueparretro-ac-
tionnegativechezleporc.Ann.Biol.Anim.Biochim.Biophys.14:
487-498.
Corring,T.,A.M.Gueugneau andJ.A.Chayvialle,1985.Short term effects
ofraw soybeandiet ingestionupon theexocrinepancreatic secretion
inthepig.Proc.3rd Intern.SeminaronDigestive Physiology inthe
Pig.Copenhagen,May 1985.580Report fromtheNational Instituteof
Animal Science,Denmark,p.109-111.
Harper,A.A., 1967.Hormonalcontrolofpancreatic secretion.In:Hand-
bookofPhysiology,sect.6,vol.2,pp.969-995,AmericanPhysiologi-
calSociety,Washington,DC.
Hasdai,A.,Z.Nitsan,R.Voleani andY.Birk,1989.Growth,digestibility
and enzymeactivities inthepancreasand intestinesofquinea-pigsfed
onraw andheated soya-bean flour.Br.J. Nutr.62:529-537.
Hee,J.H., W.C. Sauer,R.Berzins andL.Ozimek,1985.Permanentre-en-
trantdiversion of porcinepancreatic secretions.Can.3.Anim.Sei.65:
451-457.
Hummel,B.C.W., 1959.Amodified spectrophotometriedetermination ofchymo-
trypsin,trypsin and thrombin.Can.J. Biochem.Physiol.37:1393-1399.
Liener,I.E. andM.L.Kakade,1980.Protease inhibitors.In:I.E. Liener
(Ed.): Toxicconstituents ofplant foodstuffs.AcademicPress,New York,
p. 7-71.
Lowry,O.H.,N.J. Rosenbrough,A.L.Farr and R.J.Randall,1951.Protein
measurementwithFolinphenolreagent.J. Biol.Chem. 193:265-275.
Partridge,I.G., A.G.Low,I.E.Sambrook and T.Corring,1982.The influ-
• enceof dieton theexocrine pancreatic secretion of growingpigs.Br.
J. Nutr.48:137-145.
Tietz,N.W.and E.A.Fiereck,1966.Aspecificmethod forserum lipase
determination.Clin.Chim.Acta 13:352-358.
Zebrowska,T.and L.Buraczewska,1972.(Influence ofprotein levelof
a dieton thequantity andcomposition of the intestinal contentof
pigs. PartII.Rateofproteindigestion and absorption of amino acids).
Rocz. Nauk rol.,S.B, 94:97-109.
Zebrowska,T.and Z.Dlugolecka,1988.Exocrinepancreatic secretion in
growingpigsgivendietsbasedonrye,wheat,barley and triticalegra-
ins. Proc.4th Intern.Seminar onDigestive Physiology inthePig.In-
stitute ofAnimalPhysiology andNutrition,Jablonna,Poland,p.104-107.
Zebrowska,T.,T.D. Tanksley,Jrand D.A. Knabe,1985.The influenceof
differentlyprocessed soybeanmealsontheexocrine pancreaticsecre-
tionof growing pigs.Proc.3rd Intern.Seminar onDigestive Physiology
inthePig.Copenhagen,May 1985.580Report from theNationalInstitu-
teof Animal Science,Denmark,p.149-151.

172
 EVALUATION OF A METHOD TO STUDY PROTEIN
DIGESTIONINTHEPROXIMALDIGESTIVETRACTOFYOUNG
PIGLETS
C.A.Makkink1,B.Kemp1,J.M.FentenervanVlissingen2
1 Agricultural University, Department of Animal Nutrition, Haagsteeg 4,6700 PM Wageningen,
The Netherlands
2
TNO-Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, P.O.Box 15,6700 AA Wageningen, The
Netherlands

Introduction
Thedigestionofdifferentproteinsourcesinyoungpigletsis
easilydisturbed:certain (plant)proteins (e.g.,soyprotein)
are less digestible than other (animal) proteins (e.g.,milk
protein).Thisdifferenceinproteindigestibilityismuchless
pronounced inolderpigs (Wilson &Leibholz,1981a,b,c).
Digestive disorders inyoung piglets could bedueto lackof
digestive enzymes or to problems with pH regulation in the
proximaldigestivetract (stomachandpancreas). /
In trial 1, cannulation of the duodenum was performed to
measurepH,proteinbreakdownandproteolyticenzymeactivities
induodenal digesta. The cannulation technique was evaluated
withregardtosustainability oftheanimalmodel,growthand
feedconversion efficiency ofthepiglets.
Intrial2,pigletsofthesameagewereusedandtheywerefed
thesamedietsasintrial1were.Theywerenotcannulatedand
servedascontrolgroup.Afterwards,thesepigletswerefitted
withapancreaticductcannulasothatpancreatic juicecould
bemeasured.
Experimental Design
Trial 1
Two dietswereprepared (Table 1)containing either skimmilk
powder (SMP) or soybean meal (SBM) as the sole source of
protein. Six piglets wereweaned at A\ weeks of age and fed
either the SBM or the SMP diet. Piglets were fitted with a
simple duodenal T-cannula at 5h weeks of age. Three digesta
collectionperiodsof4dayseachwereplannedaccordingtothe
followingscheme:
period I II III
age (weeks) 6h 8h 10^
pigletnr 1and2 SMP SMP SBM
3 and 4 SMP SBM SBM
5 and 6 SBM SBM SBM
Pigletswere fed at8:00amand 16:30pm. Daily ration was 400
grams, 500 grams and 600 grams in period I, II and III,
respectively. In each collection period duodenal digesta
samplesweretakenathourly intervalsbetween8:30am (h hour
after feedingtime)and 16:00pm,during fourdaysperperiod.

173
 The pH of the samples was measured immediately after
collection.Onegramofeachsamplewasmixedwithtrichloro-
aceticacid (TCA)fortheanalysisofTCA-precipitableprotein.
The remainder of the sample was frozen and freezedried for
crudeprotein and enzyme analyses.Samplestaken at 12:00 (4
hours after feeding, when pancreatic juice was maximal,
Makkink, unpublished results) were analyzed for protease
activity.After thethird collection period, piglets 2and5
were anaesthetized (02, N20, halothane) after the morning
feeding and fitted with a catheter in the pancreatic duct.
Pancreatic juicewas collected from 1.5 upto 6.5 hours after
feeding (basal secretion). Then a secretin injection (0.1
Clinical Units/kg LW, intravenously) was given to measure
maximal pancreatic juice output. After secretin injection
pancreaticjuicewascollectedduringthefollowing30minutes.
Pancreatic tissue was removed and weighed after killing the
animal.

Trial2
Five piglets were fed one of the two diets (Table 1) after
weaning at 4h weeks of age. Piglets 7, 8 and 9were fed the
SBM-diet,piglets 10and 11were fedtheSMP-diet.
At 8weeksofage,pigletswereanaesthetized and fittedwith
apancreaticductcatheter.Pancreaticjuicewascollected as
described fortrial1.

Table 1.Composition of thediets

ineredient diet SMP diet SBM
soybean meal (47.5 %CP) - 34.40
skimmilk powder (35.3 %CP) 45.50 -
maize starch 29.60 39.84
dextrose 15.00 15.00
•sunflower/soy oil 2.00 2.00
' • * •

cellulose 5.00 2.85

vit/min premix 1.00 1.00
ground limestone 0.80 1.35
mono Ca phosphate 0.50 2.10
salt - 0.50
KHCOg 0.10 -
NaHCOg 0.30 0.40
L-Lysine HCl - 0.16
DL-Methionine 0.10 0.20
L-Threonine - 0.10
Cr 2 0 3 0.1 0.1

calculated contents
crude protein 16.08 16.37
digestible CP 15.44 14.76
net energy (kcal/kg) 2555 2477
crude fat 2.49 2.44
crude fiber 4.95 5.02
inorganic matter 5.33 5.88

174

L
 Results
In trial 1, three piglets were killed during the experiment
because of complications after surgery. Piglet 6 (SBM) was
killedbefore the start ofperiod I (peritonitis). Piglets3
and4werekilledduringperiodII,afterbeingputontheSBM
diet (localperitonitis+spastic ileusandentrapment ofthe
jejunumthroughahernia inthemeso-duodenum,respectively).
Thus,only50%ofthecannulatedpigletssurvived throughout
the experiment. In trial 2, no health problems were
experienced. Growth, feed intake and feed conversion ratios
frombothtrialsarepresented inTable 2.
Table 2.Growth, feed intake and feed conversion ratio intrials 1 and2.
growth feed intake feed conversion
trial 1 (g/d) (g/d) ratio

period I piglet 1+2 250 ±81 400 1.69 ± 0.54

piglet 3+4 266 ±48 400 1.53 ±0.28
piglet 5 186 400 2.15

period II piglet 1+2 232 ± 86 500 2.31 ± 0.86

piglet 3+4
piglet 5 193 500 2.59

period III piglet 1+2 241 +280 600 7.68 ± 8.93

piglet 5 271 600 2.21

trial 2

period I piglet 7,8+9 201 ±43 400 2.26 ± 0.41

(week 1) piglet 10+11 196 ±56 400 2.12 + 0.60

week 2 piglet 7,8+9 163±24 400 2.49 ± 0.40

piglet 10+11 211 ± 5 400 1.90 ± 0.05

Pancreas weight was related to body weight in both trials

accordingtothefollowing regressionequation:

2.84 *X-13.77 Y=weightofpancreas (grams)

X=bodyweight (kg)
r= 0.96
n=8
Protein source inthedietdidnotinfluencethisrelation.
Results from piglets in trial 1 showed that pH in duodenal
digesta decreased ± 1 pHunit between 0 and 4 hours after
feeding and increased thereafter. pH was not affected by
protein source. Protein breakdown tended to increase with
advancingageofthepiglets (Figure 1). Aneffectofprotein
sourcecouldnotbedemonstrated.
Proteolyticenzymeactivitiesinduodenaldigestafrompiglets
intrial1variedenormouslybetweendays,betweenperiodsand
between piglets. Trypsin activity varied between 5 and 1829
unitspergramdrymatter,chymotrypsinactivityvariedbetween
0.2and511unitspergramdrymatter.Thetrypsin/chymotrypsin

175
 period period period
1 2 - 3

g
10

5. 1 -
73

Figure 1.Real/crude protein ratio induodenaldigesta.

before 1st 15 min. L J 2nd 15 min.

injection after inj. after inj.

O 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
ml pancreatic juice per 15 minutes
Figure 2.Pancreatic juice secretionbeforeandafter
secretin injection.

176
ratio tended to be somewhat higher for piglets fed the SBM
diet,however, no significant differences between treatments
werefound.
Thebasal and secretin-stimulated pancreatic juice secretion
(trial1 + 2 ) ispresented inFigure2.Basalsecretionranged
from 0.2 to 2.8 ml per hour (n=7). All piglets clearly
respondedtothesecretinadministration,juiceoutflowduring
thefirst15minutesafterinjectionrangingfrom10.0to66.4
ml/h.Duringthesecond15minutesafterinjection,pancreatic
juice flow ranged from 2.0 to 8.8 ml/h. With all piglets,
pancreaticoutflowwasstimulatedforatleast30minutesafter
secretin injection. No significant differences between diets
couldbedemonstrated.

Discussion
Cannulation of young piglets at the site of the duodenum is
possiblealthoughhealthrisksareencountered.
Thecourseoftheexperimentaftercannulationoftheduodenum
was complicated intheseyoungpiglets.Inthis region, just
after the pylorus, digesta flow rate is relatively high.
Therefore,digesta samplingmustbeperformed using the spot
sampling technique (cannula open during short time periods).
Whenthecannulaisopenedformorethenafewminutes,étomach
emptying will be stimulated, causing unphysiological changes
in transit time. During the collection of pancreatic juice
underanaesthesia,gastric emptyingwasdisturbed.
In this experiment no significant differences were found
betweenprotein sourceswith regard topH,protein breakdown
orproteolytic enzymeactivities induodenalchyme.
Proteinbreakdowntendedtoincreasewithadvancingageofthe
piglets (trial 1), indicating a developmental increase in
proteolytic capability of the proximal digestive tract of
piglets. Interactions between age and protein source
(differences in adaptation between the two protein sources)
could notbedemonstrated.
Fistulation ofthepancreatic duct can beperformed inyoung
piglets (± 8 weeks of age) and measurement of pancreatic
secretion before and afterhormonal stimulation ispossible.
Differences inbasal pancreatic secretion ratewere detected
between piglets in trial l and trial 2. However, these
differenceswerenotrelatedtoproteinsourceinthefeed.The
response to secretin injection wasvery clearly demonstrated
inallpiglets (Figure 2 ) .Not enough datawere collected to
demonstrate differences between treatments (age and protein
source).However,differencesinstimulatedsecretionratewere
foundbetweenpiglets,indicatingadifferenceindevelopmental
stage with regard to pancreatic secretory capacity. More
experimentsofthistypewillbeperformedto investigatethe
effects ofdietaryprotein sources and age ofpiglets onthe
development ofthepancreas.

177
F

References
Wilson R.H. & Leibholz J., 1981a. Digestion in the pig between 7 and 35 d of age.
1.The performance of pigs given milk and soyabean proteins. Br. J. Nutr., 45, 301-319.
Wilson R.H. & Leibholz J., 1981b. Digestion in the pig between 7 and 35 d of age.
2. The digestion of dry matter and the pH of digesta in pigs given milk and soya-bean
proteins. Br. J. Nutr., 45, 321-336.
Wilson R.H. &Leibholz J., 1981c.Digestion in the pig between 7 and 35 d of age.
3. The digestion of nitrogen in pigs given milk and soya-bean proteins. Br. J. Nutr., 45,
337-346.

178
THE PROBLEM OF ESTIMATION OF AMINO ACID
DIGESTIBILITY INPIGS
H. Bergner
InstituteofNutritionPhysiologyoftheHumboldtUniver-
sityBerlin

Abstract
Theso-called "aminoaciddigestibility"isabalanceof
theaminoacidsinthewholedigestivetractorofapart
ofthedigestivetract.Thebacterialdegradationandsyn-
thesisofaminoacidsfalsifyinthelargeintestineandal-
sointhesmallintestinethesebalances.Thehighmicro-
bialsynthesisoflysineandthesmallsynthesisofhisti-
dinemakeitpossibletovaluethisinfluenceontheamino
aciddigestibility.Thebestmethodforthemeasurementof
thenonfeedaminoacidsattheendoftheileumorinthe
faecesisthe150-isotopedilutiontechniquewith15W-la-
belledpigs. /
Apparentdigestibility ofaminoacidsinthewholedigesti-
vetractofpips.
In1982wepublished (Bergner,1982)thatthefaecalap-
parentdigestibility ofthemostaminoacidsisindepen-
dencefromthecrudefibrecontentofthediet.Promthis
experimentstheapparentdigestibilityforlysine,histi-
dineandprolineisshowninTable1.

Table1.Faecalapparentdigestibility ($)oftheamino
acidslysine,histidineandprolineindependenceofthe
crudefibrecontent (Bergner,1982).

# ofcrudefibre
inthediet 4.2 6.3 8.0 11.1 13.5
lysine 83 81 75 69 63
Histidine 90 89 85 82 77
Proline 96 94 92 90 88

Furtherexperimentsshowed (Bergneretal.,1984)that
theexcretionof15N-labelledaminoacidsinthefaecesof
15^-labelledpigswasthehighestfor15N-lysineandthe
lov/estfor15H-histidineand15U-proline.Theresultssho-
wedfurtherthattheincreaseofexcretionofI5U-lysine
waspositivelycorrelatedwiththeincreaseofcrudefibre
inthediet.Thiscorrelationwasverysmallfortheex-
cretionof15N-labelledhistidineandthesmallestfor
179
rr

15N-labelledproline.Thereasonforthis,resultisthe
highbacterialsynthesisoflysineandthelowbacterial
synthesisofhistidineandproline.TheresultsinTable1
areinagreementwiththisexplanations.Whenthebacterial
synthesisrateofanaminoacidisveryhigh,theapparent
digestibility (balance)ofthisaminoacidislow,andin-
verted,whenthebacterialsynthesisofanaminoacidin
thegutislowtheapparentdigestibility ishigh.
Ilealapparentandtruedigestibility ofaminoacidsin
pigs.
Wepostulatethatthebacterialsynthesisofaminoacids
inthesmallintestineofpigsisalsoresponsibleforthe
apparentilealdigestibilitywhenenoughnativefibreis
included inthedietasanenergysourceforthebacterial
activityinthedistalpartofthesmallintestine.
TheresultsofZebrowskaetal. (1984)showedforthe
apparentilealdigestibility oflysineandhistidinethe
picturewhatisgiveninTable2.

Table2.Apparentilealdigestibilityinpigs($)oflysine
andhistidineofdietswithnaturalfibre(Zebrowskaetal.,
1984).

Diet Barley Wheat %e Oats Wheatbran

Lysine 66.4 62.3 65.3 58.1 57.1
Histidine 80.5 79.9 75.7 74.4 67.2

Thehigherlysinesynthesisratecausedthehigherval-
uesoflysineattheendoftheileumandthelowerappa-
rentdigestibilitysforlysineincomparisontohistidine.
Thecalculationofatrueilealdigestibility ofamino
acidsconsideringtheendogenousaminoacidsattheendof
theileumisproblematicalinaprotein-freefeedingex-
periment.Theprotein-freedietscontaincelluloseasafi-
bresource.Thecelluloseiscontrarytothepentosansof
thegrainsnotsoagoodenergysourceforthegutbac-
teria.Asecondproblemduringthefeedingofaprotein-
freedietisthelowerinfluxofnonproteinnitrogen
(urea)inthesmallintestineandthebacterialaminoacid
synthesisisreduced.
Thevaluesofapparentand txue ilealaminoaciddigesti-
bilitiesareshowninTable3fordietswithcelltilose.
Thehighapparentdigestibility oflysineindicatedinthis
experimentalowbacterialactivityindependencefromthe
cellulosediet.Thelargeramountoflysineattheendof
theileuminpresenceofnaturalfibreinthedietisnot
aneffectofahighertransportratethroughthesmallin-
180
 testineforlysineagainsthistidine(Table1and 2),be-
causeHerrmannetal.(1988)showedthatthesupplementof
wheatstrawmealorgrassmealincreasednotthetransport
rateofhistidineorphenylalanine (lowerdigestibility)
totheendoftheileumasshowninTable4.

Table3.Apparentandtrueilealdigestibiliesinpigs(#)
oflysineandhistidineofdietswithcelluloseasafibre
source(Poppeetal.,1983).

Apparent digestibility True digestibility

Diet lysine histidine lysine histidine
6 %casein 87.6 86.8 99.9 98.9
11#casein 93.8 95.5 99.9 100.0
18#>casein 93.6 95.0 97.7 99.2
' 24#casein 93.1 93.2 95.9 96.0

Table4.Apparentilealdigestibilityinpigs(%) ofly-
sine,histidineandphenylalanineofdietswithdifferent
naturalfibre (Herrmannetal., 1988).

Lys His Phe

Basisdiet(BD)
(88 <$>wheat,6 %soyabean 71.1 83.6 83.2
meal,4 H>fishmeal)
BDincl.9.8<5wheatstrawmeal70.2 85.1 79.8
BDincl.16.7#wheatstrawmeal69.1 83.5 81.7
BDincl.10.0 $>grassmeal 70.7 83.8 83.0
BDincl.18.1 %grassmeal 64.5 82.1 79.3

'Vefoundinourexperimentstotheadsorptiveeffectsof
aminoacidstofoodconstituentsahighconnectionbetween
thearomaticringsofphenylalanineandtheringpolymers
ofisolatedligninorstrawmeal(Bergneretal.,1981).
Strawmealadsorbed10 fophenalalanine (weight/weight).The
bacterialphenylalanine synthesisinthehindgutwasfound
bymeansofthe15N-incorporationinphenylalanine,some-
thinghigherasthebacterialhistidinesynthesis(Bergner
etal.,1984).Thelowadsorptioneffectbetweenstrawmeal
andphenylalanineinthesmallintestineiscausedthrough
thehighwatercontentofthedigestainthispartofthe
digestivetract.Thehighbacteriallysinesynthesis(Ta-
ble4)isinagreementwiththehighilealapparentdigesti-
bilityofhemicellulosesinthesmallintestineinthesame
181
 experiment (Herrmann et al., 1988).
'//henabacterial activity exist inthe small intestine,
amino acids are synthetisized and destroid.The measurement
ofnon feed amino acidsatthe end ofthe ileum ispossible
in 15N-labelled pigswith the 15N-isotopedilutiontechni-
que.
DeLange etal. (1988)estimated the endogenous protein
(nonfeed protein)inthe ilealdigestawith the 15N-iso-
tope dilutiontechnique inpigs (38kg LW). Theresultsare
shown inTable 5.

Table 5.Endogenous protein inilealdigesta ofpigs

(deLange et al., 1988)(

Diet V/heat Barley

Endogenous protein
perkgDM intake 27.4g 27.7g
per 100g crude
protein intake 19.1 g 24.7g
faoftotal crude
protein 94.5 81.1

This endogenous protein isreal endogenous protein (en-

zymes, epithel cells etc.)and bacterial protein.De Lange
etal. (1988)(seealso Souffrant et al., 1990)found in
this experiment true ilealdigestibilities forhistidine
and lysine ofwheat andbarley diets intherange of97to
100 %>.Insuch experiments theamino acids offeedstuffs
•areat the end ofthe ileumnon 15TT-labelledand the endo-
genous and bacterial amino acids are 15N-labelled. It isto
conclude that allmethods forthe estimation ofapparent or
true ilealdigestibility ofamino acids are insufficient.
Thebestmethod ofthe measurement ofamino acid digestibi-*
lity isthe 15N-isotopedilution technique with 1SU-label-
led pigs.

References
Bergner,H.,M.Luck& J.Muller, 1981.Investigations on
the sorption ofaminoacids to diet components.1.Sorp-
tion ofvariotisamino acids fromwheat straw meal,al-
kali lignine and cellulose.Arch.AnimalNutrit. 31 '•
265-271.
Bergner,II.,1982.Fibreandnitrogendigestion.2.inter-
national Seminar ondigestive physiology inthepig.
IERA,Paris,p.237-245.
Bergner,U.,II.Bergner& 0.Simon,1984.Investigations
onthe endogenousN-metabolism in 1511-labelledpigs.
2.Faecal excretion ofamino acidsand 15N-labelled ami-
noacidswith diets containing different levels ofcrude
fibre.Arch.AnimalNutrit.34:507-517.
182
Herrmann.U.,J.V/Unsche,U.Hennig,H.-J. Block,P.Kreien-
bring &M.Meinl, 1988.Influence ofexogenous factors on
theprecaecalnutrient and amino acid absorptionusing
pigswith,ileo-rectalanastomoses.3.Effect ofhigh-fibre
roughage supplementations toabasaldiet.Arch.Animal
Futrit. 38:257-277.
De Lange,C.P.M.,'.7.B.Souffrant,'V.O.Sauer&.E.Mosenthin,
1988. Investigations onthe digestibility of endogenous
s^^pplyofprotein inthe intestinal tract ofpigs.Pro-
ceedings ofthe 4.international seminar ondigestive phy-
siology inthepig.Jablonna,Poland,p.255-261.
Poppe,S.,H. Meier,H.J. Bennke& E.Stttwe,1983.Onthe
proteinand amino acid digestibility invarious sections
ofthedigestive tract ofpigs.1.Protein sources of ani-
malorigin.Arch.AnimalNutrit. 33:153-165.
Souffrant,W.B.,V/.C.Sauer,E.de Lange,U.Pöhland& G.
Gebhardt,1990,Studies onthe ilealamino aoid absorption
and the endogenotissecretion inthepig.Arch.Animal
Ilutrit.40:160.
Zebrov/ska,T.,L.Buraczewska & H. Zebrov/ska,1984.Apparent
digestibility ofnitrogen and amino acids of cereal grains
inpigs.Proceedings oftheVI international symposium on
/
aminoacids.Y/arszawa.pp.128-132.

183
T
GASTRIN SECRETION INTHE NEONATALPIGINRESPONSE
TO THE INTRODUCTION OF EITHER COLOSTRUM OR A
PEPTONE SOLUTION INTOTHE STOMACH
R-J.Xu1and P.D. Cranwell

School of Agriculture, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3083, Australia

Abstract
Hepatic-portal and peripheral (jugular v) plasma gastrin concentrations were
measured in pigs aged 4-6hours (unsuckled, n =10),6days (fasted for 18hours,
n =8) and 12days (fasted for 18hours, n =7)before and after the introduction
of colostrum or a 10% peptone solution or physiological saline into the
stomach (8ml/kg body-weight) for a period of 60minutes. In all pigs hepatic-
portal plasma gastrin concentrations prior to the introduction of either
colostrum or peptone solution into the stomach were significantly greater than
in peripheral plasma. Following the introduction of the peptone solution
there was a significant increase in both the hepatic-portal and peripheral
plasma gastrin concentrations in pigs of all ages. After the introduction of
colostrum significant increases in hepatic-portal and.peripheral plasma gastrin
concentrations occurred only in 12-day-old pigs. The results indicate that
gastrin secretion is stimulated during the birth process, that G-cell secretion of
gastrin in response to stimulation by a mixture of amino acids and peptides
occurs in the newborn unsuckled pig, and that colostrum does not evoke a
gastrin responsein pigsyounger than 1week of age.

* Keywords: gastrin; neonatal pig; colostrum; peptone solution; stomach;G-cells

Introduction
The increase in gastrin secretion in response to a meal has been well
documented in adult animals (Walsh &Grossman, 1975). When food is eaten
gastrin is released as the result of cephalic vagal stimulation, gastric distension
and dietary chemical stimulation of the antral G-cells. The release of gastrin is
inhibited by a negative feedback mechanism via gastric acid secretion and low
gastric antral pH. Information regarding the regulation of gastrin secretion in
neonatal animals however, is sparse and somewhat inconclusive. For
instance, evidence for a gastrin response to feeding in human neonates is
conflicting. Sann et al. (1975) and von Berger et al. (1976) reported that plasma
gastrin increased significantly after human newborns and infants were fed with
a milk formula; whereas Rodgers et al. (1978) and Moazam et al. (1984) did not
observe such increases in human newborns and infants after feeding with a
milk formula or breast milk. Similarly, studies with pigs have also produced
1
Presentaddress: DepartmentofPhysiologyandAnatomy,MasseyUniversity,Palmerston
North,NewZealand.

184
somewhat confusing results. For example, Moazam et al. (1980) did not
observe a significant increase in serum gastrin following the introduction of a
protein solution into the stomach of pigs 1-4 weeks old, and Bunn & Titchen
(1984) reported a significant decrease of serum gastrin in newborn pigs after the
first sucking. The aim of the present study was to determine if neonatal pigs
secrete gastrin in response to the introduction into the stomach of either
colostrum or a peptone solution.

Materials and Methods

Twenty five Large White x Landrace pigs from 4 litters, <1-12 days old, 0.8-3.8
kg body-weight were used in this study. Immediately after birth arterial blood
samples were obtained from 19 pigs (3 litters) by transecting the umbilical cord
3-5 cm from the navel, collecting a 5 ml blood sample and then clamping the
cord with a sterile cord clamp. Ten newborn pigs, which had not sucked from
the sows, were used within 4-6 hours of birth. The remaining 15 pigs, reared
entirely by the sows, were fasted for 15-20 hours prior to experiments at 6 (n=8)
and 12(n=7) days of age.
Anaesthesia was induced and maintained throughout the experiments with
halothane, which was first inhaled through a mask, using an initial
concentration of up to 5% in oxygen. A midline incision was made in the neck
and an endotracheal tube was tied into the trachea through which the animal
inhaled the anaesthetic at a concentration of 1-3% in oxygen. A silastic tube (2
mm i.d.) was tied into the oesophagus so that the tip was adjacent to the gastro-
oesophageal junction. A further incision was made in the neck and a
polyvinyl catheter (1.0 mm i.d.) was tied into the right external jugular vein.
The abdomen was opened through a midline incision and a polyvinyl catheter
(0.8 mm i.d.) was tied into the umbilical vein such that the tip of the catheter
was in the hepatic-portal vein. During the first two weeks of life in the pig, it is
possible to use this procedure to obtain samples of hepatic-portal blood without
extensive surgical interference to the hepatic-portal vasculature. However, it
should be stressed that the blood samples are a mixture of blood derived from
all parts of the gastrointestinal tract, not just the stomach.
A bolus of 8 ml/kg body-weight of sows' colostrum (SC), or peptone solution
(PS), or physiological saline was introduced by syringe into the stomach via the
oesophageal tube. The peptone solution consisted of 10 g Bacteriological
Peptone L37 (Oxoid, Basingstoke, U.K.) dissolved in 100 ml distilled water. The
colostrum was collected from sows immediately prior to, during and following
farrowing and was stored at -20°C until used. Blood samples (1 ml) were
collected simultaneously from the peripheral and hepatic-portal catheters at
known intervals before and after the bolus. Plasma gastrin concentration was
determined by radioimmunoassay using the antiserum RPN 1651 (Amersham,
U.K.). The antiserum, which was raised in rabbits against synthetic G17,
recognizes the mid-to-C-terminal region of G17 and has equal cross-reactivity
with both the Gl7 and G34 forms of human and porcine gastrin. The intra-
and inter-assay coefficients of variation were 6.1-8.6% and 11.9-14.1%
respectively. Statistical analyses were performed using paired and unpaired
Students t-tests and the least significant difference (LSD) test (Steel & Torrie,
1980).

185
Results
The mean plasma gastrin concentration in umbilical arterial blood collected
at birth from 19 pigs was 45±9 fmol/ml. Eight of these pigs were used in
experiments at 4-6 hours after birth and the gastrin concentration in their
umbilical arterial blood at birth, 49±9 fmol/ml, was significantly greater
(P<0.05) than in peripheral blood 4-6 hours later, 22±5 fmol/ml. In pigs of all
ages, hepatic-portal plasma gastrin concentrations during the fasting period
were significantly greater than in peripheral plasma (Table1).

Table 1. Hepatic-portal and peripheral plasma gastrin concentrations

(mean±SEM) in newborn, unsuckled pigs, 4-6 hours old, and in 6- and 12-day-
old pigs following a 15-20 hour period of fasting.

Age n Hepatic-portal Peripheral

(fmol/ml) (fmol/ml)
4-6 h 10 37±8a ** 20 ± 4 a
6d 8 33±5a * 27±5a
12d 7 47±5a * 41±4b
Differences between the hepatic-portal and peripheral plasma gastrin
concentrations were significant *P<0.05; **P<0.01. Mean values in a column
with different superscripts (a,b) were significantly different (P<0.01).

0-day-old (n-4) 6-day-old (n-4) 12-day-dd (n-3)

"^140
r •? » * i r PS
Ö120- A ,i
E
C100- ƒ #

o so- 1 * * * : * '• Vi-5

4 .1--*
/ '*"*— * *
li 60 v
GC
<>
f *
£ 40
UJ

Ü 20
i i i i i i i i i i i i .
§ 0 0-day-old (n-6) 12-day-old(n-3)
» 8 0 SC
s c ;. . i ^ - i - i A-
£ 60
S 40 £t^
a
< 20
» o -5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 -5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 -5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

< TIME AFTER BOLUS OF PEPTONE SOLUTION (PS) OR SOWS COLOSTRUM (SC) (min)

Figure 1. Hepatic-portal (A) and peripheral (• ) plasma gastrin concentrations

in 4-6 hour old (0-day-old), and 6- and 12-day-old pigs before and after the
introduction of a bolus of either peptone solution (PS) or colostrum (SC) into
the stomach. Differences between the hepatic-portal and peripheral plasma
gastrin concentrations were significant, * P<0.05; * * P<0.01. Differences
between the hepatic-portal and peripheral plasma gastrin concentrations before
and after the introduction of peptone solution or colostrum were significant,
•frP< 0.05; -fr-fr P <0.01.

186
 Within 5-15 minutes of the introduction of PS into the stomach of pigs of all
ages hepatic-portal and peripheral plasma gastrin concentrations increased
significantly above fasting levels and remained elevated throughout the 60
minute period (Figure 1). In the pigs given PS, gastrin concentrations were
always greater in hepatic-portal plasma than in peripheral plasma and the
differences were often significant. Following the introduction of SC into the
stomach, the hepatic-portal and peripheral plasma gastrin concentrations
increased significantly above fasting levels only in the 12-day-old pigs. In all
pigs which received SC, the differences between hepatic-portal and peripheral
gastrin concentrations were small and only occasionally reached statistical
significance. In one 12-day-old pig, gastrin concentrations in both hepatic-
portal and peripheral plasma did not increase above fasting levels following
the introduction of physiological saline into the stomach.

Discussion
Elevated blood gastrin concentrations in newborn pigs and human
newborns, which often exceed the corresponding maternal blood
concentrations, have been reported by von Berger et al. (1976), Rodgers et al.
(1978), Cranwell & Hansky (1980a,b) and Marchini et al. (1988). In the present
study, the gastrin concentrations in the peripheral blood of newborn pigs at
birth were greater than those observed in the same pigs 4-6 hours later. A
similar observation was made by Bunn & Titchen (1984) but their pigs were
suckled in the intervening period. In human newborns, plasma gastrin
concentrations decreased substantially during the first 2-6 hours of life and
before the first feeding (Lucas et al. 1982). The higher concentrations of
catecholamines in umbilical blood of human newborns delivered vaginally
indicates that they undergo a greater degree of stress during the birth process
than those delivered by caesarian section (Hägnevik et al. 1984). As gastrin
concentrations in cord blood from vaginally delivered human infants are also
higher than those delivered by caesarian section and since catecholamines are
known to stimulate gastrin release (Marchini et al. 1988), it is therefore possible
that the elevated circulating gastrin levels at birth result from stimuli arising
from the stress of the birth process (Euler et al. 1977). These same factors may
also be responsible for the elevated plasma gastrin concentrations in newborn
pigs reported in this paper.
Introduction of peptone solution into the stomach evoked dramatic and
significant increases in hepatic-portal and peripheral plasma gastrin
concentrations in anaesthetized pigs at all three ages. Such responses are
unlikely to be due to physical stimulation (gastric distension) alone since the
introduction of an equivalent volume of colostrum (on a body-weight basis)
into the stomachs of 0- and 6-day-old pigs and the introduction of an
equivalent volume of saline into the stomach of a 12-day-old pig did not evoke
significant increases in peripheral or hepatic-portal plasma gastrin
concentrations. The response to peptone solution is more likely to be due to its
chemical composition. It has been reported by a number of researchers that
small peptides and amino acids, and their metabolic breakdown products,
particularly amines and ammonia, are the most potent stimulants of gastrin
release (Elwin, 1974; Lichtenberger et al. 1982; Lichtenberger, 1982). The

187
peptone (L37) used in the present experiments contains significant quantities of
free amino acids and ammonia.
In contrast to the effects of the peptone solution, colostrum stimulated small
increases in the hepatic-portal and peripheral plasma gastrin concentrations,
and the increases were significant only in the 12-day-old pigs. The dramatic
differences between peptone solution and the colostrum in their stimulatory
effects on gastrin release are probably due to the differences in Jheir chemical
composition. Colostrum contains significant quantities of fat and carbohydrate
(Cranwell & Moughan, 1989) but neither are effective stimulants of gastrin
release (Korman et al. 1971; Richardson et al. 1976). Colostrum also contains
about 15-16% protein which would not undergo significant gastric hydrolysis to
form the metabolic breakdown products referred to above because gastric
proteolytic activity in pigs is minimal during the first 3-4 weeks of life
(Cranwell & Moughan, 1989). Intact proteins have been found to be relatively
ineffective as stimulators of gastrin release when placed either in an antral
pouch of mature dogs or in the incubation media of cultures of isolated rodent
G cells (Elwin, 1974; Lichtenberger et al. 1980). Further, the possibility that
colostrum contains an inhibitor of gastrin secretion to protect the
immunoglobulins from damage by gastric acid should not be discounted and
warrants investigation.

References
Bunn, C M . &D.A. Titchen, 1984. Plasma gastrin in the pig from birth to
weaning. Research in Veterinary Science37:362-363.
Cranwell, P.D. &J. Hansky, 1980a. Effect of parturition, age and feeding on
serum gastrin levels in the pig. Proceedings of the International Pig
Veterinary Society 6th Congress, Copenhagen, Denmark, p. 76.
Cranwell, P.D. &J. Hansky, 1980b. Serum gastrin in newborn, sucking and
weaned pigs. Research in Veterinary Science 29:85-88.
Cranwell, P.D. & P.J. Moughan, 1989. Biological limitations imposed by the
digestive system to the growth performance of weaned pigs. In:J.L.
Barnett; D.P. Hennessy (Ed.). Manipulating Pig Production II.
Australasian Pig Science Association, Werribee, Victoria, Australia.
p. 140-183,.
Elwin, C-E. 1974. Gastric acid responses to antral application of some amino
acids, peptides, and isolated fractions of a protein hydrolysate.
Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology 9:239-247.
Euler, A.R., W.J. Byrne, L.M. Cousins, M.E. Ament, R.D. Leake & J.H.
Walsh, 1977. Increased serum gastrin concentrations and gastric acid
hyposecretion in the immediate newborn period. Gastroenterology
72:1271-1273.
Hägnevik, K , G. Faxelius, L. Irestedt, H. Lagercrantz, B.Lundell &B.
Persson, 1984. Catecholamine surge and metabolic adaptation in the
newborn after vaginal delivery and caesarian section. Acta Paediatrica
Scandinavica 73:602-609.
Korman, M.G.,C. Soveny, &J.Hansky, 1971. Effect of food on serum gastrin
evaluated by radioimmunoassay. Gut 12:619-624.

188
Lichtenberger, L.M. 1982. Importance of food in the regulation of gastrin
release and formation. American Journal of Physiology 243:G429-G441.
Lichtenberger, L.M., W.G. Forssmann & S. Ito, 1980. Functional
responsiveness of an isolated and enriched fraction of rodent gastrin cells.
Gastroenterology 79:447-459.
Lichtenberger, L.M., L.A. Grazini &W.P. Dubinsky, 1982. Importance of
dietary amines in meal-induced gastrin release. American Journal of
Physiology 243:G341-G347.
Lucas, A., S.R. Bloom &A. Aynsley-Green, 1982. Postnatal surges in plasma
gut hormones in term and preterm infants. Biology of Neonate 41:63-67.
Marchini, G., H. Lagercrantz, J.Winberg &K. Uvnäs-Moberg, 1988. Fetal
and maternal plasma levels of gastrin, somatostatin and oxytocin after
vaginal delivery and elective cesarian section. Early Human
Development 18:73-79.
Moazam, F.,W.J. Kirby, B.M.Rogers &J.E.McGuigan, 1984. Physiology of
serum gastrin production in neonates and infants. Annals of Surgery
199:389-392.
Moazam, F., R.L. Miller, B.M. Rogers,J.L. Talbert, &J.E.McGuigan, (1980)
Fasting and postprandial serum gastrin in neonatal swine, and changes
following antrectomy. Journal of Surgical Research 28:39-43. /
Richardson, C.T., J.H. Walsh, M.I. Hicks &J.S.Fordtran, 1976. Studies on
the mechanisms of food-stimulated gastric acid secretion in normal
human subjects. Journal of Clinical Investigation 58:623-631.
Rodgers, B.M.,P.M. Dix,J.L.Talbert &J.E.McGuigan, 1978. Fasting and
postprandial serum gastrin in normal human neonates. Journal of
Pediatric Surgery 13:13-16.
Sann, L., J.A.P. Chayvialle, A. Bremond & R. Lambert, 1975. Serum gastrin
level in early childhood. Archives of Disease in Childhood 50:782-785.
Steel,R.G.D. &J.H. Torrie, 1980. Principles and procedures of statistics. 2nd
edition. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Von Berger, L., I. Henrichs, S. Raptis, E. Heinze, W. Jonatha, W.M. Teller &
E.F.Pfeiffer, 1976. Pediatrics 58:264-267.
Walsh, J.H. &M.I. Grossman, 1975. Gastrin. New England Journal of
Medicine 292:1324-1332,1377-1384.

189
 THE EFFECTS OF FEED INTAKE AND DIETARY FIBRE
LEVELSONTHEENDOGENOUS ILEALAMINOACID OUTPUT
IN GROWING PIGS
S.FuruyaandY.Kaji

Kyushu National Agricultural Experiment Station, Nishigoshi, Kumamoto,

Japan

Abstract
Theeffectsofleveloffeedintakeanddietaryneutraldetergentfibre
(NDF)ontheendogenousilealoutputofaminoacids (AA)andnitrogen(N)
were studied with pigs fitted with a simple T cannula at the terminal
ileum.Theendogenous ilealoutputvalues ofAA and N expressed as g/kg
dry matter (DM)intake decreased significantly (P<0.05)with increasing
ofDMintakeexceptforproline.Incontrast,thevaluesexpressedasg/d
remained a constant quantity. The effects of dietary NDF levels on the
endogenous ileal output ofAA and N were not significant (P>0.05),
althoughthevaluestendedtoincreaseasdietaryNDFlevelsincreasedfor
mostAAandN.
Keywords:aminoacids,endogenousoutput,pig.

Introduction
InthedeterminationofthetrueilealAAdigestibility,itisnecessary
toknowtheendogenous ilealAA output.Themost commonlyusedreference
basefortheendogenousilealAAisDMintake,assumingthattheamountof
endogenousilealAAisdirectlyrelatedtoDMintake,buttherehavebeen
nostudies specificallydesignedtoevaluatetheinfluenceoffeedintake
levels on the endogenous ilealAA output.Green et al. (1987)found a
decrease intheapparentilealAAdigestibilitywith decreasing feed
'intake.From thisfinding,Green et al. (1987)concluded that therewas
not adirect relationship between DM intake and endogenous ilealAA
output, and that endogenous output remained relatively similar at
different intakelevels.Althoughanincrease inendogenous ilealAA
outputwithhigherfibrelevelsinthedietshasbeendemonstrated (Sauer
etal.,1977;Taverneretal.,1981),Drake (1990)foundnoeffectforthe
endogenous ilealN output due to increase in dietary fibre levels.The
present study was designed to determine the effect of feed intake
(Experiment1)anddietaryfibrecontents (Experiment2)ontheendogenous
ilealflowofAAandNinpigs.

Materials and Methods

InExperiment 1,six pigs weighing approximately -45kg initially were
usedinareplicated3x3Latinsquaredesign,involvingthreefeedintake
levels and three periods.The same pigswereused again in the same
experimentaldesignwhentheyreached 90kg.InExperiment 2,a 5x5Latin
squaredesign,involvingfivedietaryfibrelevelsandfiveperiods,was
conducted with five pigs (approximately 32 kg initially). All the pigs
werefittedwithasimpleTcannulaattheterminalileum.Thecannulaand
surgical technique were identical to these described by Furuya et al.
(1974).
Five protein-free diets into which purified wood cellulose was

190
incorporatedattheexpenseofmaizestarchtoprovidefivelevelsofNDF
at30g/kg incrementswereused.Chromic oxidewasadded toeachdietas
an indigestible marker. InExperiment 1,the protein-free diet with90g
NDF/kgwasfedatthreelevels,i.e.0.8,1.2and1.6kg/d(air-drybasis).
InExperiment2,thepigsweregiven1.2 kg/d ofoneoftheprotein-free
dietsineachperiod.
Eachtestperiodlasted4dand equalamountsoffeedwere giventhree
times daily at 01.00, 09.00 and 17.00 hours.Water was supplied ad
libitum.Eachperiodof4dstartedatthe17.00hoursfeedingandsamples
ofilealdigestawereobtainedbetween13.00and15.00hoursforthethree
consecutivedaysstarting44-46haftertheinitialfeeding,asdescribed
inapreviouspaper (Furuya&Kaji,1989).
The analysis ofN,DM and crude fibre in feed and ileal digesta were
carried outaccording totheAssociation ofOfficial Analytical Chemists
(1975).DietaryNDF contentwasdetermined by the method ofVan Soest&
Wine (1967)andchromicoxideaccording tothemethod ofFenton &Fenton
(1979).TheAAcompositioninacidhydrolysateswasdeterminedbyamodel
LC-6A Shimadzu AA analyzer. Protein hydrolysis was carried out with 6M
hydrochloricacidinsealed,evacuated tubesmaintained at110C for24.
h.Tryptophanandcystinewerenotdetermined.
The data were analyzed by analysis of variance by the method of
Snedecor&Cochran (1967).Thevaluesobtainedatthedifferentlevelsof
feeding ordietary fibrewere subjected to simple linear regression
analysis. The output of AA and N through the terminal ileum-were
determined from the ratio of chromic oxide in the diet to that in the
ilealdigesta.

Results and Discussion

TheendogenousilealAAandNoutput,expressed asg/kg DMintake,are
showninTable1.Thedataforonepigatthe1.2kg/dleveldeterminedat
theinitialbodyweightof90kgwerediscardedastheAAandNtochromic
oxide ratios ofthe ileal digesta sample were inordinately high
(approximately twice the value of other pigs on the same level of
feeding).Theendogenousilealoutputvaluesdecreasedwiththeincreasing
leveloffoodintake.Theslopesoftheregressionequationsofendogenous
outputtofeeding levelwere significantly different (P<0.05)from zero
forallAAandNexceptforproline.
The endogenous ileal AA and N output, expressed as g/d, were not
affected (P>0.05)bytheleveloftheprotein-freedietintake (Table2).
Theslopesoftheregressions ofendogenous outputtofeeding levelwere
notsignificantlydifferent (P>0.05)from zeroforallAAandN,somean
valuesoverallfeedinglevelswerecalculated for each initial body
weight.Comparison oftheendogenous outputbetweenthe initial body
weightof45and90kg indicatedno significantdifferences (P>0.05)for
arginine, leucine, lysine,methionine, alanine,aspartic acid, glutamic
acid,glycine,prolineand tyrosine.However,for histidine,isoleucine,
phenylalanine, threonine, valine, serine and N, the daily output
determined attheinitial bodyweight of90kgwas significantly higher
(P<0.05)thanthatattheinitialbodyweightof45kg.
AsshowninTable3,the endogenous ileal AA and N output were not
affected (P>0.05)bythe level ofNDF intake,although values tended to
increaseasdietaryNDFlevelsincreased formostAAandN;theslopesof
the regression equations of the endogenous ileal output to dietary NDF
levels were positiveforallAAandNexceptforarginine and proline.
The results in the present study indicated that the daily endogenous
ileal output ofAA and Nwas more or less the same, in spite of large

191
Table 1. Endogenous ileal output of amino acids 'and nitrogen (g/kg dry
matter intake) at three levels of feeding determined at-the initial body-
weight of45and9 0k ginpigs given a protein-free diet containing NDF90
g/kg.
( Mean values.N o .ofpigs in parentheses)

45kg 90kg

Feeding level 0.8 1.2 1.6 0.8 1.2 1.6 Slope of

(kg/d) (6) (6) (6) (6) (5) (6) regression

Indispensable
arginine 0.98 0.68 O.52 1.14 0.80 0.75 -0.53**
histidine CAO 0.27 0.18 O.46 0.36 0.28 -0.25""""
isoleuoine 0.59 0.44 0.28 0.70 0.56 0.39 -0.38***
leucine 1-10 0.73 0.50 1.16 0.94 0.66 -0.68***
lysine 1.05 0.68 O.48. 0.91 0.72 0.51 -0.61***
methionine 0.24 0.14 0.12 0.28 0.19 0.13 -0.17***
phenylalanine 0.72 0.44 0.29 O.92 0.70 O.56 -0.50***
threonine 1.15 0.68 0.51 1.30 0.99 0.68 -0.79***
valine 0.91 0.54 0.39 1.02 0.79 0.55 -O.62***
Dispensable
alanine 1.35 0.80 0.58 1.33 1.0.0 0.76 -O.84***
aspartic acid 1.86 1.20 0.87 1.93 1.55 1.13 -1.11***
glutamic acid 2.4.4. 1.52 1.07 2.38 1.81 1.29 -1.54***
glycine 3.25 1.72 1.20 3.08 2.31 2.12 -1.87*
proline 5.01 4.20 3.O6 6.90 4.17 5:24 -2.25NS
serine 1.21 0.76 0.57 1.43 1.10 0.80 -0.79***
tyrosine 2.09 1.31 O.96 1.69 1.52 0.91 -1.20***
Nitrogen 4-58 3.26 2.20 5.48 3.81 3.24 -2.88***

NDF, neutral detergent fibre;NS,not significant

Slope of theregression ofendogenous output tofeeding level
* P<0.05,**P<0.01, ***P<0.001

variations in DM intake (Table 2 ) .On the assumption that the endogenous

output is divided into two fractions; a constant fraction and a fraction
which varies directly with DMintake, the relationship between the
endogenous ileal output (EI) expressed on a daily amount basis and DM
intake canbe expressed asfollows:
EIofAA (g/d)=a +bx DMintake (kg/d) (1)
in which "a"is the constant and "b" is the slope of this equation. The
endogenous output perunit ofDM intake canbe calculated asfollows:
a
EI ofAA (g/kgDM intake)= +b (2)
DMintake (kg/d)
Since the slopes of the r e g r e s s i o n equations were not s i g n i f i c a n t l y
different (P>0.05) from zero for a l l AA and N in the present study, the
s l o p e c o n s t a n t "b" can be n e g l e c t e d . Assuming t h a t t h e s l o p e i s
negligible, the relationship between the endogenous i l e a l output (y, g/kg
DMintake) and DMintake (x, kg/d) for lysine i s expressed as an equation
of "y=0.68/x" in which the constant "a", 0.68, represents the average
endogenous l y s i n e output (g/d) determined a t the both i n i t i a l body
weights. Lysine was selected as an example because lysine i s frequently
the f i r s t - l i m i t i n g AA in many feedstuffs. The relationship indicates that

192
Table 2.Endogenous ileal output of amino acids and nitrogen (g/d)at
threelevels offeeding determined atthe initial bodyweight of45and
90kginpigsgivenaprotein-freedietcontainingNDF90g/kg.
(Meanvalues.No.ofpigsinparentheses)

45kg 90kg

Feeding 0.8 1.2 1.6 overall 0.8 1.2 1.6 overall Slopeof
level(kg/d) (6) (6) (6) mean (6) (5) (6) mean regression

Indispensable
arg 0.67 0.69 0.70 0.69 0.78 0.82 1.03 0.88 0.18NS
his 0.27 0.27 0.25 0.27 0.31 0.37 0.38 O.36 0.03NS
ile O.4O 0.45 0.38 0.41 0.48 0.58 0.54 0.53 0.03NS
leu 0.75 0.74 O.69 0.73 0.79 0.97 0.91 0.88 0.03NS
lys 0.71 0.70 0.65 0.69 0.62 0.73 O.69 0.68 0.01NS
met 0.16 O.14 0.16 0.15 0.19 0.19 0.17 0.18 -0.01NS
phe 0.49 O.45 0.39 0.45 0.63 0.71 0.76 0.70 0.02NS
thr 0.78 0.69 O.69 0.72 0.89 1.02 0.93 0.94 -0.03NS
val 0.62 0.55 0.53 0.57 0.70 0.81 0.75 0.75 -0.03NS
Dispensable
ala O.92 0.82 0.79 0.84 0.91 1.02 1.04 0.99 0.00NS
asp 1.27 1.23 1.19 1.23 1.32 1.59 1.55 1.48 '0.10NS
glu 1.67 1.56 1.47 1.56 1.63 1.85 1.76 1.74 -0.04NS
giy 2.22 1.77 1.64 1.88 2.10 2.37 2.90 2.46 0.14NS
pro 3.42 4.31 4.18 3.97 4.71 4.28 7.17 5.45 2.00NS
ser 0.83 0.77 0.78 0.79 0.98 1.13 1.09 1.06 0.04NS
tyr 1.42 1.34 1.31 1.36 1.16 1.55 1.24 1.30 -0.02NS
Nitrogen 3.13 3.34 3.01 3.16 3.74 3.91 4-43 4.03 0.36NS

NDF, :neutraldetergent fibre; NS,not significant

Slope oftheregression ofendogenous output tofeeding level

the endogenous ileal output of lysine expressed per unit of DM intake

increaseswhenDMintake isreduced.Itisobviousthat a value forthe
endogenousilealAAoutputexpressedonaDMintakebasisdeterminedwith
onelevelofDMintakeshouldnotbeused inotherexperiments iftheDM
intakesdiffer.
Severalworkers (Sauer etal., 1977;Taverner et al., 1981)have
reported an increase in the endogenous ileal AA output per unit of DM
intakewithincreasingdietaryfibre.However,inthepresentstudy,this
effectwasfoundnotsignificant (P>0.05).Similarresultswerealsofound
indeLangeetal.(1989)andDrake (1990)studies.InthestudyofSauer
etal. (1977), it was found that when pigs fed on protein-free diets
containingincreasinglevelsofcellulose (50,100or150g/kg),thetotal
ilealAA,expressedasg/kgDMintake,was10.95,13.79and14-13g/kgDM
intake,however,whenexpressedinadailybases,were17.0,18.7and15.7
g/d. This was due to the effect of dietary fibre contents to the food
intake,inthisstudy,thedailyfoodintakewerereduced (1551,1357and
1109g/d)inresponse totheincreasing levels of cellulose in thediet
(Sauer et al., 1977). Taverner et al. (1981) observed significantly
greater (P<0.05)endogenous ileallevels with pigs given a protein-free
diet with 50 g cellulose/kg than with no added fibre,but only slight
increasesintheendogenousilealoutputwhenincreasingdietaryNDFlevel
from approximately 50 to 140 or to 190 g/kg; the magnitudes of the

193
 Table3« Endogenous ileal output ofaminoacidsand nitrogen (g/d)inpigs
given protein-free dietswithdifferent dietaryNDFlevels.
(Meanvalues offive pigsand standard errors)

NDF level in diet (g /kg) Slope of

regression
30 60 90 120 150 sem (x10~3)

Indispensable
arginine 0.70 0.74 0.82 0.77 0.67 0.17 -0.12NS
histidine 0.29 0.26 0.30 0.30 0.32 0.04 0.35NS
isoleuoine 0.40 0.36 0.42 0.41 O.46 0.05 0.58NS
leucine 0.69 0.61 0.72 0.73 0.80 0.10 1.12NS
lysine 0.53 0.49 0.56 O.56 0.62 0.06 0.81NS
methionine o.u 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.16 0.02 0.14NS
phenylalanine 0.52 0.51 0.59 O.56 O.64 0.09 0.94NS
threonine 0.63 0.57 0.69 0.69 0.76 0.10 1.26NS
valine 0.55 0.50 0.60 0.60 0.66 0.08 1.01NS
Dispensable
alanine 0.78 0.70 0.81 0.77 0.77 0.11 0.18NS
aspartic acid 1.12 1.06 1.16 1.15 1.16 0.15 0.60NS
glutamic acid 1.3.9 1.23 1.42 1.41 1.45 0.16 O.96NS
glycine 1.73 1.87 2.78 2.12 1.70 0.57 0.63NS
proline 4.31 3.66 5.44 5.15 2.80 1.52 -5.I6NS
serine 0.77 0.69 0.83 0.81 0.83 0.12 0.80NS
tyrosine 1.45 1.42 1.46 1.45 1.54 0.23 0.74NS
Nitrogen 2.97 2.79 3.67 3-44 2.82 0.50 1.19NS

NDF, neutralde tergent fibre; NS, not significant

Slope ofthere gression of endogenous output to NDF level

increaseswere generally similar to those observed withdietaryNDF levels

ranged 30 to 150 g/kg in the present study (Table 3 ) .Furthermore,
*%• "Taverner et al. (1981) reported that an increase in the amount of
" indigestible DM passing through the ileal caused no apparent increase in
endogenous protein. From the results of the present study and others
(Sauer et al., 1977;Taverner et al., 1981;de Lange et al., 1989;Drake,
1990), it may be concluded that the dietary fibre levels do not greatly
affect the endogenous ilealAA output exceptwhen the dietary fibre levels
are too low.
The result of the present study leads to a conclusion that the daily
endogenous ileal output of AA and N remains relatively similar at
different DMintakeand dietaryfibrelevels.This conclusion is different
from that made about the endogenous faecal N output (Mitchell, 1924).
Mitchell (1924)reported that the endogenous faecal N of rats varied with
feed intake and also with the fibre content of the diet. This has been
observed with pigs ( Whiting & Bezeau, 1957). The increase in the
endogenous faecal N output with DM intake and dietary fibre level is
probably a resultant of the action of the microflora in the large
intestine, since a large proportion of faecal N from pigs to be of
bacterial origin (Mason etal., 1976). Therate offermentation,and hence
bacterial protein in faeces, can be stimulated by additional substrate
provided by increased DM, more specifically indigestible DM intake, as
suggested by Taverner et al. (1981) and Low (1982). In contrast with the
endogenous faecalN, the endogenous ileal output of AA and N is suggested

194
tobelittleinfluenced,ifany,bytheactionofthemicroflora (Masonet
al.,1976;Laplaceetal.,1989).

References
Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 1975. Official Methods of
Analysis, 12th ed., Association of Official Analytical Chemists,
Washington,DC.p.16.
deLange,C.F.M.,W.C.Sauer,R.Mosenthin & W.B. Souffrant, 1989- The
effectoffeedingdifferentprotein-freedietsontherecoveryandamino
acid compositionofendogenousprotein collected from the distalileum
andfecesinpigs.JournalofAnimalScience67:74.6-754-.
Drake,A.P.,1990.The development ofan invitro system for predicting
nutrient digestibility in feeds for pigs. PhD thesis, University of
Aberdeen.
Fenton, T.W. & M. Fenton, 1979. An improved procedure for the
determination of chromic oxide in feed and feces.Canadian Journalof
AnimalScience59:631-634-
Furuya,S. &Y.Kaji,1989-Estimationofthetrueilealdigestibilityof
amino acids and nitrogen from their apparent values for growing pigs.
AnimalFeedScienceandTechnology26:271-285.
Furuya,S.,S.Takahashi &S. Omori,1974.The establishment of T-piece
cannula fistulasinto the smallintestine ofthepig.JapaneseJournal
ofZootechnicalScience45:42-44- '
Green, S., S.L. Bertrand, M.J.C. Duron & R.A. Maillard, 1987.
Digestibility ofaminoacids inmaize,wheatandbarleymeal,measured
in pigs with ileo-rectal anastomosis and isolation of the large
intestine.JournalofScienceofFoodandAgriculture 41:29-43-
Laplace,J.P.,B.Darcy-Vrillon, J.M. Perez, Y.Henry,S.Giger & D.
Sauvant,1989. Associative effectsbetweentwofibre sourcesonileal
and overall digestibilities of amino acids, energy and cell-wall
componentsingrowingpigs.BritishJournalofNutrition61:75-87.
Low, A.G. 1982.Digestibility and availability of amino acids from
feedstuffsforpigs:areview.LivestockProductionScience9:511-520.
Mason,V.C.,A.Just&S.Been-Anderson,1976.Bacterialactivity inthe
hind-gutofpigs.2.Itsinfluence ontheapparent digestibility of
nitrogenandaminoacids.ZeitschriftfürTierphysiologie,Tierernährung
undFuttermittelkunde36:310-324.
Mitchell,H.H.1924.Amethod ofdeterminingthebiological valueof
protein.JournalofBiologicalChemistry58:873-903-
Sauer, W.C., S.C. Stothers & R.J. Parker, 1977. Apparent and true
availabilities ofaminoacidsinwheat and milling by-products for
growingpigs.CanadianJournalofAnimalScience57:775-784.
Snedecor,G.W. &W.G. Cochran,1967.StatisticalMethods,6th ed.,Iowa
StateUniversityPress,Ames,Iowa.p.258-275.
Taverner,M.R.,I.D.Hume &D.J.Farrell,1981.Availability topigsof
aminoacidsincereal grains. (1)Endogenous levels ofamino acidsin
ilealdigestaandfaecesofpigsgivencerealdiets.BritishJournalof
Nutrition46:149-158.
VanSoest,P.T.&R.H.Wine,1967.Use of detergents in analysis of
fibrous feeds. (4)Determination of plant cell wall constituents.
JournaloftheAssociationofOfficialAnalyticalChemists50:50-55.
Whiting,F.&L.M.Bezeau,1957.Themetabolicfecalnitrogenexcretionof
thepigasinfluencedbytheamountoffibre intherationandbybody
weight.CanadianJournalofAnimalScience37:95-105-

195
T
ENDOGENOUS N LOSSES AT THE TERMINAL ILEUM OF
YOUNG PIGLETS FED DIETS BASED ON EITHER SKIMMILK
POWDER OR SOYBEAN MEAL
1 2
C.A. Makkink ,T.Heinz
1
Agricultural University, Department of Animal Nutrition, Haagsteeg 4,6700 PMWageningen,
The Netherlands
2
Research Centre of Animal Production Dummerstorf-Rostock, Division of Animal Nutrition
'Oskar Kellner', Rostock, Germany
Introduction
Development of surgical techniques andanalytical methods
enables researchworkers inthefield ofphysiology toin-
vestigate inmore detail thedigestiveprocesses indomestic
animals.Cannulation techniques canbeused tomeasure ileal
instead offaecal digestibility.
Untilnow,protein freedietsand regression techniques are
used toassess truecompared'toapparentdigestibility (Souf-
frant, 1991).
Especially withyoung animals,low (protein) digestibilities
arefound atthe ilealand the faecal level.Thecausesof
lowapparentprotein digestibility canbe foundby comparing
truetoapparentdigestibility.Whentrue digestibility is
also low,thefeedprotein itself ispoorly digested,however,
when truedigestibility ishigh,poorresultscouldbecaused
byan increase inendogenousN losses (e.g.throughhyper-
secretionby thepancreas).
Recently,the 15N infusionmethodhasbeen introduced (Souf-
frantet al., 1981,DeLange etal., 1990).With thistech-
nique itispossible tomeasure endogenousN lossesatthe
terminal ileumandhence tocalculate "real" digestibilities
atthefaecal or ileallevel.Thecomparison of "real"with
apparentdigestibility yields information onthecausesof
lowapparentprotein digestibility.For areviewonthe15N
•infusion technique and its (im)possibilities seeSouffrantet
al. (1982)and Souffrant (1991).
Thus, itispossible tocollectmore reliable data ondigest-
ibilitiesofvarious feedstuffs andondigestiveprocesses in
variousanimalspecies.
Especially onyoung pigs,notmuch isknown aboutthecauses
of low (apparent)digestibilities ofe.g. certainptotein
sources.Digestibility of soyprotein islower forpiglets
than forolderpigs,digestibility ofmilk protein ishigh
forpigsofallages (Wilson &Leibholz,1981a,b,c).
Weused the 15Ninfusion technique toassess theendogenous
N losses attheterminal ileum inyoungpiglets (age4to5
weeksatthe startoftheexperiment).Themilkprotein diet
used inthis studywasregarded asacontroldiet.Apparent
digestibility ofmilk proteins isveryhigh,even inyoung
piglets,therefore,endogenousN losseswere expected tobe
lowwith thisdiet.
Experimental Design
Inthisexperiment 5piglets (ofi8kg liveweightatthe
startoftheexperiment)wereused tomeasure apparentand
real ilealproteindigestibilities oftwodifferentdiets.
196
Composition ofthediets isgiven inTable1.
Pigletswere fedtwicedaily at8.00 hand 20.00h.Twopig-
letswerefedthedietbased on skimmilkpowder (SMP)and
threepigletswere fed thedietbased on soybeanmeal (SBM).
Thedietswere fedatalevelof380g/daythroughoutthe
experiment.After a6day "cage adaptation"period,thepig-
letswere fitted withaPVTCcannula inthecaecum (VanLeeu-
wenetal., 1990).After surgery,a 7daysrecovery period
wasallowedbeforebloodvesselcatheterization: catheters
wereplaced inthe jugularexternalvein (forcontinuous 15N
infusion)and inthecarotid artery (blood sample collection).
Aftercatheterization,another 4daysrecovery periodfollow-
edbefore 15N infusion started.Theexperimental scheme is
presented inFigure 1.
Thecontinuous intravenous 15N-L-Leucine infusionwasperfor-
medatarateof+40mg 15N-L-Leucine (95%15N enrichment)
perkgbodyweightperday.
From the startof 15Ninfusion faceswascollected continuous-
lyfor 6days.During thisperiod thePVTCcannula wasclosed.
Apparent faecal digestibility isdetermined fromthe ingested
feedand theexcreted faecesduring these 6days.Atday7,
9and 11 after the startof 15Ninfusion,ilealchymewas
collected for 24hoursaday.Digestawascollected,weighed
andfrozenhourly,pooledperanimalperday.Apparent ileal
digestibility isdetermined from theingested feed andthe
collected chymeatthese3days.
Blood sampleswere taken twicedaily from thecarotiscathe-
terduring feeding at8.00 hand 20.00h.Blood plasma
proteinwasprecipitated using 20%trichloroacetic acidand
Nand 15Nwasanalyzed inthe supernatant (TCAsolublefrac-
tion)and theprecipitate (TCAprecipitable fraction).
time period (days)
n 10 20 30

I III M I I ! I I II 1 1 1 1 _.Li..u..i_ U LJ_U

| cage intdstuisl
I adaptation calculation iiaticn sampling of 1
recovery reccry blood and urine 1

faeces
Collectiez *

î Î
ileal chyme
* camjtaa closed fasces collected collection
Figure 1. for tie terminatron of
apparent protmn c&oestjbifity (day 2 6 . 2 8 and 30)
E x p e r i m e n t a l scheme.
Thecontribution ofendogenous tototalN inilealchymeor
faecescanbecalculated fromtheratioof 15Nenrichment
excess inilealchymeorfaecesand intheblood TCA soluble
fraction,assuming thatthe 15Nexcess intheendogenousN
and inthebloodTCA soluble fraction issimilar.Thecalcul-
ations arecarried outaccording toSouffrantetal. (1986)
using thefollowingequation:
Nexc/f Ntot =totalN (g/day)
Nen=Ntot * Nen=endogenousN (g/day)
Nexbl Nex =15Nexcess
c=chyme f=faecesbl^blood

197
Table 1. Composition of the diets

ingredient diet SMP diet SBM

soybean meal (47.5 % CP) - 34.40
skimmilk powder (35.3 %CP) 45.50 -
maize starch 29.60 39.84
dextrose 15.00 15.00
sunflower/soy oil 2.00 2.00
cellulose 5.00 2.85
vit/min premix 1.00 1.00
ground limestone 0.80 1.35
mono Ca phosphate 0.50 2.10
salt - 0.50
KHCO3 0.10 -
NaHCC-3 0.30 0.40
L-Lysine HCl - 0.16
DL-Methionine 0.10 0.20
L-Threonine - 0.10
Cr203 0.1 0.1

calculated contents
crude protein 16.08 16.37
digestible CP 15.44 14.76
net energy (kcal/kg) 2555 2477
crude fat 2.49 2.44
crude fiber 4.95 5.02
ash 5.33 5.88

Table 2. Results of N infusion experiment

diet SMP SBM

skimmilk powder soybean meal

number of piglets

apparent ileal
N digestibility (%) 84.4 ± 0.1 76.5 ± 2.6

endogenous ileal N
mg/day 786 ± 42 1423 ± 372

endogenous ileal CP
g/100 g DM intake 1.41 ± 0.78 2.61 ± 0.68

endogenous ileal CP
g/100 g CP intake 8.3 ± 0.4 14.1 ± 3 . 7

endogenous ileal CP
mg/kg LW 435 ± 23 829 ± 218

true ileal
N digestibility (%) 92.7 ± 0.0 90.6 ± 1.1

198
Trueprotein digestibilities canbecalculated from theappa-
rentdigestibilitiesby subtracting theendogenousprotein
(Huisman, 1990).
Results
Theresultsofthetrialaregiven inTable 2.Apparent
ilealN digestibility washigherwith the SMPdietthanwith
the SBMdiet (84.4vs 76.5 % ) . EndogenousNlossesatthe
terminal ileumwere+twiceashighwith theSBMdiet,resul-
ting inalmost similar true ilealNdigestibilities forthe
twodiets (92.7 and 90.6 %fortheSMPandtheSBMdietresp.)
From thesedata itisconcluded thatthedifferences inappa-
rent ilealNdigestibility between thetwodietsarenot
causedbydifferences inthe (true)digestibilities ofthe
twoprotein sources.TheSBMdiet induced an increase in
endogenousN secretion,resulting inadecrease inapparent
N digestibility.
Discussion
Wilson &Leibholz (1981c) studied apparentand trueN
digestibilities ofdietscontainingmilk or soybean protein
withpiglets (28daysofage)usinganitrogen freediet.
For themilk protein dietthey foundapparentand true ileal
N digestibilities of86and 92%respectively,whichclosely
resemblesourvaluesof84and 93%respectively.Apparent
protein digestibility wasexpected tobehigher forthemilk
protein dietbecause oftheadaptational statusofthenewly
weanedpig.Therelatively lowdigestibility couldbe dueto
differencesbetween cow'smilkprotein and sow'smilkprotein.
Wilson &Leibholz (1981c)reported apparentand true ilealN
digestibilities forthesoybeanmealdietof 51 and 62%resp.
Inour studywe found apparentand true ilealNdigestibili-
tiesfortheSBMdiettobe 77and 91%respectively.This
difference couldbeduetoageofpiglets (inour study 35-
50days) ortodietcomposition (Wilson &Leibholz (1981c)
used dietscontaining ±27%ofcrudeprotein) ortoaninter-
actionbetween ageanddietcomposition.The latter option
hasbeen supportedbyWilson &Leibholz (1981a)who studied
performance ofpigletsgivenmilk and soybeanproteinsat
different ages.They found an interaction betweenprotein
source inthefeed andageofthepiglets:performanceof
piglets fedmilk protein didnotchangebetween 7and 35days
ofage,however,performance ofpiglets fed soybean protein
did increasewith increasingage.
WilsonandLeibholz (1981c) studied endogenousNflowatdif-
ferent sitesofthegastrointestinal tractofpiglets (35
daysofage) fedaprotein freediet.They reported anendo-
genousN flowatthe terminal ileumof0.82 gNperday.In
our studywe foundN flowsof 0.79 and 1.42gNperdayfor
pigletsfedtheSMPdietand theSBMdietrespectively.These
data indicate thatendogenous lossesareminimalwhenmilk
proteinsare fedtoyoungpiglets.
However,endogenousN lossesmeasured with animals fedprotein
freedietspossibly donotreflect thenormal,physiological
situationwhenprotein containing dietsarefed.Thefact
199
thatdifferentprotein sources inthefeed-inducedifferent
levelsofendogenousN secretion stressthisaspect (Makkink
etal., inpreparation).
Leibholz (1982) studied theendogenousnitrogen secretionin
youngpigs (4weeksofage).Sheused theregressionmethod
toassess endogenousN losseswith afeedbased onmilk pro-
tein.Bymeansofregression analysis shecalculated endogen-
ousN flowattheterminal ileum tobe 3.44 gNperkgdry
matter intake,which amounts to 2.2gendogenous ilealcrude
protein per 100gdrymatter intake.From our studywe cal-
culated 1.41 and 2.61 gendogenous ilealcrudeproteinper
100gdrymatter intakefortheSMPand theSBMdietresp..
From ourexperimentweconcluded thattrue ilealNdigesti-
bility of soybeanmeal isnotmuchdifferent fromtrue ileal
Ndigestibility of skimmilkpowder inyoungpiglets.
Therefore,differencesbetween thesetwoprotein sourceswith
regard toapparent ilealNdigestibility andperformanceof
piglets (growth,feedconversion ratio)mustbecaused byan
increase inendogenousN secretionwithpiglets fed soybean
meal. The soyprotein itselfwashighly digestible (91%at
theileal level),but itprobably stimulated nitrogen secre-
tionby theexocrineglandsofthedigestive tract,resulting
inendogenousNlosses.

References
Huisman,J., 1990.Antinutritional effects-of legume seeds
inpiglets,ratsandchickens.Thesis.AgriculturalUniver-
sity,Wageningen,TheNetherlands. 149pp.
deLange,C.F.M.,Souffrant,W.B., &Sauer,W.C.,1990.
Real ilealprotein and a m m o aciddigestibilities infeed-
stuffsforgrowing pigs.J.Anim. Sei.68:409-418.
Leibholz,J., 1982.Endogenousnitrogen inyoung pigs.Br.J.
Nutr. 48:509-517.
Souffrant,W.B.,1991.Endogenous lossesduringdigestion in
pigs.Proc.Vth Intern.Congr.onDig.Physiol, inPigs.
April 1991,Doorwerth/Wageningen,TheNetherlands.
Souffrant,W.B.,Kohler,R.,Matkowitz,R.,Gebhardt,G.,&
Schmandke,H., 1981.Ernährungsphysiologische Untersuchun-
genanSchweinen zurBeurteilung vonmodifiziertenPro-
teinen. 2.Bestimmung desendogenenN imDunndarminhaltmit
Hilfe der 15N-Tracertechnik.Arch.Tierernährg 31:675-683.
Wilson,R.H. &Leibholz,J., 1981a.Digestion inthepig
between 7and 35daysofage.1.Theperformance ofpigs
givenmilk and soyabean proteins.Br.J.Nutr.45:301-319.
Wilson,R.H., &Leibholz,J., 1981b.Digestion inthepig
between 7and 35daysofage.2.Thedigestionofdrymat-
terand thepHofdigesta inpigsgivenmilk and soyabean
proteins.Br.J.Nutr.45:321-336.
Wilson,R.H. &Léibholz,J., 1981c.Digestion inthepig
between 7and 35daysofage.3.Thedigestion ofnitrogen
inpigsgivenmilk and soyabeanprotein.Br.J.Nutr.45:
337-346.

200
ENDOGENOUSLOSSESOFPROTEINFROMHEATPROCESSED
BEANS(PHASEOLUSVULGARISL.)

A.F.B. van der Poel1, Th. Heinz2, M.W.A. Verstegen1, J. Huisman3 and W.B. Souffrant2

1
Agricultural University,Department ofAnimalNutrition, Haagsteeg4,6700PMWageningen,
The Netherlands
2
Research Centre of Animal Production Dummerstorf-Rostock, Division of Animal Nutrition
'Oskar Kellner', Rostock, Germany
3
TNO-Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, P.O.Box 15, 6700 AA Wageningen, The
Netherlands

Abstract
The present investigation was undertaken to study the apparent and true ileal
digestibility of steam processed common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in piglets. The 15N
dilution technique was used. The apparent ileal protein digestibility of common beans, steam
processed at 102°C during 40 min, was about zero while the true ileal digestibility was about
65%. The apparent ileal digestibility of dry matter (DM) was about 70%.
From our studies we concluded that even after correction for endogenous protein the
true digestibility of common beans is low. This means that the storage proteins in beans are
resistant to enzymatic digestion after heating at certain conditions. The results of the present
investigation can explain the reduced weight gain of piglets fed diets with heated Phaseolus
beans from previous experiments. In addition, the commonly applied heating procedures for
Phaseolus beans (heating at 100 °C) are insufficient to guarantee a high true protein
digestibility.

Introduction
Raw common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) have a relatively low feeding value owing
to the lectin proteins and to trypsin inhibitors present in the cotyledons. These so-called anti-
nutritional factors (ANF) reduce the biological availability and digestibility of one or more
nutrients (Sgarbieri and Whitaker, 1982). Technological treatment like steam processing may
eliminate or reduce the ANF contents to very low levels.Steam processed beans, however, still
havealowfeeding valuebasedonapparentfaecal (Rodriguez &Bayley, 1987)orileal (Huisman
etal.. 1991;Van der Poeletal.. 1991a)digestibility values.This feeding value isstill lower than
can be expected on the basisof the analysed residual ANFs.Therefore, it isneeded tostudy the
effect of thermal processing of beans in more detail and to correct the apparent protein
digestibility for the excretion of endogenous protein in order to obtain true digestibilities. In
this way it is possible to distinguish between the effects of processing on the resistance of bean
storage protein to enzymatic digestion and the effects of endogenous proteins as related to
residual (low) levels of ANF, particularly lectins (Kik et al.. 1989).

201
 The aim of the present investigation was to measure the true digestibility of DM and
protein of common beans, steam heated at 102 °C during 40 min using the 16N dilution
technique. With this technique, the body protein which constitutes the'excreted endogenous
protein and which are lost to the animal, is labeled and then measured in the ileal chyme
(Souffrant et al,. 1986).In this way, one can differentiate the total apparently ingested protein
between the excreted non-digested dietary and excreted non-absorbed endogenous protein.

Materials and Methods

A batch of common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L., cull grade) was characterized for
physical properties and chemical composition. Then they were steam processed as described
previously in detail (Van der Poel et al.. 1990). A laboratory-scale toaster was used. After
heating, the bean samples were air-dried (35 °C, 24 h) prior to milling (stepwise:6 and 1mm,
respectively), storage at 4 °C and analyses.
In order to establish that the bean protein was the only protein source in the diet, beans were
fine milled (pin mill) and air classified (Alpine 132 MP classifier) to obtain a common bean
protein concentrate.
From a preliminary experiment with intact piglets it was derived, that the diet
containing protein that originated only from Phaseolus beans was not digested very well. Only
eight hours after the first feed intake, dirty, yellow-coloured diarrhoea was observed while a
control group of piglets showed normal faeces. The Phaseolus diet (PH), therefore, was mixed
with a diet containing soyabean isolate (SI)used in aprevious 15N experiment (Makkink et al..
1991; In preparation). This diet was checked for feed acceptance first. In general, the feed
acceptance for the 60% SI/40% PH mixture was sufficient and was used now in the present
investigation.
In the 15N experiment, treatment groups comprised of 4(SI/PH)and 5(SI)piglets.They
were surgically fitted with a PVCT canula in the ceacum after an adaptation period of 6 days
to the diet. After a period of 7 days to allow for recovery, the piglets were provided with a
cathether in thejugular external vein andcaroticartery for the continuousinfusion of a 1 5 N-L-
v-leucine solution and for blood collection, respectively. Recovery was about 5days.
Continuous intravenous infusion of 15 N-L-leucine was performed at a rate of about 40
mg N-L-leucine (95% 15N enrichment) per kg bodyweight per day during 11 days. The
15

contribution of endogenous to toal N in ileal chyme can be calculated from the ratio of 15N
enrichement excessin ilealchymeandin theblood TCAsolublefraction, assuming that the 15 N
excessin theendogenous Nand thebloodTCAsoluble fraction issimilar.The calculations were
carried out as described by Souffrant et al. (1986).
Ileal chyme was collected for 24 hours at three separate days; days 7,9 and 11after the
start of the infusion period. The digesta samples were pooled per animal per day. The chyme
was collected in small plastic bags attached to the canula. Each hour the flow into bags and the
attachement werecontrolled.Whenchymuswasproduced thebagwasweighed and immediately
frozen at -20°C.Blood samples (10ml) were taken twice daily from the carotic artery catheter
during feeding at 8.00 and 20.00 h. The true protein digestibilities then were calculated from
the apparent ileal digestibilities by correcting for the contribution of endogenous protein. The
digestibility of N and DM of the Phaseolus beans was calculated then by difference.

202

iL
Results

The effects of steam processing (Table 1) clearly indicate a reduced level of

proteinaceous ANF and paralleled the decrease in the dispersibility of the protein. The total
lectin content (measured by ELISA) was reduced to about 5% of the level of the untreated
beans.

Table 1. Effect of steam processing on lectins3, trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) and
protein dispersibility index.

Criterium Raw beans Heated beans

PDI (%) 34.2 18.2

TIA (mg g"1) 10.13 0.94
Lectins
- HA (units g"1) 64 20
- ELISA (mg g 1 ) 58.0 3.1

'HA = haemagglutination activity

In Tables 2 and 3, the main diet ingredients and the chemical composition of diets are
shown, respectively.

Table 2. Main ingredients and composition (g kg"1) of the diets a,b .

Ingredient SI/PH diet PH diet

Soya isolate 109 -

Phaseolus. toasted 87 217
Phaseolus. air classified0 71 177
Corn starch 416 249
Dextrose 194 261
Sunflower oil 19 17
Cellulose 42 30
Vit/min mixture 10 10

a
Further ingredients: NaCl, NaHCOg, KHC0 3 , monocalciumphosphate, limestone,
Dl-methionine, L-threonine, L-tryptofaan, L-lysine-HCl, chomic oxide.
b
SI, soyabean isolate; PH, Phaseolus vulgaris
0
Air classification after toasting

203
 r
Table 3. Analyzed composition (g kg"1) of diets.

SI/PH diet PH diet

Dry matter 900 889

Ash 48 46
Crude protein 152 141
Crude fat 21 28
Crude fibre 38 38

The replacement of about 37%of the SIprotein by Phaseolus protein showed a clear decrease
of the apparent digestibility of protein (SI/PH diet; Table 4). This reduction was noticed
regardless to the fact that ANF had been reduced to very low levels.The calculation of the ileal
digestibility of Phaseolus protein of the PH-diet therefore showed low values, and sometimes
they were even negative. The digestibility of DM decreased from 83%(SIdiet) to 69% (SI/PH
diet) to about 45%(PH diet; difference method). The lower DM% of chyme (7.4% vs 11.7%)
suggestdisturbed digestion processes.Itwillbeinteresting toknow whatphysiological processes
are responsible for this.

Table 4. Apparent and true ileal DM and protein digestibility (%) of Phaseolus
vulgaris beans and excretion of endogenous protein (Difference method) 1

SI/PH diet PH diet

Protein DM Protein DM

•Endogenous secretion
g 100 g"1 DM intake 6.6 ±2.7 10.7 ± 6.8
g 100 g"1 protein intake 38.9 ± 15.8 67.6 +42.6

Apparent ileal digestibility 47.5+12.4 69.6 ± 3.7 -3.9 a ± 33.3 44.0±12.5

True ileal digestibility 86.3 ± 4.1 - 65.8 b ±11.3 -

1
Mean and standard deviation (n=3)
a,b
Values with different superscript differ significantly (P<0.05)

Discussion
The endogenous quantity of N shows that in the chyme of piglets an essential part of
thechymus-N quantity isof endogenous origin. Although only 37%of theprotein in the SI/PH
diet originates from Phaseolus beans, it can be calculated that for the 3 piglets 51, 66 and 77%

204

ill
of thetotalendogenous N-secretion, respectively,canbeattributed tothePHdiet.The standard
deviation of the particular parameteres of the endogenous ileal N secretion were 2 to 3 times
higher compared to the control group. The large variation between the animals suggests that
there may be distinct variation in individual tolerance of ANF from Phaseolus beans.
Thetrue Ndigestibilityof Phaseolusbean proteins wasabout 66%(Table4)which is considered
rather low. The very low even negative apparent digestibility of N shows that more than 65g
of endogenous protein per 100gof protein passes the distal ileum. Probably, the bean proteins
are difficult to digest on the basis of their structure. This structure may have been affected by
the thermal treatment. A further possibility is that the interaction of residual lectins (Table 1)
with small intestinal epithelium has caused intestinal disturbance during the 3-weeks feeding
period before thedigesta collection wasstarted.The absorption of end products from digestion
then, may have been negatively influenced (Kik et al.. 1989).Therefore, theSIand SI/PH diets
were studied on their effects on the morphology of cultured expiants of the small intestinal
mucosa according to Kik et al. (1988). The results are shown in Table 5.

Table 5. Morphometric variables of pig jejunal expiants of the SI and SI/PH diet.
<_
Villus length (V) Crypt depth (C) Ratio (V/C)
(/im) (/im)

SI diet (control) 382 268 1.4

SI/PH diet 290 312 0.9
Optimum values* 500-600 100-200 2.5-3.5

M.J.L. Kik, 1990, pers. communications

Finally, it needs to be evaluated whether the storage protein of bean (Glycoprotein II

in particular) may stimulate the secretion of endogenous protein in the small intestine as
suggested bySantoroetaL (1989).Although thecontrolanimalsshownooptimal valuefor villus
length and crypt depth, the morphometric values of the animals on the SI/PH diet are much
worse.The largest damage was observed for the piglet of which expiant showed a villus length
of 220 fim, a crypt depth of 370 um and a V/C ratio of 0.6. These results suggest negative
influence on the potential intestinal absorption of nutrients.
The present investigation show that the protein of Phaseolus vulgaris beans, steam heated at
100°C during 40 minutes, is highly resistant to enzymatic digestion. It may be that the heating
time of 40 min at atmospheric heating is too long and may have induced this resistancy. In a
'mobile nylon bag' digestibility trial (Van der Poel et al.. 1991b) it was found that steaming of
beans at 140°C during 1.5 min showed a higher ileal digestibility of protein compared to
atmospheric steaming during longer duration. These results give some indication that the true
digestibility of Phaseolus beans isdependant on the temperature/time relationship during heat
processing.

205
 In conclusion, the low apparent ileal protein digestibility is related to a large extent to
the excretion of endogenous protein.Still,more detailed information isneeded on the effect of
low levels of lectin proteins on the interaction with intestinal absorption. In view of the
efficiency of the various heating procedures employed in the animal feed industry, the effect
of bean storage protein (Glycoprotein II) after heating at different conditions of intensity on
the efficiency of the digestion processes and on endogenous secretion has to be elucidated.

References

Huisman, J., Van der Poel, A.F.B., Mouwen, J.M.V.M. &Van Weerden, E.J., 1991.Effect of
variable protein contents in diets containing Phaseolus vulgaris beans on performance,
organ weights and blood parameters in piglets, rats and chickens. Br. J. Nutr., 64,755-
764.

Kik, M.J.L., Van Leeuwen, P., Van Dijk, J.E. &Mouwen, J.M.V.M., 1988.A small intestinal
biopsy technique in cannulated piglets. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr., 60, 123-127.

Kik, M.J.L., Rojer, J.M., Mouwen, J.M.V.M., Koninkx, J.F.J.G., Van Dijk, J.E. & Van der
Hage, M.H., 1989. The interaction between plant lectins and the small intestinal
epithelium: a primary cause of intestinal disturbance. Vet. Quart., 11, 2, 108-115.

Rodriguez, J.P. & Bayley, H.S., 1987. Steam-heated cull beans: nutritional value and
digestibility for swine. Can. J. Anim. Sei., 67, 803-810.

Santoro, L.G., Grant, G. & Pusztai, A., 1989. Degradation of Glycoprotein II (Phaseolin) the
major storage protein of Phaseolus vulgaris seeds. In: Recent Advances of Research on
Antinutritional factors in Legume Seeds (J. Huisman, A.F.B, van der Poel and I.E.
Liener, Eds), PUDOC, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 363-367.

Sgarbieri, V.C.&Whitaker,J.R., 1982.Physical,chemicaland nutritionalproperties of common

bean proteins. Adv. Food Res., 28, 93-166.

Souffrant, W.B.,Köhler, R., Gebhart, G. &Schmandke, H., 1986.Ernàhrungs-physiologische

Untersuchung an Schweinen zur Beurteilung von modifizierten Protein. Arch.
Tierernährg., 36, 491-498.

Van der Poel, A.F.B., Blonk, J., van Zuilichem, D.J. & Van Oort, M.G., 1990. Thermal
inactivation of lectins and trypsin inhibitor activity during steam processing of dry
beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and effects on protein quality. / . Sei. Food Agric, 53,
215-228.

Van der Poel, A.F.B., Blonk, J., Huisman, J. & Den Hartog, L.A., 1991a. Steam processing
methods for Phaseolus vulgaris beans - Implications for ileal digestibility of nitrogen
and lysine in piglets. Livest. Prod.Sei., In Press.

Van der Poel, A.F.B.,Doorenbos, J., Huisman, J. &Boer, H., 1991b.Evaluation of techniques
to determine the protein digestibility of heat processed beans for pigs.Anim. Feed Sei.
Technol., In Press.

206
 EFFECT OF PEAS AND PEA ISOLATES ON PROTEASE
ACTIVITIES IN PANCREATIC TISSUE OF PIGLETS
M.P. Le Guen1, J. Huisman2 & C A . Makkink3
1
G.I.E.EURETEC, 12avenueGeorgeV, 75008Paris,France
2
TNO-InstituteofAnimalNutritionandPhysiology (ILOB),POBox15,6700AAWageningen, TheNetherlands
3
Department ofAnimalNutrition, AgriculturalUniversity, Haagsteeg 4, 6708PMWageningen, TheNetherlands

Abstract
Two trials with piglets were performed to study pancreatic enzyme activities in response to
different diets. Piglets of 10 to 15kg live weight were fitted with ileal cannulas to collect ileal
digesta. The piglets were fed isonitrogenous diets based on casein and fishmeal (control diet),
raw pea and air-classified pea (RPAP), pea protein isolate (PPI) or pea protein isolate enriched
withpea ANF concentrate (PPI-ANF).
At the end of the collection periods, all piglets were killed and the pancreases removed for
trypsin and chymotrypsin determinations. Results showed that inclusion of raw peas in piglets
diets lowered weight gain and protease activities in pancreatic tissue. ANF concentrates added to
PPI diet lowered also weight gain but not protease activity in thepancreas.
Keywords:piglet, pea, trypsin inhibitor, pancreas, trypsin, chymotrypsin. /

Introduction
The inclusion of high levels of raw pea (> 15% for winter peas) in young pig feeds leads to
low performances (Quemere et al. 1982; Fekete et al. 1984; Gatel et al. 1989) and to low
apparent ileal digestibilities of nitrogen and amino acids (Huisman et al. 1990a). Antinutritional
factors (ANF) - mainly trypsin inhibitors and lectins - are considered partly responsible for these
observed negative effects of raw peas (Huisman et al. 1990e). Numerous studies dealing with
several animal species (Yen et al. 1977; Roy & Schneeman, 1981;Nairn et al. 1982; Hasdai et
al. 1989, Huisman & Van der Poel, 1989; etc.) showed that raw soybean meal affect the
pancreas. These effects would be largely associated with the content of trypsin inhibitors (Liener
& Kakade, 1980). As hardly any work has been done in this respect with peas and piglets, two
trials were performed to measure ileal digestibility and to assess protease activity in pancreatic
tissue. Effects were measured inpiglets fed rawpeas and different pea fractions. Only the results
concerning the pancreas are reported here, the digestibility coefficients being reported in
Huisman et al. (I990a,b).

Materials and Methods

In trials 1 and 2, 15 and 10 piglets were used respectively, each fitted with a cannula at the
terminal ileum to collect ileal digesta. The different diets (seeTable 1)were allocated at random
according to live weight and litter. After aperiod ofdigesta collection (22 and 12days for trial 1
and 2 respectively), the piglets were killed and the pancreatic tissue was collected for enzyme
analysis. Trypsin and chymotrypsin were measured according to Bergmeyer (1974), after
activation of thezymogen.

207
r
Table 1. Composition (%) of thediets fedtopiglets in trials 1, 2.

Trial... 1 1 1 2 2
Diet... control RPAP PPI PPI PPI-ANF
Fishmeal 6.9 - - - -
Casein 12.5 - - - -
Wholewinterpeasa - 25.0 - - -
Air-classifiedwinterpeaa - 17.8 - - -
Winterpeaproteinisolate* - - 17.9 - -
Springpeaproteinisolate3 - - - 18.4 16.4
ANF concentrate13 - - - - 2.9
Maize starch 51.8 30.7 52.7 52.2 51.3
Dextrose 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0
Sunflower oil 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
Cellulose 5.0 3.0 4.8 4.8 4.8
Mineral mix* 6.6 5.9 6.8 6.8 6.8
DL-methionine .06 .29 .38 .37 .37
L-threonine - .06 .16 .14 .14
L-tryptophan - .06 .06 .06 .06

Chemical composition (measured')

Crudeprotein(%) 16.3 16.1 16.5 17.4 17.7
TIAC nd 1.89 .36 .12 1.24
Lectins*1 nd 1915 501 507 2732
nd, notdetermined.
a
Formoredetails, seeHuismanetal.(1990a,b).
° MixtureofANFconcentrates ofthespring(Finale)andthewinter(Frijaune)pea, 51and49%respectively.
c
TIA,trypsin inhibitoractivity;inmginhibitedtrypsin/g feed, measuredaccordingtoVanOortetal.(1989).
d
ELISA:jiglectins/g.

•Results
Results of trials 1and 2 arepresented in Table 2. Initial live weights of piglets were 12.5 kg for
both trials. In trial 1the lowest daily weight gain was obtained with the piglets fed the RPAP
diet (239g/d) compared to 323 and 296 g/d for the control and the PPI diets respectively
(p<0.05). In trial 2, the addition ofpea ANF concentrates resulted in a lower weight gain: 229
g/d withPPI-ANFdiet as compared to 277 g/d withPPI diet (p< 0.05).
In both trials, weight of thepancreatic tissue was not significantly affected by diet composition.
The pancreas weights were 1.73, 1.56, 1.86, 1.65 and 1.62 g/kg BW for the control-1, the
RPAP-l, thePPI-l, thePPI-2 and thePPI-ANF-2 diets respectively.
Total activities of trypsin (T) and chymotrypsin (CT) in pancreatic tissue were significantly
reduced when raw peas were included in the diet. T and CT activities (103 Units) were
respectively: 100.3 and 8.4 for the control diet, 34.0 and 3.7 for the RPAP diet, 81.7 and 7.3
for thePPI diet. The addition of ANF concentrates to thePPI diet did not affect protease activity
in thepancreas (Table2).

208

IL.
Table 2. Dietary effects on pancreas weight and protease activities in the pancreatic tissue of
piglets (Meanvalues withtheir standard errors).

Trial... 1 1 1 2 2
Diet... control RPAP PPI PPI PPI-ANF
Pancreas weight (g/kgBW) 1.73a (.3) 1.56a (.4) 1.86a (.3) 1.65a (.2) 1.62a(.3)

Total activity inthe wholepancreas (to3Units)

trypsin 100.3s (5l.2) 34.0b (16.4) 81.7a (9.8) 68.3a (15.5) 59.5a(12.1)
chymotrypsin 8.4a (4.5) 3.7b (1.7) 7.3a (1.4) 9.7a (3.7) 8.6a(2.6)
a D
' Meanvaluesinaroworwithinatrialbearingdifferent superscripts differ significantly (P < 0.05).

Discussion
Weight gain of the piglets fed raw peas in this study was depressed by 24% compared to
weight gain of piglets fed the control diet. This effect is commonly observed in growth trials
with piglets (Fekete et al. 1984; Bengala Freire et al. 1989). Part of the depression seems to be
related to the presence of ANF: when the ANF concentrates were incorporated in the PPI diet,
daily weight gain was decreased by 17%.
Pancreas weight stayed unchanged when the raw pea diet was fed, in agreement witliHuisman
et al. (1990c)
The response of the exocrine pancreas of piglets fed pea ANF seems to depend on the protein
source associated with them. With the RPAP diet, protease activities in pancreatic tissue were
lower than whenthe diet was based on peaprotein isolate. A decrease inprotease activity in the
pancreas has also been observed in other species when raw soybean protein was fed. This was
found by Yen et al. (1977) with piglets fed raw soybeans, by Roy and Schneeman (1981) with
mice fed soy protein isolate (decline of the chymotrypsin activity in that experiment), by Hasdai
et al. (1989) with guinea pigs fed raw soybeans and by Khorasani et al. (1989) with veal calves
fed soyprotein isolate.
When the pea ANF are isolated and added to a pea protein isolate, they have no effect on the
enzyme activity in the exocrine pancreas. Some caution is however required in interpreting the
results. In trial 2 thepancreases were removed 14hours after the last meal, compared to 3 hours
in trial 1. According to a study of Gertler & Nitsan (1970) on chicks, starvation would have
effects onpancreatic enzyme activity depending on diet composition.
The availability of amino acids may have had an important role to play in the response of the
pancreas. The ileal apparent digestibilities of nitrogen and amino acids were much lower for the
RPAP diet than for the PPI diet (Huisman et al. 1990a). With the RPAP diet, the supply of
amino acids may have been too low to allow the pancreas for a normal synthesis of zymogens.
WiththePPI diethowever, enough amino acids would havebeenprovided for normal activities.
Johnson et al. (1977) showed the importanceof protein quality on the exocrine pancreas of rats;
feeding a poor quality protein - zein - resulted in lower chymotrypsinogen synthesis, compared
to casein.
Protease activity in the pancreas at a certain time is the resultant of synthesis and excretion of
enzymes. Alower activity could then be due to the following reasons:
- ahigher exportof enzymes from the acinar cellsto the intestinal lumen, and/or
- alower synthesis of zymogen in thepancreas.
It is generally believed that dietary trypsin inhibitors in the intestinal lumen activate the release
of cholecystokinin, agastrointestinal hormone that would stimulate the pancreas to secrete more
enzymes (Khayambashi & Lyman, 1969; Corring, 1974). If this mechanism occured in both
trials, the higher export of enzymes from thepancreas would have been compensated by a higher
synthesis only when the pea ANF were in the form of concentrate and not in the form of raw
peas.

209
 References
BengalaFreire,J., J.C. Hulin, J. Peiniau &A. Aumaitre, 1989.Effet delacuisson-extrusiondu
poisdeprintempssurladigestibilitédesalimentsdesevrageprécoceduporceletetconséquencessur
lesperformancesjusqu'à l'abattage. Journées de laRecherchePorcine en France, 21:75-82.
Bergmeyer, H.U. 1974. In: Methodsofenzymaticanalysis. ThirdEdition. Academic Press, New
York.
Corring, T. 1974. Régulationdelasécrétionpancréatiqueparrétro-actionnégativechezleporc. Ann.
Biol. Anim. Bioch. Biophys. 14:487-498.
Fekete, J., J. Castaing, O. Lavorel, M. Leuillet &P. Quemere, 1984. Utilisationdespois
protéagineuxparleporceletsevré.BilandesessaisréalisésenFrance.Journées de la Recherche
Porcine enFrance, 16:393-400.
Gatel,F., J. Fekete& F. Grosjean, 1989.Introductionde30%depoisdeprintempsdanslesrégimes
pourporceletssevrés:influence delanatureenacidesaminéssoufrés desrégimes. Journées de la
RecherchePorcine enFrance, 21:83-88.
Gertler, A. &Z. Nitsan, 1970. Theeffect oftrypsininhibitorsonpancreatopeptidaseE, trypsinand
chymotrypsinandamylaseanthepancreasandintestinaltractofchicksreceivingrawandheatedsoya-
beandiets.British Journal of Nutrition 24:893-904.
Hasdai, A., Z. Nitsan &R. Volcani, 1989. Growth,digestibility, andenzymeactivitiesinthe
pancreasandintestinesofguinea-pigsfedonrawandheatedsoya-beanflour. British Journal of
Nutrition 62:529-537.
Huisman, J. &A.F.B.van der Poel, 1989. Comparisonofeffects ofantinutritional factorsinlegume
seeds.In: J. Huisman, A.F.B. van der Poel &I.E. Liener (Ed.): Recent advances of research
in antinutritional factors in legume seeds. Pudoc, Wageningen, The Netherlands, p.317-327.
Huisman, J., M.P. Le Guen, J. Guéguen, G.M. Beelen &À.F.B. van der Poel, 1990a. Digestive
response of piglets to isolated fractions from peas. 1. Apparent faecal and ileal digestibility of pea
proteins in early-weaned piglets : comparison of raw peas and pea protein isolate. PhD Thesis,
Agricultural University of Wageningen, The Netherlands, p.81-97.
Huisman, J., M.P. Le Guen, S. Berot &E.J. van Weerden, 1990ft. Digestiveresponseofpigletsto
isolated fractions frompeas.2.Investigationintofactors responsiblefornegativeeffects on
performance ofpigletsfedhighlevelsofpeas:carbohydratesandantinutritional factors. PhD Thesis,
Agricultural University ofWageningen, The Netherlands, p.99-112.
Huisman, J., A.F.B. Van der Poel, M.J.L. Kik &J.M.V.M. Mouwen, 1990c. Performanceand
organweightsofpiglets,ratsandchickensfeddietscontainingPisumsativum. Journal of Animal
Physiology and Animal Nutrition 63:273-279.
•Johnson, A., R. Hurwitz & N. Kretchmer, 1977. Adaptationofratpancreaticamylaseand
'•*• chymotrypsinogen tochangesindiet. Journal of Nutrition 107:87-96.
Khayambashi, H &R.L. Lyman, 1969. Secretionofratpancreasperfused withplasmafrom ratsfed
soybeantrypsininhibitor. American Journal of Physiology217:646-651.
Khorasani, G.R., L. Ozimek, W.C. Sauer &J.J. Kennelly, 1989. Substitutionofmilkproteinwith
isolated soyproteinincalfmilkreplacers.Journal of Animal Science67:1634-1641.
Liener, I.E. &M.L. Kakade, 1980. Toxicconstituentsofplantfoodstuffs. Academic Press, New
York, US, 502pp.
Nairn, M., A. Gertler & Y. Birk, 1982. Theeffect ofdietaryrawandautoclavedsoya-beanprotein
fractions ongrowth,pancreaticenlargmentandpancreaticenzymesinrats. British Journal of
Nutrition 47:281-288.
Quemere, P., J. Fekete& M. Leuillet, 1982. Utilisationdupoisprotéagineuxparleporceletsevré
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Roy, D.M. &B.O. Schneeman, 1981.Effect ofsoyprotein,caseinandtrypsininhibitoron
cholesterol,bileacidsandpancreaticenzymesinmice.Journal of Nutrition 111:878-885.
Van Oort, M.G., R.J. Hamer &E.A. Slager, 1989. Thetrypsininhibitor assay; improvement ofan
existingmethod. In: J. Huisman, A.F.B. van der Poel, I.E. Liener (Ed.): Recent Advances of
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p. 110-113.
Yen, J.T., A.H. Jensen &J. Simon, 1977. Effect ofdietaryrawsoybeanandsoybeantrypsin
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swine.Journal of Nutrition 107:156-165.
210
SESSION 3
In vitro techniques of measuring digestion
IN VITRO TECHNIQUES OF MEASURING DIGESTION

B.0. Eggum and S. Boisen

National Institute ofAnimal Science,Foulum, Denmark

Abstract
Several enzymatic methods have been developed to simulate the
physiological process of digestion in vivo. In general, the in vitro
methods vary according to the enzymes employed, temperature and time of
the reaction and the separation techniques used to obtain the digested
fraction. Protein digestibility is usuallymeasured from the quantity of
nitrogen or amino acids released by the enzymatic hydrolysis of protein
sources. The more appropriate approach would be to use a two-step
enzymatic system consisting of first digestion with pepsin in acid
medium and subsequent enzymatic hydrolysis with pancreatin in alkaline
medium. In such experiments, the choice of temperature, pH,
enzyme-substrate ratio,and duration of the reaction becomes crusial. In
recent years, in vitro methods for the evaluation of feeds for
single-stomached animals have been developed using either contents of
the pig stomach and different parts of the small and large intestine or
blends of pepsin and hydrochloric acid in combination with pig
intestinal fluid as inocula for incubations. These methods have been
shown tobewell correlated with invivo apparent faecal digestibilities
for drymatter and energy.
There is a need to further develop and standardize the in vitro
methods, especially those for estimating digestibility of amino acids.
Moreover, interlaboratory testing and validation of the invitro methods
by in vivo methods are required before the in vitro methods can be
recommended for regulatory purposes.
Key words: single-stomached animals, pepsin, pancreatin, intestinal
fluid,protein,nitrogen,amino acids,starch.

Introduction
Conventional digestibility techniques involving either total faecal
collection or the use of an indicator are expensive and time consuming
and require relatively large amounts of feed. As a consequence, these
techniques are impractical for routine feed analysis,particularly when
largenumbers of samples are involved. Therefore, efforts have beenmade
to develop simple and quick laboratory methods as alternatives to in
vivo trials.
In vitro techniques with rumen fluid or substitutes have been
routinously and extensively used for the evaluation of ruminant feed. In
recent years, in vitro methods for the evaluation of feeds for
single-stomached animals have been developed using either contents of
the pig stomach and different parts of the small and large intestine
(Vervaeke et al., 1979;Holzgraefe et al., 1985)or blends of pepsin and
hydrochloric acid in combination with pig intestinal fluid (Furuya et
al., 1979; Clunies & Leeson, 1984) as inocula for incubations. These
methods have been shown to be well correlated with in vivo apparent
faecal digestibilities for dry matter and energy. The estimation of
protein digestibility formonogastrics by invitro procedures based on

213
 consecutive incubation with commercial enzyme preparations has been
described by several authors (e.g.Metz &Van derMeer, .1985; Babinszky
et al., 1990).
The purpose of the present review is to describe and discuss current
invitro methods to predict protein and dry matter/energy digestibility
infeedstuffs.
According to the different principles and equipments, the in vitro
methods canbe divided into threemajor groups based on:

A. Dialysis of digested matter during incubation

B. pH-changes during incubation.

C. Undigested matter after incubation ina closed system.

Invitro techniques

A. Dialysis of digested matter during incubation

A close simulation of the digestion processes invivo can be obtained

in vitro when the digested matter is removed continously. In this way,
accumulation of end products which may reduce the enzymatic reaction
(Robbin, 1978) is avoided. To overcome this problem, Mauron et al.
(1955) carried out the digestion inside a dialysis bag. Based on this
idea, Steinhart & Kirchgessner (1973) developed a technique including a
digestion apparatus for the enzymatic in vitro digestion of proteins.
The apparatus consisted of adialysis tube that was utilized as reaction
vessel and adialysis vessel.Temperature was regulated thermostatically
and pH was kept constant by means of "pH-stat" devices. The reaction
mixture in the dialysis tube and the dialysis vessel was stirred
continously during incubation. Model tests were conducted using soya
protein as substrate and pepsin as enzyme.
This method was further developed by including a two-step proteolysis
using pepsin digestion at pH 1.9 in a beaker followed by pancreatin
•'digestion at pH 8 for 24 hours inside a dialysis bag with a molecular
weight cutoff of 1000 (Gauthier et al. 1986). The dialysis bag was
suspended in a buffer which could be changed continously or
discontinously to remove the digested matter. The investigation of three
protein sources, i.e., casein, soybean, and rapeseed proteins showed
that the degree of digestion (hydrolyzed N) was markedly improved by
buffer replacements, indicating inhibition from end-products. The
deleterious effect of heat and alkali treatment onprotein digestion was
clearly demonstrated by this procedure. The mixture of amino acids and
small peptides released at different rates did reflect enzyme
specificity in the abovementioned three protein sources (Vachon et al.,
1983).
Savoie & Gauthier (1986) improved the design of the apparatus to a
completely closed system, a "digestion cell" which gave better
performance and reproducibility, and optimal diffusion rate of
proteolysis products during digestion was obtained. Gauthier et al.
(1986) studied the optimal enzymatic conditions using casein as a
reference substrate. The peptic digestion was performed with a pepsin
source of high specific activity with an enzyme:substrate (E:S) ratio of
1:250.The proteolysis with pancreatin was carried out for 6hours at an
E:S ratio of 1:25. A 10 mM sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.5 was used as
the circulating dialysis buffer.

214
 The described method can be used for direct measurement of amino acid
susceptibility to hydrolysis by proteolytic enzymes. Thus, Brule &
Savoie (1988) demonstrated that basic and aromatic amino acids were
generally themost readily liberated,while cystine and proline were the
least digested in six commonprotein sources (Table1 ) .

Table 1. Amino acid digestibility (%) of protein sources after 6 hours

of incubation (Brule& Savoie, 1988) L

Amino Casein Field Peanut Rapeseed Soya Wheat Overall mean

acids peas meal bean flour ± SEM.
Arg 74.7 70.0 52.7 73.4 59.6 77.2 68.4±3.88
His 44.4 40.2 40.8 46.1 34.4 46.4 41.7±2.11
Ile 34.4 45.0 54.6 44.9 42.7 50.6 45.5±2.30
Leu 54.0 47.8 52.3 46.1 51.0 43.6 48.8±1.86
Lys 63.9 56.7 45.1 64.2 51.7 68.0 58.9±3.53
Met 42.3 29.7 36.4 39.7 40.3 25.3 34.8±2.83
Cys 22.4 28.9 27.7 22.1 19.8 13.4 18.8±1.75
Phe 53.5 52.3 61.4 50.1 60.4 33.0 52.2±2.09
Tyr 64.3 57.5 75.6 62.2 66.8 48.8 63.1±4.00
Thr 38.6 33.0 40.0 34.1 35.2 36.3 36.7±2.67
Val 35.7 44.6 59.8 46.5 48.6 42.1 46.6+2.98
Ala 39.8 35.8 41.2 41.3 40.7 37.2 38.7+2.52
Asp 28.2 31.0 30.9 31.7 29.2 32.0 31.0±2.06
Glu 32.4 27.3 29.7 32.1 27.3 24.7 29.0+-1.81
Gly 39.8 28.9 30.9 32.9 32.8 25.3 32.0±2.09
Pro 28.6 23.7 26.9 18.8 22.5 13.4 22.1±2.28
.Ser 30.7 35.0 34.8 35.7 37.1 30.5 34.1+2.13
Ailva lues are themean of five determinations.

However, the kinetics in the hydrolysis of peptide bonds and release

of amino acids and peptides are dependent on the enzyme mixture due to
the different specificities of the enzymes involved. Thus, Savoie &
Charbonneau (1990), investigated the effects of adding pure trypsin and
chymotrypsin to pancreatin, demonstrated that the enzyme mixture
required for themost rapid hydrolysis was different from one substrate
toanother.
In vitro and in vivo digestibilities of individual amino acids in 19
selected food products were compared on the basis of their relative
digestibility index (RDI)= ratio between digestibility of agiven amino
acid and nitrogen digestibility (Sarwar et al., 1989). However, only a
poor relationship was obtained. The authors assumed that, unlike the in
vivo values, the in vitro values are based on partial digestion
simulating early release of amino acids (and small peptides) in the
intestinal lumen and do not include corrections for amino acids of
metabolic origin (Sarwar et al., 1989). Galibois et al. (1989) compared
the essential amino acid (EAA) profiles in digesta collected at 3 hour
intervals during 24 hours in vitro enzymatic proteolysis of casein and
rapeseed protein, with the pattern of appearance of dietary EAA in the
portal vein of pigs fed the same proteins. The EAA were determined each
hour over an 8hour postprandial period by coupling blood flow rate with
porto-arterial differences in plasma EAA concentrations. The results
indicated a close relationship between the in vitro release of amino
acids and the appearance of dietary essential amino acids in the portal

215
FT

vein of the pigs. In conclusion, this method seems to be valuable when

studying the luminal protein degradation and is also useful for the
study and prediction of availability of dietary aminoacids.
The method can be used to measure the enzymatic release of any
hydrosoluble low molecular weight product from a high molecular weight
substrate. This method can thus be used for the measurement of starch
digestion as reported byDrake (1991).

B. pH-changes during incubation

During proteolysis, protons are released from the cleaved peptide

bonds resulting ina decrease inpH ina suspension. The initial rateof
proton release is believed to correlate with protein digestibility. The
principle was introduced by Hsu et al. (1977). Samples of equal
N-content were incubated with an enzyme mixture, consisting of trypsin,
chymotrypsin and an intestinal peptidase. pH was adjusted to 8.0 and
after 10min. the pH-drop was measured and correlated to invivo faecal
apparent digestibility of protein.'Satterlee et al. (1980) supplied this
3-enzyme method with a further incubation comprising a microbial
protease from Streptomyces griseus (4-enzyme method). The validity of
these metods was investigated by Pedersen & Eggum (1981) and Wolzak et
al. (1981). Both groups recommended it necessary to use different
equations for each class of feeds to have a proper evaluation. Some of
the problems were obviously related to different buffer capacities in
the incubatedmaterials.
This was demonstrated by the results of Mougham et al. (1989)
investigating 20 meat and bone meal samples. The authors compared the
results obtained from the 4-enzyme method with in vivo true ileal
protein digestibility obtained from rat trials. A significant
relationship was found between the pH-drop and in vivo digestibility.
However, meat and bone meal samples highly digestible in vivo caused a
lower drop in initial pH, which is the opposite towhat is expected and
reported by other workers. However, a negative correlation between
pH-drop and ash content in the samples suggested a strong buffering
-capacity ofmeat and bonemeal due to its highmineral content (mean ash
= 27.5%).

In vivo TD

100 -

95
Wr

90 -
• y
.7**
85 / • A
, I j 1 i
0.5 ml titrant
after 10 min.

Fig. 1.Relationship between the amount of titrant (ml)added during 10

min and invivo digestibility. Animal proteins ( ) ;plant proteins () ;
combinations () .From Pedersen &Eggum (1983).

216
 Pedersen & Eggum (1983) performed the enzymatic digestion at a
constant pH inapH-stat.Theuptake of titrant during the digestion (10
min. at pH 8.0) was correlated with true protein digestibilities
determined in rats (Fig. 1 ) .This technique improved the prediction of
protein digestibility, and one could use only one regression equation
for all samples. In general a good agreement was obtained with faecal
true digestibility of plant proteins as well as with proteins of animal
origin, and in samples having high buffer capacities. However, a
predigestion step with pepsin was suggested for samples containing
protease inhibitors. This study demonstrated that protein digestibility
in a variety of materials could be estimated accurately when using the
pH-stat procedure. However, certain physical characteristics of some
proteins might prevent an accurate estimation of protein digestibility
by this invitro procedure.
Results obtained in a recent comparative study of in vitro
measurements of 19 food products by the pH-stat method (Eggum et al.,
1989)and dialysis-cell method (Savoie et al., 1989), respectively, were
compared with with in vivo protein digestibility measurements using the
rat balance method of Eggum (1973). The in vivo measurements were
performed in two different laboratories (Eggum et al., 1989; Sarwar et
al., 1989). In general, excellent agreements were obtained between
results from all fourmeasurements (Table2 ) .

Table 2.Values forprotein (nitrogen) digestibility(%) of selected

ligestibleproducts (Sarwar et al., 1989)

Invitro digestibil ity Invivo digestibility

Eggum eta ..Savoie et al. Eggum et Sarwar et
Products (1989) (1989) al.(1989) al (1989)
Casein 96 100 a 94b 97 99
Skim milk 95 100 94 93 95
Skimmilk (heated) 92 98 93 90 90
Tuna 92 99 98 93 97
Beef salami 95 114 102 96 99
Sausage 93 64 - 94 94
Chicken franks 95 107 94 96 99
Peanut butter 92 110 100 92 98
Soy protein 94 96 92 92 98
Pea protein 93 99 94 93 92
Pinto bean 90 80 83 73 79
Kidney bean - 92 90 - 81
Lentil - 86 86 - 84
Chick pea 100 87 82 88 89
Rolled oat 93 73 - 94 91
Wheat cereal 88 73 - 91 91
Rice-wheat-gluten 90 71 - 93 95
Macaroni-cheese 94 93 90 95 94
Beef stew 86 85 86 86 89
a)Relative digest ibility (casein =100).
b)Values obtained from regression equation y =39. 42 + 1.22x; r= 0.78,
where x =invi tro digestibility asmeasured by digestion cell
technique.

217
C.Undigested matter after incubation ina closed system-

In vitro methods comprising enzyme incubations in a closed system

followed by measurements of nutrients in the undigested (unsolubilized)
residue - or alternatively in the filtrate or supernatant after
centrifugation, include a large number ofvariants.These can be divided
in single enzymatic systems and multi-enzyme systems performed in one,
two, or three incubation steps.
Single enzymatic systems have been developed with pepsin (Sheffner et
al., 1956)papain (Buchanan et al., 1969), trypsin (Maga et al., 1973),
pronase (Taverner and Farrell, 1981), and rennin (Bhatty, 1982). Also
two-enzyme systems have been reported, i.e. pepsin and trypsin (Saunders
et al., 1973), pepsin and pronase (Dierick et al., 1985). However,
multienzyme systems simulate invivo conditions more closely, and as the
degradation of most dietary components is influenced by the degradation
of the other components,multienz.yme systems are believed to give the
best results.
During the last decade many approaches with different enzyme
combinations and incubation conditions have been reported. These methods
can be divided into five subgroups according to enzyme combinations
(Table 3).

Table 3.Multi-enzyme systems used for invitro incubations

1-step systems:
Intestinal fluids
2-step systems:
Pepsin -jejunal fluid
Pepsin -pancreatin
3-step systems:
Pepsin -pancreatin - rumen fluid
_. Pepsin -pancreatin -fibre-degrading enzymes

(a)Intestinal fluids

In vitro incubations with inocula from intestinal fluids were

described by Goering & Soest (1970), Ehle et al. (1982), and Holzgraefe
et al. (1985). Löwgren et al. (1989)described an invitro systemwith3
different inocula from a) duodenal fluid, b) ileal fluid, or c) faeces
extract. Incubations were performed inaphysiological buffer (pH= 6.9)
at 38°C for 24hours in
procedure a)or48hours inprocedure b)and c ) .The digestibilities (in
vitro disappearences) of drymatter, energy, ash, crude protein, starch,
dietary fibre, NSP and monosaccharides in 5 diets: basal, wheat bran,
sugarbeet pulp, pea (early harvested), and pea (late harvested) were
compared with invivo values of ileal and faecal apparent digestibility
(Graham et al., 1989). The authors concluded that this technique could
be used to predict the availability of starch and crude protein for
digestion in the small intestine, as well as the degradahility of
dietary fibre,and thus for comparing the nutritive value of pig feeds.

218
(b)Pepsin-jejunal fluid

Furuya et al. (1979) developed an invitro method involving an4-hour

initial pepsin digestion followed by a digestion during 4hours with pig
intestinal fluid. A high agreement with in vivo faecal apparent
digestibility of dry matter and crude protein was found for 7 diets.As
this system attempts to simulate gastric and small intestinal digestion
in pigs or other monogastric animals, Sakamoto et al. (1980) used the
same procedure to estimate invivo digestibility of drymatter and crude
protein indiets for poultry.
However, other studies of this procedure by Clunies and Leeson (1984)
gave unpredictable and variable results. These authors examined the
method for routine analysis in quality control of feeds and feed
ingredients for poultry, and concluded that this method would appear to
have limited application for predicting overall digestibility in pig
diets due to the fermentation in the large intestine.

(c)Pepsin-pancreatin

Incubations of samples with pepsin followed by pancreatin were used by

Mauron et al. (1955) using a dialysis bag for the pancreatin incubation
as described above.This combination was also used byAkeson & Stahmann
(1964) and Büchmann (1979) using incubations in a closed systeln. In the
method of Büchmann (1979) samples were incubated with pepsin dissolved
inHCl (pH = 2.0) at 37°C for 6hours.Then a buffered solution of
pancreatin was added to obtain a resulting pH of 7.6 and than the
incubation was continued for 18 hours. Dissolved proteins were
precipitated with trichloroacetic acid, and after centrifugation the
supernatant was evaporated todryness at 80°C before determination of
of undigested nitrogen. Good agreement between invitro digestibility of
protein and true digestibility values determined on rats was found for
30 barley samples while unsatisfactory results were obtained with other
cereals.
Dierick et al. (1985) compared results obtained with three different
two steps in vitro methods, all including pepsin in the first step and
with jejunal fluid, pancreatin, or pronase in the second step. The in
vitro results of protein digestibility in 30 feed ingredients and
compound feeds were correlated to invivo results of apparent ileal and
faecal digestibility, and it was concluded that jejunal fluid can be
replaced by an appropriate pancreatin solution without reducing
accuracy. However, probably due to the fact that the in vivo data of
feed ingredients were from literature values and thus not own data from
identical samples, the relationship between in vivo and invitro values
were much lower than reported by Furuya et al. (1979). Furthermore, in
vitro values were better correlated with faecal values than with ileal
values which is probably also due to a great and varying amount of
endogenous nitrogen at ileal level.
Babinszky et al. (1990) removed fat by pre-extracting samples with
petroleum ether before incubations with pepsin and pancreatin, and
compared this pre-extraction with an alternative addition of lipase and
bile salt to the pancreatin. The authors found an improved correlation
to the content of faecal digestible crude protein when using
pre-extraction.
Boisen (1991a) improved the technique by using a standardized
filtration equipment formeasuring dietary fibre as described byAsp et
al. (1983). Furthermore, chloramphenicol was added to the incubation

219
r
media to prevent bacterial growth, and finally soluble peptides and
proteins were precipitated with sulphosalicylic acid before the removal
of digested material by filtration. The obtained in vitro results of
protein digestibility in a variety of feedstuffs were in general very
close to thevalues of trueprotein digestibility determined in rats and
pigs.
By thismethod invitro digestibilities of individual amino acids were
ingeneral very close to each other aswell as tonitrogen digestibility
ineight common feedstuffs (Boisen & Fernandez, 1991). When comparing to
the apparent ileal digestibilities obtained at terminal ileum in
fistulated pigs, the endogenous losses of N and amino acids were found
to be related to undigested dry matter. Furthermore, dry matter
digestibility when using this method were in good agreement with
apparent ileal digestibilities of drymatter aswell as of energy. Thus,
the apparent ileal digestibilities of amino acids may be estimated from
the invitromeasurements of true digestibility ofnitrogen and invitro
undigested drymatter.

(d)Pepsin-pancreatin-rumen fluid

To have a complete feed evaluation system the potential energy

utilization from fibre degraded by microbial enzymes must also be
included in the in vitro system. As the bacterial population in the
hindgut of pigs is similar to that in the rumen (Fonty & Gouet, 1989)
the method of Tilley & Terry (1963) with bacteria isolated from a cow
rumen was used by Vervaeke et al. (1989) for studying the hindgut
fermentation after preincubating the material with pepsin and
pancreatin. Good agreements with results from in vivo measurements were
obtained.

(e)Pepsin-pancreatin-fibre degrading enzymes

Metz & Meer (1985) reported the results from initial studies on in
vitro digestibility of organic matter in 20 feedstuffs and 20 mixed
diets after incubations with pepsin (at pH = 1),pancreatin (supplied
with lipase, bile salt, and the microbial amylase, Termamyl and
cellulase, respectively. The method was concluded to be promishing for
estimating faecal apparent digestibility of organic matter, but not yet
accurate enough. A similar method was used by Meer & Perez (1990) ina
study comprising 89 diets from 4 European countries. However, pepsin
incubation was performed at pH 1.5 and no additions to pancreatin was
made. Results from 4 laboratories were included after calibration of the
method with samples of known in vivo digestibility. In this study
organic matter digestibility was estimated with high accuracy and itwas
concluded that themethod isanalternative to theprediction of invivo
digestibility from the chemical composition and digestibility
coefficients obtained in trials with growing pigs. The addition of the
natural logarithme of the crude fibre content as avariable inmultiple
regression analysis seemed to improve the accuracy of prediction.
Boisen & Fernandez (1991) found a close relationship between results
of dry matter digestibility obtained after incubation with pepsin
pancreatin and rumen fluid according toVervaeke et al. (1989)and after
replacing rumen fluid (incubated for 48 hours) with Viscozyme (only
incubated for 18hours). Viscozyme is amultienzyme complex containing a
wide range of carbohydrases including cellulase, hemi-cellulase,
arabinase, xylanase, ß-glucanase and pectinase. The degradation from
this enzyme coctail corresponds to the potentially fermentable fibre.

220
Results from both methods were in good agreement with apparent faecal
digestibility of drymatter and energy as well.
Based on the results obtained with pepsin and pancreatin and with
pepsin,pancreatin and Viscozyme, respectively, Boisen (1991b) suggested
an in vitro system of two parallel incubations for simulating the
digestion in stomach and small intestine and the digestion in the
hindgut, respectively (Fig.2 ) .

Feed Evaluation

Chemical analysas In Vitro incubations

Sample Sample

[M] I Energy | Pepsin,pH2

Pepsin 2 hours

N | |Amino acidsj pH2

6 hours Pancreatin
pH6.3
4 hours

Pancreatin Viscozyme
pH6.8 pH5
13 hours 18 hours

Indigestible Non—fermen-
residue table residue

0M-l|-»|N-"i] | DM-2

Fig. 2. A suggested system for feed evaluation based on chemical

analyses and flow diagram of in vitro incubations for predicting ileal
digestibility of dry matter (DM-1) and protein (N-l) and faecal
digestibility of drymatter (DM-2). From Boisen (1991b).

Discussion
The requirements to a practical in vitro method for general and
routinous use is that it shall be simple, quick, reproducible and give
reliable results. Furthermore, the enzymes or enzyme mixtures used
should be well-characterized and commercially available and finally, it
would be desirable if the method was able to predict both protein and
energyvalue of the feed.
Methods involving dialysis seem to be too complicated for routinous
use and is more suited for studying the kinetics in proteolysis and
amino acid release. The pH-drop method is influenced by the buffer
capacity in the reaction mixture, which may result in misleading
measurements. The pH-stat method seems to be useful for predicting
protein digestibility inmost feedstuffs which have a relatively high

221
digestibility. However, this method is meant only for protein
digestibility. According to the many variants of closed incubation
systems some general conclusions may bemade:

a) multi-enzyme systems give abetter simulation of invivo conditions

than single enzyme systems,and are therefore more reliable,

b) use of enzymemixtures obtained from pancreas or intestinal fluid

makes it possible to simulate the in vivo digestion of several
nutrients,

c) compared to intestinal fluids pancreatin is

- easy toobtain (commercially available)
- constant andwell-defined in composition (which increase
reproducibility within the laboratory and especially between
laboratories)
- free frommicrobial enzymes-.

Although intestinal fluid may simulate digestion in the small

intestine more closely than pure pancreatin, itwill be an advantage to
measure digestion with the animals' own enzymes and microbial enzymes
separately. This suggestion is based on the lower utilization of energy
frommicrobial fermentation compared to that from carbohydrates digested
in the small intestine. The utilization depends on dietary fibre
composition with avariation from 50-80% (Dierick et al., 1989).
The fermentability of fibre can be measured by incubation with rumen
bacteria. However, the use of a mixture of fibre-degrading enzymes has
several advantages,as they are commercially available andmore constant
andwell-defined in composition. Furthermore,the incubation time canbe
reduced considerably.
In general fibre and antinutritional factors (ANF) like trypsin
inhibitors, tannins, lectines, glucosinolates, and alkaloids depress the
nutrient digestibility in vivo, but have much less or no effect on in
.vitro values. This is due to a quite different action of these
substances on in vivo and in vitro conditions. However, the results of
Poel (1990) clearly demonstrate that these problems are not overcome by
the mobile nylone bag technique, although this technique may be
considered as an intermediate between in vivo and in vitro methods.
Therefore, the results from this method seem generally not to be more
correct than results obtained from well-defined and well-controlled in
vitro conditions,
In vitro results generally correspond to the maximal digestibility
values when not depressed by ANF. To compensate for this, additional
specific analyses are required. On the other hand, it is also a task for
the feed producer tomake sure that the level of these substances is so
low that they only have minor or no influence on the in vivo
digestibility.
The control of commercial feed mixtures based on in vitro
digestibility of protein and energy should therefore also include
specific analyses forANF.

222
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225
r
ADISCONTINUOUS IN-VITROTECHNIQUE FOR MEASURING
HINDGUT FERMENTATION IN PIGS
F. Ahrens,Jutta Schön,M.Schmitz

IS Forschungsgesellschaft fürexperimentelle Tierphysiologieund

Tierernährung, Wahlstedt, Germany

Abstract
The in-vitrotechnique ofMenkeforruminai fermentationwasmodified
and adaptedtothehindgut fermentationofpigs. Thereforeinsmaller
calibrated syringes5mlfresh caecalfluid,5mlbufferandcentrifuged
and freeze dried caecal contentasthesubstrate were incubated at39°C.
As donorsforthecaecal content6adult miniature pigswith apermanent
caecal cannula were used.Pertreatment3syringeswere used,andthe
setwasrepeated onasecond day.AttheendoftheincubationpH,
ammonia concentration, singleandtotalVFAwere determined ineach
syringe. Testing increasing amountsofsubstrate (100, 200or300mgper
syringe) showed good accordanceof200mgwith in-vivo data.So, for
further experiments this amountwaschosen.Variatingtheincubation
time from 6to12to24hshowed asunder in-vivo conditions (atdiffer-
enttime after feeding)decreasing pHvalues,increased leveloftotal
VFAandachangeinthefermentation patterntowards higher propionic
acid production.But,incontrasttoin-vivo datatheammonia concen-
trations increased unterthein-vitro conditions.Ontheother hand,
likein-vivo decreased ammonia concentrationswere observed alsoin-
vitro,when increasingthefermentation bysupplementing pectinor
lactitol. When supplementing thesetwosubstancesasexamplesforfer-
mentable carbohydratesinincreasing amounts (5to20%)tothe200mg
substrate,they were fermented inthesamewayasunderin-vivocon-
ditions. Firstresults from adirect comparison with in-vivo hindgut
fermentation inminipigs showed very similar data after24hin-vitro
fermentation andmeasuring inthecaecum 8hafterthemorning meal.

In conclusionthedescribed in-vitrotechnique seems suitablefor

measuring changesinhindgut fermentation inpigs, caused byamore
intensive fermentation. Further experiments havetobedonetomeasure
the effectsofother substances,e.g.growth promoters,organic acids
and probiotics onhindgut fermentation.

Introduction
Measuring hindgut fermentation inpigs becomesmoreandmoreofinter-
est, becausethebacterial transformation ofcarbohydrates,proteinsand
other substrates inthispartofthedigestive tracthasaninfluenceon
the digestibility, especially ofcomplex carbohydratesandthegrowth
and health ofpigs. In-vivotrialstomeasure hindgut fermentationare
costly andtime consuming.Butincontrasttoruminants,where in-vitro
techniquesformeasuring rumen fermentation have beenwidely used,there
are only afewattemptstosimulate hindgut fermentation inpigs.Fur- '
ther, mostofthese studiesarecarried outtomeasure digestion ofdry
matter (Holzgraefeetal.,1985, Löwgren etal.,1989),orfibre (Ehleet
al.,1982)ortheinfluenceofenergy metabolism (Vervaekeetal.,1979).

226
Inourexperimentswefocusourinterest moreonsimulatingtheeffects
ofintensified hindgut fermentation onparametersaspH,ammonia concen-
tration andpattern ofvolatile fatty acid production which directlyor
indirectly influencethehealth ofthehost.

Materials and Methods

Technique:Thein-vitro technique ofMenkeetal.(1979)formeasuring
ruminai fermentation wasused with somemodifications.Theincubations
were carried outinsmaller calibrated syringes (75mlvolume,50ml
calibrated).Theratioofinoculumtobufferwasincreased from0.5to
1 intheoriginaltestto1:1forthepresentpurpose.

Animals:6male adult Göttingen Miniature pigswith apermanent

T-shaped cannula inthecaecum were used asdonorsforthesubstrate
andtheinoculum. They weremaintained onagrain/soyabean meal diet
(18 %crude protein,3%crude fibre)whichwasfedintwoequal amounts
at 7a.m.and5p.m.

Substrate:Assubstrateforthein-vitro test centrifuged (thesuper-

natantwasrefused)andfreeze diet caecal content from all6pigswas
used. Chymewascollected inthemorning between 8and10a.m.The
dried andmilled (0.5mmscreen)content of3to5dayswaspooledto
get enough materialofthesame composition forasetofin-vitro
experiments.

Inoculum: Fresh centrifuged (5min.100xg)caecalfluid ofall6

pigs collected inthemorning.5mlcaecal fluid persyringe were used.

Incubations:Theincubationswere carried outat39°Cinadrying

oven.Thesyringes were placed inarotating incubation apparatus.Per
treatment 3syringeswere incubated,andthesetwasrepeated ona
second day.Attheendoftheincubation fermentation wasstoppedby
puttingthesyringesinicecold water.Inthecontent from each syringe
pH, concentration ofammonia,ofacetic,propionic, n-butyric and iso-
acids (butyricandvaleric)aswellastotal concentration ofthese
volatile fatty acids (VFA)were determined (ammonia: colorimeter,VFA:
gaschromatography).

Experimental design:Thefollowing treatments were carriedout:

-influenceoftheamountofsubstrate:100,200or300mg/syringe;
-variation ofincubation time:6,12or24h;
-influenceofsupplementation offermentable carbohydrates:5,10or
20%ofpectin orlactitolweremixed withthesubstrate.Upto20%
were supplemented, because this correspondences approximately to5%
ofpectininthediet (80%digestibility ofthenutrientsattheend
of small intestines leadstoanincrease ofthepectin concentration
inthechyme,when enteringthehindgutto20%,becausethepectinis
not digested inthesmall intestine);
-comparison with in-vivotrials:forthis purposethein-vitro results
obtained usingthepectinwere compared with data obtained inthe
caecum of6minipigswhich gotthesame dietmentioned above,but
supplemented with 5%ofpectin.Thein-vivo experimentwascarried
outasancross-over design with 2periodsof3weeks each.After11
daysforadaptationtothedietson5different days caecal contentwas
sampled beforethemorning meal ( O h ) , 4and8hlaterformeasuring
the same parametersasinthein-vitro experiments.

227
Results and Discussion
Influence oftheamountofsubstrate:Theresults intable 1show that
the addition of100mgofdrycaecal content resulted incomparison with
an incubation without substrate (blanc)inadecreased pH,increased
ammonia concentration andtotalVFAconcentration. Thefermentation
patternwasshifted towards propionic acid production ascanbetaken
fromthelast columnintable 1.Increasingtheamountofsubstrateto
200and300mgresulted inafurther decreaseinpHandC„toC„
ratio.Theconcentration ofammonia andtotalVFAwere increased.

Table 1.Influence ofamountofsubstrate onin-vitro caecal fermentation

(24hincubation,2days;n=6syringes total,x+/-s)
11
amount substrate ' ammonia totalVFA C„ :C„
(mg/syringe) pH (mmol/1) (mmol/1) (x: lj

blanc 6.82 5.27 34.8 3.67

0.01 2.00 4.6 0.12

100 6.64 11.77 64.9 3.28

0.03 0.84 .3.6 0.10

200 6.49 17.80 91.4 3.18

0.02 1.48 5.6 0.10

300 6.31 27.10 120.2 3.06

0.05 1.05 3.8 0.06
1
„ substrate: centrifuged, freeze dried caecal content.
blanc:incubation ofcaecal fluid andbuffer only.
Becausethevalues obtained after incubation of200mgsubstrate fitted
"wellwith in-vivo data (AhrensandKaufmann,1985)this amountwaschosen
inthefollowing experiments.

Variation ofincubation time: Incubation of200mgofdrycaecal

content with 5mlfresh caecal fluid and5mlbuffer overperiodsof6,
12or24hoursresulted indecreased pHvalues (0.1to0.3units)with
increased incubation time.Thelevelofammonia (+2to+7mmol/1),
propionic acid andtotalVFA(+10to+30mmol/1)wasincreased,the
levelofacetic acid andC ?toC„ratio decreased (-0.3to-0.6: 1 ) .
These resultsareinaccordancewith in-vivo data.Theonly exception
aretheresultsfortheconcentration ofammonia which islower under
in-vivo conditions becauseoftherapid absorption fromthehindgutand
the incorporation into bacterial protein (AhrensandKaufmann, 1985).

Influenceoffermentable carbohydrates:Theresultsintable2show,
that both, pectin andlactitol,caused adose dependent decreaseof
ammonia levelandpHincomparisontothecontrol.With increasing dose
of both carbohydratesthetotalVFAconcentration aswellasthelevels
of aceticandpropionic acid increased also.

228
Table 2.Influence ofpectin and lactitol on in-vitro hindgut
fermentation (6hincubation;mean of6syringes)

Treatment ph ammonia totalVFA acetic propionic

(mmol/1) (mmol/1) (mmol/1) (mmol/1)

control 6.80 9.7 56.0 36.4 10.8

+ 5 %Lactitol 6.73 8.0 63.8 42.3 12.3

+ 10% Lactitol 6.60 6.1 74.4 50.5 14.4
+ 20% Lactitol 6.32 2.5 92.3 63.3 18.6

+ 5 %Pectin 6.75 8.8 64.3 43.3 12.1

+ 10% Pectin 6.66 6.9 70.8 49.5 12.5
+ 20% Pectin 6.45 4.3 80.7 58.5 13.4

control =200mg dry caecal content

Forallparametersthe effectwasmore pronounced withthelactitol.

Further,therise inpropionic acid was higher with thelactitol (from
12.3to 18.3mmol/1with 5and 20 %addition oflactitol,respectively)
thanwith pectin (from 12.1onlyto 13.4mmol/1). This demonstratesa
different fermentation pattern oflactitol and pectin and isagain in
accordance withthe literature (Kasset al., 1980;Kim et al., 1978).
The decrease ofthe concentration ofammonia after adding fermentable
carbohydrates fitsvery wellwith in-vivo data (Ahrens and Kaufmann,
1985).

Comparison with in-vivotrial:Whencomparing the in-vitro datawith

in-vivo data inthe experimentswherethe fermentable carbohydrate
pectin was used,firstresults show very similar data between a24h
in-vitro incubation with 20% ofpectin and asampling ofcaecalcon-
tent 8hoursafter feeding adietwith 5% pectin (seetable3 ) .

Table 3.Comparison ofin-vitro and in-vivo data ofhindgut fermentation

(Differences from control,obtained after 24hours in-vitro
incubation or in-vivo 8hoursafter feeding)

ph ammonia totalVFA C :C
(mmol/1) (mmol/1) (x: 1?
Pectin

in-vitro 20% - 0.3 - 3.5 + 27 + 0.5

in-vivo 5% - 0.5 - 4.5 + 29 + 0.5

229
References
Ahrens, F. &W. Kaufmann,1985.Messungen zur Fermentation im Dickdarm am
Modell Miniaturschwein unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Eiweißum-
setzungen. Z.Tierphysiol.,Tierernähr,u. Futtermittelkde. 53:150-
169.
Ehle, F. FL,J. L.Jeraci,J. B.Robertson &P. J. Van Soest,1982.The
influence ofdietary fibre on digestibility,rate ofpassage and
gastrointestinal fermentation in pigs. J. Anim. Sei. 55:1071-1081.
Holzgraefe,D. P., G. C. Fahey, Jr.&A.H.Jensen,1985.Influence of
dietary alfalfa,orchardgrass hay and lasalocid on in-vitro estimates
of dry matter digestibility and volatile fatty acid concentrations of
caecal contents and rate ofdigesta passage insow.J. Anim. Sei.60:
1235 -1246.
Kass, M. L., P. J. Van Soest &W.G. Pond, 1980.Utilization of dietary
fibre from alfalfa by growing swine.2.Volatile fatty acid concentra-
tions and disappearance from the gastrointestinal tract.J. Anim. Sei.
50: 192 -197.
Kim, K. J., N.J. Benevegna &R. H.Grummer, 1978.Lactase activity and
VFA production inthe caecum and colon ofpigsfed corn-soy or40 %
whey diet.J. Anim. Sei. 46:1648-1657.
Löwgren,W.,H.Graham &P. Aman,1989.An in-vitromethod for studying
digestion inthe pig. 1. Simulating digestion inthe different
compartments ofthe intestine. Br.J. Nutr.61:673-687.
Menke, K. H., L. Raab,A.Salewski,H. Steingass,D. Fritz &W.
Schneider, 1979.The estimation of the digestibility and metabolizable
energy content ofruminant feeding-stuffs from the gasproduction when
they are incubated with rumen liquor in-vitro.J. agric. Sei.,Camb.
93: 217-222.
Vervaeke, I.J., J. A. Decupere,N.A. Dierick &H. K. Henderickx,1979.
Quantitative in-vitro evaluation ofthe energy metabolism influenced by
virginiamycin and spiramycin used asgrowth promoters in pig nutrition.
J. Anim. Sei.49:846-856.

230
INVITRODIGESTIBILITY OFENERGYANDAMINOACIDSIN
PIG FEEDS
S. BoisenandJ.A.Fernandez
National InstituteofAnimal Science, Foulum, Denmark

Abstract
A two-step enzymaticinvitro method with pepsinandpancreatin
incubationstoestimate precaecal digestibilityofdrymatterandN, and
a three-step enzymatic method with incubationsofpepsin, pancreatinand
a microbial fibre-degrading enzyme complextoestimate postileal
digestibilityofdry matterisdescribed.Invitro digestibilityofdry
matter ineight common feedstuffs (barley, rye,wheat, oats, soybean
meal, rapeseed meal, sunflower meal,andgrass meal)washighly
correlated with valuesofilealandfaecal digestibilitiesofdry matter
aswellasenergy.Invitro digestibilityofNcorresponding totrue
digestibilityofN,agreed generallywith invitro digestibilityofthe
individual amino acids.From the differences between invitro arvdin
vivo valuesofdigestibleNandamino acidstheendogenous lossesofN
and amino acids were calculated.Thelosseswere linearly correlatedto
undigested drymatter inthetwo-step procedure. Basedonthese results
a modelforcalculating net digestibility,corresponding toapparent
ileal digestibility,ofNandamino acidsinfeed mixtures isproposed.

Introduction
A precise feed evaluation require primarily knowledgeofthecontents
of digestible (orbetter utilizable)energyandamino acids inthe
feeds.Asthedigestibilities vary considerably from one feedstuffto
anotherandmay also varyindifferent batchesofthe same feedstuffit
couldbemost desirabletoestimatethedigestibilitybyaneasyand
reliable laboratory method.
Especially, duringthelastdecade many approaches have been madeto
estimatethedigestibilityofnutrientsbyin vitro methods. However,
most methods are usedforthe estimationofthe digestibilityofonly
one nutrient,mainly protein.Although theinvitro conditions inmost
approaches simulatethestomachandsmall intestinetheresults have
commonly been compared with invivo dataoffaecal digestibilities
(Eggum&Boisen, 1991).
However,asignificant microbial fermentation inthehindgutof
influences 1)theutilizationofenergy,2)the faecal contentsofpigs'
amino acids.Although mostofthefermentation endproducts (VFA)
contributetothe energy supplyofthehost animal,theutilizationof
this energy ismuch lower than thatoftheenergy absorbed inthesmall
intestine (Justetal., 1983). Amino acids areonly absorbed inthe
small intestine (Justetal., 1981)andduring the passageofthe
hindgut undigested amino acidsmaybeeither degradedorincorporatedin
microbial protein.
The determination ofileal digestibilityofenergyandamino acids
combined with the faecal digestibilityofenergy istherefore assumedto
givethebest basisforaprecise feed evaluation.
Thus,theobjectiveofthepresent study wastoinvestigatethe
possibility forthedevelopmentofareliable invitro method which is
231
abletoestimate theprecaecal digestibilityofenergyandamino acids
and alsothepostileal degradation (fermentation)ofenergyin
feedstuffsaswell asoffeed mixtureswith unknown composition.

MaterialsandMethods
Feeds
Samplesofeight common feedstuffs (barley,rye,wheat,oats, soybean
meal, rapeseed meal, sunflower meal,andgrassmeal)were analyzedin
vitro.Allsampleswere representative alliquotsfrom experimental diets
used inprevious trialswith ileum-fistulated pigs.Thesampleswere
stored inadeep-freezer until theinvitro assayswere performed.All
in vitro dataaremean valuesoftwomeasurements performed intwo
different days.
The invivo digestibilitytrialswere performed with pigsofabout50
kg asdescribed byJustetal. (1985). Cerealswerefedastheonly
feedstuff whiletheprotein sourceswerefedtogetherwith aprotein-
free basal diet containing (g/kg): maize starch 660,potato starch165,
cellulose 75,animal fat100.All invivo dataaremean values±SDfrom
5 digestibilitytrials.
In vitro technique
A. Simulating precaecal digestion
The invitro incubation conditions simulating thedigestion processes
inthestomach andsmall intestinewith pepsin followed bypancreatin
wereamodification ofthedietary fibremethod ofAspetal. (1983).
Thismethodwasmodified tomeasure invitro protein digestibilityby
changing enzyme concentrations, incubation timeandpH inthe incubation
mixture.
Step 1.A seriesof20sampleswith about 1goffinely ground
• material (ground topassascreenwith apore sizeof1mm)were
weighed toanaccuracy of±0.1mg in100mlconical flasks.Ineach
serieablankwas included.Asmall magneticrodand25mlof
phosphate buffer (0.1M,pH6.0)wasadded toeach flask andsample
and bufferweremixed carefully bygentlemagnetic stirring.The
mixturewasadded 10ml0.2MHClandpHwasadjusted topH2witha
1MHCl(ora1MNaOH-solution).Themixturewasthen added 1mlof
a freshly prepared pepsin solution,containing 10mgpepsin (porcine,
2000 FIP-U/g,Merck no7190). Inordertoprevent bacterial growth,
especially during thesecond incubation step,0.5mlofa
chloramphenicol solution (0.5g/100mlethanol)wasadded. Thenthe
flaskswere closed with arubber stopperandthesamples incubatedin
a water bathat39°Cfor6 hours with repeatedly gentle magnetic
stirring.
Step 2.Themixturewasadded 10mlofaphosphate buffer (0.2M,pH
6.8)+5mlofa0.6MNaOH-solution andthen adjusted topH6.8with
a 1MHClora1MNaOH-solution.Theslurrywasthen carefully mixed
with 1mloffreshly prepared pancreatin solution containing 50mg
porcine pancreatin (porcine,grade IV,SigmanoP-1790). After
closing with arubber stopper,theflaskswere placed inawater bath
at 39°Cforincubation overnight (18hours).

232
*m

Toall sampleswere added 5ml of20%sulphosalicylic acid.

Solubilized, but not digested, proteins were precipitated during 30
minutes of incubation at room temperature.The undigested residues were
then collected inafiltration unit for crude fibre determination
(Fibertec System M,Tecator,Sweden)byusing dried and preweighed
glasfiltercrucibles (d:3cm:pore size:40-90|x)containing about 0.5
gCelite asfilteraid.All material was transferred with 1%sulpho-
salicylic acid to thecrucible,and the sampleswere dried at80°Cover-
night.Then Celite and undigested material waswrapped into apieceof
nitrogen-free paper and undigested nitrogenwasmeasured bytheKjeldahl
method in an automatic Kjelfoss apparatus (Foss Electric,Denmark).
Invitro digestibilitiesof drymatter (DM-1)and protein,
respectively,were calculated fromDM and N insample and undigested
residue, respectively, after correction for DM and N intheblank.
B. Simulating digestion inthewhole gastro-intestinal tract
The in vitro incubation conditions simulating thewhole gastro-
intestinal tractwas performed byadding an extra incubation step
simulating thedegradation of undigested carbohydrates,mainlyfibre,in
the hindgut.
Step 1and 2.The incubations instep 1and step 2with pepsin and
pancreatin,respectively,were performed asdescribed inprocedure A,
except that the incubation timeswere shortened down to2and 4
hours, respectively. This reduction had no influence on the final dry
matter digestibilityand allowed thetwo invitro procedures to be
performed parallely. Furthermore,no sulphosalicylic acid was used
for protein precipitation after step 2,and undigested materials were
collected inthefiltration unit bytransferring to crucibles (see
above)withwater.

Step 3. The crucibleswere closed inthebottomwith arubber

stopper, and theundigested material was incubated with 20ml ofa
freshly prepared solution offibre degrading enzymes containing 0.4 g
Viscozyme (120L,Novo,Bagsvaerd,Denmark) in0.1 MAcetate buffer,pH
5.Theenzyme solutionwasthoroughlymixedwith the undigested
material (andCelite)and then the crucibleswere placed inan oven
at40°Cfor incubation overnight (18 hours).
After incubation the rubber stopperwas removed and crucibles were
placed in thefiltration unit.Afterfiltration andwashing withwater,
theresiduewas dried at 80°C overnight, and undigested dry matter
(DM-2)was measured as described inprocedureA.

ResultsandDiscussion
The invitro digestibilities ofdrymatter (DM-1 and DM-2)by the two
proceduresA and Bwere,except forthose of rye,highly correlated to
ileal and faecal digestibilities of drymatter (r=0.97;Table 1and
2). The correlations of invitrodigestibilitiesof drymatterwith
ileal and faecal digestibilities ofenergywere of similar magnitude
(Table2 ) .
According to Lekule et al. (1990)digestibility values of dry matter
and energy inawide range offeedstuffs are highly correlated toeach
other. Thus, invitro valuesof drymatter digestibilitymay generally
be used for predicting values ofenergy digestibility.
233
 Table1.Invitro digestibilityofdrymatter (DM-1andDM-2)
compared with invivodigestibilityofdrymatter (DM-i and DM-f)
and energy (E-iandE-f)in8commonfeedstuffsinpig feeds.
Invitro Invivo (ileum) Invitro Invivo (f«leces)
DM-1* DM-i E-i DM-2b DM-f E-f
Barley 70 71±2 72±3 82 80±1 81±1
Rye 80 68±2 70±3 89 82±1 82±1
Wheat 72 74±5 73±4 89 84±2 85±2
Oats 68 70±10 68±12 68 66±3 67±3
Soybeanmealc 69 65±2 69±1 87 86±3 88±3
Rapeseedmealc62 59±5 63±5 79 75±2 76±3
Sunflowermealc58 54±4 60±3 74 71±1 72±1
Grassmealc 57 50±7 54±6 73 67±2 66±2
a
b
incubation with pepsinandpancreatin, respectively
c
incubation with pepsin,pancreatinandviscozyme, respect ively
inN-free basal diet (seeMaterialsandmethods)

Table 2.Relation between invivo drymatterandenergy

digestibilityandinvitro drymatter digestibility. Data
from Table1(ryeexcluded). ._
Eguatione RSD
7 DM-i=-32.5+1.47 DM-1 0.95 1.5
7 E-i=-6.5+1.11DM-1 0.95 1.5
7 DM-f=-4.6+1.02 DM-2 0.95 1..9
7 E-f=-8.1+1.07 DM-2 0,92 2-5
a:abbreviations: seeTable1

Theinvitro digestibilitiesofDM-2 seemingeneraltoslightly

overestimate thefaecal energy digestibility.Thismaypartlybe
explainedbyamore effective degradation offibre than normally
Qccuring in50kgpigs. Probably theinvitro degradation more closely
r correspondstothefermentation occuring insows,andreflects the
potential degradation rather thantheactual fermentation ingrowing
pigs.Ontheother hand, dietsforgrowing pigs usually contain
relatively small amountsoffibre, limiting this sourceoferror.
TheinvitrodigestibilityofNwasinallfeedstuffs considerably
higher than invivo digestibilities determined inileal digestaaswell
asfaeces (Table 3 ) .ThisisduetothecontributionofendogenousNin
theinvivo determinations resulting inapparent digestibilities,
whereastheinvitro values correspondtotrue digestibilities. Thus,
theendogenous lossesofNmightbecalculated from the differences
between invivoandinvitromeasurements (Table 3). Such calculations
give considerable variationsintheendogenous losses.However,these
losseswere closely relatedtothecontentoffibre inthefeeds, and
alsototheamountofundigesteddry matterinileal digesta (Fig.1 ) .
Basedonthese results,theendogenous lossofN(g/kgDMintake) can
be calculated frominvitro undigested drymatter (UDM,g/gintake)bya
linear equation:y=k*UDM.Thus,invitro net digestibleN ( D N N E T ) ,
correspondingtoapparent ileal digestibleNcanbecalculated fromin
vitro valuesoftrue digestibilityofN(NDiV,g/gintake)andUDMby
the equation:
DNNE Ni, NDi UDM
234

iL
Table3.Invitro digestibilityofnitrogen compared with invivo
apparent digestibility valuesofnitrogen in8common feedstuffs,
and calculated valuesofendogenous lossesofnitrogen inthesmal'
intestineandinthewhole digestive tract,respectively.
Ninfeed Digestibility(%) . Endogenousloss
(g/kgDM) invitro .invivoa (aN/kaDM intake)
. ileal faecal ileal faecal.
Barley 19.0 85 70±5 77±2 2.9±0.9 1.5±0.4
Rye 18.2 87 65±4 73±3 4.0±0.7 2.6±0.6
Wheat 23.2 91 74±8 85±2 3.5±1.9 1.4±0.5
Oats 18.2 89 61±5 76±3 5.0±0.9 2.4±0.6
Soybeanmeal15 29.1 92 78±3 80±2 4.1±0.9 3.5±0.6
Rapeseed mealb31.2 83 69±2 72±3 4.4±0.6 3.4±0.9
Sunflower mealb31.4 90 73±7 77±2 5.3±2.2 4.1±0.6
Grassmea lb 14.2 74 35±18 37±1 5.5±2.5' 5.3±0.1
»see Just,FernandezandJorgensen (1985)
b
in N-free basal diet (seeMaterialsandmethods)

Theinvitro digestibilitiesofindividual amino acids were generally

very closetotheinvitro digestibilityofNinthefeedstuff.The
digestibilityofthemost often limiting amino acids (lysine,methionine
+ cystine,threonine)isprimarilyofinterest.Valuesofmethionine
tendedtobeslightly higher than valuesofNinmost feedstuffs,while
valuesofcystineweremarkedly lowerinsoyabean mealandsunflower
meal. However, valuesoflysineandthreonine differed only littleor
notatallfrom theNdigestibility.
Duetothe endogenous lossesofamino acids,theinvitro
digestibility valueswere considerably higher than apparent ileal

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Ileal undigested dry matter (g/g intake)

Fig.1.Relationship between calculated endogenous lossofNandileal

undigested dry matter inpigsfedeight commonfeedstuffs.
235
r

digestibility values (partlypublished inJustet al., 1985). The

calculation of these losses asdifferences between invitro and invivo
digestibilities demonstrated that these losses - likethe lossof
endogenous N -were related to undigested drymatter. However,the
composition of essential amino acids inthe calculated endogenous
protein was relatively constant and themean valueswere very close to
themean values from literaturevalues of invivo determined protein
losses (Table4)as collected byWüncheet al. (1987).

Table 4.Amino acid composition (g/160gN)ofendogenous protein

calculated from differences between invitro and invivo digestibilities
compared with direct invivomeasurements.
lvs met cvs thr ile leu his phe tvr val
Invitro/in vivo 28 8 16 40 23 35 10 28 22 33
In vivo1* 27 7 -15 37 18 36 13 23 18 29
1)calculated from Wünche et al. (1987).

Thus, assuming identical digestibilitiesof Nand amino acids anda

constant amino acid composition intheendogenous protein, invitro net
digestible amino acids can becalculated inasimilarway than invitro
net digestible Nbyusing conversion factorsfrom Nto individual amino
acids in theendogenous protein.
The reliability of predicting ileal and faecal digestibilityof
energy from invitro digestibilityof drymatter and the adequacy of the
model for predicting apparent ileal digestibility of Nand amino acids
iscurrently being investigated inawide rangeoffeedmixtures.

References
Asp, N.G.,C G . Johansen,H.Hallmer &M. Siljeström, 1983.Rapid
enzymatic assay of insoluble and soluble dietary fiber.J. Agric.
Food Chem. 31:476-482.
Eggum, B.0.& S.Boisen, 1991.Invitro techniques of measuring
digestion. (Published inthe present proceedings).
Just,A., H. Jorgensen &J.A.Fernandez, 1981.The digestive capacity of
the caecum-colon and the valueofthe nitrogen absorbed from the
hindgut for protein synthesis inthe pigs. Br.J. Nutr.,46:209-219.
Just,A.,J.A.Fernandez&H.J0rgensen,1983.The net energy valueof
diets for growth inpigs inrelation tothefermentative processes in
the digestive tract and the siteofabsorption of thenutrients.
Livest. Prod. Sei. 10:171-186.
Just,A., H. Jorgensen &J.A.Fernandez, 1985.Correlations of protein
deposited ingrowing pigs to ileal and faecal digestible crude
protein and amino acids.Livest.Prod. Sei. 12:145-159.
Lekule, F.P., H. Jorgensen,J.A.Fernandez&A. Just,1990.Nutritive
value of some tropical feedstuffs for pigs.Chemical composition,
digestibility, and metabolisable energy content.Anim. Feed Sei.
Technol. 28:91-101.
Wünche, J., U. Herrmann,M.Meinl, U.Hennig,F.Kreienbring, P.
Zwierz, 1987.Einflussexogener Faktoren auf die präzäkaleNährstoff-
und Aminosäureresorption,ermittelt an Schweinen mit Ileo-Rektal-
Anastomosen.Arch.Anim.Nutr.37:745-764.

236

iL.
IN VITRO ESTIMATION OF READILY AND LESS-READILY
AVAILABLE NUTRIENTS
1 2
W.Lowgren &H.Graham
SwedishuniversityofAgriculturalSciences,
S-75007Uppsala,Sweden
Finnfeeds International Ltd.,ForumHouse,Redhill,
SurreyRH1 6YS,England

Abstract
An invitromethod forthestudyofdigestionof feedsin
thepiggastro-intestinal tracthasbeendeveloped. This
method isbased ontheincubationoffeed sampleswith
buffered duodenal,ilealand faecal inocula,and itwould
appearthatthere islittledifference inthepatternof
degradationbetweentheseinocula.Invitrodisappearancewas
littleaffectedbydonorageordiet,andthevariation in
inocula activitywithinpigwasgenerally greaterthanAthat
observedbetweenpigs.Sampleparticle sizeaffected therate
butnotthefinalextentofinvitrodisappearance.This
method canbeusedtostudytherateandextentof
degradation ofdifferent feedcomponents.Short incubation
timesofabout 12hcanbeusedtocompareorpredict invivo
ilealapparentdigestibilitiesofdrymatter,starchand
protein,while48h incubationscanpredictthe invivo
faecalapparentdigestibility ofdrymatterand dietary
fibre.TheDEandMEcontentsofdietscanalsobepredicted
bythismethod.

Introduction
Thedetermination ofdigestibility byconventional methods
requireslargequantitiesoffeed,anumberofanimalsand
considerableexpenditureonequipmentandmanpower.Further,
there isaconsiderablebodyofpublicopinionwhich isnot
infavourofanimalexperimentation,regardlessofwhether
thesetrialsarestressful totheanimal.Thus inrecent
yearstherehasbeenanincreasing interest indeveloping
rapid laboratorymethods forthestudyofdigestion inthe
pigandtheevaluation ofpig feeds.Basically suchmethods
maybedivided intothreegroups:
1.Chemicalmethods
2.Insaccomethods
3.Invitromethods

237
 Whilechemicalmethodsmaybeusedto indicatethe
nutritivevalueoffeeds,theywillnotgiveany information
onthekineticsofdigestionorpredicttheeffectsof
processing ondigestibility (Graham &Lowgren, 1991). In
saccomethods,whereasampleoffeedcontained inasmall
bag isintroduced intotheintestineoftheanimaland
collected inthefaeces,mayalsogivesomeideaofthe
relativedigestibility offeeds (Grahametal., 1985).
However,suchmethodsrequirecannulated animalsand again
giveno informationondigestionrates.Invitromethodshave
fewofthedisadvantages ofthesemethods,andthusanumber
havegainedprominence inrecentyears.

Generally invitromethodsarebased onthedegradationof

feed samples,eitherbyenzymecocktailsorby intestinal
inocula,withrecovery oftheundegraded residueby
filtration orcentrifugation.Obviously suchmethodsare
limited inthatallsolublematerial and smallparticlesmust
beassumed tobedegradable.Alsotheinfluenceof
anti-nutrientswill oftenbelostaswilltheeffectoffeed
componentsonanimal factorssuchasendogenousproduction
anddigestatransittime,whichwillaffect apparent
digestibility invivo.Theuseofintestinal inocula rather
thanenzymesshouldgiveamorerealisticreflection ofthe
processeswithinthegastro-intestinal tractwheresome
microbial degradationtakesplaceeveninthe fore-gut
(Graham etal., 1986). Thisdegradationmayplayan important
role inreleasing othernutrients forenzymaticdigestion in
thesmallintestine.

Materials and Methods

The invitromethod employedwasbased onthatofFuruyaet
al. (1979). Generally freshduodenal digesta,ilealdigesta
and faeceswerecollected fromdonors,filtered through
cheeseclothanddilutedto20%inphysiological buffer
(Lowgrenet al., 1989). Fiftymlofthesebuffered inocula
werethen incubatedwith 0.5 g feed sampleat38Cunder
anaerobicconditions forperiods from 1to 96h.The
undegraded residueswererecoveredby filtration,extensively
washedwithwater,dried andweighed.
Degradation invitro
Initial studiesestablished thatthis invitromethodwas
applicabletopig feeds,andthatashortincubation time
couldbeusedtopredictthereadily-available nutrientsand
longer incubationsthelessreadily-available components
(Lowgrenet al., 1989). Itwasalsoapparentthat degradation
byduodenal,ilealorfaecal inoculadiffered inratebutnot
pattern;ie,all inoculadegraded individual feed components
inthesameorder.However,faecal inoculatendedtogivea
lowerapparentdisappearance ofprotein,possibly dueto
microbial contaminationoftheresidue,and ilealand faecal
inocula

238
tendedtohaveahigher initialcapacitytodegrade fibre
components.Feedparticle sizewasalsoshownto influence
therateofdisappearance invitrobutnottheextentof
disappearance atlonger incubationtimes.
Subsequent studiesemploying 5feedsthathadbeen
evaluated invivo (Grahametal., 1989) indicated thata 12h
incubationwithduodenal inoculacouldbeusedtocomparethe
invivo ilealapparentdigestibilities ofdrymatter,starch
andcrudeprotein (Table 1). A 48h incubationwith ilealor
faecal inocula could alsobeusedtocompareboththeextent
andpatternofdegradation offibrecomponents.However,in
vivo faecalapparentdigestibility ofcrudeproteinwasnot
relatedto invitroproteindisappearance,indicatingthe
influenceofendogenous lossesonthiscomponent invivo.

Table 1.Correlation coefficients (xlOO)between invivo

ilealand faecalapparentdigestibilities (%) and invitro
disappearancewithduodenal (DD,12 h ) , ileal (ID,48h)and
faecal (FD,48h) inocula fordifferentcomponents of5pig
feeds.

Invivo DD ID FD

Drymatter
ileal 89
faecal 84 81
Crudeprotein
ileal 88
faecal <50 <50
Starch
ileal 96
faecal <50 <50
Dietary fibre
ileal <50
faecal 94 94

A studyof11pig feedsindicated thattherewasaclose

indirectcorrelationbetweendietary starchcontentandthe
contentoftheothermaincomponents,whichcouldbeexpected
asstarch isgenerally thepredominantdietary component
(Table 2). Starchcontentwasalsoclosely related toin
vitrodisappearancewith ileal inocula.Howeverthe
relationshipwith faecal invitrodisappearancewasless
strong,possibly duetodifficulties inweighingthesmall
amountofresiduepresentafterdegradation andtothefact
thatthe faecal inoculacontainssmallparticleswhichcanbe
difficulttowash fromthisresidue.Thisstudyalso
established thatbothanalytical and invitrodatacanbe
usedtopredicttheDEandMEcontentofpig feeds (Graham&
Lowgren, 1991).

239
f'

Table2.Correlationcoefficients (xlOO)betweeninvitro
disappearance (48h)with ileal (ID)and faecal (FD)inocula
andthecompositionof 11pigfeeds.
Protein Fat Fibre Ash ÏD FD

Starch -88 -90 -86 -76 86 44

Crudeprotein 69 55 46 -57 -7
Crude fat 91 71 -87 -47
Dietary fibre 86 -98 -75
Ash -91 -78
ID 79

An invitromethodhasbeendevelopedwhichallowsthe
studyofthedigestionofpig feeds.Thismethodcanbeused
topredictthe ilealapparentdigestibility ofstarchand
crudeproteinandthe faecaldegradation of fibre,which
shouldbeessential componentsofanysuchmethod. Inclusion
ofappropriate standard feedsandtheuseof standardized
inoculaorenzymeswillallowcomparisonsbetween
laboratories anddifferent runs.All suchmethodshave
disadvantages,withtheinfluenceofanti-nutritive factors
andendogenous losses invivoparticularly difficultto
account for.However,providingthattheselimitationsare
taken intoconsideration,suchmethodswillproveuseful in
thestudyoftheprocessesofdigestionaridthenutritive
valueofpigfeeds.

References
Furuya,S.,K.Sakamoto &S.Takahashi,1979.Anewinvotro
method fortheestimation ofdigestibility using intestinal
fluid ofthepig.Brit.J. Nutr.41:511-520.
Graham,H. &W.Lowgren,1991.Prediction oftheenergyvalue
ofmonogastric feedsusing invitrodigestionswith
intestinal fluidandotherchemicalmethods.Proc.workshop
Invitrodigestion forpigsandpoultry.C.A.B.
International Publications,Wallingford,England,inpress.
Graham,H.,K.Hesselman &P.Aman,1986.Theinfluenceof
wheatbranand sugarbeetpulponthedigestibility of
dietarycomponents inacerealbasedpigdiet.J.Nutr.
116:242-251.
Graham,H,W.Lowgren &P.Aman,1989.An invitromethod for
studyingdigestion inthepig.2.Comparisonwith invivo
ileal and faecaldigestibilities.Brit.J.Nutr.61:689-698.
Graham,H.,P.Aman,R.K.Newman&C.w.Newman,1985.Useof
a nylon-bagtechnique forpig feeddigestibility studies.
Brit.J. Nutr.54:719-726.
Lowgren,W.,H.Graham &P.Aman,1989.An invitromethod for
studyingdigestion inthepig.1.Simulatingdigestion inthe
differentcompartmentsoftheintestine.Brit.J.Nutr.
61:673-687.

240

iL.
A COMPARISON OFINVIVOANDIN VITROMETHODS FOR
ESTIMATINGDIGESTIBILITY INSWINE
G.Bellaver,1R.A.Easter,2D.A.Cook3&A.Gonzalez4

DepartmentofAnimalSciences,UniversityofIllinois,Urbana,Illinois,
USA&EMBRAPAEmpresaBrasileriaDePesquisaAgropecuâ,Brazil

Abstract
Threemethodsforpredictingaminoacidutilization: twoinvivo
procedures,swineilealsamplingandprecision-fedcecectomizedrooster
excretacollection,wereusedtoobtaindigestibilityvalues,andanin
vitroenzymeincubationmethodwasusedtoestimatepotentialprotein
hydrolysis. Thefeedstuffsusedineachassaywere: corn,wheatbran,
twosoybeanmeals,cottonseedmeal,poultryby-productmealandtwomeat
andbonemeals. Acommonsampleofeachfeedstuffwasusedforeachof
theexperimentalprocedures. Lysine,threonineandtryptophan
digestibilitieswereconsistentlylowerwhenmeasuredbyswineilealthan
byprecision-fedroosterprocedures. Thecorrelationsamong
methodologieswerelowwhenlow-proteinfeedstuffswereincludedinthe
dataset,butwereimprovedwhenonlyhigh-proteinfeedswereincluded.
Keywords: aminoacidutilization,aminoaciddigestibility,aminoacid
availability

Introduction
Publishedaminoacidrequirementestimatesassume (1)thatdietary
aminoacidsarecompletelyutilizedor,(2)thatutilizationislessthan
completeandthatadjustmentswillbemadetoallowfordifferencesin
utilizationbetweenthatfoundinthedietsusedtodeterminethe
requirementandthatintheingredientsbeingusedinformulation.
Accurateestimatesofaminoaciddigestibility (oravailability)are
neededbeforetheseadjustmentscanbemade.

Therehasbeenmuchattentiongiventotheestimationofaminoacid
digestibility (oravailability)byvariousmethods. Thiseffortisa
resultoftheconceptthatdigestibleaminoacidvaluescanbeused
effectivelyindietformulation. Theseprocedureshavebeenreviewedby
Low (1982),SauerandOzimek(1985)andSibbald (1987). Thepresent
experimentswereundertakentoobtainestimatesofthedigestibilityof
certainessentialaminoacidsusingswineandroosterproceduresandan
"invitro"enzymaticdigestionmethod. Thefollowingingredientswere
evaluated: corn,wheatbran (WHB),soybeanmeal (SBM),cottonseedmeal
(CSM),poultryby-product (PBP)andmeatandbonemeal (MBM). These
valueswereusedtoestablishcorrelationsamongthedifferentmethods
andtotestthehypothesisthatdietsformulatedwithdifferent
ingredientstothesameconcentrationsofdigestibleaminoacidswould
supportequalswinegrowthperformance.

1. Presentaddress: C.Postal21,89700ConcordiaSC,Brazil.
2. ProfessorattheUniversityofIllinois,Champaign-Urbana.
3. Graduateresearchassistant.
4. Presentaddress: SanJuan,CostaRica.

241
r
Materials and Methods
Swineilealdigestibility

NinecrossbredbarrowsfromthreelittersofYorkshirexHampshire
parentageinitiallyweighing42.44kg+ .46weresurgicallyfittedwith
individualT-cannulae. After14daysofpost-surgicalrecuperation
(Zebrowska,1973;andLinetal.,1987),procedurestomeasureileal
digestibilitywereinitiated. Pigswerehousedinstainlesssteel
metabolismcagesduringboththeadaptationandcollectionperiodsina
temperature-controlled environment. Pigswereallowedafivedayperiod
ofdietadaptation (TanksleyandKnabe1984)followedbytwodaysof
chymecollection (Taverneretal.,1981a;Saueretal.,1982;Partridge
etal., 1987). Theywerefedat12-hourintervals (7a.m.and7p.m.)
throughouttheexperimentanddigestawascollectedduringthe12hour
periodbetweenthemorningandeveningmealsoneachofthetwodays
(TanksleyandKnabe,1984;Taverneretal.,1981a). Dietswere
formulatedtoprovidesimilarlevelsofmetabollzableenergy,calciumand
phosphorus (exceptforsourcesofanimalproteins),vitamins,and
minerals (NRC,1979).

Percentagetrueaminoaciddigestibility (TAAD)wascalculated
accordingtoSauerandOzimek (1985). Anitrogenfreediet (NFD)was
usedtoestimatetheendogenousaminoacidlosses.

Precision-fedroosterassay

Trueaminoaciddigestibilities (TAAD)weremeasuredforanumberof
ingredientsusingtheprocedureofSibbald (1979)asmodifiedbyParsons
(1985b). ThreematureSingleCombWhiteLeghorncockerelspertreatment
wereallocatedtoindividualcageswithraisedwirefloors. Artificial
lightwasprovidedfor16hoursperdayandtheambienttemperaturewas
maintainedinthecomfortzone. Thebirdsweregivenfeedandwaterad
libitumtotheassayperiod. Theassaywasinitiatedbyfastingthe
birdsfor24hours,afterwhichtheywereforce-fed30gofthetest
ingredient. Agroupofcontrolbirdswasfastedduringthisperiodand
theexcretawerecollectedtoallowmeasurementoftheendogenousamino
acidproduction. Excretawerecollectedfora48-hourperiodusinga
plastictrayplacedunderthecage. Excretasampleswerelyophilized,
weighed,groundandanalyzedfordrymatterandaminoacids. Theformula
usedincalculationswasthatreportedbyParsons(1985a).

Multienzymeassay

TheprocedureforthemultienzymeassaywasdescribedbyHsuetal.
(1977). Asampleofeachoftheingredientsusedintheprevious
experimentswasfinelyground(60meshscreen),andduplicate,50ml
aqueoussuspensions (6.25mgprotein/ml)werepreparedusingwarm
distilledwater. ThesepreparationswereadjustedtoaninitialpHof8
whilestirringat37°Cinawaterbath. Fivemloficed,multienzyme
solution(1.6mgtrypsin,3.1mgchymotrypsinand1.3mgpeptidase/ml)
wereaddedtotheproteinsuspension. ThedropinpHwasrecordedat15
s,1,5and10minusingaCole-PalmerChemcadetModel5984pHmeter
equippedwithastandardglasselectrode.

242

tL
Resultsand Discussion
Swineilealdigestibility

ValuespresentedinTable1aretrueaminoaciddigestibility (TAAD)
estimates (expressedasapercent)fortheeightfeedstuffs. These
valuesareingoodagreementwithliterature (Zebrowska,1978;Tanksley
etal.,1981;Saueretal.,1982). Valuesforapparentdigestibility
werealsocalculated. Calculatedvaluesforapparentdigestibilitywere
lowerthanthoseforTAAD.

Lysineandthreoninewere,ingeneral,lessdigestiblethantheother
aminoacidsincornandWHB. ThissametrendhasbeenreportedbySauer
etal.(1977)andTaverneretal.(1981b). Lysinedigestibilityincorn
andWHBandthreoninedigestibilityinWHBweresignificantlylower
(P<.01)thanintheothersourcesofproteinwiththeexceptionoflysine
inCSMandthreonineinMBM1. Thetruelysinedigestibilitymeasured
forcorn(59.9%)isintherangeofvaluesfoundintheliterature.
Publishedvaluesrangefromapparentdigestibilityof48%(Blackand
Davies,1987)and56.8%(Greenetal.,1987)totruedigestibilityof83%
(Taverneretal.,1981b). Thelowvaluesfoundinthisexperimentmaybe
relatedtothelowproteincontent(7.33%)ofthecornused.

Precision-fedroosterassay

TheTAADvaluesforthefeedstuffswerecalculatedintheprecision-fed
assay. TruelysinedigestibilityinCSM(71.82%)wassignificantlylower
(P<.01)thaninalltheotherfeedsources. Thispercentageis
intermediatetotheonespresentedbyNwokoloetal. (1976)andAnonymous
(1988b). ItisinterestingthattruelysinedigestibilityinCSMwasthe
lowestvaluereportedforaningredientbyAnonymous (1988b). Inthis
experiment,itwasnotpossibletodetectanydifference (P>.01)fortrue
lysinedigestibilityamongtheotheringredients. Truedigestibilityfor
threonineandtryptophanwashigher (P<.01)incornthanintheother
feedstuffs.

AveragedigestibilitiesforaminoacidsinCSM,PBPandMBMinthis
experimentwereingeneralhigherthanthoselistedbyAnonymous (1988b).
However,valuesgreaterthanourshavebeenreportedbyNwokoloetal.
(1976)forCSMandbyBurgosetal. (1974)forPBP. DatafromHungand
Kermorgant(1982)forMBMprovidevaluessimilartothoseobtainedinour
experiment. ValuesfortruedigestibilityoflysineforthePBPusedin
thisexperimentwereintermediatetothosecalculatedbyHerroetal.
(1988)usingeithercecectomizedorconventionalroosters.

Multienzymeassay

ChangesinpHweremeasuredinthemultienzymeassaysystemduringa10
minperiod. The10minreadingwasusedtocalculatethepercentofpH
dropinrelationtocasein. Incubationforlessthan10minis
insufficientandformorethan10mindoesnotimprovetheassay
accordingtoHsuetal. (1977). AlowpH,forexamplethatisfoundwith
casein,isindicativeofextensiveproteinhydrolysis. The10minpH
readingforeachtestingredientwasrelatedtocaseinwhichforthe
purposeofthisassay,wasconsidered100%digestible. Theratiowas
thenexpressedasapercentofenzymehydrolysisrelativetocasein
(ENZRC).

243
 Table1.Trueaminoacidandcrudeproteindigestibilitiesforeight
feedstuffsbasedonswineilealdigestacollections*.

Ingrédients* '*
Amino
acids Corn WHB SBM1 SBM2 CSM PBP MBM1 MBM2 SE*

Intake
g 1790 1351 1872 1899 1773 1902 1583 1601 105.79
Ala 79.91 63.35 81.63 81.97 69.35 80.87 80.23 81.00 1.80
Arg 94.43 94.95 96.49 96.11 92.78 89.81 88.18 89.63 1.51
Asp 73.89 67.56 85.38 85.12 78.04 62.60 69.73 69.62 2.17
Glu 84.53 85.72 88.72 88.29 85.22 77.55 73.54 75.02 1.49
Gly 67.76 55.69 77.88 78.73 69.91 78.99 80.81 82.83 3.07
His 78.53 73.90 86.47 87.13 79.26 77.44 74.46 76.58 1.66
He 78.96 72.48 87.49 87.14 73.62 80.60 74.65 75.36 2.22
Leu 83.33 67.31 84.22 83.71 72.11 78.59 74.44 75.92 2.20
Lys 59.92 60.00 86.07 85.43 59.72 78.15 75.86 76.52 2.02
M+C 86.17 75.93 91.83 90.91 82.99 81.70 79.23 77.87 2.33
Phe 84.51 78.14 87.95 87.72 84.06 80.07 78.28 79.02 1.80
Pro 79.71 92.21 88.59 89.50 82.16 80.65 83.33 78.93 2.54
Ser 78.40 71.74 85.77 85.57 77.51 75.74 72.16 74.34 1.66
Thr 71.69 59.56 82.90 81.54 71.50 74.15 69.11 72.65 2.52
Trp 68.39 73.25 82.79 86.37 73.93 61.51 60.82 64.31 4.39
Tyr 78.40 55.99 83.63 80.43 78.27 60.99 51.73 63.60 3.97
Val 79.26 72.69 85.98 85.41 76.93 78.87 76.40 76.70 2.02
CP* 78.97 74.98 84.01 85.73 73.91 76.61 75.95 77.26 1.69

Valuesaremeansofthreeobservationswithonepigperobservation.
Abbreviationsusedinthetableheadingsare:WHB—wheatbran;SBM1and
SBM2=soybeanmeals1(normal)and2(heattreated);CSM=cottonseed
meal;PBP-poultryby-product;MBM1andMBM2=meatandbonemeals
fromtwoorigins
*Pooledstandarderrorofthemeans
*Leastsignificantdifference(P<.01)
-CrudeProtein

Previously inthispaperestimatesofaminoaciddigestibilityfor
severalingredientswereobtainedbyilealsamplingproceduresand
precision-fedcecectomizedrooster. Thevaluesforlysine,threonineand
tryptophandigestibilityaresummarizedinTable2. InTable3,values
forthedigestibilityoflysine,threonine,andtryptophanarepresented
accordingtothedifferentassaysusedforestimation.

Thedigestibilitiesobtainedbythevariousmethods (Table2)were
correlatedforsixingredients. ThecornandWHBexclusionfromthedata
setimprovedthecoefficientsofcorrelation. Whenonlythehigh-protein
ingredientsareconsidered,theestimatesoflysinedigestibilitywere
wellcorrelated (r=•.73to .99)amongallthemethodsused. The"in
vitro"multienzymeassayforproteinhydrolysiswashighlycorrelated
withlysinedigestibilityandestimatedbythetwo"invivo"methods.
ThisresultagreeswiththefindingspresentedbyHsuetal. (1977)and
Satterleeetal.(1977). Ourdatasupporttheconceptthatthe"in
vitro"multienzymemethodcanbeusedtoquicklyestimatethe
utilizabilityofproteininhigh-proteiningredients.

244

L
Table2.Summaryofaminoaciddigestibilityoravailabilityvalues
obtainedforeightfeedstuffsusingfourdifferentmethods.

Lvsine Threonine Tryptophan

Ingredient* ILEDL* PREDL* ENZRC* ILEDTH* PREDTH* ILEDTP* PREDTP*

Corn 59.92 95.66 74.29 71.69 109.03 68.39 101.80

WHB 60.00 85.83 76.77 59.56 90.48 73.25 92.54
SBM1 86.07 92.94 85.11 82.90 91.05 82.79 92.28
SBM2 85.43 91.64 84.04 81.54 89.56 86.37 94.52
CSM 59.72 71.82 79.96 71.50 81.92 73.93 84.33
PBP 78.15 84.15 82.45 74.15 84.38 61.51 85.86
MBM1 75.86 85.04 82.98 69.11 84.18 60.82 84.39
MBM2 76.52 85.52 82.62 72.65 85.36 64.31 82.53

'Abbreviationsusedinthetableheadingsare:WHB=wheatbran;SBM1and
SBM2=soybeanmeals1(normal)and2(heattreated);CSM=cottonseed
meal;PBP=-poultryby-product;MBM1andMBM2=meatandbonemeals
fromtwoorigins
'ilealdigestibilityof(L)lysine,(TH)threonineand(TP)tryptophan.
*Precision-feddigestibilityoflysine,threonineandtryptophan.
Multienzymehydrolysisoftheingredientinrelationtocasein./

Table3.Pooledaminoaciddigestibilityoravailabilityvalues
foreachofthethreemethodsinvestigated*.

Ileal Multienzyme
Digestibility digestibility Precision-fed assay SE*
Lysine* 72.71 86.58 81.03 3.73
Threonine 72.89 89.50 81.03 2.44
Tryptophan 71.42 89.78 81.03 2.28

*Valuesaremeansofeightdifferentingredients.
'Pooledstandarderrorofthemeans.
*Leastsquaremeans.

Conclusions
1 --Themethodsusedproduceddifferentresponsesfortheaminoacids
studiedwherethevaluesforilealdigestibilitywerethelowestandthe
precision-fedassaythehighest.

2 --Whencornandwheatbranwereexcludedfromtheanalysis,the
coefficientsofcorrelationsimprovedindicatingthatallmethodswere
associatedforlysine.

3 --Themultienzymeassaypresentedhighcorrelationwiththeother
methods.

245
References
Anonymous,1988a. Apparentilealdigestibilityofcrudeproteinand
essentialaminoacidsinfeedstuffsforswine. HeartlandLysine,Inc.
Table. Chicago.
Anonymous,1988b. Apparentilealdigestibilityofcrudeproteinand
essentialaminoacidsinfeedstuffsforpoultry. HeartlandLysine,
Inc. Table. Chicago.
Burgos,A.,J.I.Floyd&E.L.Stephenson,1974. Theaminoacidcontent
andavailabilityofdifferentsamplesofpoultryby-productmealand
feathermeal. Poult.Sei.53:198-203.
Black,J.L.&G.T.Davies,1987. Estimationofaminoacidavailability
usingtheAUSPIGcomputersimulationmodel. In: Barnett,J.L.,E.S.
Batterham,G.M.Cronin,C.Hansen,P.H.Hemsworth,D.P.Hennessy,P.
E.Hughes,N.E.JohnstonandR.H.King, (Ed.). ManipulationPig
Production,pp.124-128. AustralasianPigScienceAssociation.
Werribee,Australia.
Green,S.,S.L.Bertrand,M.J.C.Durom&R.A.Maillard,1987.
Digestibilityofaminoacidsinmaize,wheatandbarleymeal,measured
inpigswithileo-rectalanastomosisandisolationoflargeintestine.
J.Sei.FoodAgri.41:29-43.
Herro,D.R.,Y.Han,F.Castanon&C.M.Parsons,1988. Evaluationof
proteinandaminoacidqualityofpoultryby-productmeal. Poult.Sei.
67:97-102. (Abstr.).
Hsu, H.W.,D.L.Vavak,L.D.SatterleeandG.A.Miller,1977. A
multienzymetechniqueforestimatingproteindigestibility. J.Food
Sei.42:1269-1273.
Hubbel,C.H.,1988. 1988Feedstuffsanalysistable. FeedstuffsFeb.
15:20.
Hung,N.T.&J.Kermorgant,1982. Pepsindigestibilityandtrueamino
acidavailabilityofplantandanimalproteinfeedstuffs. In: Proc.
ofMarylandNutritionConferenceforFeedManufactures,pp.5-10.
CollegePark.
Lin, F.D.,D.A.Knabe&T.D.Tanksley,Jr.,1987. Apparent
digestibilityofaminoacids,grossenergyandstarchincorn,sorghum,
wheat,barley,oatgroatsandwheatmiddlingsforgrowingpigs. J.
Anim.Sei.64:1655-1663.
Low, A.G.,1982. Digestibilityandavailabilityofaminoacidsfrom
feedstuffsforpigs: areview. Livest.Prod.Sei.9:511-520.
NRC, 1979. NutrientRequirementofSwine(6thEd.). NationalAcademy
Press,Washington,DC.
Nwokolo,E.N.,D.B.BraggandW.D.Kitts,1976. Theavailabilityof
aminoacidsfrompalmkernel,soybean,cottonseedandrapeseedmealfor
thegrowingchick. Poult.Sei.55:2300-2304.
Parsons,C.M.,1985a. Aminoacidavailabilityinfeedstuffsforpoultry
andswine. In: D.H.BakerandC.M.Parsons (Ed.). RecentAdvances
inAminoAcidNutrition,pp.35-47. AjinomotoCo.,Inc. Tokyo.
Parsons,C.M.,1985b. Influenceofcaececotomyonthedigestibilityof
aminoacidsbyroostersfeddistillers'driedgrainswithsolubles. J.
Agric.Sei.104:469-472.
Partridge,I.G.,A.G.Low&J.J.Matte,1987. Double-lowrapeseed
mealforpigs: Ilealapparentdigestibilityofaminoacidsindiets
containingvariousproportionsofrapeseedmeal,fishmealandsoya-
beanmeal. Anim.Prod.44:415-420.
Satterlee,L.D.,J.G.Kendrick&G.A.Miller,1977. Rapidinvitro
assaysforestimatingproteinquality. FoodTechnol.June:78-81.

246
Sauer,W.C.&L.Ozimek,1985. Thedigestibilityofaminoacidsin
studieswithswineandpoultry. AjinomotoCo.,Inc. Tokyo.
Sauer,W.C , R.Chichon&R.Miser,1982. Aminoacidavailabilityand
proteinqualityofcanolaandrapeseedmealforpigsandrats. J.
Anim.Sei.54:292-301.
Sauer,W.C.,S.C.Stothers&G.D.Phillips,1977. Apparent
availabilitiesofaminoacidsincorn,wheatandbarleyforgrowing
pigs. Can.J.Anim.Sei.57:585-597.
Sibbald,I.R.,1979. Abioassayforavailableaminoacidsandtrue
metabolizableenergyinfeedingstuffs. Poult.Sei.58:668-673.
Sibbald,I.R.,1987. Estimationofbioavailableaminoacidsin
feedingstuffsforpoultryandpigs: areviewwithemphasisonbalance
experiments. Can.J.Anim.Sei.67:221-300.
Tanksley,T.D.,Jr.,D.A.Knabe,K.Purser,T.Zebrowska&J.R.
Corley,1981. Apparentdigestibilityofaminoacidsandnitrogenin
threecottonseedmealsandonesoybeanmeal. J.Anim.Sei.52:769-777
Taverner,M.R.,I.D.Hume&D.J.Farell,1981a. Availabilitytopigs
ofaminoacidsincerealgrains. 1. Endogenouslevelsofaminoacids
inilealdigestaandfaecesofpigsgivencerealdiets. Br.J.Nutr.
46:149-158.
Taverner,M.R.,I.D.Hume&D.J.Farell,1981b. Availabilitytopigs
ofaminoacidsincerealgrains. 2. Apparentandtrueileal
availability. Br.J.Nutr.46:159-171.
Zebrowska,T.,1973. Influenceofdietaryproteinsourceontherateof
digestioninthesmallintestineofpigs. PartI. Amountand
compositionofdigesta. Rocz.NaukRol.95:115-133.
Zebrowska,T.,1978. Determinationofavailableaminoacidsin
feedstuffsformonogastrics. Feedstuffs50:15-17&43-44.

247
THE EFFECTS OF DIETARY CARBOHYDRATES ON
MICROBIAL GROWTHASDETERMINED BYCONTINUOUS IN
VTTRO-INCUBATIONS OF HINDGUT CONTENTS OF PIGS
G.Breves1 &J. Dreyer
Institute ofAnimalNutrition,FederalAgricultural Research
Centre,Braunschweig,FRG

Abstract
The "colonsimulationtechnique"wasappliedasacontinuous
invitro-model forstudyingbasicmechanismsofmicrobial
hindgutmetabolism inpigs.Gauze filtrated caecal fluidwas
used tostarteach incubationexperimentandcaecal particles
wereapplied asfermentable substrate.Eachexperiment lasted
for16days including anequilibrationperiod of8days.The
experimentsweredoneonthreedietswith decreasing
cellulose and corresponding increases inhemicellulose
concentrations.ThehighestVFAproduction ratewas
determinedwhenapproximately 70%offibrous carbohydrates
consisted ofcellulose.Sincethecomposition ofthediethad
noeffectonmicrobialprotein synthesisthe lowest
efficiancy ofmicrobial growthwascalculated forthehigh
cellulosediet.
Keywords:Hindgut,microbial growth,efficiancy, dietary
carbohydrates.

Introduction !
Ithasbeenshown fromstudiesonrumenmetabolism thatthe
"efficiancy ofmicrobialgrowthmay substantially bealtered
by changingthecomposition ofthediet (Sternetal.1978;
Rohretal.1989). Inordertoobtainamoredetailed
information aboutbasicmechanismsofmicrobial hindgut
metabolism inpigs itwastheaimofthepresentpaperto
study quantitativeparametersofmicrobialgrowth inrelation
totheproportion ofcelluloseandhemicellulose inthree
differentexperimental diets.Forthesestudiesthe "colon
simulation technique"wasusedasacontinuous incubation
procedure.Thistechniquehasbeenproved asasensitiveand
reproduciblemethod forstudyingmicrobialmetabolism inthe
large intestines (Brevesetal. 1990).

;Materials and Methods

Theexperimentswereperformed onthreedietswhichwere
characterized by increasingthecellulosecontent from 44to
109g/kgdrymatterandcorrespondingly decreasing

1.Presentaddress:InstituteofVeterinary Physiology,
Gießen,FRG

248
hemicelluloseconcentrations from 152to 50g/kg. These
changeswereachievedbycombiningdifferentgrain
components,fieldbeans,maniok,cellulose,coconutand fish
mealatvaryingproportions.Atleastthreeweekswere
allowed foradaptiontoeachdietandpigswithabodyweight
between 100and 300kgwereusedasdonoranimals.Foreach
invitro-experimentfiveincubationvesselswererun
simultaneously andtheequilibrationperiod of8dayswas
followedby 8samplingdays formeasuringpH,productionof
volatile fattyacids (VFA), organicmatter (OM)digestibility
andmicrobialproteinsynthesis.Inallexperiments afive-
folddaily fluidturnoverwasmaintainedwhichwas equivalent
toamean fluidretentiontimeof4.8h. Particle retention
timewasadjusted to24h.

Results and Discussion

Ondiet 1 (109gcelluloseand 50ghemicellulose/kg DM)the
meanVFAproductionwasmorethantwiceashighwith
corresponding decreases inpHand increases inorganicmatter
digestibility ascomparedtotheothertwodiets.Theratio
betweenVFAproduction anddigestionoforganicmatterranged
between 6and 14mmolVFA/gdigested organicmatterwiththe
highestefficiency ofVFAproduction indiet 1.Changingthe
cellulose/hemicelluloseproportionshadnoeffecton
microbialprotein synthesiswhichrangedbetween 225and269
mg/d.Thustheefficiency ofmicrobial growthexpressed as
assimilation ofmicrobialN/digested organicmatter (mg/g)
waslowest indiet 1.Theseresultsconfirm datawhichwere
obtained fromstudiesonrumenmetabolism comparing the
effectsofcellulose andstarch onefficiency ofmicrobial
growth (Sternetal. 1978).Theresults indicatethatthe
ratioandpossibly theoriginofdietary fibrous
carbohydrates isamajor factorforregulation ofmicrobial
growthefficiency inthelargeintestines.Sincethe
quantitativegrowthparametersobtained fromthepresent
studywere inasimilarrangeasithasbeendescribed for
therumen itmaybeconcluded thatthemajorbasicmechanisms
ofmicrobialmetabolism inthelarge intestinesare
comparabletothose intherumen.

References
Breves,G.,J. Dreyer &H.J. Oslage,1990.Invitro-
Untersuchungen zummikrobiellen Stoffwechsel im
DickdarminhaltvonSchweinen.J.Anim.Physiol,a.Anim.
Nutr. 64:7-8.
Rohr,K., P. Lebzien,R.Daenicke &H.Schafft,1989.Zum
EinflußvonFuttergetreide inMilchviehrationen aufdie
Verdauungsvorgänge undLeistungsparameter. 1.Mitteilung:
Getreidereiche Kraftfuttermischungen alsErgänzung zu
Grassilage.Landwirtsch.Forschung 42:93-104.
Stern,M. D.,W.H.Hoover,C.J. Sniffen,B.A.Crooker &P.
H.Knowlton, 1978.Effectofnonstructural carbohydrate,
ureaand solubleprotein levelsonmicrobial protein
synthesis incontinuous cultureofrumencontents, j . Anim.
Sei. 47:944-956.
249
 IMPACT OF EXOCRINE PANCREATIC ADAPTATION ON M
VITROPROTEINDIGESTIBILITY
P. Valette 1 , H. Malouin 2 , T. Corring 1 and L. Savoie 2
j
Laboratoire d'Ecologie et de Physiologie du Système digestif, INRA, Jouy en Josas,
Jrance
Département de Nutrition Humaine et de Consommation, Université Laval, Québec,
Canada

Abstract
An in vitro enzymatic method was used to study kinetics of digestion of casein
and rapeseed proteins. After a predigestion with pepsin, the protein substrates
were submitted to a 24-hours hydrolysis either with pancreatin or pancreatic juices
of pigs adapted either to casein or rapeseed diet. After 3, 6 and 24 hours of
digestion, dialysates were collected and analysed for content of nitrogen and amino
acids. For a long term hydrolysis (24 hrs), overall digestibility of both substrates
was not affected by the composition of pancreatic enzymes mixtures. However, in
the beginning of hydrolysis kinetics, a significant effect of pancreatic juices (mainly
"casein pancreatic juice") was observed on the rapeseed nitrogen digestibility.
During the first hours of digestion, individual amino acid digestibility was generally
higher when "casein pancreatic juice" was used for hydrolysis. It is concluded that
enzyme mixture used for in vitro hydrolysis do not influence nitrogen and amino
acid digestibilities for a long-term digestion. But an effect of the enzymatic source
appears at the beginning of hydrolysis kinetics and is markedly dependent on the
nature of the protein tested.
Key words :in vitro protein digestibility, casein, rapeseed, pancreatic juice

Introduction
In the pig fitted with permanent cannulae in the pancreatic duct, the feeding of a
meal whose protein component was either casein or rapeseed concentrate markedly
modified the composition of pancreatic enzyme secretion (Valette et al., 1990).
The purpose of the present work was to study the impact of this pancreatic
response on the nitrogen and amino acid digestibilities of casein and rapeseed
concentrate. After a predigestion with pepsin, casein and rapeseed proteins were
hydrolysed in vitro, with the digestion cell technique (Savoie & Gauthier, 1986) in
presence of the pancreatic juices of pigs adapted either to casein or rapeseed diet.
The hydrolysis kinetics were compared to standard digestion with pancreatin.

Materials and Methods

Casein (83.6 g N x 6.25/100 g DM) and rapeseed concentrate (52.9 g Nx 6.25/100
g DM) were used for the different in vitro assays. Pancreatic enzymes (freeze-dried)
were obtained from fistulated pigs adapted fifteen days to a diet containing either
casein (casein pancreatic juice) or rapeseed concentrate (rapeseed pancreatic juice)
as the sole source of protein (12 g/100 g DM diet). Before use, the enzyme mixture
(50 mg of protein) was activated with 1 ml of trypsin in tris Ca + + buffer (10 ml), pH
7.9, for 24 hrs at 4°C. Pancreatin was used as such.

250
 After 30 minutes of pepsic digestion, dialysates were poured into the dialysis
tube (1000 dalton MWCO, Spectra Por 6, Spectrum Medical Industries, Inc., Los
Angeles, CA) of the digestion cell. Digestion was started by adding 1 ml of
pancreatin (10 mg/ml phosphate buffer) or 2 ml of pre-activated pancreatic juices (5
mg/ml). Digested material diffusing through the membrane was collected by a
circulating (1.6 ml/min) phosphate buffer (0.01 M, pH 7.5). Digestion lasted for 24
hours with aliquot sampling after 3, 6, and 24 hrs. Nitrogen and amino acids were
determined in the following pooled samples: 0-3, 0-6 and 0-24 hours.

Results

Table 1 . In vitro nitrogen digestibility (%) of casein and rapeseed proteins with
pancreatin (P), casein (C) and rapeseed (R) pancreatic juices.

Time of digestion Casein Rapeseed

(hours) P C R P R C

3 28,2abl 32,4 a 28,3ab 18,6C 24,0 b c 26,7 a b

6 50,8 a b 54,7 a 48,6 a b 39,4C 44,4 b c 50,2 a b
24 90,9 a 89,5 a 84,6 a 86,2 a 82,5 a 85, l a
* protein sources were previously hydrolysed with pepsin at pH 1,9 for 30 minutes
1 cumulative values means of four assays. Within a lign, values affected by the
same superscript letter are not significantly different (P < 0,05)

Table 1 showed the in vitro nitrogen digestibility of casein and rapeseed

concentrate with various pancreatic mixtures. In the first 6 hrs, casein nitrogen
digestibility with commercial pancreatin was significantly (p<0.05) higher than that
of rapeseed concentrate. After 24 hrs, the differences levelled. With casein as
substrate, nitrogen digestibility was not significantly affected whatever the
enzymatic source used. With rapeseed concentrate as substrate, the use of rapeseed
pancreatic juice produced a small but not significant rise in nitrogen digestibility
during the two first intervals of digestion. On the contrary, rapeseed nitrogen
digestibility was significantly increased with the casein pancreatic juice, during the
first six hours of digestion, values being equivalent to those obtained with casein
hydrolysed by rapeseed pancreatic juice.

As showed in table 2, after three hours of in vitro digestion, the small increase in
casein nitrogen digestibility elicited by casein pancreatic juice was mainly due to a
more important release of arginine and leucine. Rapeseed amino acids digestibility
was enhanced by the use of pancreatic juices, this effect being more important with
casein pancreatic juice. Significant increases were observed with arginine, histidine,
leucine, lysine and methionine.

As the digestion proceed (after 6 hrs), casein amino acids digestibility was not
influenced by the enzyme mixture used for hydrolysis. With rapeseed as substrate,
the increase elicited by casein pancreatic juice was still significant for the same
amino acids previously cited. The rise produced by rapeseed pancreatic juice was
perceptible, but closely equally distributed among amino acids.

After 24 hrs of hydrolysis, when the protein sources were almost completely
digested, the differences in casein and rapeseed amino acids digestibility observed
during the first two intervals between enzymatic sources were nearly abolished.

251
Table 2 . In vitro amino acid digestibility (%) of casein and. rapeseed proteins after 3
hrs of digestion with pancreatin (P), casein (C) and rapeseed (R) pancreatic juices.
* A
Amino Casein
acids Rapeseed
p C R P C
R
Arginine 5 2 b
K
59a 19 e 3<* 40du
Histidine ab 35a 30 ab
21<; 27bc 31ab
28 27cd
Leucine 35b 41a 36ab 22 d 30bc
Lysine 49a 44a 18 c 30 b
35b
43a
Methionine 30ab 34a 29 a b 21c 27b 29ab
* and 1, see table 1

Discussion
In this work, we observed that total nitrogen digestibility was not significantly
different after 24 hrs of an in vitro digestion 1) between values obtained with the
three enzyme mixtures for a same protein substrate, 2) between protein substrates
wathever the enzymatic sources used for hydrolysis. However, the enzymatic
sources and the nature of protein substrate led to major differences during the first
hours of digestion.

For enzymatic sources, it appeared a pancreatic juice effect and particularly a

better efficiency of casein pancreatic juice on the rapeseed nitrogen digestibility.
Our results did not allow to explain this observation. A plausible hypothesis is the
relationship which can exist between the hydrolysis potency and the proteolytic
enzyme equipment of enzyme mixtures. However, only specific activity of
carboxypeptidase A is more important in the casein pancreatic juice than in other
enzymatic sources.

Concerning the nature of protein substrate we observed that nitrogen release

was markedly enhanced in casein compared to rapeseed substrate during the first 6
hrs of digestion, whatever the enzymatic source used. Same results were obtained
by Savoie et al. (1988) and these differences may be the consequence of the
pre-digestion with pepsin. Pepsin could produce destabilization of the micellar
structure of casein by a specific breakdown of its kappa fraction (Pélissier, 1984). It
may not have the same effect on the more complex and chemically stable structure
of rapeseed globulins (Gray & Cooper, 1971). The release of digestion products was
thus delayed with this latter protein as compared to casein substrate. The purity of
the protein was also expected to be a factor modulating the digestibility since the
non-proteic components of a foodstuff are known to interfere with protein digestion
(Silano, 1976). In our experiment, The protein content was weaker in rapeseed
concentrate than in casein (52,9 g/100 g DM and 83,6 g/100 g DM respectively) since
rapeseed contained some non-proteic components such as fibers or tannins.

For both substrates, the amino acid digestibility was not influenced by the
nature of enzyme mixture for a long-term in vitro digestion (24 hrs). But, the effect
of the enzymatic source appeared primarily in the beginning of the digestion. With
casein as substrate, the digestibility of the whole amino acids was improved by the
use of casein pancreatic juice during the first 6 hrs of the digestion. In the same
way, rapeseed amino acids release was more important with pancreatic juices than
with pancreatin and the casein pancreatic juice had the best potency. Moreover, we
noticed that the use of pancreatic juices modified the relative proportion of certain

252
amino acids in the dialysate; for instance, arginine and lysine proportions, measured
after 3 or 6 hrs of digestion, were clearly enhanced. The relative digestibility index
(RDI) calculation (amino acid digestibility/nitrogen digestibility), which reflects the
release of one amino acid in comparison with the whole amino acids, allowed to
illustrate this phenomenon. Indeed, after 3 hrs of digestion, RDI values of lysine and
arginine were 0.97 and 1.02 respectively when using pancreatin, 1.25 and 1.50 with
rapeseed pancreatic juice and finally 1.31 and 1.42 with casein pancreatic juice.
When the digestion was purshased to 6 hrs, the same ratio was obtained.
Consequently, arginine and lysine were more slowly released with pancreatin
comparatively to the use of pancreatic juices.

The improvement of certain amino acid digestibility led us to suspect a major

effect due to the enzyme specificity. For instance, extensive liberation of lysine and
arginine with pancreatic juices would suppose a greater trypsic activity in these
enzyme mixtures. But, specific activity of trypsin was higher in pancreatin than in
pancreatic juices. In the same way, the greater specific activities of
carboxypeptidase A and chymotrypsin in the casein pancreatic juice, comparatively
to the pancreatin did not result in a better release of target amino acids of these
enzymes (tyrosine and phenylalanine). Finally, it is difficult to anticipate for the
specific contribution of each enzyme. According to Gertler et al. (1980), the
hydrolysis efficiency of one enzyme was greatly dependent on the simultaneous
action of the other proteases.

In the present study, we observed that the nature of enzyme mixture can
influence casein and rapeseed hydrolysis in terms of nitrogen and amino acids
digestibility. But our results showed that variations due to enzymatic source were
observed only during the first hours of the in vitro digestion, results obtained after
a long-term proteolysis being independent on the enzyme mixture.

References
Gertler A., Abrahami B.&Bondi A., 1980. Specific contribution of porcine pancreatic
proteinases to in vitro digestion of animal and plant proteins. Nutr. Rep. Int. 22:
771-779.

Gray G.M. &Cooper H.L., 1971.Protein digestion and absorption. Gastroenterology

61: 535-544.

Pélissier J.P., 1984. Proteolyse des caséines. Sc. des Aliments 4: 1-35.

Savoie L. &Gauthier S., 1986. Dialysis cell for the in vitro measurement of protein
digestibility. J. Food Sei. 51:494-498.

Savoie L., Galibois I., Parent G. &Charbonneau R., 1988. Sequential release of amino
acids and peptides during the in vitro digestion of casein and rapeseed proteins.
Nutr. Res. 8: 1319-1326.

Silano V., 1976. Factors affecting digestibility and availability of proteins in cereals.
In: Nutritional evaluation of cereal mutants. International Atomic Energy Agency,
Vienna. 13-46.

Valette P., Malouin H., Corring T., Savoie L., Gueugneau A.M. & Bérot S., 1990.
Effects of diets containing casein and rapeseed on enzyme secretion from the
exocrine pancreas in the pig. Submitted for publication in the Br. J. Nut.

253
A COMPARISON OF TRUE DIGESTIBILITY FOR POULTRY
AND APPARENT ILEAL DIGESTIBILITY FOR SWINE. A
C L A S S I C A L IN V I T R O M E T H O D A N D NIR
SPECTROPHOTOMETRY FOR DETERMINING AMINO ACID
DiGESTmiLrrY
M.D. Harrison1,M.R.M. Ballard2, R.A. Barclay3,M.E. Jackson4 &H.L.
Stilborn2.
Heartland Lysine, Inc.,Chicago, Illinois,U.S.

Abstract
Nineteen samples ofbloodmeal commonly used commercially inNorth
Americawere assessed forTrueAminoAcidDigestibility (TD)in
poultry and forApparent IlealAminoAcidDigestibility (AD) inSwine.
The samples were also assessed for invitro digestibility viaa
multienzymeassay andNIR spectrophotometry. Lysine digestibility for
both swine andpoultry was correlated with digestibility ofarginine,
threonine,methionine andtryptophan within species (P<.01)but not
correlated among species (P>.1). Themultienzyme invitromethod was
correlated withAD of lysine (P<.001)but not with TD (P>.18). NIR
calibration equations were developed fortotal lysine,AD lysine and
TD lysine. Optimum wavelengths weredifferent for each of the
calibrations developed. These data indicate the use ofNIR for
predicting digestibility of lysine forswine andpoultrymay be
feasible. However, larger sample sets willbe required to generate
calibrations with application tothe feed industry.

Introduction
Providing amino acids to an animal in aformwhich optimizes
performance is one of themajor goals of every nutritionist. It is
widely accepted that the value of feed ingredients for supplying
dietary protein isdependent upon both the content and digestibility
of their amino acids. Inorder to formulate adiet,the nutritionist
must assumethatdietary aminoacids are completely utilized ormust
adjust the amino acidminimums to allow for something less than100%
utilization. Published values fordigestibility of amino acids in
.swine andpoultry are widely available which offer an excellent
startingpoint. However,the nutritionist must still account forthe
amino aciddigestibility ineachbatch of feed ingredient which is
mixed into adiet tohave confidence that thenutrient needs of the
target animalhavebeenmet for specific productivepurposes.

A tremendous amount of research hasbeen conducted toestimate the

digestibility of amino acids in feed ingredients. Comparisons of
methodology andcompilation of averageshavebeenthe focusof these
research efforts for anumber ofyears. In swine the question of
fecalvs ilealdigestibility hasbeen reviewed (denHartog et al.
1987; Sauer, 1977). Additionally the issue of apparent vs true
digestibility has alsobeen atraditional subject ofdiscussion (Sauer
& Ozimek, 1985;Green, 1987;Sauer &De Lange, 1988). Inpoultry the
principal studies have focused upon a standardizedmethodology and
whether intact orcecectomizedcockerels offer an advantage inthe
assay (Sibbald, 1987;Parsons, 1986).

1.Present address: A.E.StaleyMfg.Co.,Decatur,IL.

2. Present address: Heartland Lysine Inc.,Chicago,IL.
3.Present address: Washington University, St.Louis,MO.
4. Present address: Continental Grain Co.,Chicago,IL.

254
 With the compilation and recent publication ofmean values for amino
aciddigestibility in swine andpoultry,the focus in research has
shifted tothe ability to rapidlypredict amino acid digestibility.
Two invivo assays were compared with each othertogether withtwo in
vitromethods to investigate the ability ofthemore rapid and less
expensive invitro assays topredict the invivo results.

Materials and Methods

Twenty samples ofbloodmealwere obtained fromcommercial feed
manufacturers and evaluated for amino aciddigestibility in poultry
and swine. The samples were selected based upon commercial
availability and encompassed theprincipal bloodmeal processing
methods currently employed inNorthAmerica. Subsamples were
evaluated forAD and TD. All feed, ileal andexcreta samples were
evaluated foramino acid content atthe Heartland Lysine laboratory in
Eddyville, Iowa.

InVivo Assays
Swine Digestibility
Eight crossbredbarrows initially weighing 40kgwere surgically
fittedwith T-cannulaeapproximately 4to 5cmanterior to the
ileocecalvalve. Following a 14day recovery period, the experiments
were initiated. Pigswerehoused in anenvironmentally controlled
room inmetabolism cages. Thepigs wereput on aseven day collection
period consisting of a four-day adjustment followedby threeday ileal
digesta collection. Diets were fed at aconstant levelbased upon
intake during the adjustment period andwerepresented twice aday at
12-hour intervals. Water was offered free choiceduring the entire
collection period. Diets were supplemented withminerals and vitamins
tomeet orexceedNRC requirements,and .25%chromic oxidewas added
as an indigestible marker. Apparent ilealdigestibility was
determinedby the classicaldifference method.

Poultry Digestibility

Eighty adultmale cockerels were cecectomized andmaintained asa

population for ingredient evaluation. Allbirds were fedthe same
basal laying ration for 14daysprior to initiation of the study and
were housed under continuous light at 24°C. Thebirds were randomly
allotted to 16treatments,each having five replicates. Sixty grams
oftestmaterial wastube fed following a 48-hour feed deprivation
period. Water wasprovided ad libitumthroughout the test period.
Excreta were collected via colostomy bags for 48hours following
feeding. A separate 48-hour collection was conducted for fasted birds
provided only water in order to assess endogenous losses. True amino
aciddigestibility was calculated asdescribed by Sibbald (1986).

InVitro Assays
Multienzyme Assay

Theprocedure used forprediction ofdigestibility wasdescribed by

Satterlee et al (1982). Tenmgnitrogen equivalent ofeach sample was
analyzed induplicate for apH drop inabuffered solution (initialpH
8.0 +/- .03)after exposure to a series ofproteolytic enzymes
(Satterlee et al.1982). Thedrop inpH after a 20-minute digestion
was corrected with a standard (sodiumcaseinate) and compared with in
vivo lysine digestibility results.

255
NIRAssay-
Approximately10gofeachsamplewasgroundinaUdyCyclonemill
andpackedintoaquartzwindowsamplecup. NIRspectrawereobtained
onanNIRSystemsModel5000spectrophotometer (PerstorpAnalytical
Herndon,VA). Spectrawererecordedaslog1/Randtransformedtothe
firstderivativeofthelog1/Rsignalforanalysis. Optimum
wavelengthsforpredictionoflysine,ADlysineandTDlysinewere
determinedbymultiplelinearregressionanalysisoffirstderivative
log1/RasdescribedbyNorrisandWilliams (1983). Dueto
insufficientsamplenumber,avalidationsetwasnotavailableto
verifyaccuracyofthecalibration. ResultsofNIRpredictionsfor
lysine,ADlysineandTDlysinearecomparisonsmadewithinthe
calibrationset.
Results and Discussion
InVivoDigestibility
Meandigestibilityfor19bloodmealsofselectedessentialamino
acidsforswineandpoultryarepresentedinTable1. Thesevalues
areinagreementwithpublishedvalues (HLI1990a,b). Apparent
digestibilityofmethionineandtryptophanwaslowerandmorevariable
thanotheraminoacids. Correlationoflysinedigestibilitywiththe
otherselectedaminoacidsispresentedinTables2&3. Lysine
digestibilitywaswellcorrelatedwithinspecies (P<.001)withthe
digestibilityofarginine,methionine,threonineandtryptophan.
However,therewasnocorrelation (P>.1) betweenobservedADvalues
forswineandTAAAvaluesforpoultry. Thisisincontrasttothe
relativelygoodcorrelationsreportedbyJackson (1989). Thedata
reportedbyJackson (1989)wascompiledacrossingredientswitha
maximumoffourobservationsforanyoneingredient. Itispossible
thatcorrelationsacrossspeciesmaydifferduetoingredient.
RegressionanalyseswereconductedcomparingADlysinewiththeother
aminoacidspresented. Thissimplemodelaccountedfor50to80%of
thevariationinthispredictionasestimatedbyR2dependinguponthe
aminoacidstudied. SimilarvalueswereobservedforTDinpoultry
withsimpleregressionofTDlysineonTDoftheotheraminoacids
accountingfor54to95%ofthevariationasassessedbythe
'coefficientofdetermination.

Table1. Digestibilityofselectedaminoacidsinbloodmealfor
swineandpoultry.

Swine AD 1 Poultry (TAAA) 2

coeff n SBM coeff n SEM

Arginine 78
78 19 19 3.3 3.3 87 15 3.4
Lysine 7676 19 19 3.5 3.5 86 14 3.1
Threonine 7373 19 19 3.6 3.6 85 15 2.7
Methionine 6868 16 16 4.4 4.4 85 15 3.6
Tryptophan 6666 11 11 4.7 4.7 86 11 2.1

* Abbreviations: Coeff=Digestioncoefficient%;n=numberof
observations;SEM=standarderrorofmean.
1
Meanoftwoobservationswithonepigperobservation. Apparent
2
IlealDigestibility.
Samplespooledacrossfivereplicatebirdsforanalyses. TrueAmino
AcidDigestibility.

256
Table 2. Correlation of swine ileal lysine digestibility with
digestibility of selected other amino acids.

Lys Arg Met Thr Trp

cc* .89 .73 .86 .83

p value .0001 .0012 .0001 .0001
n* 19 16 19 19

cc=Pearson correlation coefficients,

n = number of observations.

Table 3. Correlation ofpoultry TAAA lysine with selected other amino

acids.

Lys Arg Met Thr Trp

cc* .98 .98 96 .74/

p value .0001 .0001 0001 .01
n* 14 14 14 11

cc=Pearson correlation coefficients,

n =number of observations.

InVitro Assays
Correlation of themultienzyme assay (Satterleeet al., 1982)
withAD andTD ispresented inTable 4. The invitro assaywas well
correlated with AD forthe amino acids studied. There was avery poor
correlation between thismultienzyme assay andthe TD values for
poultry. The values reported forAD agreegenerally with those
reported inthe literature (Babinszky et al., 1987;Dierick et al.,
1985;Babinszky et al., 1990). Bellavar (1989) reported stronger AD
correlations than were observed inthis study using a similar assay on
amixedmatrix of ingredients. However,noprevious research has
accumulated asmany observations for a single ingredient thereby
removing the ingredient effect onthe assay.

NIRpredictions of theAD andTD values arepresented inTable 5.

The related statistics indicate that NIR is at least asgood asthe
multienzyme method tested inthis study. Ingeneral a preliminary
calibration onmostNIR instruments requires at least 40 samples. The
size ofthe data setused forthis calibration lends itself to
overfitting of themodelby the statistical software used forthe
calibration development. The cost ofgenerating thisnumber of samples
isprohibitive at thistime,asthe invivo assays are expensive. The
data here serve to illustrate thepotential forthistechnology tobe
applied inthe area of animalnutrition.

257
 Table 4. Correlation of in vitro pH change with digestibility of selected amino acids
for swine and poultry.

Arg Lys Met Thr Trp

Swine
cc* -.71 -.72 -.58 -.62 -.72
p value .0007 .0005 .02 .005 .0005
n* 19 19 16 19 19
Poultry
cc -.43 -.38 -.47 -.48 -.16
p value .10 .18 .08 .07 .63
n 15 14 15 15 11

cc = Pearson correlation coefficients,

n = number of observations.

Table 5. NIR prediction of AD & TD for blood meal.

Swine Poultry
Sample In Vivo NIR Residual In Vivo NIR Residual

1 93 88 5 96 100 -4
2 92 91 1 87 91 -4
3 95 93 2 48 55 -7
4 86 73 13 65 72 -7
5 95 99 -4 92 80 12
6 47 46 1 16 82 4
7 65 59 6 88 82 6
8 72 73 -1 95 100 -5
9 71 74 -3 82 79 -3
10 73 81 -8 89 92 -3
11 86 73 13 93 -82 11
12 93 87 6 82 84 -2
13 64 64 0 92 88 4
14 46 56 -10 81 85 -4
15 89 79 10 91 93 -2
16 67 80 -13
17 78 80 -2
18 64 69 -5
19 70 81 -11

.Swine: R 2 -.75, SEP-7.43, N=19 Poultry: R 2 =.77, SEP».27, N-15

Conclusions
.Thedigestibility of selected amino acids inbloodmeal for swine
andpoultry are relatedtothe lysine digestibility within species.
There appears tobe no relationship between AD and TD inblood meal.
Themultienzyme assay studied was well correlated with AD forall
amino acids studied. Thismethod offerspossibilities toward
developing a reasonably rapid assay forAD in swine although its use
appears limitedto differentiatingbetween samples which vary
substantially. Potentially it couldbe used asa screening assay for
ingredient quality rather than an accuratepredictive method.

NIR spectrophotometry hasthepotential tobe developed into a

reliablemethod forpredicting AD and TD. Calibration development is
limitedby the number of invivo assays available for scanning.. The
majorbarrier to further development ofthismethod isthe cost of
producing the invivo observations. Refinements to this data set and
accumulation of additional samples isnecessary before either method
becomes usableby the feed industry.

258
References
Babinszky, L., J.M. vanderMeer,H.Boer &L.A.denHartog. 1990.
An invitromethod forprediction of the digestible crude protein
content inpig feeds. J. Sei. Food &Agric. 50:173-178.

Babinszky, L.,H.Boer,J.H. vanderMeer,L.A. den Hartog,S.H.M.

Metz &J. Huismann. 1987. Newmulti-enzyme method forthe estimation
invitro of digestibility ofprotein inpig feeds. Nutr.Abstr.&
Rev., Series B. 58(4):#1562.

Bellaver,C. 1989. Estimation of amino aciddigestibility and its

usefulness in swine feed formulation. Ph.D.thesis. Univ. Illinois.

den Hartog, L.A., M.W.A.Verstegen &J. Huisman. 1987. Amino acid

digestibility inpigs as affectedby diet composition. Tobe
published. AgriculturalUniversity,Wageningen,TheNetherlands, pp.
1-27.

Dierick, N., I.Vervaeke, J. Decuypere &H.Hendericks. 1985.

Protein digestion inpigsmeasured invivo and invitro. Proc: 3rd
Intl. Seminar onDig.Phys. inPig. May 16-18. Copenhagen, pp.
329-332.
Green, S. 1987. New Developments inAminoAcidDigestibility.A.E.C.
Rhone-PoulencNutrition Laboratories Commentry. France.

HLI. 1990a. Apparent ilealdigestibility of crudeprotein and

essential amino acids infeedstuffs for swine. Heartland Lysine,Inc.
Table. Chicago, IL.

HLI. 1990b. Apparent ilealdigestibility of crudeprotein and

essential amino acids in feedstuffs forpoultry. Heartland Lysine,
Inc. Table. Chicago,IL.

Jackson,M.E. 1990. Concepts of amino aciddigestibility. Proc:

26thUniv.GuelphNutr.Conf.FeedManufacturers, pp.53-59.

Near-Infrared Technology inthe Agricultural and Food Industries.

1987. American Association ofCereal Chemists, Inc.,St.Paul,MN.
Parsons, C M . 1986. Determination ofdigestible and available amino
acids inmeal using conventional and caecectomized cockerels or chick
growth assays. Br.J. Nutr. 56:227.

Sauer,W.C. 1977. Amino acid availabilities in feedstuffs determined

by the ilealand fecal analysismethod: A review. Univ.Alberta,
Edmonton,Alberta,Canada.

Sauer,W.C.SK.de Lange. 1988. Evaluation ofmethods for

determining protein and amino aciddigestibilities in feedstuffs for
pigs. Univ.Alberta,Edmonton,Alberta,Canada, pp. 1-55.

Sauer,W.C.SL.Ozimek. 1985. The digestibility of amino acids in

studies with swine andpoultry. AjinomotoCo.,Inc.,Japan.
Sibbald, I.R. 1986. The T.M.E. System of Feed Evaluation:
Methodology,FeedCompositionData andBibliography. Agriculture
Canada Technical Bulletin 1986-4E.

Williams,P.C., K.R. Preston,K.H.Norris SP.M. Starkey. 1984.

Determination of amino acids inwheat andbarleyby near-infrared
reflectance spectroscopy. J. Food Science 49: 17-20.

259
 NEAR INFRARED REFLECTANCE (NIR) SPECTROSCOPY TO
ESTIMATE THE APPARENT ILEAL DIGESTIBILITY OF
PROTEIN IN FEEDSTUFFS
P van Leeuwen 1) M.W.A.Verstegen ,2) 3)van
,H.J.vanLonkhuijsen',G.J.M.
Kempen 1)

^TNO-InstituteforAnimal NutritionandPhysiology (ILOB),P.O.Box 15,

6700AAWagenigen,The Netherlands.
2)
'Departmentfor Animal Nutrition,Agricultural University,Haagsteeg4,
6708PMWagenigen,The Netherlands.
^BiochemicalandPhysical Chemistry Department,TNO Biotechnology and
Chemistry Institute,P.O.Box360,3700AJ Zeist,The Netherlands.

Abstract
In present study the applicability of NIR analyses for ileal
digestibilityinfeedstuffswasevaluated.AcalibrationoftheNIRwas
made based on a wide variety of feedstuffs in which the ileal
digestibility had been determined in the.classical way by chyme
collection.
WithanInfrAlyser400theabsorbanceat19differentwavelengths was
determined. The calibration developed for digestibility contained7
wavelengths, 1759nm, 1772nm, 1818nm,2139nm,2180nm,2310 nm, and
2336 nm, respectively. The correlation coefficient (R)andresidual
standard deviation afterregressionofinvivoonabsorption at the7
different wavelengths were 0.90 and 4.3 units of digestibility
respectively.

Introduction
*- Thenutritional valueofprotein from feedstuffs depends on, among
other, the amount ofamino acids thatisdigestedandabsorbed inthe
small intestine (Zebrowska.,1973;Dierick et aJL, 1987). For that
reason the apparent ileal digestibilityisanimportant parameterto
evaluatethenutritional valuefor protein in feedstuffs. Classical
determinations of the digestibilityareexpensiveandtimeconsuming.
They require largeamountsoffeedandinvolve considerable expenditure
of equipment and workers (Sauer et al.., 1989).Thedevelopmentof
alternative techniques thereforeisacurrent topicofresearch.
An alternative to the classical digestibility experiments isthe
Mobile NylonBagTechnique (MNBT) (Sauer et al.. 1989). With this
technique itispossibletopredictthefaecal digestibilityofprotein
infeedstuffs.Thistechniquehasbeen altered to measure the ileal
digestibilityofprotein (vanLeeuwenetal..1990).
Recentreports indicatethatalsotheNear Infrared reflectance (NIR)
analyses may be an alternative for measurement of the ileal
digestibilityofprotein (Maes,I.,1990;Personal communication ,Gives
et al_., 1990). Theobjectiveofthepresent studywastoevaluatethe
applicabilityofNIRanalysesforileal digestibilityinfeedstuffs. In
a pilot studyacalibrationofNIRwasmade basedonawide varietyof
feedstuffs. The ileal digestibility of these feedstuffs had been
determined intheclassicalwaybychymecollection.

260

...
Materialsand Methods
a PrincipleofNIR analysis
Infeed industry the NIR spectroscopy is a rapid technique for
analysing contents of nutrients in feedstuffs (van Lonkhuijsenand
Jansen, 1987).Theprincipleofthetechnique is that compounds with
similar chemical groupings absorb IR radiation at characteristic
wavelengths.Thisiscausedbyabsorptionofenergyinfixed amounts by
a moleculeatthenatural vibration frequenciesofoscillating chemical
bonds between atomsinthemolecule.Thefrequencyorwavelengthofthis
vibration is characteristic forthenatureandtheenvironmentofthe
chemical bond which is vibrating. There are a number of possible
vibrations of chemical groupings andeachofthesewill have itsown
characteristic frequency.This givesaspecificIRabsorbtion asa kind
of fingerprintforthat grouping.IntheNIRspectrum additional weaker
absorption bands called overtonesoccur.

Corn gluten meal—.

1100 Wavelength ,nm 2500

Figure1.NIRreflectance spectraofsomenutrients andwater froma

feedstuff (Osborne, 1985).
In Figure 1 the NIR spectraofwaterandsome nutrients fromacorn
gluten feedaregiven.Each nutrientwill have characteristic bands but
there is overlap in bands (Figure1)between nutrients.This overlap
indicates thatthewhole spectrumisimportant and the idendification
and quantification requires calibration ofanunknown sample against
sampleswithaknown composition. (OsborneandFearn, 1985,1986).
Complex parameters like digestibility are regressed on multiple
absorbtion wavelengths.Theserelations however have to be known and
quantified as a kind of calibration. This isbasedonareference
technique,which inthis studyistheclassical determination.For this
calibration, the choice of samplesiscrucial.Thecalibration curve
shouldbemadeofgood representativesofaclassoffeedstuffstowhich
both the classical ileal determinationandtheNIRanalyses have been
made. Then routine measurements withNIRcanbemadeforsamples falling
in the same catagory of feedstuffs as the series withwhichthe
reference linehasbeenmade.

261
 b Procedure of NIR analysis and NIR apparatus
The samples were ground with acyclomill (Retsch) through a 1.0 mm
mesh screen. The grinded samples were homogenized and loaded intoa
sample cup.The sample cupwas placed on adrawer of theNIR instrument.
Closing the drawer starts theprocess inwhich the instrument analyses
the sample using near infrared radiation. The reflected radiation is
captured by a detector, amplified and converted bythe instruments
microprocessor. A calibration isperformed with asample set consisting
of a wide variety of samples from feedstuffs of which the ileal
digestibility already isdetermined intheclassical way.
With a standard InfrAlyser 400 (Bran +Luebbe,Hamburg,Germany)the
reflectance at 19 wavelengths in range of 1200 to 2400 nm were
registered. With the software package acalibration was made using the
"best set"method.

c Samples for calibration

The calibration set consisted of45 samples of different feedstuffs.
In the setwere grains,byproducts from grains,legume seeds,residues
after solvent extraction, proteins from animal origin and alfalfa meal
(Table 1 ) . Samples of maize gluten feed were not included inthis
calibration.
The apparent ileal digestibilitiesof protein from thefeedstuffs low
inprotein (<12%)were determined directly. The apparent digestibility
of the other feedstuffs were determined with thedifference method as
described by van Leeuwen et.al (1987). The in vivo experiments were
carried out with castrated male pigsfrom theDutch Landrace x Great
Yorkshire breed. The apparent digestibility of each feedstuff was
determined with four animalswith an initial liveweight of40kg.

ResultsandDiscussion
"Digestibility is a complex parameter, influenced by different
'"*• 'components.Consequently different wavelengths (filters)will be related
to digestibility. Therefore the calibration of the digestibilitywas
carried outwith 19filters,ofwhich eventually 7were chosen by the
calibration software.
The calibration developed fordigestibilitycontains 7filters (figure
2, F02=1759 nm,F04= 1772nm,F09= 1818nm,F10= 2139 nm,F12= 2180 nm,
F15= 2310 nm and F18= 2336 nm).This combination was assumed tobe
acceptable for acomplex parameter. Thecorrelation coefficient (R) and
residual standard deviation were 0.90 and 4.3 units of digestibility
respectively. These parameters indicatethat NIR can be used as an
indicative tool for the prediction of digestibility.
In Table 1 and Figure 2 the deviations between the apparent
digestibility coefficients of crude protein(%) determined in in vivo
experimentsand theapparent digestibilitycoefficients of crude protein
(%) predicted byNIR are given.
The45feedstuffs were divided in six groups:grains (I), byproducts
from grains (II),legume seeds (III), residues from solvent extraction
(IV)and proteins from animal origin (V)and one sample of acrude fibre
rich product (VI).Themean digestibility values ofthedifferent groups
offeedstuffs were nearly identical.Within the groups the results have
been compared by useof therank correlation test described by Spearman
(deJonge, 1963). The rank correlation of the predicted digestibilities
262
Table 1. Samples of the feedstuffs used for the calibration.

Batch. DC-CP(%) DC-CP (%) Deviation

No. determined by prec icted by in vivo
m VIVO NIR minus
experiments (cal ibration) NIR
(a (b) (a-b)
Grains (I)and byproducts from grains(II),
Maize 1 70 69 1
2 60 71 -11
3 70 66 4
4 70 74 -4
5 65 66 -1
6 68 67 1
Barley 1 77 74 3
Mean DC-CP grains I) 69 70
Byproducts from 1 89 81 8
wheat 2 80 76 4
3 77 73 4
4 73 73 0
Byproducts from 1 71 71 0
maize 2 61 69 -8
3 71 65 6
Mean DC-CP grain byproducts (II 75 73
Legume seeds (III)
Vicia faba 1 73 73 0
beans 2 74 75 -1
3 85 78 7
4 69 73 -4
Peas 1 74 76 -2
2 72 76 -4
3 72 76 -4
4 76 74 2
5 70 70 0
6 76 73 3
Lupins 1 82 85 -3
Mean DC-CP legume seeds (III) 75 75
Residues after solvent extraction (IV),
Soyabeanmeal 1 43 52 -9
2 80 81 -1
3 77 74 3
4 75 81 -6
5 83 79 4
6 77 81 -4
7 71 74 -3
Sunflower meal 1 76 71 5
2 74 71 3
Rice bran 1 57 64 -7
Rape seed 1 74 73 1
Coconut meal 1 50 49 1
Mean DC-CP residues after
solvent extraction (IV) 70 71
Proteins from animal orig n (V)

Meat and 1 73 71 2
bone meal 2 70 80 -10
3 74 75 -1
Fish meal 1 76 70 6
2 82 74 8
Feather meal 1 57 60 -3
Caséine 1 97 93 4
Mean DC-CP proteins from
animal origin (V) 76 75
Crude fibre rich products (VI)
Alfalfa meal 1 47 45 2

DC-CP =Apparent ileal digestibility coefficients of crude protein.

263
r
m
en CORRELATION 0.9019
RESID. S.D. 4.3193
7 Predictor Var:'

a= regression coefficients on wavelengths

F00 109.854
F02 2011.490
F04 -1941.269
F09 -1B44.642
F10 11SB.829
F12 -4798.932
o. FIS 7201.861
FIS -2112.533
O
i
o
-a
0)
+->
o
-a
<u
s-
a_

in

45 Determined DC-CP (%) 95

Figure 2.Relation between predicted (yaxis)and determined (x axis)

apparent ileal digestibility of crude protein (DC-CP).The
predicted valuehasbeen calculated usingthe formula:
y=al*Foo+a2*F02+ a8*F18;
withFOO = 1; F02 F18= refectances at different
wavelengths.
al....a8=regression coefficientsonwavelengths

and the digestibilities frominvivoexperimentsofthegroups II, III

andIVshowedahigh value (P<0.05).Theresultfor the prediction of
the digestibility ofthesampleofgroupVIwassimilartotheinvivo
•determined digestibility.
The deviation in digestibility of one samplefrom groupIwas11
percent unitswhich resulted indifferences in the ranking. Also in
group V the ranking differed becauseofsome valueswith considerable
deviations.Inthese groupsthecorrelationoftheNIR results andin
vivomeasured digestibilitywerenotveryhigh.
Itisunclear whatthereasonisforthelarge deviationsofafewof
the samples. Therearehowever some general remarkswhichcanbemade.
Firstly thewavelengthsofthefilterswere chosenforsingle parameters
like protein, fat and starch. These may be altered for future
determination. Digestibilityisaparameterwhich is affected by many
factorsandthe optimal wavelength mightnotbepresentinthefilterset
chosen. Secondly, alsotheclassical methodhassome sourcesoferrors.

References
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Henderikx, (1987). Correlation between ileal andfaecal digested
proteinandorganic matter to production performances in growing
pigs. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Protein
MetabolismandNutrition,Rostock, DDR.

264
De Jonge, H. (1963). Derangcorrelatietoetsvan Spearman. In: Inleiding
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Industry,Kolding, Denmark.
Osborne,B.G. and T. Fearn, (1985) Applications of near infrared
spectroscopy infood analysis. In:Near infrared spectroscopy infood
analysis.Longman Scientific&Technical,Copublished by John Wiley &
Sons. Inc.,NewYork,United States,117-161.
Osborne, B.G. (1985). Changing face offood analyses.Baking Today, May
1985.
Sauer,W.C.L.A. den Hartog,J. Huisman,P. van Leeuwen,C.F.M,deLange,
(1989). The evaluation of the mobile nylon bag technique for
determining the apparent protein digestibility inawide variety of
feedstuffs for pigs. J. Anim. Sei. 67,432-440.
Van Leeuwen, P.,W.C. Sauer,J. Huisman, E.J. van Weerden, D.J. van
Kleef, L.A. den Hartog, (1987). Methodological aspects for the
determination of amino acid digestibilities in pigs fitted with
ileocecal re-entrant cannulas.J.Anim. Physiol,a.Anim. Nutr.58,
122-133.
Van Leeuwen, P., K. Deuring,M.W.A. Verstegen, (1990).Actual results
with PVTC cannulated pigs.Proceedings ofTagung Methodische Probleme
und Ergebnisse bei der Bewertung von Futtermitteln zur
leistungsgerechten Bedarfsdeckung bei Schwein und Geflügel, Leipzig,
BDR, Inpress.
Van Lonkhuijsen, H.J., H.D. Jansen, (1987). Snelle Weende-analyse van
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90, 1505-1515.
Zebrowska, T. (1973). Digestion and absorption of nitrogenous compounds
inthe large intestine of pigs.Roczn.Nauk.Roln. B-95,85-90.

265
COMPARATIVE RESULTSABOUTAMINOACID EFFICIENCY
ESTIMATION BYDIFFERENT METHODSINPIGS
IV i>
F. L i e b e r t , 0 . Tossenberger ' , Z . Henics ' and
G. Gebhardt

Division ofAnimal Nutrition Physiologie and Feed Science,

Faculty ofAgriculture,University ofLeipzig,Germany
i\
'Division ofAnimal Nutrition and Feed Science,
Faculty ofAnimal Production,Kapo9vSr,Hungary

Abstract
Comparative investigations with barley,wheat (2charges)
and soybean meal todetermine "lysine quality" by different
methods (N-balance trial,mobile nylon bag technique on
faecal and ileal level,ileorectostomized pigs)have shown
possibilities tousemore time-sparing MNBT forlysine qua-
lityevaluation.More investigations are necessary for final
conclusions.But all methods have tobe proved in thearea
of practical application.

Introduction
In the field ofastepwise higher level tomeet amino acid
requirements fordifferent performances inpigsmore infor-
mations are necessary about thevalue ofmost important
feeds tomeet this requirements esp.forlysine,methionine/
cystine, threonine and tryptophane.
Methodical developments in the last years show the follow-
ing main directions inanimal studies for this aim:
1.Absorption studies on praecaecal (orileal)levelwith
resp.without inclusion ofendogenous losses (p.e.Var-
nish &Carpenter 1971;Taverneret al* 1981;Buraczewska
et al.1985)
2. Utilization studies following "slope ratiomethod"(Var-
nish &Carpenter 1975;Batterham 1985;Satoet al. 1987)
3.Utilization studies following physiological based model
ofN-utilization (p.e.Liebert &.Gebhardt 1988)
Generelly these methods are time consuming,expensive,more
or less useful forpractical application and include diffe-
rent steps of utilization process (absorption resp.utili-
zation).Beside intensive methodical clearing aspects of
application become more and more interesting.Nev;develop-
ment in the field of time and costsparing insacco methods
could be successful if their results showsignificant cor-
relations with accepted invivomethods and canbe verified
inapplication experiments.First results of collaborative
work will be discussed.

266
Materialsand Methods
Based on the actual step of aminoacid efficiency estima-
tion for pigs (Liebert et al. 1990)we selected representa-
tive charges of important feeds inpig feeding to compare
the results of aminoacid quality evaluation by
A: N-balance trial,female pigs 30-50kg liveweight;
model forN-utilization based onexponential function
and inconnection with utilization of limiting amino
acid
B: Mobile nylon bag technique (MNBT)with invivopredi-
gestion and bag collection in faeces,35-60kg live
weight (simpleT-cannula in the duodenum)
C:Mobile nylon bag technique (MNBT)with invivopredi-
gestion and bag collection at theend of ileum,35- 60
kg liveweight (simple T-cannula in theduodenum and
PVTC-cannula (Van Leeuwen et al.1988)
Predigestion forMNBTwas realized with gastric cannulated
pigs.
Prefeeding: conventional mixed feed (standard) <-
Time of incubation:2,5 h
Number ofbags per incubation:10
Bag material:25x40mm,Nytex-mononylon,50micron
Bag content:1g
Immediately after incubation 2 bagswere given into duo-
denal cannula at the same time (the following ina distance
of 1 hour).After appearance in faeces (18...48hours)resp.
PVTC-cannula (3...5 hours)bagswere carefully washed with
destilled water and dried (60"C).We used 3animals per feed
(8-10bags per animal).Bag contents ofone animalwere
collected forN-analysis.The mixed sample from 3 animals
served foraminoacid analysis including Diaminopimelicacid
(DAP). Based onDAP-content the quantity of bacterialnitro-
genwas calculated and used forcorrection ofAA-absorption
(AA content of bacterial protein was taken from Poppe &
Meier 1983).

ResultsandDiscussion
Results of our first investigations are summarized in
table 1.Well known is thehigher level of lysine absorp-
tionmeasured via faeces.More real dates forlysineevalu-
ation, incomparison tobalance method invivo,were calcu-
lated forMNBT on ileal level,resp.on corrected ilealle-
vel. It's important tonote asurprising agreement between
N-balance trial andMNBT on ileal levelwithout correction
forbacterial lysine excretion in the case of barley and
wheat 1.On the otherhand there's no clear explantation
fordisagreement withwheat 2.Soybean meal also shows
remarkable differences between evaluation methods.

267
Table 1*Comparative results about lysineevaluation in
selected feeds forpigs.

Barley Wheat 1 Wheat 2 Soy-

("Borwina 88") ("Miras88") ("Zombor") bean-
meal,
extr.
Lysine efficiency. % 89,0 84,0 94,0 83,0
Lysine absorption. %
-MNBT (faeces)
corrected 99,5 98,5 - 98,4
- MNBT (ileum) 89,0 83,2 82,1 91,5
- MNBT (ileum)
corrected 92,5 90,5 88,8 94,4
- praecaecal (IRA) ™ 70,2 •• —

Lysine content
(g/16g N)
- brutto 3,06 2,32 2,55 6,80
- effective
(N-balance) 2,72 1,95 2,40 5,64
- absorbable
(MNBT ileum 2,72 1,93 2,09 6,22

A simple explanation therefore is the principal limitation

of nylon bag technique in the field of real reflection of
antinutritional factors invery small quantities of feed
samples.From this point ofview the results betweenN-ba-
lance trial and insacco method in the case ofsoybean meal
are not directly comparable.Forwheat 1wealso estimated
apparent lysine absorption with 3 ileorectostomized female
pigs on ileal level.This result leeds to remarkable lower
quality evaluation forlysine inwheat.
At least we need datesabout effective resp.absorbable
amino acid contents in feed proteins.Also in table 1we
calculated such values,based onestimation of lysine effi-
ciency (N-balance trial)resp.lysine absorption (MNBT ile-
um). We found surprising agreement between these methods
forbarley and wheat 1,like discussed above.On the other
hand we have found a range between 1,95...2,60g/16 gN
effective lysine in16different charges ofwheat and also
ourcalculation based onMNBT (ileum)iswithin this range.
We left this range forwheat 1bycorrection with apparent
praecaecal lysine absorption of ileorectostomized pigs
(1,63g/16 gN ) .
Our resultsunderline theessentiality ofmore comparative
investigations in the field ofamino acid quality evaluation
for pigs and toexamine these results in the area ofpracti-
calapplication.

268
References
Batterham,E.S.,1985«Froc.3.Int.Sem.Dig.
Physiol,inthePig,Copenhagen:318
Buraczewska,L.,2.SchulzH.Schroder,1985.
Proc.3.Int.Sem.Dig.Physiol,inthePig,Copen-
hagen:321
Leeuwen,P.van,J.Huisman,M.W.A.Verstegen,M.J.
Baak,D.J.vanKleef, ïï.
J.vanY/eerden,L.A.den
fiartog,1988.Proc,4.Int.Sem.Dig.Physiol,in
thePig,Jablonna:8
Liebert,P.G.Gebhardt,1988.
Arch.Anim.Nutr.38:4-53-462
Liebert,F.,Ch.Wecke,F.ReinischG.Gebhardt,1990.
Arch.Anim.Nutr.40:inpress
Poppe,S.H.Meier,1983.Arch.Tierernährung 33:151
Sato,H.,T.Kobayashi,R.W.JonesR.A.Easter,
1987-J.Anim.Sei.64:191
Taverner,M.R.,I.D.HumeD.J.Farrell,1981.
Brit..':.Nutr.46:159
Varnish,S.A.K.J.Carpenter,1971.Proc.Nutr.Soc.
70-71A
'/arnish,S.A.K.J.Carpenter,1975«Brit.J.Nutr.
34:325

269
SESSION 4
Methodologies for the measurement of digestion
METHODOLOGIESFORTHEMEASUREMENTOFDIGESTION

M.F.Fuller

Rowett Research Institute, Bucksburn, Aberdeen AB29SB, Scotland

Abstract
Digestion is achieved by the actions of enzymes, some of which are secreted by the pig
and others by theresident microflora. Since the utility to the animal of the end products
is very different in thetwocases,methodologies for themeasurement of digestion require
that these processes be distinguished. This is normally assumed to be achieved by
measuring the flow of nutrients from the ileum. Techniques which have been developed
for this purpose include various types of simple and reentrant cannulas and ileorectal
anastomosis. Comparisons amongst these are presented, revealing, in some cases,
important differences. The influence of microbial activity in the upper digestive tract on
measured ileal digestibility is then discussed. Other approaches, the measurement of
disappearance in sacco, of portal uptake and of utilisation by slope ratio assay are also
described and some potential problems considered. Finally, the need to distinguish
between apparent and true digestibility and some of the difficulties of doing so are
discussed.

Introduction
There are few methodologies for the measurement of digestion alone; indeed, digestion
by itself, the chemical breakdown of food constituents to simpler substances, is of less
interest to nutritionists than the sum of the sequential processes of digestion and
absorption. It is with these combined processes that this review will be concerned.
Before discussing available methodologies for the measurement of digestion and
absorption it is important to examine the nature of these processes and consider the
question of what information is required. Traditionally, 'digestibility' meant simply the
proportion of any substance ingested which was not excreted in the faeces. Recognition
that not only the total extent of breakdown and absorption but also the nature of the end
products is important to the nutritive value of the food led to a need for a more detailed
description of events in the gastrointestinal tract. The aim of this review is therefore to
examine what is known of the nature and site of digestive activities within the
gastrointestinal tractof thepig andassessthesuitability of availablemethodologies for the
measurement of digestion and absorption in the light of this understanding.

Components and sites of digestion

Digestion and absorption are both complex processes. Digestion is concerned with the
breakdown of a multiplicity of food constituents but this review will concentrate on just
twoclasses,proteins and carbohydrates. The breakdown of theseresults in therelease of
awiderangeof simpler substances the absorption of which involves anumberof different

273
transport systems.
The breakdown of food constituents occurs by both enzymatic and non-enzymatic
cleavage but it is the the enzymatic processes which determine the'ultimate extent of
hydrolysis of anyconstituent. Enzymes inthedigestive tract areproduced bothbythehost
animal itself and by its resident microflora. The ranges of activity include common
elements but the microflora, acting singly or in concert, express important activities not
possessed by the host and produce a different range of end products.
Extensive descriptions ofprotein andcarbohydrate digestion bypigs havebeen published
recently by Low & Zebrowska (1989) and Longland (1991).

Animal enzymes

The complement of enzymes secreted by the pig, in saliva, from thepancreas and from
the mucosae of the stomach and small intestine include amylases, disaccharidases, lipase
and phospholipases and a series of endo- and exo-peptidases with a range of amino acid
specificities. Quantitatively the major end-products of these enzyme activities are the
amino acids, small peptides, simple sugars, monoglycerides and fatty acids that are
absorbed intoportal blood and lymph and which are theprimary nutrients for the animal.

Bacterial enzymes

Bacteria thrivein theintestinethrough successful competition with theirhost.Inthisthey

have twoprinciple advantages. First, by lying within the lumen they have the possibility
of utilising food constituents before they can be absorbed by the host. Second, they
express arangeof enzyme activities notpossessed by higher animals and are thereby able
to use food materials which would otherwise be voided unchanged. This applies
particularly to plant materials with their variety of oligosaccharides and cell wall
polysaccharides. The end products of the bacterial degradation of these materials are
organicacids,lactateandvolatilefatty acids,andmicrobialbiomass.Thenitrogenrequired
for microbial growth is derived eitherfrom thedietorfrom the secretions of thehost.The
bacterial breakdown ofcellwallsnotonlyprovidesthebacteriawithcarbohydrate andwith
the protein from the middle lamella but also releases from the cell a range of simpler
carbohydrates andnitrogenoussubstanceswhich,although susceptibletohostenzymes,are
probablyrarely availabletothehostbecauseof theprior intervention of thebacteria.Even
so, the resistance of cell walls todegradation during transit of the non-ruminant digestive
tract may be such that some escape entirely (Bach Knudsen & Eggum, 1984)
The end products of microbial digestion are inherently less useful to the host than the
products of thehost's ownenzymic activity.Thus,proteins degraded inthe large intestine
contribute little, if at all, to the amino acid requirements of the pig (Zebrowska, 1973;
1975; Just et al., 1981a). Similarly, although the colon is capable of transporting amino
acids (Smith &James, 1976;James &Smith, 1976;Olszewski &Buraczewski, 1978),the
infusion of lysine into thecolon of apig given alysine-deficient dietdid not significantly
improveitsrateof nitrogenretention (Wünsche etal.,1984).Despite these demonstrations
of the nutritional inutility of protein or amino acids reaching the large intestine there are
suggestions to the contrary (e.g. Millward et al, 1989). Such suggestions are based on
labelling studies which show that infusion of 15N-labelled ammonium salts results in the
15
N-labellingof aminoacidsinthebody (Tanakaetal.,1980).Inmostcases such labelling
can be explained equally well by the uptake of ammonia, its incorporation into
transferrable amino- groups which are then distributed by transamination to most other

274
amino acids. The expected exceptions are lysine and threonine, which have been shown
not totransaminate. Thefindingthat, following administration of 15N-labelled ammonium
salts,thelabel appearedinlysine andthreonine (Deguchi &Namioka, 1989) suggests that
this incorporation must indeed have been brought about by the gut microflora. However,
even more surprising was thedemonstration of labelling in these amino acids after giving
15
N-labelledammonium saltstogerm-free pigs(Deguchietal.,1978;Deguchi&Namioka,
1989). The physiological significance of these results is not clear; indeed, there is no
obvious explanation astohow they couldhave arisen. Calculations based on theextentof
labelling andtheprobable aminoacidflux suggestthatitcouldaccountfor 3-5%of amino
acid supply.

Distinguishing host and microbial digestion

Recognition that, especially for the proper measurement of amino acid digestibility but
also for carbohydrate digestibility, digestion in the large intestine must be excluded, led
to the development of methodologies to intercept digesta before they reach the caecum.
Several approaches have ben devised for separating these components of digestion. The
earliest (Payne et al., 1968), which is still used where it is more appropriate than any
alternative, involved simply the slaughter of the animal and removal of digesta from a
distal portion of the ileum. Because the transit of digesta along the small intestine is
intermittenttheterminalileum may,atanyonetime,containonly smallamountsofdigesta
and, especially with small animals such asrats and chicks, which are often used for such
assays, it may be necessary to pool digesta from several animals to have enough for
analysis. Since this not allow any assessment of variation between animals it is important
toreplicate the group observations.
At death, there is rapid shedding of mucosal cells into the gut lumen (Badawy et al.,
1957; 1958; Fell, 1961) which would create an artefact in the determination of the
composition of ileal digesta; to avoid this possibility the digesta must be sampled whilst
the animal is under terminal anaesthesia.
The need to slaughter animals makes this approach expensive when applied topigs and
other large species.Furthermore, the fact that only one observation can be made with any
one animal means that individual animal variation cannot be taken into account in the
statistical analysis of results, for which replicated observations in the same animal would
be greatly preferable. For these reasons various techniques have been developed to allow
digesta to be obtained repeatedly from the same animal.
The simplest technique for obtaining digesta continuously is by the use of a T-cannula
permanently implanted in the ileum (Cunningham et al., 1963). Such cannulas are well
toleratedfor longperiods,generallylimitedonly bythe animal's outgrowing them. Simple
T-cannulas rely on natural forces to divide the flow, one part continuing along the
intestine,theotherdivertedthrough thecannula.Theassumption ismadethatthisprovides
a perfectly representative sample of the total flow; that the division of the flow does not
involveanyfractionation ofcomponents.Thisassumption isnotoften rigorously examined
and may be an important source of error, especially with high-fibre diets. It is a matter
of common observation that the stem of a cannula can become blocked with fibrous
material thatisclearlynot representativeof thetotal flow. Afurther assumption is thatthe
marker flows in constant proportion tothe nutrient of interest and this assumption, too,is
rarely tested. The use of markers will not be reviewed here (see e.g. Uden et al., 1980)
but, in any event, it is important that digesta are collected for a sufficient period to be
representative of the daily average flow.

275
 The use of markers is obviated by collection of the entire ileal digesta flow which can
beachieved bytheuseofre-entrantcannulas (Easter&Tanksley, 1973).The conventional
re-entrant cannula has two disadvantages. First, it requires complete'transection of the
smallintestine,interrupting thetransmission of thenormal migratingmyoelectric complex
which is necessary for normal digesta passage. Second, the dead space of the cannula,
when connected in the re-entrant mode, is such that blockage is a common occurrence
with all except finely ground diets. This precludes the examination of many normal feed
ingredients without regrinding, which can be self-defeating.
These problems were overcome to some extent by the introduction of the technique of
ileo-caecal re-entrant cannulation introduced by Darcy et al.(1980). In this approach the
caecum is resected to accomodate theproximal (sampling) cannula which is thus situated
immediately distal to the ileo-caecaljunction. Although, in this technique, the integrity of
the small intestine is maintained, the surgery is inherently more traumatic than with a
simple T-cannula,with ablation of the caecum, the re-entrant cannula beingplaced in the
proximal colon.Unlike a conventional re-entrant cannula, there is noconnection between
thetwoparts,digestabeingcollectedcontinuouslyfrom theproximalcannulaandreturned
intermittently through the distal one.Even with this technique, however, there have been
problems with coarsely ground or fibrous diets which cause blockage of the proximal
cannula.
In an attempt to avoid such problems we have experimented with a one-piece post-
valvular ileo-caecal re-entrant cannula (A.P. Drake & M.F. Fuller, unpublished). The
cannula was designed on the sameprinciple asthat described by Ivan (1974) but of larger
diameter, approximately 3cm, and with an overall length of 9cm. After the pigs had
recovered from surgery the cannulas were evaluated by giving diets with added chromic
oxide to some pigs,returning unmarked digesta from otherpigs to the caecum. We failed
to recover all the dietary chromium in the digesta; on the contrary, chromium was found
in the faeces showing that some digesta had bypassed the cannula. At post mortem
examination it was evident that a sac had formed round the cannula allowing digesta to
move from the ileum into the colon without passing through the cannula. It seems that
only by providing separate fistulas through the body wall for the ileal and caeco-colic
cannulas can these adaptations of the gut tissue be avoided.
Van Leeuwen etal. (1988) and den Hartog etal.(1988) have proposed a solution to the
problems of re-entrant cannulas by the use of a 'postvalvular T-caecum cannula', using a
simple cannula in the caecum which can be opposed to the ileo-caecal valve allowing
digesta to be collected as they leave the ileum.
To avoid the use of any cannula but yet to be able to take numerous samples from the
same animal, Livingstone and I (1982) explored the use of ileo-rectal anastomosis. Our
first animals had a simple end-to-side anastomosis of the terminal ileum to the rectum,
allowingresidual contents of thecolon tobeevacuated alongwith digesta from theileum.
On post mortem examination after some weeks it was evident that, although there was
extensive atrophy of the large intestine there was reflux of ileal digesta into the distal
colon. Picard et al. (1984) modified our technique by isolating the large intestine
completely but providing a cannula in the distal colon for the evacuation of residual
digesta and gases. We adopted this modification in our later work as did Green et al.
(1987a) and Laplace et al. (1989).
Ablation of the caeca in poultry has long been used similarly to minimise the
fermentative component of digestion in these species (Payne et al., 1971).

276
Comparisons of methodologies.

Since the development of several alternative methodologies for the measurement of

precaecal digestion many measurements of ileal digestibility have been made and tables
of digestible aminoacids,for example,compiled (e.g.,Heartland Lysine, 1988).Although
these tables are an important tool for practical diet formulation it is important to enquire
whether results obtained by the different methods are compatible. The first question
perhaps concerns the normality of cannulated animals.
Livingstone & McWilliam (1985) found that pigs with simple cannulas had a similar
voluntary food intake to unmodified controls but grew approximately 7% slower,
suggesting that thepresence of a simplecannulahadonly some slight effect on nutritional
performance. J<)>rgensen et al. (1985) reported that cannulated pigs, whilst growing at a
similarrate tointact animals,digested the dry matter, nitrogen and lysinein most diets to
a greater extent than controls. Moughan & Smith (1987) compared slaughter and T-
cannulas and found no difference. In comparisons between simple and re-entrant
cannulation Zebrowska et al. (1977) found some significant differences but with no
consistent pattern. Taverner et al. (1983) compared simple and re-entrant cannulas with
threediets andfound nosignificant differences inthedigestibilities of drymatter, nitrogen
or amino acids (Table 1).
Darcy-Vrillon & Laplace (1985) compared ileorectal anastomosis and / ileocolic
postvalvular re-entrant cannulation (ICPV). Their results are shown in Table 2.

Table 1. Comparison of estimates made with simple or re-entrant cannulas of the

digestibility of dry matter, nitrogen and amino acids in wheat, lupin and meat-and-bone
meals by pigs. Results of Taverner etal (1983).

cannula re-entrant simple s.d.

Dry matter 0.706 0.688 0.0210
Nitrogen 0.794 0.800 0.0204
Amino acids (average)
apparent 0.809 0.816 0.0517
true 0.855 0.862 0.0475

Table 2. Comparison of post-valvular ileo-colic re-entrant cannulas and ileo-rectal

anastomosis inestimatingthedigestibility of drymatter, nitrogen andthe sum of 17amino
acids (EAA)in a standard compound diet (C) and in diets with 45%wheat bran (WB) or
32% sugarbeetpulp (SBP) addedtoapurified diet.Differences marked *were significant
(p<0.05). Data of Darcy-Vrillon &Laplace (1985).

Diet Ç WB SBP

Technique IRA ICPV IRA ICPV IRA ICPV

Dry matter 0.60 0.63 0.62 0.76* 0.68 0.81*

Nitrogen 0.70 0.67 0.78 0.82 0.74 0.87*
IAA 0.76 0.75 0.84 0.88 0.81 0.90*

277
 In a comparison of several methods invoving pigs, rats and chickens (MF.Fuller,
B.Darcy-Vrillon, J.-P.Laplace,M.Picard,A.Cadenhead,M.Jung,D.Brown &M.F.Franklin
in preparation) three isonitrogenous diets were used, one with barley as the sole protein
source, one with milk and one with an isonitrogenous mixture of the two. The methods
compared were: 1 (IRAI) ileorectal anastomoses with pigs (Laplace et al., 1989) 2-5
weeks after surgery; 2(IRA2) thesamepigs whenthey weighed 80kg;3(T-C)T-cannulas
with pigs of ca. 100kg; 4 (C-) caecectomised cockerels (Green et al., 1987b; McNab &
Fisher, 1981); 5(ICPV)postvalvular ileo-coliccannulation (Darcy etal, 1980);6 (IRA3)
ileorectal anastomoses with pigs (Laplace et al., 1989) 2-5 weeks after surgery; 7 (R-)
ileorectal anastomoses with rats (M. Picard, unpublished). The work was done at three
centres,theRowettInstitute (methods 1-3), CentreNationaledeRecheches Zootechniques,
Jouy-en-Josas (methods 5 & 6) and Alimentation Equilibrée Commentry (methods 4 and
7).

There were considerable differences between results with different techniques and with
different species, but the differences between results obtained in different trials using the
same technique were equally great, suggesting that the variation between trials is of as
much concern as the variation between methodologies or species. A summary of these
results is given in Table 3.

Table 3.Apparent and true digestibilities, averaged over nitrogen and all amino acids, in
seven trials with three diets, based on barley (B), dried skimmed milk (M) and an
isonitrogenous mixture of thetwo (BM).For details of themethods compared see the text
above.DataofM.F.Fuller,B.Darcy-Vrillon,P.-P.Laplace,M.Picard,A.Cadenhead,MJung,
D.Brown & M.F.Franklin, in preparation

Digestibility
Apparent True

diet B BM M mean B BM M mean

trial
IRAI 0.58 0.66 0.70 0.65 0.70 0.71 0.78 0.73
IRA2 0.60 0.61 0.80 0.67 0.65 0.66 0.83 0.71
T-C 0.59 0.81 0.76 0.72 0.70 0.92 0.89 0.84
C- 0.63 0.70 0.64 0.66 0.82 0.88 0.87 0.86
ICPV 0.76 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.84 0.95 0.96 0.92
IRA3 0.66 0.75 0.82 0.74 0.76 0.84 0.94 0.84
R- 0.69 0.75 0.81 0.75 0.78 0.82 0.90 0.83

mean 0.64 0.73 0.77 0.72 0.75 0.83 0.88 0.82

sed 0.019 0.064 0.018 0.073

278
Table 4 Digestibility of dry matter and nitrogen in a standard cereal-based diet by pigs
with simple T-cannulas (T-C) andpigs with ileo-rectal anastomoses (IRA).Each value is
the mean for 6 animals. Data of M.F.Fuller, R.M.Livingstone & B.F.Fell (unpublished).

Months after
surgery. organic matter nitrogen
T-C IRA T-C IRA
3 0.67 0.68 0.71 0.69
6 0.68 0.72 0.72 0.72
12 0.72 0.73 0.75 0.74
18 0.72 0.73 0.75 0.72
24 0.70 0.70 0.72 0.73

mean 0.69 0.72 0.73 0.73

s.e.d. 0.009 (p<0.01) 0.009 (n.s.)

Long term effects of ileorectal anastomosis.

With mycolleagues Livingstone andFell,Imaintained pigs withileo-rectal anastomosis

for up to 2 years after surgery and we compared their digestion with that of pigs with T-
cannulas. The results are shown in Table 4.
Thefunctional destructionof thelargeintestineisnotwithouteffect onthepig. Thefirst
and most obvious consequence is themuch greater loss of water and electrolytes and it is
necessary to provide large supplements of sodium and other mineral elements to
compensate for these losses. At first after surgery ileal digesta pass frequently from the
anus and at this stage are similar in composition to those obtained from cannulated pigs
but after some time their frequency decreases as does their water content. These changes
suggestaprogressivemodification of thefunction of theterminalileum.Morhological and
histological examination of the gut26weeks after surgery showed histological changes in
the ileum with increased goblet cell numbers, hypertrophy of smooth muscle, elongation
of the crypts and and atrophy of the enterocytes at the villus tips. Concentrations of
volatile fatty acids in thedigesta voided by these animals were also higher than in digesta
from pigs with T-cannulas. These changes suggest that the ileum had adapted to assume
some of the functions of the bypassed large intestine. This adaptation had evidently
affected to someextent thedigestion of organic matter,especially inthefirstfew months,
but not that of nitrogen.
In view of the doubts towhich thisevidence gaverise concerning the functional stateof
the ileum, as well asfrom ethical considerations (itis extremely difficult to avoid thepig
suffering discomfort from the frequent outpouring of digesta from the anus) we
discontinued the use of ileo-rectal anastomosis as a means of obtaining ileal digesta.

Comparability of pigs and poultry

The possibility of using data obtained in the more rapid assay which is possible with
poultry to obtain data which may be used to predict digestibility values for pigs led
Jackson (1990) to make the comparison with some 30 feed ingredients. The results are
shown in Table 5.
279
 Table 5. Comparison of true amino acid digestibilities determined with poultry and
apparent aminoaciddigestibilities determined withpigs (T-Cannulas)in30raw materials.
Data of Jackson (1990). * Significant differences (p<0.05).

Difference
Amino acid Poultrv Pigs between species
arginine 0.83 0.82 0.01
histidine 0.83 0.79 0.04
isoleucine 0.82 0.76 0.06*
leucine 0.87 0.82 0.05
lysine 0.70 0.72 -0.02
methionine 0.85 0.78 0.07*
cystine 0.76 0.73 0.03
phenylalanine 0.86 0.81 0.05
threonine 0.77 0.70 0.07*
valine 0.81 0.78 0.03
alanine 0.82 0.78 0.04

average 0.81 0.77 0.04

The regression relating the pig measurements (Dp) to those obtained with the
caecectomised cockerels (Dc) was

Dp = 0.26 + 0.63 Dc 1*0.54

Measurements insacco

With conventional measurements of ileal digestibility only one material can be tested at
•a time. The technique of measuring the degradation of many materials simultaneously in
therumen by theuseofdacron bagsledtothedevelopment of similar insacco techniques
in pigs (Sauer etal, 1983;Livingstone, 1985;Graham etal, 1985). Since the bags used
to hold the feed material cannot pass normally through the pylorus it is neccesary to
provide an acid/pepsin predigestion in vitro and to introduce the bags into the small
intestine through a cannula in the duodenum. Thereafter, the bags can be retrieved from
the faeces in order to estimate overall digestion; to estimate precaecal digestion requires
that the bags be intercepted at the end of the ileum, reintroducing the technical problems
already outlined of blockage and modification of rateof passage. The choiceof a suitable
pore size is also problematic,requiring a compromise between the free mixing of the test
material with intestinal secretions thatis allowedby largepores andpreventingthe escape
of small particles of indigestible material released by the breakdown of surrounding or
associatedstructures.Thisisprobablyamajorfactorresponsiblefordisagreement between
in sacco and in vivo estimates (Graham et al, 1985; Metz et al., 1985; Taverner &
Campbell, 1985)

A further question in the use of insaccomethods concerns the isolation of the material
from contact with the gut wall. There are two grounds for concern. The first is that
material confined within thebagisnever able tocomeintocontact with membrane-bound
hydrolases; the second is that certain feed constituents which in normal digestion would
280
react with the gut wall are prevented from doing so (Pusztai et al, 1991).

Measurement of uptake

Analternativeapproach,whichisespecially suitablefor studyingthekineticsofdigestion

and absorption, involves the measurement not of the disappearance of constituents from
thedigestive tractbut theuptakeintoportal bloodof theendproductsoftheir degradation.
Thisrequires measurements of arteriovenous differences (systemic arterial blood toportal
venous blood)inconcentration tobemultiplied bytherateofbloodflow intheportal vein
(Rérat et al, 1980). It is important to appreciate that such measurements of uptake will
differ from measurements of disappearance because of the metabolic activity of the gut
wall (Souffrant et al, 1986)

Significance of microbial activity in the upper gastrointestinal tract

Although microbial activity is principally associated with the large intestine, it is by no

means confined to that part of the gastrointestinal tract. One factor which tends to
minimise theimpactofthemicroflora oftheupperdigestive tractisthattheresidence time
of digesta inthe small intestine is much shorter thanin the caecum and colon limiting the
time available for fermentation. Nevertheless, in recent years there has been increasing
evidence of substantial degradation of non-starch polysaccharides in the small intestine
(Millard & Chesson, 1984; Graham et al., 1986; Buraczewska et al., 1988; Longland et
al., 1988). Since there is no evidence of any mammalian enzyme capable of catalysing
these hydrolyses this must be taken as evidence of a commensurate degree of microbial
activity.
Depending onthephysiological stateoftheanimalandonthenatureofitsfood microbial
activity in the upper digestive tract can therefore be substantial and of considerable
nutritional significance (Dierick et al., 1986; Jensen et al., 1987; Jensen,1988). This is
illustrated by the results of Jensen et al. (1987; Table 6).

Although ATP concentration is highest in the caecum and proximal colon, values in the
last portion of the small intestine are one third to one half as high as in the caecum;
furthermore, duetotheready availablity of easilyfermented substrate there,themetabolic
activity of these organisms, as evidenced by their adenylate energy charge (Jensen etal.,
1987) is higher than in the caecum. There is nodoubt, therefore, that the measurement of
digestibility at the terminal ileum is not a measure of host digestion alone but includes a
good deal of microbial activity. The question arises as to the extent to which the end
products of this microbialmetabolism differ from thoseof the host digestion which would
have taken place in its absence.
One means of eliminating, or at least reducing, the effects of the enteric microflora is
through treatment with antibiotics. Although even large doses of antibiotics can only
reduce and never completely eliminate gut bacteria such experiments show clearly that
digestibility up to the end of the ileum is increased and that in the large intestine is
reduced by antibiotic treatment (Just et al,198lb, 1985; Drake, 1990). Even if, by this
means, the enteric population can bereduced by only one order of magnitude 90% of the
bacteria have been removed and, other things being equal, one might expect that there
would be only one tenth as much activity as in untreated animals, allowing extrapolation
to the unattainable condition of a sterile gut. A sterile gutcan, of course, be achieved by

281
Table 6. ATPconcentrations (\ig ATP/gdrymatter) invariousparts of thedigestive tract
of pigs given diets based on wheat flour or wheat flour + wheat bran. Data of Jensen et
al. (1987).

Diet Flour Bran

Segment
stomach 1 13 31
2 7 27

small
intestine 1 13 45
2 48 80
3 166 108

caecum 324 240

large
intestine 1 84 228
2 51 168
3 19 90
4 9 90
5 7 61
6 6 36

raising animals from birth in germ-free conditions, but the substantial differences in the
morphology and histology of the gut between germ-free and conventionally florated
animals raise doubts about the relevance of such observations. By extension, the same
reservations must apply to the use of antibiotics though in this case the gut has been
-normally colonised from birth until the beginning of treatment and it is unlikely that the
effects of the microbes on gut development are reversed in the few days of antibiotic
treatment.

In vitro assessment of digestion.

There are several motives for the development of in vitro systems. These are reviewed
elsewhere in this volume but it is worth pointing out in the present context that, by then-
nature, such assays can avoid theproblems of microbial intervention in the assessment of
digestion.They cannot, however, take account of thosefactors peculiar tothe animal such
as its endogenous secretions or its reactions to antinutritional factors.

Amino acid availability

Chemical alterations to the amino acids in a food protein may be brought about by
processing with heat or strong chemicals. Such compounds, though they may be released
from the protein during digestion and though they may be absorbed, are nevertheless of
reduced nutritional value, if indeed they have any value at all. It would therefore seem
important to determine not only the division of total amino acid flow through the gut
between thatwhich is absorbed andthatwhich is not but also thedivision of the available
282
and unavailable fractions.

Integrative assays

Theeventual aim of anymethodology for evaluating afood istoestimate its contribution

to the nutrient requirements of the animal. Thus, assays in which foods limiting in a
particular nutrient are compared with that nutrient given in purified form might be
expected, in theory at least, to integrate the combined effects of digestibility, availability
andantinutritional factors inasinglemeasurewhichexpresses theeffective nutritivevalue
of the food. For example, in the case of amino acids, slope ratio assays have been used
to compare the growth response to increments of amino acid in the food to that obtained
toincrements ofthecrystalline aminoacidwhen bothareaddedtoabasaldiet specifically
limiting in that one amino acid alone (e.g.Leibholz etal., 1986).As shown by Batterham
etal.(1990) differences in ilealdigestibility of aminoacids do not necessarily correspond
to differences in availability assessed by slope ratio assay. An inevitable feature of this
approach is that whilst increments of the free amino acid improve the quality of the
dietary protein increments of the test food do so to a lesser extent, if at all. As a result,
there may be an exaggerated response to the free amino acid resulting from the
rectification of an amino acid imbalance (Sato et al., 1987).

Apparent and true digestibility

The distinction between apparent and true digestibility is an important part of the
methodology of measuring digestion since, to allow full additivity of estimates on
individual ingredients in the formulation of complete diets, it is necessary to work with
truedigestibilities,accountingseparatelyfor theendogenouslossesfrom thegutwhichwill
be in part a function of the animal and in part of the diet. Endogenous losses during
digestion form the subject of a separate contribution to this symposium (Souffrant et al.,
1991) and will not be discussed in detail here; nevetheless, there are some points which
are relevant to the choice of methodologies.
The true digestibility of proteins is difficult todetermine directly. The survival through
thegastrointestinal tractofpureproteinsmay bedetectedimmunologically indigesta(e.g.,
Pusztai etal, 1990) but even simple feed ingredients normally contain a large number of
distinct proteins.
The contribution of endogenous secretions to the flow of a nutrient out of the ileum or
outof therectum is conventionally determined byfeeding aprotein-free diet.This method
hasbeen criticisedasalteringtheprotein statusoftheanimal andthereby,perhaps,altering
therate at which proteins are secreted into the gut lumen. An alternative often advocated
is to feed a series of diets of different protein content and extrapolate to zero protein
intake.Itis worth pointing outthat this approach rests upon exactly the same assumption,
that feeding protein does not alter the rate of endogenous secretion, all the increase in
nutrient flow being interpreted asreflecting theinherent digestibility of thematerial when
it may very well derive from a combination of the two sources.
Labelling methods, whether using labelled dietary proteins (e.g. Partridge et al., 1985)
or labelling the animal and its secretions (e.g.,Krawielitzki etal., 1977;de Lange et al.,
1989) may help to elucidate the contribution of endogenous constituents to ileal nitrogen
flow. However,theuptakeof aminoacidsandtheirincorporation into secreted proteins by
theintestinal epithelial cells can beveryrapid; further, it appears that theprecursor amino
acids for protein synthesis by the enterocytes are derived both from the lumen and the

283
blood (Alpers, 1972; 1983). Thus, the recycling of luminal amino acids can lead to an
underestimate of endogenous secretions.
Theendogenous secretionsenteringtheintestinallumenoriginatefrom manysourcesand
include a wide variety of substances. During their passage through the gut many of these
substances are themselves subjected to enzymic attack, allowing their constituents to be
recovered. This isespecially important with the amino acidswhich can berecovered from
enzyme secretions and from desquamated enterocytes. From the point of view of
estimating the true digestibility of dietary constituents, therefore, the identification of all
the materials secreted into the gut is of less importance than identifying and quantifying
those which are not recycled. Because of their resistance to degradation the mucins are
likely to account for a substantial fraction of these losses,with major contributions to the
losses of serine,proline,threonine andcystine.Itwasfor thatreason thatwehave recently
examined the flow of galactosamine from the ileum with a view to estimating the
contribution of mucins to ileal nitrogen outflow and the constancy of the ratio of
galactosamine to total nitrogen in that outflow (Fuller & Cadenhead, 1991).
A further substantial but variable component of endogenous ileal outflow is contributed
by bacteria. As discussed above, the extent to which non-starch polysaccharides are
degraded before they reach the caecum predicates avigorous microbial metabolism. This
results not simply in the utilisation of dietary amino acids for bacterial protein synthesis
but also in the degradation of some amino acids and the synthesis of others. The
contribution of microbialprotein tothe total flow of amino acids leaving the ileum seems
therefore to deserve further study if we are to develop methodologies which allow us to
estimate acurately the net uptake of amino acids from the digestive tract.

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288
CHRONICMODELSFORTHEEVALUATIONOFTHEGlTRACT
FUNCTION DURING PORCINE POSTNATAL DEVELOPMENT
S.G.Pierzynowski,B.R.WeströmandB.W.Karlsson

DepartmentofAnimalPhysiology,UniversityofLund,Helgonavägen3B,
S-22362Lund,Sweden

Abstract
Atechnique forsamplingpureunactivatedpancreatic juicefromyoung
developingpigsupto 10weeksofagewasdeveloped.Apancreaticduct
catheter, a re-enterant duodenal fistula for permitting periodic
external juice samplinganda jugular catheter forblood samplingwere
surgically implanted ineachpigwhen theywere 1 - 1 0 weeks old.The
procedures didnot appear to interfere withnormal growth orwiththe
physiologicalresponsestofeedingandhormonalstimulationwithCCKand
secretin.A model for the in.S_ÜUperfusion of thepancreas-was also
developed where, in addition to the above described catheterizations,
chroniccatheterswereinserted intothesuperiorpancreatic arteryand
theportalvein.Usingthismodel,theeffectofthe directinfusionof
pancreastatinontheexocrineendendocrinepancreaswasexplored.
To investigate insulin tolerance and tissue capacity for glucose
utilisation,amethodusing anextracorporeal blood circulation system
via two jugular catheters connected to a feedback system for blood
glucosemeasurementandglucose/insulininfusionwasdeveloped.
Forinvestigationofliverfunction,catheterswereinsertedintothe
jugular,portalandhepaticveins,thelatterdirectlyviathevisceral
surface ofthe left liver lobe,and inthebile duct.With thismodel
the intestinal absorption, livermetabolism, andbiliary excretion of
the vasopressin analogue dDAVP was determined after intraduodenal,
intraportalandintrajugularroutesofadministration.
Keywords: Chronic pig models, GI tract, pancreas, liver, weaning,
postnataldevelopment.

Introduction
Physiological functions of the GI tract in adult pigs have been
studied in chronic experiments, especially with respect to pancreas
(Wass 1965, Corring et al. 1972, Zebrowska et al. 1983) and liver
functions (Juste et al. 1983,Yen and Killefer 1986). However,during
immediate postnatal development and around the time for weaning,both
periods characterised by rapid and extensive changes in GI tract
functions,theseaspectshavebeenstudiedgenerally after slaughterof
the animals, i.e., the exocrine pancreas has been studied using
homogenates (Corring et al. 1978, Owsley et al. 1986, Weström et
al.1987)or acuteexperiments (Haradaetal.1989).
However, chronic experiments are tobe preferred, since studies on
homogenates onlyprovidesstaticinformation atagiventime-point,and
acute experiments may be influenced by the anaesthesia (Cuber etal.
1989).Moreover,the lack of regulatory pathways in in vitro perfused
organs limits the use of these models for the evaluation of normal
functions.Chronicmodels,especiallyduringpostnataldevelopment,can
relevantly describe the dynamic functions of organs, eg. the real
secretory capacity, even if they are time consuming and difficult to
perform.

289
Fig.1. Schematicdrawingoftheoperation siteforpancreatic andbile
ductcatheterisation:
A - perforated T-cannula, B - pancreatic catheter, C - abdominal
cannula,D-bilecatheter.
1-peritoneum,2-duodenum,3-abdominalwall,4-stomach,5-gall
bladder.

290
Inthepresentpaperwedescribefoursurgicalmodelsbasedona
seriesofchronicexperiments.Thesemodels aresuitable forthestudy
of thepancreas and liver functions during postnatal development from
1stweekofagetoafterweaninginthepiglet.

Descriptionofthechronicalexperimentalmodel

1.Catheterisation oftheexocrinepancreasfortheexternalcollection
ofpurepancreaticjuice.

Thepancreatic duct inpiglets wascatheterised fromthe 1stweekof

life according to Pierzynowski et al. (1988, 1990) and as shown
schematicallyinFigure1.Apancreaticductcatheter (i.d.0.3mm,e.d.
0.64mm)wasexteriorisedviaa"protection",anabdominalcannulawhich
wasplacedbetweentheperitoniumandmuscle layers inthe first right
intercostalspace.Theductcatheterwasusuallyreplacedaroundthe3rd
weekoflifebyalargerone (i.d.0.64mm,e.d.1.19mm)withasilicon
ringplacedbetweenthemusclelayersandperitoniumaftertheabdominal
cannulahadbeenremoved.Thelargetypeofcatheterwasalsoroutinely
useddirectly forduct catheterisation from 3rdweek of life;Between
the experiments, the duct catheter was connected to a perforated T-
cannulaplacedinthe jejunum,thus maintainingaconstant re-enterant
flow of juice.For hormone infusion andblood sampling a catheter was
also implanted inthe jugularvein (Fig.2). Theunweaned operatedpigs
were returned totheir litters;after weaning at 4-6 weeks,theywere
housedinseparatepenshavingvisualcontact.

2.Pancreasperfusioninsituandcatheterisationofthepancreasduct

After pancreatic catheter and jejunal fistulae implantations as

described above,aperfusion catheterwasinserted withthetipinthe
superior pancreatic artery through the lienal artery as schematically
shown in Figure 2 (Ahre'n et al. 1990).A second catheter for blood
samplingwasinsertedintheportalveinwithitstipintheliverhilus
viathelienalvein.

3.Extracorporal blood circulation connected to afeedback systemfor

glucosemeasurementandglucose/insulininfusion

An extracorporal blood circulation system for blood sampling and

infusions hasbeen developed inpigs ca 6weeks old (Pierzynowskiet
al. 1990).Twosiliconcatheterswereinsertedintothe jugularvein (6
cm for the withdrawal catheter and 8 cm for the infusion catheter)
through a longitudinal nonpenetrating purse string suture. The
catheters,exteriorised underthe skintothedorsalpart oftheneck,
were connected via theex.vivo circuit to aportable Insulin Glucose
Closed LoopRegulatory System (Gambro,Lund,Sweden) forglucose level
measurements and glucose/insulin infusion. By this e_x_ vivo circuit,
bloodfromthejugularveinwaspumpedataflowof10ml/min.througha
silicon tube (i.d. 3 mm) and back. The blood glucose monitor was
inserted into the ex. vivo circuit at the point of the withdrawal
catheter. From 3consecutive measurements the proper glucose infusion
rate was calculated, and then together with insulin automatically
infused via the infusion catheter to obtain a steady blood glucose
level.

291
**-

Fig.2.Schematicdrawingoftheoperationsiteforvisceralvesselsand
jugularveincatheterisation:
A - pancreatic arterial catheter, B - portal catheter, C - hepatic
catheter,D-jugularcatheter,E-extracorporalcirculationunits.
1-abdominalartery,2-celiacartery,3-superiorpancreaticartery,
4-mainposteriorvein,5-portalvein,6-spleenicvein,
7-spleenicartery,8-hepaticvein,9-jugularvein.

292
4.Liverperfusionand catheterisation ofthebile duct

Inthismodel infusion/blood sampling catheters were inserted in

weaned pigs (8-10 weeks old) into the portal and hepatic veins (Fig. 2)
from an incision in the first left intercostal space (Lundin et al.
1990). Theportal catheter was inserted via the lienal vein, the hepatic
catheter directly via the visceral surface of the left liver lobe. A
peripheral blood sampling catheter was also implanted in the jugular
vein (Fig.1,2). For the periodic collection of bile, a catheter was
implanted inthe bile duct together with a re-enterant jejunal T-cannula
from an incision inthe first right intercostal space.

Applications of the methods

Nursing piglets were fitted with a chronic pancreatic catheter to

sample pure pancreatic juice during porcine postnatal development up to
and after weaning both during basal and postprandial conditions and
after hormonal stimulation with CCK and secretin (Pierzynowski et al.
1990). The results showed that during the sucking period, the exocrine
functions remained low, whereas after weaning, pronounced increases of
juice outflow and output of enzymes took place, both basally and post
prandially. Furthermore, the response to CCK and secretin stimulation
increased with age after the first two weeks oflife.
In a study utilising the more complex pancreas model, pancreastatin
was infused in. vivo into the pancreas circulation via the artery
catheter, for the first time into its species of orgin (Ahre'n et al.
1990).It was found that pancreastatin had an inhibitory effect on both
the exocrine pancreas and insulin secretion.
To study the difference in glucose consumption between healthy pigs
and pigs with alloxan/streptozotocin induced diabetes (6 weeks old,
weaned) the model with extracorporal blood circulation coupled to the
glucose monitor /closed loop feedback control system was used on
conscious animals (Pierzynowski et al. 1990). It was found that glucose
consumption and the glucose/insulin ratio were higher during the
infusion of insulin inthe healthy pigs than inthe diabetic ones.
Intestinal absorption, liver metabolism and bilary excretion of the
vasopressin analogue dDAVP were determined following intrajugular,
intraportal and intraduodenal routes of administration, in pigs
surgically prepared according to the last model. It was found that the
intestinal mucosa constitutes the major barrier to the absorption of
dDAVP. Furthermore, the results indicate that dDAVP is degraded in the
liver and that it isexcreted into thebile in small amounts.

Perspectives

Many of the physiological functions of the GI tract remain to be

understood, especially those occurring during postnatal development
which might influence general health and productivity, through to the
adult animal. To determinine the types of food which can be easily
digested, absorbed and utilised in early postnatal life and around
weaning are important goals. The chronic models presented here for
studying pancreas and liver functions will contribute to solving some of
the basic problems with respect to the gastrointestinal development of
the pig. These pig models, are not only useful for studying pig
development, but are also convenient for studying developmental aspects
of the GI tract in general, especially as models for human development
(Miller andUllrey 1987).

293
 Financial Support: the Swedish Council for Forestry and Agricultural
ResearchandtheSwedishCouncilforNaturalSciences.

References
AhrénB.,S.G.Pierzynowski,B.R.WeströmandB.W.Karlsson,1990.
Pancreastatininhibitsinsulinsecretionandexocrine
pancreatic secretioninthepig.DiabeticRes.inpress.
CorringT.,A.AumaitreandA.Rerat,1972.Fistulationpermanenatedu
pancreasexocrinechezleporcapplication:responsedelasecretion
pancréatiqueaurepas.Ann.Biol.Anim.Biochim.Biophys.12:109-124.
CorringT,AumaitreA,DurandG,1978.Developmentofdigestive
enzymesinthepigletfrombirthto8weeks.Nutr.Metab.22:231-234.
Cuber,J.C.,T.Corring,F.Levenez.,C.BernardandJ.A.Chayvialle,
1989.Effectsofcholecystokinin'octapeptideonthepancreatic
exocrinesecretioninthepig.Can.J.Physiol.Pharmacol.67:1391-1397.
Harada,E.,H.Kiriyama,E.Kobayashi,H.Tsuchita,1988.Postnatal
developmentofbiliaryandpancreaticexocrinesecretionin
piglets.Comp.Biochem.Physiol.91A:43-51.
JusteC , T.CorringandY.LeCoz,1983.Bilerestitutionprocedure
forstudyingbilesecretioninfistulatedpigs.Lab.Anim.Sei.3:
199-202.
LifsonN.,Ch.V.LassaandP.K.Dixit,1985.Relationbetweenblood
flowandmorphologyinisletorganofratpancreas.Am.J.Physiol.
249:E43-E48.
LundinS.,S.G.Pierzynowski,B.W.WeströmandH.I.Bengtsson,1990.
BiliaryexcretionofthevasopressinanalogueDDAVPafter
intraduodenal,intrajugularandintraportaladministrationinthe
consciouspig.Pharm.SToxicol,inpress.
MillerE.R.andD.E.Ullrey, 1987.Thepigasamodelforhuman
nutrition.Ann.Rev.Nutr.7:361-382.
OwsleyW.F,D.R.OrrandL.F.Tribble,1986.Effectsofageanddieton
**" ,. thedevelopmentofthepancreasandthesynthesisandsecretionof
pancreaticenzymesintheyoungpig.J.Anim.Sei.63:497-504.
PierzynowskiS.G.,P.Podgurniak,M.Mikolajczyk,andW.Szczesny,
1986.Insulinandparasympatheticdependenceofpancreaticjuice
secretioninhealthyandalloxandiabeticsheep.Quart.J.Exp.Physiol.
71:401-407.
PierzynowskiS.G.,B.R.Weström,B.W.Karlsson,J.Svendsenand
B.Nilsson,1988.Pancreaticcannulationofyoungpigsforlong-term
studyofexocrinepancreaticfunction.Can.J.Anim.Sei.68:953-959.
PierzynowskiS.G.,B.W.Weström,J.Svendsen andB.W.Karlson,1990.
Developmentofexocrinepancreasfunctioninchronicallycanulated
pigsduring1-13weeksofpostnatallife.J.Pediatr.Gastroenterol.
Nutr.10:206-212.
PierzynowskiS.G.,H.Hàkansson,L.Ljunggren,L.Màrtenssonand
L.Olssön,1990.Portableclosedloopfeedbecksystemforcontrolof
theglucoselevelinthepig.Art.Organs.14:118-129.
WassW.M,1965.Thecollectionofporcinepancreatic juiceby
cannulationofthepancreaticduct.Am.J.Vet.Res.26:1106-1109.
WeströmB.R,B.OhlssonandB.W.Karlsson,1987.Developmentofporcine
pancreatichydrolasesandtheirisoenzymesfromthefetalperiodto
adulthood.Pancreas.2:589-596.
WilliamsJ.A.andI.D.Goldfine,1985.Theinsulin-pancreaticacinar
axis.Diabetes.34:980-986.
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Yen J.T.and J.Killefer, 1987.Amethod for chronically quantifying net
absorption of nutrients and gutmetabolites into hepatic portal vein
in conscious swine.J.Anim.Sci. 64:923-934.
Zebrowska T.,A.G.Low andH.Zebrowska, 1983.Studies on gastric
digestion ofprotein and carbohydrate,gastric secretion and
exocrine pancreatic secretion ingrowing pigs. Br.J.Nutr. 49:401- 410

295
COMPARISON OF VARIOUS TECHNIQUES FOR MEASURING
ILEAL DIGESTIBILITY IN PIGS

Torsten Köhler35, Martin W.A. Verstegen5, Joop Huisman0,

Piet van Leeuwen0, and Rainer Mosenthin"

Institute of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, University of Kiel, D-2300

Kiel, FRG.

Department of Animal Nutrition, Agricultural University, Wageningen, The

Netherlands

TNOInstitute for Animal Nutrition and Physiology (ILOB),Wageningen, The

Netherlands

Abstract

The objective ofthis studywas to compare different techniques for collection of ileal
digesta in pigs. In experiment 1pigs were either fitted with the recently developed
Post-ValveT-Caecum (PVTC)cannulas, or re-entrantcannulasor simpleT-cannulas
to compare ileal nutrient digestibilities obtained by these different methods. In
experiment 2ilealnutrient digestibilities ofthree different feedstuffs were measured
inpigsfitted with PVTCcannulas. These resultswere compared with corresponding
results from the literature in which re-entrant cannulas, or simple T-cannulas or
üeorectalanastomosiswereused.Experiment3included comparative measurements
of ileal nutrient digestibilities in pigs fitted with PVTC cannulas or surgically
modified by the ileo-rectalanastomosis technique (IRA).There were no differences
between the different cannulation techniquesinilealdigestibilities ofthe parameters
measured, exceptfor digestibilityofnitrogen (N) andNeutral Detergent Fibre (NDF)
measured in PVTC and re-entrant cannulated pigs, respectively. However, ileal
digestibilities of dry matter and Na were higher in IRA pigs than in PVTC pigs
whereas ilealdigestibilities for N(except inperiod 3),amino acids (except threonine
in period 2 and 3) and Kwere lower (P< .05 - P< .001). Digestibilities of crude
protein and lysine of three different feedstuffs and measured in PVTC cannulated
pigs were comparable with results from the literature which were obtained with
different digesta collection techniques. It can be concluded that PVTC cannulation
isan appropiate alternative for digestibilitymeasurements at the distalileumofpigs.

296
Introduction

Digestibility measurements at the terminal ileum of pigs have been accepted to be

more appropiate than faecal measurement (Zebrowska, 1973). Different techniques
have been developed during the last two decades to collect ileal digesta. In general
four different methods are in use: 1. the cannulation of the ileum anterior to the
ileo-caecal valve (simple T-cannula, ileo-caecal re-entrant cannula), 2. the
cannulationoftheintestinaltractpost-valvular (theileocolicpost-valvular procedure
as described by Darcy et al. (1980), 3. the Post-Valve T-Caecum cannula from van
Leeuwen et al. (1991)) and 4.theileo-rectalanastomosis (abypasstechnique of the
colon) asdescribed byPicard (1984), Darcy-Vrillon&Laplace (1985) and Souffrant
etal. (1985).TherelativelynewPost-ValveT-Caecum (PVTC)cannulation technique
has been reported as an alternative technique with the following advantages: an
easy surgical procedure, less discomfort to the animal, a simple handling and minor
negative affects on the physiological status of the animal (Van Leeuwen et al.
(1988), Köhler et al. (1990,1991a,b). In order to evaluate the new PVTC cannula
different comparisons with the re-entrant cannula, orthe simpleT-cannula, the ileo-
rectal anastomosis and with results from literature have been carried out to
investigate the comparability of the results measured with these different digesta
collection techniques. /

Materials &Methods

Experiment 1 The objective was to compare the ileal digestibilities of nutrients in

four different diets (a control diet, a pectin-rich diet, a fibre-rich diet and a semi-
synthetic diet) using pigs fitted with different types of cannulas according to
different cannulation techniques (ileo-caecal re- entrant cannula, simple T-cannula
andpost-valveT-caecum (PVTC)cannula).Detailsoftheexperimentalprocedure are
given elsewhere (Köhler et al. 1990).

Experiment 2 The ileal nutrient digestibilities of three different feedstuffs (maize,

groundnut meal and sunflower meal) weremeasured usingthe PVTCtechnique. The
results obtained were compared with corresponding results from the literature in
which the re-entrant cannulation, the simple T-cannulation or the ileo-rectal
anastomosis (IRA) technique were used. Complete details of the experiment are
given by van Leeuwen et al. (1991).

Experiment 3 Digestibility measurements in PVTC cannulated pigs were compared

with results obtained in pigs surgically modified according to the ileo-rectal
anastomosis (IRA) technique.Additional details of this experiment have been given
by Köhler et al.(1991a,b).

Diets The composition of the experimental diets of each experiment are presented
in Table 1, 2 and 3.

297
Table 1. COMPOSITION OFEXPERIMENTALDIETS (%) (EXPERIMENT 1)

DIETS

CONTROL PECTIN FIBRE SEMI

-RICH -RICH SYNTHETIC
INGREDIENTS DIET DIET DIET DIET

MAIZE 23.6 25.9 23.8

BARLEY 19.0 8.0 12.3
WHEAT 30.0 15.0
SOYBEAN MEAL 18.4 18.1 18.1
MOLASSES 5.0 5.0 5.0
POTATO PULP 10.2
BEET PULP 10.2
APPLE PECTIN 4.0
OATS 15.0
OATHUSK MEAL 10.0
ALFALFA 9.0
WHEAT STRAW MEAL 3.3
SOYA ISOLATE 22.3
WHEAT STARCH 28.2
CORN STARCH 28.2
ARBOCEL B 800 1 6.0
SOYAOIL 4.0
ANIMAL FAT 4.0
L-LYSINE 0.13 0.19 0.06
DL-METHIONINE 0.07 0.04 0.07
PREMIX2 1.37 1.37 1.37 1.37
CaHP0 4 *2H 2 0 1.50 1.44 1.30
Ca(H 2 P04)*H 2 0 2.40
CaC0 3 0.97 0.50 0.79 1.00
KHCO3 1.50
Cr203 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.50
TiO, 0.50

100%CELLULOSE
2
CONTRIBUTED THE FOLLOWING VITAMINS AND MINERALS PER KG OF DIET: RETINOL, 9000 IU;
CHOLECALCIFEROL, 1800 IU; («-TOCOPHEROL,40 mg; MENADIONE, 3 mg; RIBOFLAVIN, Smg; COBALAMINE, 40
(ig; NICOTINIC ACID, 30 mg; D-PANTOTHENICACID, 12mg; CHOLINE CHLORIDE, 150 mg; ASCORBINEACID, 50
mg; KJ,500 jig; CoS0 4 *7H 2 0, 2.5 mgANDNa 2 Se0 3 , 0.2 mg, NaCl, 3g; FeSO4*7H20, 0.40 g; CuS0 4 *5H 2 0, 0.1 g;
Mn0 2 , 0.07 g; ZnS0 4 *H 2 0, 0.2 g. THISMLXTUREALSOSUPPLIED20 ppmVIRGINIAMYCIN TOTHEDIET.

Results and Discussion

Experiment 1 The apparent ileal digestibilities which have been obtained in the 1 st
experiment are presented in table 4. All ileal digestibility results were based on
100% Cr-recovery. Except for nitrogen and NDF in the fibre-rich diet and for
nitrogen inthe semisynthetic diet there were no differences between the treatments
inileal digestibilities of drymatter, nitrogen, crude fibre, acid detergent fibre (ADF)
andneutral detergent fibre (NDF).Inaddition, the difference between the PVTCand
re-entrant method obtained for nitrogen in the semisynthetic diet was statistically
significant but of small magnitude. For the fibre-rich diet an influence of the
collection technique on the digesta flow can be assumed. Although the re-entrant
cannulation technique has been considered to be a reliable quantitative

298
TABLE2. COMPOSITION OFEXPERIMENTALDIETS (EXPERIMENT 2)

DIETS 1 2 3

MAIZE 95.3 70.8 71.0

GROUNTNUT MEAL EXPELLER 25.0
SUNFLOWER MEAL
SOLV. EXTR. 25.0
CR203 0.1 0.1 0.1
MINERAL MIXTURE1 3.6 3.1 2.9
VITAMIN AND TRACE
ELEMENT MIXTURE2 1.0 1.0 1.0
ANALYSES:
ORGANIC MATTER 82.7 83.2 82.5
CRUDE PROTEIN 8.3 19.1 13.6

1
CONTRIBUTEDTHEFOLLOWINGMINERALSOURCESPERKGOFDIET:CaO^PO^/H-jO, 12.5g;NaCI,5.0g;NaHCOg,
3.9 g;KHCOj, 7.0g; FeS0 4 *7H 2 0, 0.5g;CuS0 4 *5H 2 0, 0.5g; Mn0 2 , 0.05 g; ZnS0 4 *H 2 0, 0.2g.THIS MIXTUREALSO
SUPPLIED20 ppmVIRGINIAMYCIN TOTHEDIET.
DIET 1WASADDITIONALSUPPLEMENTEDWITH 2.5gCa(H 2 P0 4 ) 2 *H 2 0 AND5g KHCOj;
DIET2WASADDITIONALSUPPLEMENTEDWITH 2.5gCa(H 2 P0 4 ) 2 *H 2 0 PERKGOFDIET.
2
CONTRIBUTEDTHE FOLLOWINGVITAMIN SOURCESANDTRACEELEMENTSPER KG OFDIET:
VITAMINA, 9000 IU;VITAMIN E,40 mg; RIBOVLAVIN, 5mg; NIACIN, 30 mg; D-PANTOTHENICACID, 12mg;CHOLINE
CHLORIDE, 150mg;VITAMINB12,0.04 mg;VITAMIND3,1800IU;VITAMINK3,3mg;KJ,0.5 mg;CoS0 4 *7H 2 0, 2.5 mg.

TABLE 3 . COMPOSITION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL DIET (%) (EXPERIMENT 3)

INGREDIENTS
MAIZE 3.95
BARLEY 6.00
WHEAT 10.50
SOYBEAN MEAL 22.50
MOLASSES 4.00
POTATO PULP 9.20
BEET PULP 10.00
ANIM. FAT 1.00
L-LYSINE HCL 0.18
METHIONINE DL 0.12
VITAMINS AND
MINERALS1 1.00
Ca(H 2 Po 4 )*H 2 0 1.50
CaCo 3 0.50
NaCI 0.30
Cr203 0.25

1
CONTRIBUTED THE FOLLOWINF VITAMIN ANDMINERAL SOURCES PER KG OF DIET: RETINOL, 9000 IU;
CHOLECALCIFEROL, 1800 IU; a-TOCOPHEROL, 40mg; MENADIONE, 3 mg; RIBOFLAVIN, 5 mg; COBALAMINE, 40(lg;
NICOTINICACID,30mg;D-PANTOTHENICACID,12mg;CHOLINECHLORIDE, 150mg;ASCORBINEACID,50mg;KJ,500
(tg; CoS0 4 *7H 2 0 2.5 mg; Na 2 SeO s , 0.2 mg; FeS0 4 *7H 2 0, 0.40 g; CuS0 4 *5H 2 0, 0.1 g;Mn0 2 , 0.07 g;ZnS0 4 *H 2 0, 0.2
g. THISMIXTUREALSOSUPPLIED20 ppm VIRGINIAMYCIN TOTHEDIET.

299
Table 4. THE APPARENT ILEAL DIGESTIBILITIES OF DRY MATTER, NITROGEN, CRUDE
FIBRE, ADF AND NDF FOR EACH DIET AND FOR EACH TYPE OF CANNULA
(CALCULATED TO 100%CRRECOVERY)

Diet Collection technique

PVTC cannula T-cannula Re-entrant

Control diet
DM 73.4 ±0.32 73.0 ±0.54 73.3 ±0.57
Nitrogen 79.6 ±0.43 78.8 ±0.46 78.6 ±0.82
Crude fibre 8.4 ±2.34 10.1 ±1.97 10.6 ±1.96
ADF 18.2 ±1.74 19.5 ±1.29 19.1 ±1.09
NDF 30.5 ±1.37 31.8 ±1.20 31.1 ±1.34
Pectin-rich diet
DM 58.0 ±0.55 56.6 ±1.99 57.5 ±1.72
Nitrogen 69.6 ±1.19 70.5 ±1.56 69.9 ±1.84
Crude fibre - 1.0 ±2.00 -1.6 ±4.58 -.6 ±4.33
ADF 6.9 ±1.55 6.4 ±3.78 5.2 ±4.87
NDF 21.3 ±1.19 19.7 ±3.68 19.2 ±3.71
Crude fibre-rich diet
DM 57.1 ±0.98 54.4 ±1.64 55.0 ±0.03
Nitrogen 71.6 ±1.07 a 66.1 ±3.25 67.1 ±1.15 b
Crude fibre 5.3 ±1.20 4.3 ±4.92 1.4 ±2.42
ADF 5.4 ±1.03 5.2 ±4.79 2.7 ±2.20
NDF 11.9 ±1.20 a 11.2 ±4.43 7.7 ±1.17 b
Semi synthetic diet
DM 86.8 ±0.37 86.2 ±0.31
Nitrogen 92.4 ±0.30 a 91.4 ±0.28 b
Crude fibre -4.5 ±1.71 -5.2 ±1.76
ADF 2.0 ±2.01 0.6 ±2.04
NDF 1.3 ±1.34 0.0 ±1.38

ab MEANS (± SE ) IN THE SAME ROW WITH DIFFERENT SUPERSCRIPTS DIFFER (P < .05)

collection method the recovery rate of Cr (added to the diet as Cr 2 0 3 as a marker

for theliquidphase) was considerable below 100%and alsolowerthan the recovery
rate of Co which was supplied to the diet as Co-EDTA. With the exception of the
semisynthetic diet marker recoveries were also lower for the PVTCcannulated.pigs.
However, with the semisynthetic diet and the PVTCpigs the Cr- and Co-recoveries
were higher than 100% and higher (P< .05) than in re-entrant cannulated pigs
(Köhler et al. 1990). In re-entrant pigs the lowest Cr-recovery was found in the
fibre-rich diet. In addition blockages in front of the ileal cannula and leakages
around the cannula could be observed in these animals when the fibre-rich diet was
fed. Both observations indicate a separation of the solid and the liquid phase and
may explain the lower digestibilities calculated for the re-entrant cannulated
animals.

Experiment 2 The apparent ileal digestibility of crude protein and lysine in

three different feedstuffs measured according to the PVTC cannula were compared
with corresponding results from the literature (Table 5). In general results
measured in PVTC cannulated pigs were comparable with results reported in
literature.

300
Tabic 5 THEAPPARENTILEALDIGESTIBILITY (%)OFCRUDEPROTEINANDLYSINEINMAIZE,GROUDNUTMEALAND
SUNFLOWER MEALMEASURED IN PIGS FITTED DIFFERENT DIGESTACOLLECTION TECHNIQUES. MEANS ±
STANDARD DEVIATION.*

DIGESTA COLLECTION TECHNIQUE

PVTC RE-ENTRANT SIMPLE URO-

CANNULA CANNULA T-CANNULA RECTAL
ANASTOMOSIS

MAIZE
REFERENCES b 1 2 3
NUMBER OF BATCHES 1 6 3
CRUDE PROTEIN 65 67+4 73+7
LYSINE 51 54 ± 8 58 ± 7

GROUNDNUT MEAL EXPELLER

REFERENCES 1 6 3
NUMBER OF BATCHES 1 3 1
CRUDE PROTEIN 80 73 ± 3 85
LYSINE 76 66 ± 3 82

SUNFLOWER MEAL SOLV. EXTR.

REFERENCES 1 2 4, 5, 6 3
NUMBER OF BATCHES 1 1 4 4
CRUDE PROTEIN 75 74 73.1 73.0 74.0 / 75 ± 3
LYSINE 74 73 78.9 78.0 73.0 75 ± 3

a
Van Leeuwen et al. 1991
b
REFERENCES
1 = VAN LEEUWEN ET AL 1991 4 = = J0RGENSEN ET AL. 1984
2 = VAN LEEUWEN ET AL 1989 5 = =JUST ET AL. 1985
3 = GREEN ET AL. 1987 6 = = KNABE ET AL. 1989

Experiment 3 The results of the 3 rd experiment are summarized in Table 6. Except

for Thr allamino acid digestibilities measured 3weeks after surgerywere lower (P<
.05 -P< .001) in the IRApigs as compared to the PVTCpigs. 9weeks after surgery
differences were found for DM,HIS,ILE,Met, Na and K.Results obtained in the last
collection period show differences for DM, He, Met, Tre, Na and K. (P< .05 - P<
.001). All results indicate a clear influence of the collection technique on
digestibilities. In digesta of IRApigs a considerable higher concentration of volatile
fatty acids (P< .001) and of diaminopimelic acid (DAPA) (P< .05) was measured
(Köhler et al. 1991a).This indicated anincreased fermentation in digesta ofIRApigs
and resulted in an increased dry matter digestibility (P< .05 - P< .001). Bacterial
activity and the synthesis of bacterial protein may account for the differences in the
ileal digestibility of amino acids. The missing hind gut digestion in IRApigs had a
clear influence on the digestibility of sodium and potassium. While in IRApigs the
sodium digestibility was about -10 until -20% it was about -650 until -700% in
PVTCpigs which is in accordance with results reported in the literature (Drochner,
1984; den Hartog et al., 1988; Partridge, 1978; Partridge et al., 1986). The low
sodium concentration in digesta of IRApigs may be a result of a decreased sodium
secretion into the intestinal lumen or an increased sodium reabsorption in the
rectum.Anincreased sodiumreabsorption and theminimized sodium excretion with
the urine (Köhler et al. 1991b) indicate an increased aldosterone activity which
would also explain the lower potassium digestibility which was found in IRA
pigs.Potassium digestibility observed in PVTCpigswas similar with results found in
literature.

301
r
Table6 AVERAGEAPPARENTDIGESTIBILITYOF DRYMATTER,NITROGEN, AMINOACIDS, SODIUMAND
POTASSIUMINPIGSFITTEDWITHILEO-RECTALANASTOMOSIS(IRA)ORPOST-VALVET-CAECUM
(PVTC)CANNULA3,9AND12WEEKSPOST-SURGERY(MEANSAND SE).

3 WEEKS 9WEEKS 12WEEKS

IRA PVTC IRA PVTC IRA PVTC
a
DM 64.3 ± l . l a 60.8 ± 0 . 6 D 64.1 ±1.2 59.7 ± 0 . 6 D 69.9 ±0.7 e 60.8 ± 0.4'
N 6S.7 ±0.9 a 69.0 ± 0.9 b 66.4 ±1.0 69.3 ± 1.2 72.3 ±0.9 71.6 ± 0.6
ARG 82.2 ±0.8 e 85.1 ± 0 . 6 f 82.1 ±0.5 83.2 ± 1.2 84.3 ±0.3 84.6 ± 1.3
HIS 74.8 ±1.3 a 79.0 ± 0 . 6 b 77.2 ±0.7° 80.6 ± 0 . 6 d 78.7 ±1.1 80.5 ± 0.6
a
ILE 75.1 ±0.6 e 79.2 ± 0.7f 75.2 ±0.6 78.1 ± 1 . 3 b 77.2 ±0.6 a 79.8 ± 0 . 6 b
LEU 78.5 ±0.7 e 81.6 ± 0 . 6 f 79.1 ±0.7 81.2 ± 1.1 81.5 ±0.5 82.9 ± 0.5
a
LYS 70.0 ± l . l 73.5 ± 0.9 b 70.9 ±1.0 70.3 ± 1.2 66.9 ±0.9 68.2 ± 1.3
e
MET 83.5 ±0.7 C 87.4 ± 0.^ 82.3 ±0.5 88.1 ± 1.3f 83.8 ±0.6 e 87.9 ± 0.7f
C
PHE 77.8 ±0.6 80.9 ± 0 . 6 d 78.1 ±0.7 80.5 ± 0.9 80.6 ±0.5 81.1 ± 0.6
a
THR 66.1 +1.2 67.6 ± 0.9 67.9 ±1.2 66.9 ± 1.3 72.7 ±0.9 70.0 ± 0.9 b
VAL 71.6 +0.7 3 74.5 ± 0 . 8 b 72.1 ±0.9 73.6 ± 1.2 75.7 ±0.7 75.7 ± 0.7
a
ZAAS 75.5 ±0.8 78.2 ± 0 . 6 b 76.6 ±0.7 77.5 ± 0.9 79.0 ±0.7 78.6 ± 0.6
NA -23.0 ±5.2 e -640.4 ±21.8 f e
-29.1 ±5.5 -632.2 ±13.0
f
-8.1 ±3.5 e
-699.6 ±20.7 f
K 25.7 ±2.8 e 62.8 ± l . l f 26.6 ±3.2 e
59.8 ± 4 . 9 f 36.9 ±2.6 e
64.0 ± 2.2f

ab MEANSINTHE SAMEROWANDWITHIN ACOLLECTIONPERIODWITHDIFFERENTSUPERSCRIPTS DIFFER P<.05

cd MEANSINTHESAMEROWANDWITHIN ACOLLECTION PERIODWITHDIFFERENTSUPERSCRIPTS DIFFERP<.01
ef MEANSINTHESAMEROWANDWITHINACOLLECTION PERIODWITHDIFFERENTSUPERSCRIPTS DIFFERP<.001

Conclusion Althoughtherewere some differences in generalthe ileal digestibility

coefficients obtained with the PVTCmethodwere comparablewith those obtained
with the re-entrant or simple T-cannulas. The results obtained with the PVTC and
the IRAtechnique were different. Thereare clearindications that the IRAtechnique
gives unrealistic results regarding the ileal digestibility of dry matter, nitrogen,
amino acids and minerals.

References

<--*£- ' Den Hartog, L.A.;Huisman, J.;Thielen,W.J.G.;van Schayk, G.H.A.; Boer, H.; van Weerden,E.J.
r
Theeffect ofincludingvariousstructuralpolysaccaridesinpigdietsonilealandfaecal digestibility
of amino acids andminerals. 1988.Livest. Prod. Sei. 18,157-170.

Drochner, W.Einfluß wechselnder Rohfaser- undPektingehalte imFutter aufeinige praecaecale

und postilealeVerdauungsvorgänge beim wachsenen Schwein. 1984. Fortschritte in der
Tierphysiologie undTierernährung Bd.14,Beihefte zurZ.fürTierphysiol. Tierernähr.
Futtermittelkde., 125pp.

Darcy, B.;Laplace, J.P. Digestion dans l'intestine grêle chezleporc. 1.Définition des conditions
d'obtention des digesta.Ann. Zootech. 1980.137-145.

Darcy-Vrillon, B.;Laplace, J.P. 1985.Ileal amino acid digestibility measurement inpigs fedhigh
fibre diet: ileo-rectal anastomosis versus ileo-colic post-valve fistulation. InDigestive physiology
in thepig(eds.A.Just, H.Jorgensen, L.A.Fernandez), pp.184-187.Report No.580, National
Institute ofAnimal Science, Copenhagen.

Green, S.Digestibilities ofamino acids infeedstuff's forpoultry and pigs. 1987.A.E.C.-Rhône

Poulenc Nutrition Laboratories. 03600 Commentry (France).

Jorgensen, H.;Sauer, W.C.;Thacker, P.A.Amino acid availabilities insoybean meal, sunflower

meal, fish meal andmeat andbone meal fedtogrowing pigs.J.Anim. Sei. 1984, 58,926-934.

302
Just, A.; J0rgensen, H.; Fernandez, J.A. Correlations of protein deposited in growing female pigs
to ileal and faecal digestible crude protein and amino acids.Livest.Prod. Sei. 1985, 12,145-159.

Knabe,D.A.;LaRue,D.C.;Gregg,E.J.; Martinez, G.M.; TanksleyJr., T.D.Apparent digestibilityof

nitrogen and amino acids inprotein feedstuffs bygrowing pigs.J.Anim.Sei. 1989,67,441-458.

Köhler, T.; Huisman, J.; Den Hartog, L.A.;Mosenthin, R.A comparison of different digesta
collection methods todetermine the apparent digestibilities ofthenutrients attheterminal ileum
in pigs.J. SeiFood Agric. 1990, inpress.

Köhler, T.; Mosenthin, R.; Verstegen, M.W.A.;Huisman, J.; den Hartog, LA; Ahrens, F.Effect of
ileo-rectal anastomosis and post-valve T-caecum cannulation on growing pigs. 1.Growth
performance, N-balance and intestinal adaptation. 1991a in preparation.

Köhler,T.;Verstegen, M.W.A.;Mosenthin,R.;Wensing,T.; denHartog,L.A.;Huisman, J.Effect of

ileo-rectalanastomosisandpost-valveT-caecumcannulationongrowingpigs.2.Bloodparameters
and mineral balances. 1991b, in preparation.

van Leeuwen, P.;van Kleef, D.J.; van Kempen, G.J.M.; Huisman, J.; Verstegen, M.W.A.The post-
valve T-caecum cannulation technique in pigs applicated to determine the digestibility of amino
acids in maize, groundnut and sunflower meal.J. Anim.Nutr. aAnim. Physiol. 1991,in press.

van Leeuwen, P.;van Weerden, E.J.; Huisman, J. unpublished results. 1989. Institute ofAnimal
/
Nutrition and Physiology OLOB),Haarweg 8,Wageningen, TheNetherlands

Partridge, I.G.Studies on digestion and absorption in the intestines of growing pigs. 3.Net
movements of mineral nutrients in the digestive tract. 1978.Br. J. Nutr. 39,527-545.

Partridge, I.G.; Simon, O.;Bergner, H.The effects of treated straw meal on ileal and faecal
digestibility of nutrients in pigs. 1986.Arch.Anim.Nutr. 36,351-359.

Picard, M.; Bertrand, S.; Genin, F.; Maillard, R. Digestibility of amino acids: interest of the ileo-
rectal shunt technique in pig.Journées Recherche Porcine en France. 1984, 16,355-360.

Souffrant, W.B.;Schumann, B.;Matkowitz,R.; Gebhardt, G.Untersuchungen zur Stickstoff- und

Aminosäurenresorption im Dünndarm von wachsenen Schweinen. Arch.Anim. Nutr. 1985,35,
781-789.

Zebrowska, T. 1973.Digestion and absorption ofnitrogenous compounds in the large intestineof

pigs. Rocz.Nauk. Roln.B.95 :80.

303
PRECAECAL NUTRIENT DIGESTIBILITY AND AMINO ACID
ABSORPTION IN PIGS WITH ILEORECTAL ANASTOMOSES
AND ILEOCAECAL RE-ENTRANT CANNULAE
U. Hennig, J. Wünsche, W.-B. Souffrant and F. Kreienbring

Research Centre of Animal Production, Institute of Animal

Nutrition "Oskar Kellner", Rostock, Germany

Abstract
The apparent precaecal nutrient digestibility and amino
acid (a.a.) absorption of 10 diets were estimated in pigs
with end-to-side ileorectal anastomoses (IRA) and with ileo-
caecal bridge cannulae (ICB). The digestibility coefficients
(d.c.) of organic matter, crude carbohydrates and nitrogen
free extract were significantly higher in IRA pigs than in
ICB pigs in two, three resp. four diets. There were no prac-
tically important differences for the d.c. of crude protein
and crude fat in all diets. Of in the whole 180 a.a. absorp-
tion comparisons only 20 (11 %) showed differences larger
than 5 %-units. The absorption rates of several a.a. were
lower in IRA than in ICB pigs and of some,.other a.a. on the
contrary. The methionine absorption of five legume as well
as barley+lysine diets were up to 15 \ resp. 4 %-units lower.
This was due to the activity of microbes in the rectum. In
order to minimize such a falsification it is proposed to make
an end-to-end ileorectostomy. The deviations of other a.a.
can partly be explained by differences in the a.a. pattern of
endogenous protein, as it is shown in the case of feeding
.protein-free diets.
Keywords: digestibility, absorption, nutrients, amino acids,
endogenous protein, ileum, methods, pig

Introduction
The evaluation of feed protein and the calculation of the
a.a. contents in pig diets should be done on the base of pre-
caecal a.a. absorption. Recently average values have been cal-
culated and tabulated with mean d.c. values originating from
various literature sources and described methods (Anonym,
1988; Anonym, 1989). The aim of this study was to compare the
precaecal nutrient digestibility and a.a. absorption in pigs
with IRA and ICB to supplement the investigations of Picard
et al. (1984), Laplace et al. (1985) or Köhler et al. (1990).

Diets and animals

The composition of the experimental diets is shown in table

1. The diets 1 to 7 were calculated in order to meet the
maintenance requirements of protein, a.a. and energy for
pigs with 100 kg live weight (l.w.). In pigs weighing 50 to
60 kg the diets 8 and 9 were calculated for obtaining amo-
derate growth. DL-methionine was supplied in diets 3 to 6 to

304
p r e v e n t d e f i c i e n c y . T h i s D L - m e t h i o n i n e s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n was
n o t c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e a b s o p r t i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s . I n t h e same
m a n n e r t h e L - l y s i n e - H C l a b s o r p t i o n i n d i e t 10 was a s s u m e d t o
be 1 0 0 h.

D i e t s 1 t o 7 w e r e o f f e r e d i n e a c h c a s e t o 5 o IRA p i g s w e i g -
h i n g 107 t o 126 kg a n d t o 2 t o 4 o I C B p i g s w i t h 96 t o
1 0 1 k g l . w . . The DM i n t a k e s a m o u n t e d t o 1 6 0 0 . . . 1 8 5 0 g / d a y a n d
a n i m a l , t h a t means 1 3 . . . 1 9 g D M / k g l . w . , as i t i s p r o p o s e d i n
t h e g u i d e o f S c h i e m a n n ( 1 9 8 1 ) . H i s f e e d i n g s c a l e was a l s o
c o n s i d e r e d i n d i e t s 8 , 9 a n d 10 w i t h 6 o g r o w i n g I R A p i g s
5 1 t o 64 k g l . w . ) o r w i t h 3 o I C B p i g s ( 1 0 1 k g l . w . ) . F o r t h e
d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e i l e a l endogenous p r o t e i n 6 o i l e o r e c t o -
s t o m i z e d p i g s w i t h 144 k g l . w . w e r e g i v e n 2 4 4 6 g DM o f a p r o -
t e i n - f r e e m i x t u r e p e r d a y and o n e c o l l e c t i o n p e r a n i m a l f o r
4 d a y s . The m a n n e r o f d i g e s t a c o l l e c t i o n was q u i t e d i f f e r e n t
i n IRA a n d I C B i n d i e t s 1 t o 1 0 : t h e r e was o n e c o l l e c t i o n per
a n i m a l f o r 6 d a y s o r up t o 4 c o l l e c t i o n p e r i o d s f o r 12 h o u r s
a r o u n d t h e c l o c k w i t h a one day b r e a k a f t e r t h e s e c o n d p e r i o d
resp.

Table 1 . Composition of e x p e r i m e n t a l d i e t s ( g / k g DM).

Diet-No. Ingredients

1 7 9 5 B a r l e y l + 185 Yellow l u p i n 1 + 20 M i n e r a l m i x t u r e * )
(Min.m.)
2 720 B a r l e y 1 + 260 L u p i n 2 + 2 0 M i n . m . * ) ^
3 403 L u p i n 1 + 571.5 p r o t e i n - f r e e m i x t u r e ( p . f . m . ) + 25 Min.m.-'
+ 0.5 D L - M e t h i o n i n e ( M e t ) ^
4 594 L u p i n 2 + 377.6 p . f . m . + 25 Min.m. ; + 3 . 4 Met
5 603 F i e l d bean 1 + 368 p . f . m . + 2 5 . 6 . M i n . m . * ) + 3 . 4 Met
6 608 F i e l d bean 2 + 364 p . f . m . + 25 M i n . m . * ) + 3 Met
7 489 Rapeseed meal + 486 p . f . m . + 25 M i n . m . * )
8 327 B a r l e y 1 + 581 Wheat + 77 F i s h meal 1 + 1 0 Min.m. +
5 Vitamine mixture f o r p i g l e t s ( V i t . m . )
9 329 B a r l e y 2 + 581 Wheat + 75 Fishmeal 2 + 10 Min.m. + 5 Vit.m.
10 980.8 B a r l e y 2 + 1 0 Min.m. + 4 . 2 L - L y s i n e - H C l + 5 V i t . m .
11 787 b o i l e d p o t a t o s t a r c h + 9 8 . 4 Sucrose + 4 9 . 2 C e l l u l o s e
powder + 4 9 . 2 Rapeseed o i l + 1 6 . 2 Min.m.
_ . _ __
Vit.m."Summavit Uvforte":1drageeperday

Results and Discussion

In some diets the d.c.(%)of nutrients was significantly
higher in IRA than in ICB: for organic matter in diet 4 70/64
(IRA/ICB) and 5 83/75, crude carbohydrates in diets 1 76/69,
4 66/59 and 5 84/75, nitrogen-free extract in diets 1 83/77,
2 81/74, 4 76/67 and 5 90/82. These differences can be caused
by the absence of the ileocaecal-valve (no temporal stowage
of chyme in the ileum) in ICB and/or by the additional sto-
wage of chyme in the rectum of IRA pigs. In spite of that,
there were no practical important differences in d.c. of
crude protein in all diets: 1 77/75, 2 75/77, 3 84/86,

305
r
4 82/80*), 5 78/73, 6 80/76, 7 73/68, 8 81/81, 9 80/78 and
10 74/70 and the same for the d.c. of crude fat: 1 57/63,
2 59/65, 3 83/88, 4 74/80*), 5 88/84, 6 88/85, '782/83, 8
74/73, 9 70/70 and 10 62/62 (* = significance d.= 0.05).

For the a.a. absorption some remarkable differences exist

between the two methods as it is shown in table 2.

Table 2. Precaecal absorption rates(%)of amino acids

Diet- He Lys Met Cys Thr Trp

No. IIWICB IRA/ICB IRA/ICB IRA/ICB IRA/ICB IRA/ICB
1. 75/77 71/76* 72/81* 85/83 72/69 76/69
2. 74/80 72/81* 74/81* 84/80 70/74 74/71
3. 82/86 82/86 75/85* 88/80 82/84 78/78
4. 83/83 85/86 75/77 87/82* 81/81 75/66*
5. 75/73 77/78 64/74* 75/77 72/65 65/62
6. 76/75 80/81 60/75* 76/74 74/69 71/63
7. 73/71 74/75 76/80 76/75 72/69 66/65
8. 80/85 81/82 87/88 83/78* 77/76 85/82*
9. 82/83 78/78 87/85 82/81 74/73 78/74
10. 79/74 82/79 78/82* 78/77 68/61* 62/50

Significance c^= 0.05

In five legume diets and in the barley+lysine diet the methio-

nine absorption was significantly higher in ICB than in IRA
pigs: the differences are 9, 7, 10, 15 and 4 %-units in the
diets 1, 2, 3, 5 and 10 resp. Absorption differences for ly-
sine were found in diet 1 and 2 (5 and 9 ^-units resp.).
The intake levels particularly of methionine in a protein-
•bound form in the legume diets were very small and therefore
already slight bacterial activities in the digesta are able
to reduce the absorption rate and to enhance the excretion
rate to a high degree. In connection with that the carbohy-
drate digestion in the small intestine was not so high in
these diets than in other diets and more fermentable substan-
ces are available in the rectal stowage room. It can be con-
cluded that it is possible to minimize this falsification
by means of the end-to-end ileorectostomy as it was done by
Green et al. (1987). On the other hand, the absorption rates
of cystine, threonine and tryptophan were higher in IRA than
in ICB pigs.
When all a.a. with significant absorption differences will be
classified in IRA lower (I) and IRA higher (II) than ICB,as
it is done in table 3, then it is a remarkable picture. Group
I encloses methionine, lysine, isoleucine, valine and alanine,
group II includes phenylalanine, cystine, tryptophan, threo-
nine, arginine and histidine but also glutamic acid and gly-
cine. Aspartic acid and proline appear in both groups. For
several a.a. it is assumed that protein and a.a. of endoge-
nous origin seem to be responsible for this picture. There-
fore the average endogenous a.a. and CP excretion in the
digesta of IRA pigs should be compared with mean values from

306
cannulated pigs (in mg per 100 g DM i n t a k e ) . This comparison
is given in table 4 in columns 2 and 3.

Table 3. Amino acids with significant absorption differences.

I. IRA II. IRA

lower than ICB Die t--No. higher than ICB Die t- No.
Methionine 1, 2 3, Phenylalanine 1, 4 , 8, 10
5, 6 10 Cystine 4, 8
Lysine 1, 2 Tryptophan 4, 8 , 10
Isoleucine 2, 8 Threonine 10
Leucine 2 Arginine 10
Valine 2 Histidine 10
Alanine 2
Glutamic acid 4
Glycine 4, 9
Aspartic acid 2 Aspartic acid 10
Proline 8 Proline 5

Table 4. Average amounts of endogenous amino acids and/crude

protein in the digesta of IRA and cannulated pigs (mg/100 g
DM intake of protein-free diets).

1. 2. 3. 2. i n %
IRA (n = 6) IRA n Cannulae of 3.
Arg 29.5 + 2.8 28.7 + 5.6 8 44.1 65
His 12.5 + 2.4 14.5 + 2.1 8 17.9 81
He 33.2 + 5.4 26.8 + 4.6 8 24.3 110
Leu 48.6 + 6.6 45.1 + 9.1 8 49.6 91
Lys 46.1 + 9.3 39.0 + 10.4 8 37.8 103
Met 11.5 + 2.6 13.4* + 2.2 3 10.4 129*;56
Cys 14.2 + 1.3 12.9 + 2.2 8 20.5 63
Phe 30.5 + 7.5 26.8 + 5.1 8 32.1 83
Tyr 19.4 + 3.8 21.0 + 2.4 7 25.3 83
Thr 33.9 + 5.4 39.6 + 8.8 8 50.8 78
Trp 10.9 + 1.8 10.9 + 1.8 1 18.3 60
Val 37.2 + 5.8 35.9 + 4.2 8 40.0 90
Ala 49.9 + 10.0 42.2 + 11.0 8 51.0 83
Asp 62.5 + 9.1 58.0 + 9.7 8 78.0 74
Glu 82.0 + 12.2 73.3 + 10.4 8 82.9 88
Gly 45.0 + 9.8 55.2 + 13.4 8 118.3 47
Pro 79.1 + 66.1 77.2 + 12.6 4 251.0 31
Ser 29.9 + 4.8 35.5 + 7.8 8 46.8 76
CP 841 +159 872 +137 8 1387 63
(Nxé.25)
1. Own r e s u l t s * , 2. Averages calculated from column 1. plus
beneath cited literature: Souffrant et a l . ( 1 9 8 5 ) * ; Pie-
truschka ( 1 9 8 7 ) * ; Green et al. ( 1 9 8 7 ) ; Green and Kiener ( 1 9 8 9 ) ;
Mariscal-Landin et al. (1990);*End-to-side a n a s t o m o s e s ; Met
5,8 + 0,8(n = 5)= 56 % in End-to-end anastomoses; 3. Wünsche
et a l . (1987)

307
 Oftheessentiala.a.arginine,histidine, cystine, threonine and
tryptophan the excretion levels in IRA are smaller than in
ICB pigs. The apparent absorption rates of these'a.a. are
higher in IRA than in ICB pigs in one or another diet (see
table 3 ) .Similar reactions were observed in aspartic acid
and glycine. On contrary the excretion levels of endogenous
isoleucine and methionine are increased in IRA with the re-
sult that the apparent absorption rates are decreased. Under
the conditions of protein intake the a.a. of endogenous ori-
gin probably interact the absorption rates of several native
a.a.. But in general these influences should not be overeva-
luated. From all significant absorption differences of each
group, presented in table 3 the differences were only in 20
cases equal or larger than 5 %-units. This is 11 % of the
conducted 180 comparisons. The number of observed deviations
is relatively small. Therefore the a.a. absorption rates
available from the literature and estimated by both methods
should be tabulated. But the'methionine absorption rate which
were estimated with end-to-side IRA pigs in diets with a
low content of protein-bound methionine must be excluded.
Two additional facts from the present study are interesting
to know. Firstly, the methionine excretion levels in protein-
free diets using end-to-side IRA pigs (Souffrant et al., 1985;
Pietruschka, 1987; our own findings) were double as high as
in end-to-end IRA pigs (Green et al., 1987; Green and Kiener,
1989; Mariscal-Landin et al., 1990). Secondly, the excretion
level of endogenous a.a. and CP in our own,experiment with
144 kg l.w. pigs was nearly equal to those in the trials of
the other research workers, who partly used little pigs (20
to 40 kg l.w.). It can be concluded that the a.a. pattern of
ileal endogenous protein and also the excretion amounts per
100 g DM intake during protein free nutrition are more or
less independent of the ontogenesis in pigs.

**- References
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Green, S., S.L. Bertrand, M.J.C. Duron & R.A. Maillard, 1987.
Digestibility of amino acids in maize, wheat and barley
meal, measured in pigs with ileo-rectal anastomosis and iso-
lation of the large intestine. J. Sei. Food Agric. 41:29-43.
Green, S. & T. Kiener, 1989. Digestibilities of nitrogen
and amino acids in soya-bean, sunflower meal and rapeseed
meals measured with pigs and poultry. Anim. Prod. 48:157-
179.
Köhler, T., R. Mosenthin, M.W.A. Verstegen, L.A. den Hartog,
J. Huisman & F. Ahrens, 1990. Ein Vergleich unterschied-
licher Methoden zur Sammlung von Dünndarmchymus beim
Schwein. Tagung der GfE, Göttingen, 1 S.
Laplace, J.P., B. Darcy-Vrillon & M. Picard, 1985. Evaluation
de la disponsibilité des acides aminés: Choix raisonne
d'une méthode. Journées Rech. Porc. en France 17:353-370.

308
Marisca I-La n d i n , G., Y. Lebr eton &B . Sève, 1990. Mesure,
chez le p o r e , d e 1' excréti on d'aci des aminés d'o rigine en-
dogen e, a u ni ve au i léal, s elon deu x méthodes. Jo urnées
Rech. Por c . en Fran ce 22:2 15-222.
Picard, M., S. Be rtra nd, F. Genin & R. Ma illard, 1 9 8 4 . D i -
gesti bili t é des aci des ami nés: Int eret de la tec h n i q u e du
shunt iléo-•rectal chez leporc. Journées Rech, Porcineen France 16:355-360
Pietrus chka , K.G. , 19 87. Unt e r s u c h u n gen z ur ileale n N- und
AS-Re sorp t i o n b eim Schwein in Abhä ngigk eit von d er L e b e n d -
masse und der P rote inquali tat mit Hilfe der Ileo r e k t o s t o m i e .
Diss. A, K a r l - M arx- Univ. L eipzig, 81 S.
Schiema nn, R. , 19 81. Methodi cal dire ction s for dig e s t i o n e x -
perim ents for f eed évaluât ion. Arc h. Ti erernähr. 31:1-19.
Souffra nt, W.-B., B. Schuman n, R. Ma tkowi tz & G. G ebhardt,
1985. Unt ersuch unge n zur S tickstof f- un d Aminosà' urenre-
sorpt ion im Dün ndar m von w achsende n Sch weinen. 1 . Mittei-
lung. Are h. Tie r e m Mhr. 35 :781-789
Wünsche , J. , U. H errm ann, M. Meinl, U. Hennig, F. Kreienbring
& P. Zwie rz, 19 87. Einfluß exogene r Faktoren auf die prä-
zäkal e Nä hrstof f- u nd Amin osäurenr esorption, erm ittelt an
Schwe inen mit I leo- Rektal- Anastomo sen. 1. Mittei lung.
Arch. A n i m. Nut r. 3 7:745-7

309
ASSESSING THE PROPORTION OF BACTERIA NITROGEN IN
FAECES AND DIGESTA OF PIGS USING DAP ESTIMATION
AND BACTERIA FRACTIONATION
J. Wünsche, T. Völker, E. Borgmann, W.-B. Souffrant

Research Centre of Animal Production Dummerstorf-Rostock

Division of Animal Nutrition 'Oskar Kellner', Rostock,
Germany

Abstract
In faeces samples of intact (INT) pigs as well as in ileal
digesta samples of surgically differently prepared pigs bac-
terial fractionations and 2.6-diaminopimelic acid (DAP) esti-
mations were conducted in order to calculate the bacterial
nitrogen proportions in faeces N and digesta N. These cal-
culations were done in two different ways, 1. using the pre-
mise that all the nitrogen in the 'bacterial fraction C' is
only of bacterial origin or 2. putting up the premise that
DAP found in fraction A originates from intestinal bacteria
adhering to feed particles. The following proportions of
bacteria N in per cent of total N were ascertained by the
two calculation procedures after feeding various diets: fae-
ces of INT pigs: 43.0...68.2 or 69.6...89.0; digesta of opera-
ted pigs - ileorectostomized, colon descendens open (IRAo)
22.3...57.0 or 46.2...73.8; re-entrant cannulated (REC)
17.0...35.7 or 25.2...53.6; ileorectostomized, colon descen-
dens closed (IRAg) only 3 pigs on one diet 23.6 or 24.2. In
the digesta N of protein free fed IRAo pigs only 22.0 or 22.6
% was bacteria N. Though there was a high individual variabi-
lity and a large analytical variation width too, the results
got with REC and IRAg pigs suggest a bacteria N proportion of
approximately 25 per cent of the total N in ileal digesta.
Keywords: pigs, ileal digesta, faeces, bacterial fractiona-
tion, DAP, bacteria nitrogen

Introduction
Recent investigations on protein digestibility and amino
acid absorption in various parts of the pigs'digestive tract
led to the knowledge that amino acid absorption has finished
at the terminal ileum. Most of the nitrogenous compounds get-
ting into the large intestine are microbiologically fermented
and no longer usable to the animal for protein synthesis.
About 60 to 90 per cent of the excreted faecal N of pigs is
bacteria N (Laplace et al., 1985; Mauritz-Boeck et al., 1986;
Wünsche et al., 1987). Though the pig-own digestive enzymes
are responsible to about 90 per cent for total digestion
(Bolduan & Jung, 1982), the intestinal bacteria also have a
great influence on nutrient digestibility and nitrogen and
energy metabolism (Meinl, 1978; Rerat, 1981). The fact of a
high digestibility of G-glucans in the pig small intestine

310
(Fadel et al., 1989) indicates a substantial bacterial acti-
vity in this part of the digestive tract. According to Gra-
ham et al. (1986)more than 1 0 7 Lactobacilli could be found
per g fresh duodenal and ileal digesta. Hence microbial en-
zymes also play an essential role in precaecal nutrient di-
gestion.
In order to enlarge the konwledge about the extent of bac-
terial protein synthesis in different parts of the digestive
tract DAP-estimationsand bacterial fractionations were done
in samples of faeces and ileal digesta of intact (INT) and
surgically differently prepared pigs,and bacteria N propor-
tions in the excreta were calculated.

Experimental

Analytical methods

Sa mple s of fae ces or i leal diges ta - tak en i mmediat ely

afte r ex cret ion -we re h omoge nized and par tly preserv ed in
0.7 \ fo rmal dehy de, part ly fr eeze drie d. T he p reserve d samples
were fra ctio nate dac cord ing t o the pro cedu re o f Steph en &
Cumm ings (19 80) int he m odifi catio n gi ven by M einl & Kreien-
brin g (1 985) .So an isol ated, rela tive ly c lean bacter ia frac-
tion (fr acti onC )wa s go t bes ides frac tion Aw hich es sential-
ly c onsi sted of part icle s ori ginat ing from the diets, and a
smal 1 ne giig ible fra ctio n Bc ontai ning ver y fi ne diet parti-
clés . As a b acte ria mark er 2. 6-dia mino pime lie acid (D AP) was
anal yzed in frac tion s C and A as w ell in t he'w hole fr eeze
drie d sa mple sof fae ces and d igest a. T he a naly tical m ethod
of t he D AP-e stim atio n wa s car ried out by c olum n chrom ato-
grap hy a nd i sde scri bed in it s met hodi cal deta ils by Völker
et a 1. ( 1991 ).

Experimental animals and diets

A general view on the experimental pigs as well as the vari-

ous diets, which had been used primarily for investigations
of protein digestibility and amino acid absorption, is pre-
sented in tables 1 and 2.

Table 1. Experimental pigs, operation techniques and live

weights

Pigs Operation technique Abbrev. Live weights (kg)

Intact INT 56...154
Cannulated Ileo-caecal re-en- REC 59...103
trant cannulae
Ileorecto- Ileo-rectal anasto- IRAo 36. 144
stomized mosis with open colon
descendens
Ileo-rectal anasto- IRAg 53
mosis with closed
colon descendens

311
Besides "thenormal INT pigs different operation techniques
had been used for receiving ileal digesta.All"techniques as
there are re-entrant cannulation (REC)and fitting ileo-rec-
tal anastomoses (IRA)with open colon descendens (IRAo), i.e.
end-to-side anastomosis or closed colon descendens (IRAg),i.
e.end-to-end anastomosis are comprehensively described by
Hennig et al. (1990).
Ascan be seen from table 2,aproteinfree diet and somesemi-
synthetic,cereal and mixed-feed diets were examined byone,
two or three of the four pigcategories.

Table 2.Diets fed to experimental pigs.

Diets Pigs, numb er (n)
(Type) num-
.ber (n)INT REC IRAo IRAg
1.Proteinfree mixture!) 1 - - 3 -
2. Protein concentrate2)+
proteinfree mixture 4 - 7 19 -
3.Barley+lysine 3 11 - 11 -
4. Rye+casein 1 7 - 4 -
5. Barley+canola 1 3 - - -
6.Wheat+barley+fishm. 2 6 5 12 -
7.Commercial mixed feed 1 4 - 4 3
g/kg DM: 800steamed potato starch+100'sucrose+50 cellu-
lose+50oil
2)
Field bean;lupin;canola;fishmeal

Results and Discussion

In table 3the DAP values inbacteria fraction C (mg/g N)
of faeces and ileal digesta aregiven.
Comparison with data from literature were only found outfor
pig faeces aswell asrumen and duodenal content ofcattle.
Themean DAP content of 26.6mg per gdigesta bacteria Nof
IRAo pigs iswithin the variation width of faeces orrumen
bacteria N.Although the variation width between the single
animals israther wide,differences between the 3surgical
methods are evident.The high DAP values inthe digesta of
IRAo pigs suggest that there are some possibilities ofbac-
terial development and fermentation because,of apossible
reverse stream into the colon descendens. Reasons for indi-
vidual differences may be amore or less dense bacteria po-
pulation in the small intestine and occurence of bacteria
species with variable DAPcontents.

Calculations of the bacteria nitrogen proportion inper

cent of excrement total Nwas done intwo different ways.
For both variants some premises had to be appointed:
1.Asmicroscopic checkings of the bacteria fraction Csho-
wed it contains besides ahigh proportion of bacteria fine
fibre particles,residuals of vegetable cell walls -consi-
sting of structured carbohydrates and lignin -,which are

312
Table 3.DAP levels in isolated bacteria fractions of animal
gut contents and faeces (own results incomparison with val-
ues from literature).
Animal Bacterial frac- mg DAP Authors
species tion,isolated per gBact.-N
from ...
Pig (INT) Faeces 14.2...29.0 t h i s paper
(REO I l e a l digesta 7.5...18.8
(IRAo) " " 10.0...39.6
(IRAg) " " 5 . 2 . . . 7.3
Pig Faeces 16 ...24*) Wünsche, M e i n l
et a l . (1987)
3 7 . 5 . . . 39.8 Poppe & Meier (1983)
43 . . . 8 8 Meinl & Kreienbring
(1985)
19.4/29.9 Laplace et a l . (1985)
28/30*) Mason et a l . (1982)
Cattle Rumen c o n t e n t 20 . . . 4 0 Whitelaw et a l .
(1984)
Cow " " 34*) Krawielit?.ki &
V o i g t (1988)
Young c a t t l e Duodenal digesta 46*) Gabel & Poppe (1985)
T)
Converted values

practical nitrogen free.Hence itfollows that the wholeN

amount in fraction Cispure bacterial N.On this base cal-
culated percentages of bacterial Nintotal Nof pigs'faeces
and digesta are given intable 4.

Table 4.Bacterial Nin%of total Ninfaeces and digesta

of pigs. Calculation base:Namount inbacterial fractionC
related to the respective total Namount.
Diet Faeces Ileal digesta,pigs with ...
type INT pigs REC _ IRAo_ IRAg
No. _x x x x
1 - - 22.0
2 - 17.0...22.5 22.3...43.1
3 55.6...68.0 - 32.3...57.0
4 58.0 - 35.4
5 51.9 -
6 43.0 35.7 36.1...36.6
7 68.2 - 35.6 23.6
CTY^ 2.2...12.0 14.4...46.4 9.3...42.9 2ÎT4

This calculation manner provides bacterial Nproportions

infaeces of 43...68%,which range -compared to valuesin
literature -atthe lower bound. They are,however distinctly
higher than in digesta (17...57 \). Thevery low bacteriaN
share inthe digesta Nof the IRAg pigs suggests that this

313
r
surgical technique is suitable for getting unadulterated di-
gesta, which corresponds largely to the not accessible di-
gesta of intact pigs.
2. For another calculation procedure DAP is used as a bac-
terial marker. In this case the DAP content of fraction A
must be taken into account, because it is supposed that this
DAP originates from gut bacteria, which had not been removed
from the coarse feed particles and therefore are adhering to
them. This DAP content from fraction A - related to the same
bacteria N proportion as in fraction C - and summed led to
bacteria N proportions in the total N of faeces or digesta
as presented in table 5.

Table 5. Bacterial N in % of total N in faeces and digesta

of pigs. Calculation base :DAP amounts in the fractions C+A-
Diet Faeces Ileal digesta, pigs with ...
type INT gigs REC _ IRAo_ IRAg
No. x x x x
22.6
25.2...53.6 50.1...59.4
79.2...83.2 62.8...73.8
76.7...81.0 49.6
89.0
69.6 49.9 46.2...52.4
77.8 48.3 24.2
C.V. 3.2...12.0 12.4...30.9 0...42.1 21.2

These values are distinctly higher than those computed only

from the N content of bacteria fraction C (cf. table4 ) .
.In faeces they range from 70 to 90 %, in ileal digesta from
46 to 74 X . In digesta of IRAg pigs (up to now 3 animals
only) this percentage is again very low (24.2 h).
A better agreement between the two calculation procedures for
the bacteria N level in pig excrements will be obtained by an
improvement of the fractionation method, especially in using
a more effective detergent solution for detaching bacteria
from feed particles.
From all results it can be concluded that the variability
of bacteria percentages in pig excrements is very high. In-
dividual differences are at the terminal ileum higher than
in faeces as could be seen from the coefficients of variation.
Influences of feed ingredients could only be observed in ten-
dency, e.g. higher DAP and bacterial N values in diets con-
taining barley.
In order to avoid falsifications of bacteria content in di-
gesta, a subsequent propagation of bacteria has to be ob-
viated. Best surgical techniques for getting unchanged ileal
digesta are the REC and the IRAg operation method. Results
with so prepared pigs show bacteria N proportions in ileal
digesta N not higher than 25 % .

314
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Bold uan, & H. Jun g, 19 82. Zur Ernährung des Ferkels. Fort-
sc hritt erichte f Ur di e Landwirtschaft und Nahrungsgüter-
wi rtsch t, ILID B erlin , 20, Heft 1:7.
Fade 1, 3. , R.K. Ne wman, S.W. Newman & H. Graham, 1989. Ef-
fe ets 0 baking hu lless barley on the digestibility of die-
ta ry co onents as meas ured at the ileum and in the feces
in pigs 3. Nutrit . 119 :722-726.
Gabe 1, M. S. Poppe , 198 5. Untersuchungen zum Protein- und
Am inosä enumsatz im Ve rdauungstrakt beim wachsenden Jung-
bu lien, . Mitt. F luG v on Bakterienrohprotein ins Duodenum,
be stimm mit der 2 ,6-Di aminopimelinsäure als Marker. Arch.
Ti erern r. 35:571 -597.
Grah am, H K. Hesse lman, E. Jonsson & P. Sman, 1986. Influ-
en ce of -glucanas e sup plem entatio n on digestion of a bar-
le y-bas diet in the p ig g astroin testinal tract. Nutrit.
Re ports nternat, 34:10 89-1 096.
Henn ig, U J. Wünsc he, W .B. Souffra nt & U. Herrmann, 1990.
II eorek stomie un d ile ozak ale Kan ülisierung beim Schwein -
Me thode zum Studi um de r pr äzakale n Verdauung von Futter-
pr otein Arch, exp erim. Vet .-Med. 44:35-44.
Kraw ielit i, R. &J . Voi gl, 1988. D ifferent conditions of
ce ntrif ation of rumen con tent as factors affecting the N
an d dia nopimelic acid con tent of mixed rumen bacteria.
Pr oc.E P-Sympos. Rost ock, Public . No. 35; Wiss. Z. WPU
Ro stock N-Reihe 3 7/2:5 8.
Lapl ace, P., B. Da rcy-V rill on, Y. Duval-Iflah & P. Raibaud,
19 85. P teins in the d iges ta of t he pig: amino acid compo-
si tion endogeno us, b acte rial an d fecal fractions. Reprod.
Nu trit. évelop. 2 5:108 3-10 99.
Maso n, V. , Z. Krag elund & B •0. Egg urn, 1982. Influence of
fi bre a Nebaciti n on micr obial a ctivity and amino acid
di gesti lity in t he pi g an d rat. Z. Tierphysiol. Tierer-
nä hr.F termittel kde. 48:2 41-252.
Maur itz-B ck, I.,R . Mos enth in & H. Henkel, 1986. Untersu-
ch ungen ur Bakter ienpr otei naussch eidung in Abhängigkeit
vo n der ationszus ammen setz ung bei Mastschweinen. Z. Tier-
Ph ysiol Tierernah r.Fu tter mittelk de. 56:136-137.
Mein 1.,M 1978. Be deutu ng d er Darm flora für Monogastride
un ter b onderer B erück sich tigung des Proteinstoffwechsels,
Fo rtsch ttsberich te fü r di e Landw irtschaft und Nahrungs-
gü terwi schaft, I LID B erli n, 16, Heft 11:34 ff.
Popp e, S. H. Meier , 198 3. Z ur Amin osäurenzusammensetzung
de r Kot kterien b eim S chwe in. 33: 151-154.
Réra t, A. 1981. Ver dauun g un d Stoff Wechsel von Kohlenhydra-
te n und roteinen im Di ckda rm von Omnivoren. Übersichten
zu r Tie rnährung 9:177 -232
Step hen, M. & J.H. Cumm ings , 1980. The microbial contri-
bu tion human fa ecal mass . J. Me d. Microbiol. 13:45-56.
Volk er,T J. Wünsc he, E . Bo rgmann & W.-B. Souffrant, 1991.
Be stimm g der 2,6 -Diam inop imelins äure in Schweinekot und
-c hymus Arch. Ani mal N utri t. (in press)
Whit elaw, .G., J.M. Eadi e, L .A. Bru ce & w!j. Shand, 1984.
Mi crobi protein synth esis in cat tie given rouphage-con-
ce ntrat and all-c oneen trat e diets : the use of 2,6-diamino-
Pi melic cid, 2-am inoet hylp hosphon ic acid and 35s asmarkers.

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 Brit. 3. Nutrit.52:249-260.
Wünsche,J.,M.Meinl,U.Hennig,E.Borgmann,F.Kreienbring
& H.-D. Bock,1987.Einfluß einer thermischen Behandlung
von Kartoffelprodukten auf den Nährstoffabbau imVerdauungs-
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der Nährstoffe inden verschiedenen Darmabschnitten.Arch.
Anim. Nutrit. 27:169-188.

316
COMPARATIVE STUDIES ON DUODENAL, ILEAL AND
OVERALL DIGESTIBILITY OF DRY MATTER, TOTAL
PHOSPHORUS AND PHYTIC ACID IN PIGS USING DUAL-
PHASE MARKERS
A.W.Jongbloed,P.A.KemmeandZ.Mroz

Research InstituteforLivestockFeedingandNutrition (I.V.V.O.),Lelystad

Abstract
Cr-NDR (4g-kg )andCo-EDTA (5g-kg )wereusedasdualphasemarkersin
twodietsbasedeitheronmaizeandsoybeanmeal (MS)orontapiocaandmaize
glutenfeed (TMG)for6barrowsofabout37kgliveweight,fittedwithtwo
simpleT-cannulaeintheduodenum andterminal ileumtocompareduodenal,
ilealandoveralldigestibility ofdrymatter,totalPandphyticacid.
Duodenaldigestibility coefficients ofthesenutrientswerealwayslowerwhen
calculated fromtheconcentrations ofCo,irrespective ofthediet.
Ilealdigestibility coefficients ofdrymatter,totalPandphyticacid
obtainedfortheMSdietwerealsomarkedly lower (p<0.05)withCoasamarker,
whereas fortheTMGdietthecomparedvalueswerevery similarforboth
/
markers.
Overalldigestibility ofdrymatterfrombothdietswas from2.2 to4.5
percentageunits lowerwhenusingCoasamarker.Also,therelativevaluesfor
totalPwerelowerfrom10.5to12.9percentageunits.
Itseems,thatbyusingCr-NDRtheapparentdigestibilities ofdrymatter,
totalPandphyticacid measured intheduodenumweresomewhat overestimated
whereasbyusingCo-EDTAtherelativemeasurementswereunderestimated.
Valuesoftheduodenal,ilealandoveralldigestibility ofthenutrientsfrom
bothdietsobtainedfromthequantitativecollectionofdigestaandfaeceswere
notknown,andthereforetheaverages calculatedonthebaseofbothmarkers
maybeadoptedasmorerepresentative.
Keywords:cannulatedpigs,markers,apparentdigestibility.

Introduction
Measurementsofmanydigestionprocessesusingre-entrantcannulatedor
ileo-rectalanastomizedpigsarealwaysaffectedbysomedisturbancesofthe
peristalticmovementorabnormalfunctioning oftheintestine (Laplaceand
Darcy,1980;Hennigetal..1986;Köhlere"tal..19901.
Ontheotherhand,itisrecognized thatbyusingpigsfittedwithsimple
T-cannulae intheduodenumorterminal ileum,themeasurementsmaynotbetruly
representative forthedigestapassing thesepoints,because ofadifferential
samplingofeithertheliquidorsolidphase.GrahamandAman (1986)reported
thatthecompositionofbothduodenalandilealdigestavariedconsiderably
duringthesamplingperiodandwasparticularly influencedby feedingtime.
Tocorrectforthepossibility ofnon-representativesamplingofdigestafrom
sheepwithT-cannulae Faichney (1980)introduced thedouble-markermethod.
However,instudiesonpigsstillmostly chromium (asCr„0,orCr-NDR)is
usedasasinglesolid-phasemarker,althoughcontradictory resultsconcerning
itsaccuracyareavailable intheliterature (Livingstone etal..1980:
Partridgeetal..1985:Grahametal..19851.
Therefore,theobjectiveofthepresentstudywastocomparetheapparent
duodenal,ilealandoveralldigestibilities ofsomenutrients (drymatter,

317
r
totalphosphorus andphyticacid)inpigsfittedwith-simpleT-cannulas,using
dual-phasemarkers (Cr-NDRasasolid-phasemarkerandCo-EDTAasa
liquid-phase marker).

Materials and Methods

SixYorkshire x (FinnishLandracexDutchLandrace)barrowsofabout37kg
liveweight,fittedwithtwosimpleT-cannulaeintheduodenum andterminal
ileum,werefedtwodiets,i.e.basedonmaizeandsoybeanmeal (MS)oron
tapiocaandmaizeglutenfeed (TMG)intwotestperiods,lasting for28days,
according toasimpleclassification.Twodailyrationsweresupplementedboth
withCr-NDR (4g,-kg )asanindigestiblemarkerforthesolidphaseandwith
Co-EDTA (5g-kg )fortheliquidphaseandmixedwithwater ataratioof
1:2.5 (w/v)justbefore feedingat7a.m. and4p.m. (Table1).

Table 1.Ingredientsofexperimental dietsandanalysed dietarynutrients

(g-kg)

Diet MS TMG

Ingredients
Maize 859.50
Soybeanmeal 124.55 124.55
Tapioca - 421.00
Maizeglutenfeed - 336.00
Sunflowermeal - 80.00
Soyaoil - 26.00
Limestone 11.80 8.30
NaCl 2.50 ,--2.50
Cholinechloride ^ 0.25 0.25
Tracemin.-vit.premix 1.40 1.40

Dietarynutrients
Drymatter 863 882
Crudeprotein 136 157
Ca 5.1 5.5
TotalP 3.3 4.1
'HS~ 'Phyticacid 7.4 7.5
* -1
Supplied (mg.kg diet): 2.4vitA,0.04vit.D_,8.0vit.E,4.0riboflavin,
20.0nicotinic acid,8.0panthotenic acid,0.02vit.B..„,125.0antioxidant,
430.0FeSO,,50.0MnO,155.0ZnSO,,40.0CuSO.,2.0KJ,0.03 Seand
4 4 4
555.51carrier.
Thepigswerehoused individually inpensof2.00x 1.45 mthroughoutthe
wholeexperiment.
Duringthetestperiods thefeeding7levelwasequivalent to2.3 timesmainte-
nancerequirement,i.e.418kJMEW
After3daysoffeedingthediets,samples ofduodenaldigestawerecollected
5 timesin1or 1.5hour intervals (assumingmaximally ca.300goffreshma-
terialduring thefirst twocollections,450gduring the thirdcollectionand
quantitatively duringthelasttwocollections),beginning at7a.m. onthe
4-th andthe6-th dayofthetestperiod.

318
 Faeceswerecollectedatrandomonthe9-th and10-thday,whereas samplesof
ilealdigestawerecollectedquantitatively onthe10-th,12-thand14-thday
(7timesin1-2hour intervals,beginning at7 a.m.).
Thesamplesofdigestawerecollected intosterilizedpolyethylenebags
attachedtothecannulabarrel,freezedriedandground topassa1mmsieve
prior toanalysis.
Analyticalandstatisticalprocedures ofthisexperimentweredescribed
elsewhere (Simonsetal..19901.

Resultsand Discussion
Comparisons oftheapparentduodenaldigestibility coefficients ofdry
matter,totalPandphyticacidcalculated from theconcentrations ofCrandCo
arepresentedinTable 2.

Table2.Theapparentduodenaldigestibility coefficients ofdrymatter,total

Pandphytic acid inpigs calculated fromthe concentrations ofCr
andCo (in % ) .

Diet MS TMG

Cr-NDR Co-EDTA Cr-NDR Co -EDTA

Drymatter mean 5.9 -4.3 5.1 -16.3*

SD 15.6 8.9 6.3 6.3
**
TotalP mean 7.8 -4.3 9.6 -10.0
SD 14.2 10.4 9.5 2.9

Phyticacid mean 49.5 43.2 54.8 47.0

SD 9.9 12.4 5.7 6.1

SD- standarddeviation
statistically significantatP<0.01

Irrespective ofthetreatment,allthevalues obtainedwithCoasaliquid

phasemarkerwere lower.Standarddeviationswererelativelyhighforboth
markers.
InstudiesofLowet al. (1978)meandrymatterdigestibility intheduodenum
ofpigswithintestinalre-entrant cannulasvaried from4to6percentage
units.Ontheotherhand,Zebrowskaetal.(1983)reported thatthemean
duodenaloutput:dietary intakeratioofdrymatterranged from 1.03 to1.05.
Thelatterdataseemtobemoreconvincing,because thehigheroutputthan
intakeofdrymatter isduetosalivaryandgastric secretions (4-8kg/24h ) ,
thusprovidingendogenousNandash intotheduodenum.Therefore,ourresults
basedonCrsupposingly overestimate thedegreeofdrymatterdigestibilityin
theduodenum,whereas thevaluesobtainedbyusingCoseem tobetoolow.
Duodenaldigestibility ofPwasalso lowerwhencalculated fromthe
concentrationofCo,whereas thevalues ofphytic aciddegradationanterior

319
 totheduodenalcannulawerehigher.Informationonmineral-digestionin
differentsections ofthegastro-intestinal tractisstillscarce.Partridge
(1978)reportedaslightnetabsorptionofPanterior totheduodenalcannulae
withadietcontainingmaizestarchandsucrose,whereas this tendencywasnot
observedwithadietcomposedofbarleyandfinewheatoffal.Itseemsthere-
fore,thatthere isanimpactofdifferentdietaryfactors.
Theapparentilealdigestibility ofdrymatter,totalPandphyticacid
inpigs,calculated from theconcentrations ofCrandCoisgiveninTable3.

Table3.Theapparent ilealdigestibility ofdrymatter,totalPandphytic

acidinpigs, calculated fromtheconcentrations ofCrandCo (in % ) .

Diet MS TMG
Cr-NDR Co-EDTA Cr-HDR Co-EDTA

Drymatter mean 71.3 66.5* 51.3 51.7

SD 3.0 5.2 9.6 7.3

TotalP mean 40.0 31.3* 30.5 31.4

SD 7.7 6.9 15.2 10.1
*
Phyticacid mean 38.6 30.7 36.0 36.6
SD 11.0 8.5 ' 15.7 10.9

statistically significantatP< 0.05

FortheMSdiet,apparent ilealdigestibility coefficients ofallthe

nutrientscalculatedonthebaseofCoconcentrationweremarkedlylower
(p<0.05),whereas fortheTMGdietthecomparedvalueswerevery similarfor
bothmarkers.Noclearexplanationofthisfactwasfound.
Overallapparentdigestibility ofdrymatterandtotalPcalculatedwithCo
waslower,independently ofthediet (Table4 ) .

Table4.Theapparent overalldigestibility ofdrymatter andtotalPinpigs,

calculated from theconcentrations ofCrandCo (in % ) .
*Sr
Diet MS TMG

Cr-NDR Co-EDTA Cr-NDR Co-EDTA

Drymatter mean 85.1 82.9 81.4 76.9***

SD 2.2 1.6 1.2 1.6
** ***
TotalP mean 33.0 22.5 47.9 35.0
SD 4.1 4.9 4.7 7.2

However,evaluationwhichvalues aremoreaccurate isdifficult,andtherefore

itseemsreasonable tosuggestthatanaverageofbothmarkersoughttobe
adopted.

320
References
Faichney,G.J. (1980).Theuseofmarkers tomeasuredigestaflowfromthe
stomachofsheep fedoncedally.J. agrlc. Sei.,Camb.,94:313-318.
Graham,H.andAman,P. (1986).Circadianvariation incompositionofduodenal
andilealdigestafrompigsfittedwithT-cannulas.Anim.Prod.,43:
133-140.
Graham,H.,Hesselman,K.andAman,P. (1985).Circadianvariationinchemical
compositionofduodenalandterminal ilealdigesta.Proc.3-rdInt.
Seminaron"Digestivephysiology inthepig",Ed.A.Just,H.Jor-
gensenandJ.A.Fernandez,Copenhagen,333-340.
Hennig,U.,Noel,R.,Herrmann,U.,Wünsche,J. andMehnert,E. (1986).
ErnärungsphysiologischeUntersuchungenanSchweinenmitIleo-Rektal
Anastomosen.Arch.Anim.Nutr.,Berlin36,7:585-596.
Köhler,T.,Mosenthin,R.,Verstegen,M.W.A.,denHartog,L.A.,Huisman,J.and
Ahrens,F. (1990).EinVergleichunterschiedlicherMethodenzur
SammlungvonDünndarmchymusbeim Schwein.Kurtzfassung derVorträge
zur44.Tagungvom3.- 5.April,Göttingen,'42-43.
Laplace,J.P.,Darcy,B. (1981). Ileo-colicpost-valve fistulation:anew
reliable technique foratruepictureofproteindigestioninthe
smallintestineofthepig.Proc.6-th Symp.onAminoAcids,Serock,
Poland,4pp.
Livingstone,R.M.,Baird,B.A.,Atkinson,T.andCrofts,R.M.J. (1980).
Circadianvariation intheapparentdigestibilityofdieçsmeasured
attheterminalileuminpigs.J.Agric. Sei.,Cambridge,94:
399-405.
Low,A.G.,Partridge,I.G.andSambrook,I.E. (1978). Studiesofdigestionand
absorptioninthe intestinesofgrowingpigs. 2.Measurementsofthe
flowofdrymatter,ashandwater.Br.J.Nutr.,39:515-526.
Partridge,I.G. (1978).Studiesondigestionandabsorption intheintestines
ofgrowingpigs.3.Netmovements ofmineralnutrients inthediges-
tivetract.Br.J.Nutr.,39:527-537.
Partridge,I.G., Simon,D.andBergner,H. (1985).Thepassage andabsorption
ofdietaryandendogenousnitrogenindifferentregionsofthedi-
gestivetractofratsgivenasinglemealof N-labelledbarley.
ArchivfürTierernährung, 35:163-173.
Simons,P.C.M.,Versteegh,H.A.J.,Jongbloed,A.W.,Kemme,P.A., Slump,P.,
Bos,K.D.,Wolters,M.G.E.,Beudeker,R.F.andVerschoor,G.J.
(1990).Improvementofphosphorus availabilitybymicrobialphytase
inbroilersandpigs.Br.J.Nutr. (inpress).
Zebrowska,T.,Low,A.G.andZebrowska,H. (1983). Studiesongastric digestion
ofproteinandcarbohydrates,gastric secretionandexocrine
pancreatic secretioninthegrowingpig.Br.J. Nutr.,49:401-410.

321
rr'

ESTIMATION OF UNDIGESTED DIETARY PROTEIN BY THE

USE OF 12SI-LABELLED PROTEIN
M. F.Fuller & A. Cadenhead
Rowett Research Institute
Aberdeen, AB2 9SB,U.K.

Abstract
To distinguish the endogenous amino acid losses in ileal digesta from undigested food
protein the use of 125I-labelled casein as a model food protein was evaluated. A small
amount (2-3^0) of labelled casein was added to a synthetic diet with 10% casein and
given topigs with cannulas in the terminal ileum. The flow rates of radioactivity andof
nitrogen at the terminal ileum were measured. Whereas it was expected that the ratio of
nitrogen to radioactivity in the ileal digesta would be higher than in the food due to the
addition ofendogenous nitrogen,thereversewasfound, perhaps suggestingthatiodination
may have altered the inherent digestibility of the casein.

Introduction
In estimating the true pre-caecal digestibility of food proteins the nitrogen passing the
terminal ileum may be considered toconsist of twofractions, a component of undigested
dietary protein and an endogenous component, which is conventionally assumed not to
vary with the amount or composition of the diet fed. This endogenous component
represents not the total endogenous secretion into the intestine but that fraction which is
notreabsorbed. Itwouldbeof considerable valueintheestimation of therealdigestibility
of food constituents tobeabletodistinguish these twocomponents,but therearenodirect
means of doing so. Approaches based on the use of intrinsically labelled proteins in the
.diet (e.g.Partridge et al, 1985) or on labelling the animal's secretions (e.g.de Lange et
al., 1990) may be criticised on the grounds that labelled amino acids absorbed by the
enterocytes may be rapidly incorporated into secreted proteins (Alpers, 1983). To avoid
this objection non-recyclable labels areneeded tolabeldietaryprotein.Labelling with 125I
has been used toestimate the resistance toproteolysis of specific proteins. This approach
was based on the premise that tyrosine labelled with 125I could not be incorporated into
endogenous proteins so that any peptide-bound labelled tyrosine reaching the terminal
ileum must represent undigested dietary protein. It was therefore expected that the ratio
ofradioactivitytonitrogenwoulddecreaseduringgutpassageasendogenousproteinswere
added to the digesta and this 'dilution' could be used to estimate the amount of
endogenous protein added.

Materials and Methods

A diet with casein (200 g/kg) and with chromic oxide (5 g/kg) as a marker was given
twicedailyto3pigsof approximately 54kgwhich hadT-cannulas attheendof theileum.
Iodinated casein was prepared using Nalz5I (Amersham International) and Iodo-beads
(PierceChemical Co.).Theiodinatedcasein (1mole125I/250molestyrosine)was separated
from free iodide by gelfiltrationusing phosphate buffer containing Kl. A small quantity
(2-3|iCi)offreshly iodinatedcasein wasaddedtothreesuccessivemeals.Alldigestawere
322
collectedfor 8hafter thelastofthesemealsandhomogenised. Nitrogen andchromicoxide
weredetermined by standard methods.A sample of ca 3gof thehomogenised digesta was
taken for counting.Further 3gsamples werehomogenised with 3ml TCA and centrifuged.
The precipitates were washed repeatedly with distilled water until nofurther counts were
extracted. Up to six washings were generally needed. When Na125I was added to the
digesta of apig which had not been given labelled protein again some six washings were
needed toreducethecounts in aTCAprecipitate tobackgroundlevels.Extraction wasnot
increasedbytheadditionofunlabelledKI.Theradioactivityinthewashedprecipitateswas
counted.

Results
The proportion of the nitrogen intake which disappeared before the terminal ileum was
0.86 (SEO.023),whereas only 0.72 (SE0.029) ofthe 125Idisappeared. Thus the expected
dilution of theradioactivity byaddedendogenous nitrogen did not occur. Theratioof N:
radioactivity (|igN/cpm)inthefood was5.41. Someoftheradioactivityinthedigestawas
in the TCA-solublefraction but even after repeated TCA extraction and washing theratio
of N: radioactivity in the TCA-precipitate remained lower than in the food (3.7; SED
0.814).

Discussion
Although iodinated proteins have been used to estimate the extent of degradation of
specific proteins (e.g. Kilpatrick et al., 1985) this approach does not seem to have been
applied previously to the estimation of the endogenous contribution to digesta nitrogen.
One explanation for our results is that the labelled casein was digested to a lesser extent
than the unlabelled casein which formed the bulk of the dietary protein. The flow of
nitrogen from the ileum of thesepigs given casein as the sole dietary protein was 5.0g/d,
similar to that determined on other occasions with the same diet (Wang & Fuller, 1989;
Fuller & Cadenhead, 1991).Such values, taken in conjunction with estimates of nitrogen
flow withprotein-free diets,suggestthatthe truedigestibility of thecasein ismuch higher,
and is probably digested almost completely. This highlights the extent to which the
iodinated casein survived. Theresults suggest that, despite the very low level of labelling
(1mole 125I/250moles tyrosine)iodinated proteins may bedistinguished in digestion amd
may therefore not be suitable for such studies.

References
Alpers,D.H. (1983)Protein synthesis and turnover in themammalian intestine.InProtein
Metabolism and Nutrition, pp311-321 [M.Arnal, R. Pion & D.Bonin, eds] Les
Colloques de 1TNRA no 16.Paris:INRA
de Lange, C.F.M., Souffrant, W.B. & Sauer, W.C. (1990) Real ileal protein and amino
aciddigestibilities infeedstuffs for growingpigsasdeterminedwiththe15N-isotope
dilution technique. Journal of Animal Science 68,409-418
Fuller, M.F.&Cadenhead, A. (1991)Effect of theamount and composition of thedieton
galactosamine flow from the small intestine. In Proceedings of the Vth
International Congress on Digestive Physiology in Pigs, pp xxx-xxx [ xx, eds]
Wageningen: Pudoc

323
 Kilpatrick,D.C.,Pusztai,A.,Grant,G.,Graham,C.&Ewen,S.W.B. (1985)Tomatolectin
resists digestion in the mammalian alimentary canal and binds to intestinal villi
without deleterious effects. FEBS letters 185, 299-305
Partridge,LG.,Simon,O.&Bergner,H. (1985)Thepassageandabsorption ofdietaryand
endogenous nitrogenindifferent regions ofthedigestive tractofratsgiven asingle
meal of 15N-labelled barley. Archives of Animal Nutrition 35, 163-173
Wang, T.C. &Fuller, M.F. (1989) The optimum amino acid pattern for growing pigs. 1.
Experiments by amino acid deletion British Journal of Nutrition 62, 77-89

•\

*• r

324
EVALUATION OF CHROMIC OXIDE WITH LOWER
CONCENTRATION AND OF HCL-INSOLUBLE ASH AS
MARKERS FOR MEASURING OVERALL APPARENT
DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME DIETARY NUTRIENTS FOR PIGS
l l ? l
A.W.Jongbloed ,J.G.M.Bakker ,P.W. Goedhart ,F.Krol-Kramer
1 Research Institute forAnimalFeedingandNutrition,Lelystad,the
Netherlands
2 AgriculturalMathematicsGroup,Wageningen,TheNetherlands

Abstract
Apparentoveralldigestibility ofdietarynutrients isoftenmeasuredwith
markermethods.Inthisstudy threemarkersarecomparedwithrespectto
precision.Theusedmarkersarechromic oxide intheusualconcentrationof
10gkg ,HCL-insolubleashandchromicoxide inamuchlower
concentrationof0.5 gkg .Before Cr„0,wasaddedtothediet itwas
mixedwithmaizestarch intheproportion 1:3 (w/w)andmilled througha
0.5mmsieve.

Forfeeds itwas foundthatthecoefficientofvariationofboth.sampling

andchemicalanalysiswasaboutonehalfforthe0.5 gCr„0,kg markeras
comparedwith the10gkg marker.Forfaeces thecoefficientofvariation
ofchemicalanalysiswasalsohalved.Thecoefficient ofvariationof
chemicalanalysis infeedsoftheHCL-insolubleashmarkerwas twiceas
largeascomparedwiththe0.5 gCr„0,kg marker,but lower infaeces.

ThedilutedCr.0,markerwasalsocomparedwith theHCL-insolubleash
marker,bothwithandwithoutadditionofDiamol*,withrespectto
variationbetweenpensandbetweendayswithinpensofdigestibilityfor
drymatter,nitrogen,calciumandphosphorus.The'Cr„0,markerresultedin
lowervariances ofdigestibility,particularly fortheminerals.Addition
ofDiamol totheHCL-insolubleashmethodgavealsolowervariances.

Keywords:pigs,digestibility,variance,chromiumoxide,HCL-insolubleash

Introduction-
Apparentoverallandilealdigestibility ofdietarynutrients forpigsare
oftenmeasuredusingamarkermethod (Moore,1957;Daccord,1983;Yenet
al., 1983).AmongmanymarkerschromicoxideandHCL-insoluble ashare
regardedasmostusefulandreliable.Fromtheliterature itcanbe
concludedthatchromicoxide isadded inaconcentrationvarying from5to
10gkg diet.Suchhighconcentrationshave severaldisadvantages suchas
therelativelyhighpriceofCr.0,, itsthreattotheenvironment,its
possiblynegativeeffectonpalatability andsmellofthediet
(particularlywhensoakedfor12-24hours), itspossibly toxiceffecton
animalsanditsinfluenceonutilizationofsomeminerals.Toovercome
thesedisadvantages,weevaluatedCr„0,asamarker inamuchlower
concentrationof0.5 gkg diet.

r
* Diamol :afinemixtureofdiatoms

325
Anotherobjectivewastocomparetheapparentoveralldigestibilityofthe
nutrients drymatter,nitrogen,calciumandphosphorususingHCL-insoluble
ash (with.,orwithout 10gDiamolkg )versus Cr„0,inaconcentrationof
0.5 gkg .Alsocomponentsofvariance related tothesamplingsystemwere
estimatedandcompared.

Materials and Methods

Firstlydataobtained instudies ofOudeElferinketal. (1987),Evertsand
Smits (1987)andJongbloed (1987)werestatistically re-analyzed.Theyused
asmarkersHCL-insolubleash (withoutDiamol)and/orCr„0,in
concentrations of10or0.5 gkg .PriortoadditionofCr.0,itwasmixed
withmaize starch intheproportionof1:3 (w/w)andmilled througha0.5
mm sieve.Itwas thenmixed thoroughlywith theother ingredients andthen
thedietwaspelleted. Several feedsweresampledondifferent occasions
andeachsamplewasanalyzedinsimpleorduplicate.Faeceswerealways
sampled insimple;eachsampleoffeedwasanalyzed insimple,duplicateor
triplicate.Soforfeedsbetweensamplevariationandbetweenduplowithin
samplevariationcanbeestimated,whileforfaecesonly thelattercanbe
estimated.Thenumberofsamplesofdietsandfaeces,analyzed insimpleor
duplicate/triplicate, foreachmarker isgiveninTable1.

Table 1.Numberofsamplesoffeedsandfaecesanalyzed insimpleor

duplicate

Marker infeed Numberof Numberof Numbers analysed

feedsand samples simple duplicateor
faeces triplicate

0.5 gCr203/kg feeds 16 49 24- 25

faeces36 36 - 36
10gCr203/kg feeds 2 12 8 4
faeces13 33 - 13
10gDiamol/kg feeds 2 6 - 6
HCl-insolubleash faeces36 36 - 36

Roughlyhalfofthefeedswasanalyzed insimple,theotherhalfin
duplicate.Allfaecessampleswereanalyzed induplicateortriplicate.

SecondlyanexperimentwassetuptocompareHCL-insolubleash,withand
withoutDiamol,with Cr„0,inaconcentrationof0.5 gkg .Twodietswere
composed.Abasalfeedwascomposedofthefollowing feedstuffs:barley100
gkg ,maize200gkg ,tapioca355gkg ,soybeanmeal220gkg ,
alfalfa48gkg ,canemolasses40gkg ,animalfat20gkg andthe
remainderwasvitaminsandminerals.Thebasalfeedwasused toestimate
digestibilitywithHCL-insoluble ash,andfurthermore thebasalfeedwas
supplementedwith0.5 gkg Cvo°r, a n d with10gDiamolkg .The
digestibility ofthesecondfeedwasestimatedbyboth Cr„0,andby
HCL-insolubleash.Thefeedswerefed to6pens,with4animalsperpen
whichwere fedindividually.Thefeedwasofferedtwiceadayaccordingto
a feedingscale.Faeceswerecollectedduring3weeksatabout40,64and
90kgliveweight,respectively.Ineachweekat3daysfreshfaeceswere
collected inthemorningandintheafternoon,startingonehourafter
feeding.Feedsamplesweretakeneveryweek.Feedandfaeceswereanalyzed
fordrymatter,ash,nitrogen,calcium,phosphorusandHCL-insolubleash.

Variance componentswereestimatedbyanalysisofvariance (Snedecorand

Cochran,1980).

326
Results and Discussion
Variation coefficient of sampling and chemical analysis
Forthedataobtained inthestudiesofOudeElferinketal. (1987},Everts
andSmits (1987)andJongbloed (1987)variancesbetweensamples (crsample)
andbetweenanalyseswithinsamples (cr analysis)wereestimated.The
estimatebetweensamplesvarianceofHCL-insolubleashinfeedswas
negativeduetothesmallnumberofsamples.Theestimatewasroundedto
zero.Themeanconcentration,variances andvariationcoefficientsare
presented inTable2.
-1
Table 2.MeanconcentrationofCrandHCL-insolubleash (gkg"dry
matter),variancesbetween„samples (cr sample)andbetween
analyseswithinsamples (cr analysis)andvariationcoefficients

Feed Faeces
Cr Crnot HCl Cr Crnot HC1-
diluted diluted ash diluted diluted ash

meanconcentration0.37 6.73 22.19 1.84 20.62 141.3

2
cr sample 0.000047 0.0529 0.0 -
CV 0.018 0.034 0.0

cr analysis 0.000048 0.0603 0.740 0.000542 0.279 1.18

CV 0.019 0.036 0.039 0.013 0.026 0.008

Itisseenthatthevariationcoefficientofanalysisofthe0.5 gkg
Cr.0,marker isaboutonehalfofthatofthe10gkg marker,bothin
feedandinfaeces.TheHCL-insolubleashmarker iscomparablewiththe
highconcentrationCr„0,marker forfeeds,buthasasmallercoefficient
ofvariationforfaeces.
Forfeeds thevarianceofthemeanofnsampleseachanalyzed ink-fold
equalso*mean=crsample/n+cranalysis/nk.Itisthusmoreprofitableto
enhancethenumberofsamples thanthenumberofanalysis ineachsample.
Forfaecesvariationamonganimalsorpensshouldalsobetakeninto
account.

Comparison between Cr 0 and HCL-insoluble ash as markers

Forthedataobtained intheexperiment,variancesbetweenpensand
betweendayswithinpenswereseparatelyestimated foreachperiodand
sampling timewithinday (morningorafternoon).Thevarianceswerenot
systematically different inthe3periodsandsotheywere averagedover
periods.Theaverages aregiveninTable3.

327
Table3.Betweenpensandbetweendayswithinpensvariances,averaged
overperiods,ofdigestibility ofnutrientsperpartofday

déi y pen
Component Method* morning afternoon morning afternoon

Drymatter 1 4.26 4.15 0.96 0.71

2 2.10 3.25 1.51 0.88
3 0.82 0.53 1.27 0.49
Nitrogen 1 16.58 16.16 7.12 6.01
2 9.09 13.72 4.53 3.89
3 3.19 3.28 3.56 1.68
Calcium 1 44.03 45.66 6.05 0.41
2 22.09 25.36 8.99 9.51
3 7.19 3.70 6.47 2.64
Phosphorus 1 83.10 92.13 17.40 5.45
2 36.35 56.34 9.92 11.88
3 8.96 •9.53 4.76 3.43

1•=HClinsolubleash
2-HClinsolubleashwithDiamol
3-Cr 2 0 3 (0.5gkg"1)

Thevariances inthemorningandafternoonaresimilar.Thebetweenday
withinpenvariance ismuchlargerthanthebetweenpenvariance.TheCr„0-
markergavemuchsmallervariances thantheHCL-insolubleashmarkers,
althoughadditionofDiamolalsolowered thebetweendayvariance.
Withppensandeachpensampledforddays,thevarianceofthemean
digestibilityequalscrmean-crpen/p+o-day/pd.Basedonthevaluesin
Table 3,crmeancalculatedwithp-6 andd-3isgiveninTable4.

Table4.Varianceofmeandigestibilityof 6pens,eachpensamplesfor
3days inoneweek

method* 1 2 3

drymatter 0.37 0.35 0.18

N 2.00 1.34 0.62
Ca 2.96 2.86 1.06
P 6.77 4.39 1.20

* seeTable3

328
FromTable4itcanbeconcluded thatthevariance forallcomponents,but
particularly fortheminerals,islowestwithCr„0,asmarker.Thevariance
oftheHCL-insolubleashmethod supplementedwithDiamolare infavourof
thosewithoutDiamol.Theseresultsmightbe influencedbyaninteraction
betweenCr„0,andHCL-insolubleashwithDiamolwhichwerebothaddedto
thebasalreed.

References
Daccord,R.,1983.Comparaisondel'oxydedechromeetdesclendres
insolubles dansHCLutiliséscommemarqueursdansdesessaisde
digestibilité chezleporc.Schweiz.Landw.Forschung21:159-165.
Everts,H.&Smits,B.,1987.Effectofcrudefibre,feeding level,body
weightandmethodofmeasuring onapparentdigestibility ofcompound
feedbysows.WorldReviewofAnimalProduction23:39-43.
Jongbloed,A.W.,1987.Phosphorus inthefeedinginpigs;effectofdieton
theabsorptionandretentionofphosphorusbygrowingpigs.Thesis
UniversityWageningen343p.
McCarthy,J.F.,1974.UseofHCL-insolubleashasanindexmaterialfor
determiningapparentdigestibilitywithpigs.Can.J.Anlm.Sei.
54:107-109.
Moore,J.H., 1957.Diurnalvariations inthecompositionofthefaecesof
pigsondietscontainingChromiumoxide.
OudeElferink,G.,Mentink,A.,Everts,H.,Smits,B.&Jongbloed,A.W.,
1986.Digestibility inswinedependingonseveralfactors:literature
researchandreportofanumber oftrials.ReportIVVOno.174,
Lelystad.
Snedecor,W.S.andCochran,W.G.,1980.StatisticalMethods (7thedition).
IowaStateUniversity Press.Ames.USA.
Yen,J.T.,Tess,M.W.,Pond,W.G.&Dickerson,G.E.,1983.Digestibility
andmetabolism ofdietaryNandenergy incontempory,genetically lean
andobesepigsasestimatedby totalfaecalcollectionandacid
insolubleash.J.Anim. Sei.56:426-430.

329
 EFFECT OFTHEAMOUNTAND COMPOSITION OFTHEDIET
ON GALACTOSAMINEFLOWFROM THESMALL INTESTINE
M.F.Fuller & A. Cadenhead
Rowett Research Institute
Aberdeen AB2 9SB, U.K.

Abstract
Of all the nitrogenous substances secretedinto thedigestive tract mucins may make the
greatest contribution to amino acid loss from the ileum because of their resistance to
digestion and recycling. The flow of galactosamine at the terminal ileum was estimated
in growingpigs given diets,includingprotein-free diets,atdifferent rates,withor without
added fibre. The ratio of galactosamine:N varied with both the amount and composition
of the diet.

Introduction
There are noready means of distinguishing between the endogenous and the exogenous
components of the digesta. Because of theirresistance toproteolysis the mucins secreted
by the goblet cells and other glycoconjugates secreted by enterocytes may represent one
of the most important contributions to the flow of unreabsorbed endogenous N out of the
smallintestine. Thecontribution oftheseglycoconjugates maybeestimated from the flow
ofgalactosamine,providedthatgalactosamineforms aconstantfraction ofthesesecretions
andprovided alsothatthedietdoesnotcontain anyof theanimalproducts that themselves
contain galactosamine. The aim of these experiments was to see how the flow of
galactosamine past the terminal ileum was affected by the amount and composition of the
diet.

"Materials and Methods

Pigs of approximately 80kg wereused.They werefitted withT-cannulasat theterminal
ileum. In the first experiment they were given one of threediets in sequence. Diet 1was
protein-free (N 0.27 g/kg), containing (g/kg) maize starch 360, glucose 157 and sucrose
386. Diet 2 was the same as diet 1but contained casein (71g/kg) and amino acids at the
expense of maize starch and was designed to simulate an 'ideal' protein (N 14.4 g/kg).
The third diet was based on barley (445g/kg) and wheat (466g/kg) with a total N content
of 15.2 g/kg. All three diets were given at a rate of 2.0kg/d. in two equal meals.
In the second experiment there were twodiets,theprotein-free diet of experiment 1and
thisdietwithwheatbran (150g/kg)added at theexpenseofmaizestarch.Thesediets were
given at rates of either 1or 3 kg per day.
In both experiments chromic oxide used asamarkerin alldiets.After thepigs had been
given the diets for 6 days digesta were collected continuously for 8h on the 7th day.
Samples of freeze-dried digesta (ca 50mg) were hydrolysed with 2.5ml 4M HCl for 4h
at 100° in sealed tubes under vacuum then diluted to 10ml with distilled water. The
concentrations of amino sugars were then estimated by ion-exchange chromatography.

330
Results
Experiment 1.

The results are shown in Table 1.The apparent digestibility of N to the terminal ileum
was 0.85 for the casein diet and 0.72 for the cereal diet (SEM0.0196). The highest daily
flow of galactosamine was observed with the protein-free diet; this was significantly
reduced byaddition ofprotein,whether from cereals orfrom casein and amino acids. The
mean rates of galactosamine flow with these three diets were 2.0, 1.0 and 1.1 g/d (SEM
0.29) and the corresponding ratios of galactosamine:N (g/g) were 0.33, 0.12 and 0.28
(SEM 0.026).

Table 1.Experiment 1. ratesofflow (g/d)attheterminal ileum of drymatter, nitrogen and

galactosamine in pigs given aprotein-free diet (PF),the same diet with casein and amino
acids added (CAA)and a diet based on a mixture of barley and wheat (BW).

Diet PF CAA BW SEM

' —
Dry matter 377 276 508 37
Nitrogen 5.8 4.3 9.1 1.24
Galactosamine 2.04 1.14 0.97 0.29

ratio
galactosamine: nitrogen 0.33 0.28 0.12 0.02'

Experiment 2.

The results are shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Experiment 2. Rates of flow (g/d) at the terminal ileum of dry matter, nitrogen
and galactosamine inpigs given aprotein-free diet (PF)atrates of 1 or 3kg/d. or the same
diet with added wheat bran (PFB) also at rates of 1or 3kg/d.

Diet PF PFB
Intake (ke/d) i 3 1 3 SED

Dry matter 107 265 148 853 58.8

Nirogen 3.6 7.3 3.1 14.7 1.46
Galactosamine 1.48 1.93 0.80 4.13 0.382

ratio
galactosamine: nitrogen
0.44 0.28 0.26 0.29 0.039

331
 Discussion
The same protein-free diet was given in both experiments. In the first, when the daily
intake was 2kg, the ileal N flow was 5.8g/d, intermediate between the values of 3.6 and
7.3g/d measured in the second experiment with intakes of 1 and 3kg/d., an average
increaseofapproximately 1.7gN per 1kgincreaseindailydrymatterintake.Galactosamine
flow, however was higher in the first experiment than in the second, although not
significantly. It is of interest that the ileal nitrogen flow was reduced by the addition of
casein and amino acids totheprotein-free diet, giving an estimate of the true digestibility
of nitrogenofgreaterthan 1.0.Inotherexperiments withthesesamediets (Wang&Fuller,
1989)therates offlowweremuchmoreclosely similar. Theaddition of casein and amino
acidsalsoresultedinanapproximatelyproportionalreductionintheflowofgalactosamine,
the ratio of galactosamine: total N in the digesta remaining approximately the same. In
contrast, the substantial increase in ileal nitrogen flow with the cereal diet was
accompanied by the lowest galactosamine flow of any amongst these three diets, with a
substantial and significant change in the ratio of galatosamine: nitrogen.
With the threefold increase in intakeof the protein-free diet (experiment 2) the flow of
Npast the terminal ileum doubled from 3.6 to7.3 g (p<0.05) and the galactosamine flow
increased from 1.5 to 1.9 g (N.S.); the ratio of galactosamine:N fell from 0.44 to 0.28
(P<0.05). When the intake of the protein-free diet with added wheat bran was increased
from 1to 3kg/dthenitrogen flow attheterminal ileum increased over fourfold, from 3.1
to 14.7g/dwith an approximatelyproportionate increasein therateof galactosamineflow
from 0.80 to 4.1 g (P<0.05); in this case theratio of galactosamine:N was little changed
(0.26 to 0.29; NS).
Thereareseveralreasonswhytheratioofgalactosamine:nitrogenmightchangewithboth
the amount and composition of thediet.First,mucins from different parts of the digestive
tract vary in their contents of particular amino sugars and it may be that mucin secretion
isnotstimulated tothe sameextentindifferent partsofthegastrointestinal tract.However,
thegalactosaminecontentofporcinesmall-intestinalmucus(189mg/gglycoprotein;Mantle
£ Allen, 1981)and submaxillary glandmucus (215mg/g;Katzman &Eylar, 1966) appear
"**- rather similarinthisrespect. Second, although ourhypothesis isthatmucins form a major
fraction of the unrecycled endogenous secretions leaving theileum,there are undoubtedly
other components which may also be stimulated to a greater or lesser extent than the
mucins by the nutritional stimuli used here. These other components of the flow of
nitrogenous materials include bacterial protein. It is now recognised that there can be
substantial microbial activity proximal to the caecum (Jensen et al., 1987;Jensen, 1988)
and that microbial protein will make a commensurate contribution to nitrogen flow from
the ileum. No measurements were made in these experiments to estimate the bacterial
contribution to ileal digesta but it is possible that the increased amount of fibre provided
by3kgof thedietwith addedbranallowedenhancedmicrobial activityin thedistal ileum,
giving rise to the observed increase in nitrogen flow.
As regards our original objective - to examine the constancy of the contribution of
galactosamine toileal nitrogen flow -theresults suggest that theratio of galactosamine:N
in the endogenous secretions leaving the ileum varies with both the amount and
composition of the diet.Further work isrequired toidentify other specific components of
ileal digesta and the way in which they are affected by nutritional conditions.

332
 References
Jensen, B.B., Hansen, T. & Bach Knudsen, K.E. (1987) Effect of fiber on microbial
activity in various segments of the digestive tract of pigs. InFiber i Utfodringen,
pp 42-46. Malm<t>:A/S Sockerbolaget
Jensen,B.B. (1988) Effect of diet composition and virginiamycin on microbial activity in
thedigestivetractofpigs.InNth InternationalSymposiumonDigestivePhysiology
in thePig. Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences
Katzman, R.L. & Eylar, E.H. (1966) Physical and chemical studies on glycoproteins. 1.
Isolation and characterization of glycoproteins from porcine submaxillary gland.
Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 117, 623-637
Mantle, M. & Allen, A. (1981) Isolation and characterization of the native glycoprotein
from pig small-intestinal mucus.Biochemistry Journal 195, 267-275
Wang, T.C. &Fuller, M.F. (1989) The optimum amino acid pattern for growing pigs. 1.
Experiments by amino acid deletion British Journal of Nutrition 62, 77-89

333

I
 PRELIMINARY EVALUATION OF A NEW CANNULATION
TECHNIQUE (STEERED ILEO-CAECAL VALVE) FOR
QUANTITATIVE COLLECTION OFDIGESTAFROMTHESMALL
INTESTINE OF PIGS
Z.Mroz,A.V.Jongbloed,P.A.Kemme,H.Everts,A.M.vanVuurenandR.Hoste

ResearchInstitute forLivestockFeedingandNutrition (I.V.V.O.),Lelystad

Abstract
Preliminaryexperimentwascarriedoutonsevenbarrows (YxFLxDL)of40-50
kgliveweight,fittedwitheitherthepost-valvular T-caecum (PVTC)cannulae
orthesteeredlleo-caecalvalve (SICV)cannulaeandfed threediets,contain-
ingrecommended (SD),low (LP)andhigh (HP)levelsofprotein.
TheSICVcannulation isanewtechnique forquantitative collectionofileal
digesta,andinprincipal itapproachesthesameanatomical siteofthegastro
-intestinaltractasthePVTCtechnique.However,contrary tothelatter,
caecotomy isomitted,because thevalvecanbe steered intotheT-shaped
cannulabyasystembasingontworings,ofwhichone isintroduced roundthe
terminal ileumandanother (proximalthefirstringinthelumenofthedistal
ileum.
Ilealapparentdigestibility ofdrymatter,organicmatterandnitrogende-
terminedbytheSICVtechniquewasmarkedly lowerthanwhenestimatedbythe
PVTCtechnique,irrespectiveofdiet.
Overallapparentdigestibility ofthesenutrientswas similarforboth
techniques.Atthelowlevelofproteinsupply (dietLP)thevaluesobtained
bytheSICVtechniquewereslightlyhigher.
Post-slaughterexaminationofthegastro-intestinaltractofthepigs (13-14
weeksaftersurgery)showedanatomo-pathological changes relatedto
proliferationoffibrous tissuesbetweenthetworings,dillatationofthe
distalileum (muscularhypertrophy 50-100cmanterior totheileo-caecal
junction)orthedevelopmentofacollateralpassageofdigesta.Itseems,
thatthistechniquemaybeperhapsused insimultaneousphysiological studies
ofdigestionandabsorptionkinetics,where thetimeofapplication isnot
.exceeding6-8weeks.

Introduction
Various techniquesapplieduntilnowforthequantitative collectionof
ilealdigestafrompigssuchasre-entrantcannulation, ileo-colicpostvalve
fistulationorileo-rectalanastomosis,aremarkedly altering themotilityor
normalfunctioningofthegastro-intestinal tract (LaplaceandDarcy,1980;
Low, 1980;Köhleretal..1990).ThesimpleT-shape cannulae fittedatthe
distalileumaffectfarlessthe physiology ofthealimentary tract,but
samplesofdigestaobtainedwiththistechnique areregarded tobenotrepre-
sentative.Thismaybeduetodifficultiesarisingwithevendispersionofa
markerinsomedietsanditsfractionationalongthestomachandthesmall
intestinecausedbydifferences inspecific gravity,reflectingonadifferent
passage timeofnutrientsandmarker (Faichney,1980;Graham andAman, 1986).
Recently,vanLeeuwenetal.(1988)described thepost-valvular T-caecum
cannulation (PVTC)whichissupposedtoenablenearly quantitative collection
ofdigestafrompigs.Inthistechnique,thecaecum isremovedandreplaced
byalargeT-shaped cannula.However,caecotomymayalternitrogendigesti-
bility (GargalloandZimmermann,1981). Besides,using thistechnique thereis
alwayssomeuncertainty thatcollecteddigestamaybecontaminatedwith

334
coloniedigesta,particularly atthelaterstageofgrowthofthepig,when
thegastro-intestinal tractislargerandthe ileo-caecalvalvedoesnot
protrude intothecannula.
Therefore,toeliminate thosedisadvantages ofthePVTC techniqueandto
eliminateusingmarkers fortheilealdigestibilitymeasurements,anew
quantitativemethodofdigestacollectionwasdeveloped attheI W O Lelystad,
whichisnamed "thesteeredileo-caecalvalve" (SICV).
Inthispreliminarystudytheapparent ilealandoveralldigestibilitiesof
drymatter,organicmatter,ash,nitrogenandcrudefibrefromthreeexperi-
mentaldiets,containingrecommended (standard),lowandhighlevelsof
proteinwereevaluatedusingpigsfittedwitheitherthePVTCcannulaeorthe
SICVcannulae.

Materials and Methods

Sevenbarrowsof (YorkshirexFinnishLandrace)xDutchLandraceweighing
40-50kgatthebeginningofthisexperimentwereused.Fouranimalswere
fittedwiththePVTCcannulaeaccording tovanLeeuwenetal.(1988),whereas
theothersweresubmitted totheSICV technique.After a14-dayrecovery
period,PVTCcannulatedpigswerefedfourdiets,according toa4x4
Latinsquaredesign.ThreeofthesedietswerealsogiventoSICVcannulated
pigsandtestedaccording toa3x 3Latinsquaredesign.
Mainingredients,compositionandnutritivevalueoftheexperimentaldiets
arepresented inTable1. •

Table1.Mainingredients,compositionandnutritivevalueofthediets.

Diet Standard Lowprotein Highprotein

(SD) (LP) (HP)
Mainingredients(g-ka h 979 729
Maize -
Potatoproteindried - - 250
Barley 315 - -
Tapiocameal 205 - -
Wheat 100 - -
Soybeanmealextracted 100 - -
Peas 55 - -
Wheatmiddlings 50 - -
Fishmeal 48 - -
Analysed composition CE •kg" 1 ) dietasfed)
Drymatter 875 866 872
Organicmatter 806 831 838
Crudeprotein 170 87 244
Ash 69 35 34
Crudefibre 34 16 13
Nutritivevalue

ME (MJ-kg"1) 13.3 13.6 13.9

Thedietswereformulated tocontaindifferent levelsofcrudeprotein,i.e.

about170g-kg'lforthestandarddiet (SD),90g-kg" forthelowprotein
diet (LP)and 240g-kg forthehighproteindiet (HP).Metabolizable

335
energy contentwas assumed to be as similar-as possible.
The pigs ware kept inmetabolic cages and offered the diets twice daily in
a wet, mash form on a feeding level equivalent,to 2.3 times maintenance
requirement (maintenance equals 418 kJ-ME W ).
Experimental periods lasted 25 days inwhich 10 days of the adaptation
period. In each of the 15-day measuring periods, faeces were collected
quantitatively for 10 days and thereafter on the 11-th and the 15-th day ileal
digesta was also collected quantitatively for 24 hours. Representative samples
of diets, digesta and faeces were analysed for dry matter, ash, nitrogen and
crude fibre according to the standard procedure. Apparent ileal and overall
digestibilities of these nutrients were calculated by the direct method.

Principal lay out of the SICV technique

The SICV cannulation approaches in principal the same anatomical site of

the gastro-intestinal tract as the PVTC technique, i.e. the change of ileum
into the caecum-colon, where the ileo-caecal valve is protruded slightly into
the caecum. Animals were anaesthesized through inhalation anaesthesia, the
flank area was shaved and desinfected. A paracostal laparotomy (about 10 cm
above mammary tissue) was used to gain entrance to the peritoneal cavity.
After locating the ileo-colic valve, a 2-3 cm long transsection of the
caecal wall across the ileo-colic valve was made and a 2.4 cm in diameter
inner metal ring (with silicon layer) combined with a thread (30 cm long)
was introduced into the distal ileum for about 10 cm through the valve. From
outside of the ileo-colic junction an outer ring (made of PVC covered with
silicon) was fitted around the terminal ileum, close to the caecal wall. This
outer ring had a slightly smaller diameter than the inner one,which allowed
to maintain the latter permanently inside of the terminal ileum. Afterwards,
the thread bound to the inner ring was carried out through a silicon T-shaped
cannula, ofwhich the barrel was subsequently placed through the caecal
opening, directly across to the ileo-caecal valve and the gut wall was sutured
using a double purse-string suturing. Collection of ileal digesta was done by
pulling the thread so that the ileo-colic valve could be steered inside of the
T-cannula, whereas the outer ring automatically blocked the opening to the
caecal-colonic as it is presented in Fig 1.

a) b)

thread
ventral
thread

Fig. 1.A schematic view of the SICV technique: a) normal situation when
digesta is not collected; b) situation when digesta is collected.

336
Results and Discussion
Performanceofthepigs fittedwitheither thePVTCor theSICVcannulae
dependingonthedietary treatments ispresented inTable2.

Table2.Comparisonofgrowthandfeedconversionratiosofpigsfittedwith
thePVTCandtheSICVcannulaedependingonthedietarytreatments.

Cannulationtechnique PVTC A SICV

mean * mean STD
Daily gains(g) STD
standarddiet (SD) 895 207 917 226
lowproteindiet (LP) 315 113 483 105
highproteindiet (HP) 681 145 1069 145
Feedconversionratio
standarddiet (SD) 1 77 1.71
lowproteindiet (LP) 5 24 3.52
highproteindiet (HP) 2 21 1.45
STD -standarddeviation

Proteinsupplyinthedietsreflecteddirectlyonthedaily gainsofthepigs.
Whenthestandarddietwasfedtheirgrowthandfeedconversionratios
wereverysimilar.Moresubstantialdifferences infavour oftheSICV'cannula-
tedpigsweremonitoredfortheotherdiets.
Theapparentilealdigestibility ofdrymatter,organicmatter,ash(for
thestandarddietonly)andnitrogenisgiveninTable3.

Table3.Comparisonoftheilealapparentdigestibility (%) ofdrymatter,

organicmatter,ashandnitrogeninpigsfittedwiththePVTCand
theSICVcannulae,depending onthedietarytreatments.

Cannulationtechnique PVTC SICV

mean STD mean STD
Standarddiet (SD)
drymatter 76.3 4.8 73.3 6.6
organicmatter 78.6 4.3 76.2 6.1
ash 46.1 11.0 36.9 12.4
nitrogen 82.0 3.1 77.4 5.1
Lowproteindiet (LP)
drymatter 82.2 3.7 76.2 2.6
organicmatter 82.6 3.3 80.2 2.5
ash 59.6 28.2 - -
nitrogen 74.6 6.1 62.2 7.6
Highproteindiet (HP)
drymatter 78.9 1.8 76.4 2.9
organicmatter 80.9 1.8 79.7 2.4
ash 31.7 5.7 - -
nitrogen 82.8 2.2 74.8 5.2

Valuesobtained fromtheSICVcannulatedpigsaremarkedly lower,irrespe-

ctiveoftreatment.Itindicates thatbyusing.thePVTCcannulaeilealdigesta
iscollectedincompletely orthereweredifferences inthepassagerate.

337
 Theoveralldigestibilityofdrymatter,organicmatter,nitrogenandcrude
fibrewasverysimilarforbothtechniques,andatthe lowlevelofprotein
supply (dietLP)thevaluesobtained fortheSICVtechniquewereslightly
higher (Table4 ) .

Table4.Comparisonoftheoverallapparentdigestibility (%) ofdrymatter,

organicmatter,nitrogenandcrudefibre inpigs fittedwiththePVTC
andtheSICVcannulae,dependingonthedietarytreatments.

Cannulationtechnique PVTC SICV

mean STD mean STD
Standarddiet (SD)
drymatter 85.2 1.3 84.5 1.3
organicmatter 87.7 1.2 87.2 1.0
nitrogen 85.0 1.6 84.6 2.0
crudefibre 41.2 10.0 36.2 6.9
Lowproteindiet (LP)
drymatter 88.8 1.4 89.2 0.4
organicmatter 90.1 1.3 91.0 0.5
nitrogen •80.0 4.3 81.7 0.5
crudefibre 38.7 8.2 - -
Highproteindiet (HP)
drymatter 89.5 0.6 89.2 0.4
organicmatter 90.7 0.5 90.9 0.3
nitrogen 91.4 0.4. 90.9 0.1
crudefibre 43.0 4.7 - -
Post-slaughter examinationofthegastrointestinal tractofthepigsatthe
endoftheexperiment (13-14weeksaftersurgery)showedanatomo-patholo-
gicalchangesrelatedtoproliferationoffibroustissuesbetweenthetwo
rings,dilatationofthedistalileum (muscularhypertrophy from50-100cm
anteriortotheileo-caecaljunction)andinonecase asmallcollateral
passageofdigestawasfound.Itseems,thatthistechniquemaybestill
improvedandperhapsused insimultaneousphysiological studiesofdigestion
andabsorptionkinetics,where thetimeofapplication isnotexceeding 6-8
weeks.

'References
Faichney,G.J. (1980).Theuseofmarkerstomeasuredigestaflowfromthe
stomachofsheepfedoncedaily.J.agric.Sci., Camb.,94:313-318.
Gargallo,J. andZimmerman,D.R. (1981).Effectsofdietary celluloselevels
onintactandcecetomizedpigs.J.Anim.Sci.,53:395-402.
Graham,H.andAman,P. (1986).Circadianvariation incompositionofduodenal
andilealdigestafrompigsfittedwithT-cannulas.Anim.Prod.,43:
133-140.
Köhler,-T.,Mosenthin,R.,Verstegen,K.W.A.,Hartog,L.A.,den,Huisman,J.
andAhrens,F. (1990).EinVergleichunterschiedlicherMethodenzur
SammlungvonDünndarmchymusbeimSchwein.Kurzfassung derVorträge
zur44.Tagungvom3.-5.April,Göttingen,42-43.
Laplace,J.P.andDarcy,B. (1981). Ileo-colicpostvalve fistulation:anew
reliable technique foratruepictureofproteindigestioninthesmall
intestineofthepig.Proc.6-th Symp.onAminoAcids,Serock,4pp.

338
Leeuwen,P.van,Huisman,J.,Verstegen,M.W.A.,Baak,M.J.,Kleef,D.J.,van,
VanVeerden,E.J.andHartog,L.A., den (1988).Anewtechniquefor
collectionofilealchyme inpigs.Manuscript from ILOB,Wageningen,
4pp.
Low,A.G. (1980).Observationsontheobjectives andmethodologyofresearch
ondigestionandabsorptioninpigs.Tech.Bull.3,NIRD,Reading,
10-19.

339
 51
CR-EDTA IS A DIGESTIVE MARKER MORE ACCURATE
THAN 14C-PEG 4000 FOR MEASUREMENT OF NET WATER
ABSORPTION FROM PIG'S PROXIMAL COLON
V. Théodorou,J. Fioramonti and L.Buéno

Department of Pharmacology, I.N.R.A.,BP3,31931Toulouse ,France

Abstract
Both polyethyleneglycol (molecular weight 4000, PEG 4000) and 51Cr-EDTA
are currently used water soluble and unabsorbed digestive markers. For an
easier dosage, PEG is also used in its radioactive form 14C-PEG. The aim of
this study was to determine a digestive marker accurate for determination of
colonic net water absorption in conscious pigs. For that we have compared
values of water absorption using 14C-PEG 4000 and 51Cr-EDTA.
Key words :14C-PEG 4000,5iCr-EDTA, helicoidal colon,net water absorption,
pigs

Introduction
In addition to their use as digestibility indicators the water-soluble markers
as PEG 4000 and Cr-EDTA have been useful in study of water balance in man
and animals (Whalen et al., 1966 ; Ishikawa, 1965 ;Jacobson et al., 1963 ;
Hecker, 1971).
In 1953 Sperber et al. reported the use of PEG as a reference substance in
studies of ruminant digestion and found that it was neither absorbed nor
destroyedto any considerable extendinthe digestive tract and morethan 90%
was recovered in the feces. Indeed PEG compounds are actually used in high
enough molecular weight, about 4000,to avoid any absorption ordegradation.
. Moreover, the lack of a specific sensitive and accurate method for the
v-analysis of PEG has been seen as a serious limitation in its use. The use of
radioactive PEG has been proposedto overcame this difficulty.
The complex of 51 Cr with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (51Cr-EDTA) has
been suggested by Downes and McDonald (1964) as a substitute for PEG.
51
Cr-EDTA has beenfoundto bindto asmall extendto particulate matter inthe
rumen of sheep and to be absorbed and subsequent excreted in the urine at
small but not significant percentages always lessthan 5%and mostly around3
% in sheep or less in cattle. Feces recovery has been found good (~ 95%)
(Downes and Mc Donald, 1964).Theaim ofthis study wastodetermine awater
soluble digestive marker accurate for determination of colonic net water
absorption in conscious pigs.

Materials and Methods

Animal preparation

This study was carried out using four Large White pigs, each weighing
approximately 40 kg at the beginning of the experiments. The animals were
housed in individual cages. They were on a standard diet for growing pigs (30

340
g/kg body weight per day) of concentrates of barley, wheating and fish meal
(Rental, 31770 Colomiers,) given in two daily meals, and had free access to
water.
Under thiopental anaesthesia, each animalwasfitted with asilicone catheter
into the lumen ofthe terminal ileum (at 20cmfromthe ileo-caecaljunction) and
two silicone cannulas (internal diameter 8 mm) were inserted in the helicoidal
(proximal) colon.The proximal cannula was placed on the first colonic coil and
thedistalcannula,atabout 50cmfromthefirst one,onthe secondcoil. Thetwo
cannulas and the catheters were exteriorized on the left flank. The animals
were allowedto recover for 2weeks before beginning the experiments.

Net water flux measurement

Saline containing either 14C-PEG 4000 or 5iCr-EDTA at a concentration of

approximately 0.1 u.Ci/mlwascontinously infused24 h/day at aconstant rateof
20 ml/hthrough the ilealcatheter. Determination of 14C-PEG 4000 and/or 51Cr-
EDTA incolonic samples (about 2g)takenthrough the two cannulas and inthe
perfused solution was performed by liquid scintillation (Intertechnique SL20
scintillation spectrometer, Plaisir, France) and y-counter (MG 252, Kontron,
Basel, Switzerland) respectively.
Dry matter ofcolonic samples wasdetermined by heatingabout 1g'at 100°C
for 24 h. Net water flux in the colonic segment situated between the two
cannulas corresponded to the difference between the flow of the liquid phase
ofdigesta atthe levelof oralcannula (/i) andthe flow ofthe liquid phase atthe
level ofthe aboral cannula (ƒ2). Flows werecalculated asfollows :

f Fo[Co-(Ci/qi)]
'1 - Ci/qi and

FQ[CQ - (C 2 /q 2 )]
ƒ2= C 2 /q 2
where F0 is the rate of marker infusion, C 0 is the concentration of digestive
marker in the perfused solution, Ci and C 2 are the concentrations in the
samples taken from the oral (Ci) and the aboral (C2) cannulas and qi and q 2
are the percentages of water in the samples taken from the oral (qi) and the
aboral (q2) cannulas.
In two supplementary pigs a 51 Cr-EDTA solution (0.1 u.Ci/ml) was
continuously infused (20 ml/h) into the ileum for 24 h and a blood sample (10
ml) was taken from the marginal vein of the ear just before the infusion was
stopped. No radioactivity was detectable inthe blood of eachpig.
Experimental schedule

For determining the colonic net water absorption, samples of colonic

contents (2 g) were taken through the two cannulas at 2 h intervals for 10 hin
each animal.The first sample was obtained 2 hafter the morning mealgiven at
8.00 h.
All experiments were repeated twice in each pig. Statistical analysis of the
results was performed using arithmetic means ± standard deviation of
mesurement and Student's pairedttest.

341
Results
Values of net water flux obtained using 14C-PEG 4000 indicated a net
secretion of water into the colonic lumen during the 2nd,4th and 6th hour after
the morning meal (-2.7± 0.2 ;-1.9±0.4 and-0.9±0.2 respectively) (fig.1).This
secretion disagrees with colonic contents dry matter percentage significantly (P
< 0.05) higher atthe distalcannulathanthe proximal (40.2± 0.9 and 35.3± 2.4
respectively onthe 2nd postprandial hour ;table 1).Onthe contrary,the useof
51
Cr-EDTA, permitted to quantify colonic water rates absorbed ; which were
increasing from 0.7 ± 0.1 ml/min on the second postprandial hour to 1.7 ± 0.3
ml/minonthe eight hour (Fig.1).

Table!
Colonic contents dry matter (%)
14C-PEG 4000
Posptrandial hours Proximal cannula Distal cannula
2 35.312.4 40.2 + 0.9*
4 34.9 + 1.6 41.3 ±0.6*
6 37.1±0.6 43.4 ± 2 . 1 *
8 39.2 ± 1 . 3 45.3± 2 . 1 *
10 38.3± 1 . 7 43.4 ±1.8*
*significantly different (P<0.05 from proximalcannula dry matter values.

Net colonic water absorption

51
C PEG 4000 Cr-EDTA
3-,

2-

1 •
^
o
-1

-2

-3 2 4 6 8 10
4 6 8 10
Hours after meal Hours after meal

Fig. 1. Postprandial pattern of net colonic water absorption (means ± SD, n=

8) 14C-PEG 4000 ledto erroneous values indicating a net water secretion into
the colonic lumen, in basal conditions. Assays with 51Cr-EDTA permitted to
quantify net colonic water absorption inthe proximal colon of pigs.

Discussion
Most of the studies related to colonic water absorption concern absorption
from a solution infused into an emptied colon (Phillips, 1987). The technique
we used permits the evaluation of water absorption from a normal colonic

342
content in more physiological conditions. It has been shown in sheep that
cannulation of the large intestine does not modify the movements of digesta
(MeRaeetal., 1973)andwecanpostulatethat inourstudythe presence oftwo
cannulas did not alter colonic functions. Onthe other hand a rate of infusion of
20 ml/h into the ileum seems to be negligible by comparison with the rate of
flow ofdigestadeterminedatthe levelofthefirst colonic coil.
Moreover the use of 51Cr-EDTA as a water-soluble marker seems suitable
for water absorption measurement in the pig colon since no radioactivity has
been found in blood after a 24 h infusion into the ileum. Moreover, in sheep,
51
Cr-EDTA is known to bind only to a small extend to solid particles and to
have a recovery slightly betterthan that of polyethyleneglycol (Downes andMc
Donald, 1964).
Onthe contrary use of 14C-PEG ledto erroneous values. Indeed recoveries
of PEG in feces were frequently somewhat low (Smith, 1958) and a mean loss
of about 10 % occurred in the large intestine at calf. Hyden (1950) suggested
that the losses were due to some degradation of PEG, as he obtained good
recoveries in vitro trials by his method of turbidimetric analysis. Theturbidity of
polyethyleneglycol decreases with decreasing of its molecular weight. It
therefore appears that no good recovery can be obtained when PEG is
degraded to the homologues of lower molecular weight. An in vivo study
(Ishikawa, 1965) undertaken to make a qualitative test for degraded polymers
in feces and ingesta at wine fed PEG, did not show any degradation at this
digestive markerthroughthe digestive tract.
Inconclusion,51Cr-EDTA isadigestive marker moreaccuratethan 14C-PEG
4000 for determiantion of net water absorption from pig's proximal colon. A
hypothetic explanation for that way be a partial degradation of PEG by colonic
microflora with absorption fragments containing 14 C which are situated at the
extremity ofthecarbonchain.

References
Downes, A.M. & I.W. Mc Donald, 1964. The 51 Cr complex of ethylenediamine
tetraacetic acid as a soluble rumen marker. British Journal of Nutrition
18:153-162.
Hecker,J.F., 1971.Use ofthe marker51Cr-EDTA inthe ovine caecum. Journal
of Agricultural Science 77:151-157.
Hyden, S., 1956. The recovery of polyethyleneglycol after passage through the
digestive tract. Annals of Agricultural College 22:411-419.
Ishikawa, S., 1965. Degradation of polyethylene glycol in the digestive tract.
Agricultural and Biological Chemistry 29, 3:173-180.
Jacobson, E.D. et al., 1963. Validity of polyethylene glycol in estimating
intestinal water volume. Gastroenterology 44:761-767.
McRae, J.C. et al., 1973. Caecal cannulation in the sheep. Research in
Veterinary Science 14:78-85.
Phillips, S.F., 1987. Relationships among intestinal motility, flow rate, transit
and absorption. In : N.W. Read (Ed.) :The relationships between intestinal
motility and epithelial transport. Beerse, Janssen Research Council p. 47-
58.
Smith, R.H., 1958. Substances in the calf alimentary tract interfering in the
determination of polyethyleneglycol. Nature 182:260-266.

343
 Sperber, I.et al., 1953. The use of polyethyleneglycol as a reference substance
in the study of ruminant digestion. Annales of Agricultural College 20:337-
343.
Whalen, G.E. et al., 1966.Sodium and water absorption from the human small
intestine. The accuracy of the perfusion method. Gastroenterology 51,
6:975-199.

**• r

344
INVITRO DETERMINATION OF PROTEIN DIGESTIBILITY OF
FEEDSUSINGA"DIGESTIONCELL"(PRELIMINARY RESULTS)
D. Thomaneck, U. Hennig and U.-B. Souffrant

Research Centre of Animal Production Dummerstorf-Rostock

Division of Animal Nutrition "Oskar Kellner", Rostock, Ger-
many 1 '

Abstract
The enzymatic digestibility of different proteins was deter-
mined using a special digestion cell. The "digestion cell me-
thod" is based on a two-step proteolysis with pepsin and
pancreatin. The pancreatin hydrolysis is combined with dialy-
sis through a membrane with a defined molecular weight cut
off.
The in vitro results were compared with results of the corre-
sponding in vivo experiments.
Key words: digestibility, in vitro, proteolysis, dial/sis

Introduction
The substitution of expensive and time-consuming in vivo ex-
periments by simple in vitro determinations is one of the
aims in the research of the digestibility of feeds for ani-
mals. Recently, Savoie published a relatively simple in vitro-
method for the determination of protein digestibility (1,2).
This method is based on a two-step proteolysis and the N
(nitrogen)-determination of the dialysate obtained by dialy-
sis of the enzyme-treated feeds in a specially constructed
digestion cell (1).The applicability of this "digestion cell
method" was tested using proteins of different sources. Re-
sults obtained were compared with corresponding in vivo expe-
riments.

Materials and Methods '

Enzymes: Pepsin cone. (5000 ES, VEB Berlin-Chemie)
Pancreatin (4 NF, Biochemie Bernd Beiger)
Feeds: The following protein sources were used: casein,
maize, peas "Grapis", meat meal (10,9 % crudef a t ) ,
solvent extracted meals of soybean, linseed (6%
crude f a t ) ,cottonseed, sunflowerseed and rapeseed
(untreated and treated with copper sulfphate to re-
move inhibitors).
"Digestion cell method". This method and the construction of
the cell are well discribed by Savoie et al. and
Gauthier et al (1,2). The applied standard procedure
consists of the following steps:

1. Present address: Justus-v.-Liebig-Weg 1, Rostock 2500

345
 1. 250 mg protein (40mg N) are treated with 1 mg
pepsin at pH 1,9 and 37 'C for 30 minutes.
2. Following this pretreatment the mixture is
calibrated to pH 7,5 by 0,1 N sodium hydroxide and
then poured into the inner cylinder of the digestion
cell which is surrounded by a dialysis membrane
(molecular weight cut off 1000).
3. 10 mg pancreatin is added to the mixture and di-
gestion carried out at 37 °C for 6 hours.
Digested products dialyzed through the membrane into
the buffer solution (flow rate 1,6 ml/min) are
collected every hour for 6 hours.
4. The N-content (Kjeldahl) and a-amino-N-content
using ninhydrine reagent (3) are estimated. The N-
digestibility is calculated using the formula:

dialyzed nitrogen
N-digestibility= X 100
protein nitrogen (40 mg N)

This standard procedure was modified by pepsin

digestion for 3 hours. The results were compared
with those of the standard procedure. The determina-
tion of (x-amino-N was carried out to proof the
amount of free amino acids in the dialysates in
relation to the estimated N-content in the dialy-
sates.
In vivo investigations. The in vivo digestibility of the
corresponding feeds was determined as precaecal
digestibility by means of end-to-side ileorectal
anastomose estimation in pigs (4).

Results and Discussion

yThe results of the in vitro digestibility of different feeds
measured with the standard and the modified procedure are
summarized in table 1 in comparison to the in vivo crude pro-
tein digestibility by pigs.
Table 2 contains the results of the cx-amino-N estimations re-
lated to the corresponding N-values.
The general applicability of this method was tested on feeds
with known high (casein) and low (meat meal) digestibility.
As can be seen in table 1clear differences were to be found.
These results are in agreement with similiar results in
literature (2).
Experiments for reproduction of the determination were per-
formed on casein and the results for digestibility of casein
(34,2+5,9%, r\=7) indicate a sufficient reproducibility.
Investigations concerning the methodology of the standard and
modified procedure show clearly that the time of 30 minutes
for pre-digestibility is sufficient (table 1 ) .The results of
Gauthier et al (2) are confirmed.
The comparison of N-digestibility (table 1) between the
different feeds shows no clear differences (casein excluded).
The variation between the single values for a selected feed

346
(maize) ranged from 12,8 to 22,6 % (mean value 17,7; standard
deviation 3,6 30-

Table 1. In vitro digestibility (%)of different feeds using

the "digestion cell method" in the standard and modified
procedure in comparison to the in vivo crude protein
digestibility (%)on pigs

Digestibility(%)
in vitro in vivo
feed standard modified precaecal

casein 34,2 35,1 87,1*

maize 17,9 17,4 73,6±3,1
peas 15,0 17,6 66,8+8,8
meat meal 21,0 24,9 65,4+2,8
solv.extr.meals of
soybean 16,2 15,6 79,7+2,7
linseed 19,2 18,0 62,6±5,0
cottonseed 16,7 21,0 71,6+1,4
sunflower seed 20,0 25,4 71,9±3,3
rapeseed
untreated 21,0 22,6
treated 15,1 15,8

literature (n=10)

Table 2 shows the part of nitrogen in the dialysate in form

of «-amino nitrogen. In the mean of all the proofed feeds 55
% of the digested nitrogen were free amino acids. The rest
could be oligopeptides. Further experiments are necessary
before final conclusions can be made. In this regard it seems
necessary, to direct more attention to methodical aspects,
especially to the flow conditions in the digestion cell.

Table 2. Results of the cx-amino-N-determination, related to

the corresponding N-values(%)

%a-amino-N of N, mesasured by
feed standard procedure modified procedure

casein 64,6 58,,2

maize 46,7 55,,1
peas 50,0 58,,0
meat meal 40,3 37, 7
solv. extr. meals of
soybean - 71, '~?
linseed 65,1 54,,1
cottonseed 74,9 62, 9
sunflowerseed 68,7 59,,1
rapeseed
untreated 61,0 57,,0
treated 44,3 38,.0

347
 Our preliminary in vitro results were compared with in vivo
investigations (table 1) and only a slight ..relation was
found. Correct interpretation of the results is not possible,
because of the small number of replications. On the one hand
the in vitro results represent more the value for true
digestibility (in our experiments for 6 hours pancreatin
digestibility) and on the other hand the in vivo results
reflect the apparent digestibility.
The aim of further experiments and more replications should
be to find regressions between in vitro and in vivo preceacal
digestibility values.

References
1. Savoie, L. & S.F. Gauthier, 1986. Dialysis cell for the in
vitro measurement of protein digestibility. J. Food Sei.
51: 494-498
2. Gauthier, S.F., C. vachon & L. Savoie, 1986. Enzymatic
conditions of an in vitro method to study protein
digestion. J. Food Sei. 51: 960-964
3. Pahle, T., R. Köhler, I. Halle, H. Jeroch & G. Gebhardt,
1983. Arch. Animal Nutr. 33: 363
4. Hennig, U., R. Noel, U. Herrmann, J. Wünsche & E. Mehnert,
1986. Arch. Animal Nutr. 36: 585

348

1
ADAPTATIVE EFFECTS OF ILEO-RECTAL ANASTOMOSIS ON
DIGESTION IN PIGS

Torsten Köhlerab, Rainer Mosenthin", Leo A. den Hartog0,

Joop Huismand, Martin W.A.Verstegen13

Institute of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, University of Kiel, D-2300

Kiel, FRG.

Department ofAnimal Nutrition, Agricultural University, Haagsteeg 4, 6708

PM Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Research Institute for Pig Husbandry, P.O. Box 83, 5240 ABRosmalen, The
Netherlands.

TNOInstitute forAnimal Nutrition and Physiology (ILOB)P.O.Box15, 6700

AAWageningen, The Netherlands.

Abstract

A long term study with 16 barrows (initially weights 30 kg) was carried out to
investigate the adaptative effects of ileo-rectal anastomosis (IRA) on digesta
composition. Therefore, 9 pigs were provided with an IRA and 7 pigs with a post-
valve T-caecum cannula. Digesta were collected 3, 9 and 12 weeks after surgery,
respectively. The contents of dry matter, nitrogen, methionine, threonine, leucine,
lysine, diaminopimelic acid, volatile fatty acids, sodium and potassium in digesta
were measured. Apart from sodium all above parameters were increased (P< .05,
P< .001) in the digesta of IRA pigs (except threonine and lysine in wk 9 after
surgery). Sodium concentration in digesta of IRA pigs was distinctly (P< .001)
lower than in digesta of PVTCpigs.This change of digesta composition in IRApigs
is established already 3 weeks after surgery. This adaptation will therefore have an
influence on the digestibility measurement.

Introduction
Ileal digestibility measurement is considered to be the most suitable method to
estimate the potential availability of dietary protein for pigs (Zebrowska, 1973).
Ileo-rectal Anastomosis (IRA) has been proposed as a new technique for
measurement ofileal protein and aminio acid digestibilities (Fuller and Livingstone,
1982; Picard et al, 1984; Darcy-Vrillon and Laplace, 1985; Souffrant et al., 1985).
IRA was carried out by fitting the distal part of the ileum to the side of the
descending colon just before the rectum. Such a bypass of the colon can be
349
performed as a pre- or post valve (Green et al., 1988) as well as an end-to-end or
end-to-side anastomosis. The most important advantage of IRA is that digesta can
be easily collected quantitatively via the anus. This is important for diets with a
large content of fibrous byproducts. Problems like blockage or leakage which have
been reported in re-entrant cannulated pigs (Sauer, 1976; Just et al.1980; Köhler
et al, 1990) are avoided. On the other hand, this technique excludes the digestive
capacity of the hind gut especiallywith regard to the absorption of minerals, water
and volatile fatty acids (VFA).The objective of the present experiment was to study
if there are changes in digestion and absorption of nutrients in pigs fitted with IRA.
For comparison pigs fitted with a Post-Valve T-Caecum (PVTC) cannula were used.

Materials and Methods

16 crossbred castrates (Yorkshire x Dutch Landrace) (avg. BW 30 kg) were used.

Nine pigs were provided with an IRA as described by Köhler et al. (1991a) and
seven with a PVTC cannula as described by van Leeuwen et al. (1990). Following
surgery the pigswere allowed to recover two weeks. Pigswere housed individually
in adjustable cages in an environmentally controlled metabolism unit with
continuous light. Air temperature was 19 to 21° C.

TABLE 1. COMPOSITION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL DIET (%)

INGREDIENTS
MAIZE 32.95
BARLEY 6.00
WHEAT 10.50
SOYBEAN MEAL 22.50
MOLASSES 4.00
POTATO PULP 9.20
BEET PULP 10.00
ANIMAL FAT 1.00
L-LYSINE HCL 0.18
BL-METHIONINE 0.12
PREMIX* 1.00
Ca(H2Po4)*H20 1.50
CaC03 0.50
NaCl 0.30
Cr2Oj 0.25

CONTRIBUTED THE FOLLOWING VITAMIN AND MINERAL SOURCES PER KG OF DIET: RETINOL, 9000
IU; CHOLECALCIFEROL, 1800 IU; a-TOCOPHEROL, 40 mg; MENADIONE, 3 mg; RIBOFLAVIN, 5 mg;
COBALAMINE, 40 pg; NICOTINIC ACID, 30 mg; D-PANTOTHENIC ACID, 12 mg; CHOLINE CHLORIDE, 150
mg; ASCORBINE ACID, 50 mg; KI, 500 jig; C o S 0 4 * 7 H 2 0 2.5 mg; N a 2 S e 0 3 , 0.2 mg; F e S 0 4 * 7 H 2 0 , 0.40 g;
C u S 0 4 * 5 H 2 0 , 0.1 g; M n O z , 0.07 g; Z n S 0 4 * H 2 0 , 6.2 g. THIS MIXTURE ALSO SUPPLIED 20 ppm
VIRGINIAMYCIN TO THE DIET.

The composition of the experimental diet is given in Table 1.The pigs were
fed at a level of 2.4 times energyrequired for maintenance (ARC,1981). Feed was
given twice daily at 08.00 and 20.00. Water was administered with the feed at a
ratioof2.5:1. Theanastomized pigsalsoreceived anextra electrolyte solution (200
ml 20kgLW"1d"1)twice dailyas described byHenniget al.(1986).The liveweights
of the animals were recorded every two weeks. The ileal digesta were collected
quantitatively during 5 d for 12 h/d from 9.00 to 21.00 at 3, 9 and 12 weeks after
surgery. Details of the sampling method are described by Köhler et al.(1991a).
Chemical analysis of DM, N, AAS, DAPA, VFA, Na and Khave been described in
350
details by Köhler et al. (1991a,b,c). Differences among treatment means were
tested according to the GLMprocedure using SAS (1985).

Results
Table 2 shows the average concentrations of dry matter, nitrogen and some
indispensable amino acids in the digesta ofpigs fitted with IRAor PVTC cannulas.
Both dry matter and nitrogen concentrations were higher (P< .001) in IRA pigs
than in PVTCpigs at 3, 9 and 12weeks after surgery, respectively. 3 and 12 weeks
after surgerythe concentrations ofMET,TRE,LEU,and LYSwere higher (P< .001)
in IRA pigs than in PVTC pigs. 9 weeks after surgery, however, these differences
were significant for MET (P< .001) and LEU (P< .01) but not for TRE and LYS.

TABLE 2 . AVERAGE CONCENTRATION OF DRY MATTER(%), NITROGEN AND SOME INDISPENSABLE AMINO ACIDS (%
LDM)INDIGESTAOFPIGSFITTEDWITHHEO-RECTALANASTOMOSIS CIRA)ORPOST-VALVET-CAECUM (PVTC)
CANNULA 3 , 9 AND 1 2 WEEKSAFTER SURGERY. MEANS ±SK
TIME PERIOD I PERIOD II PERIOD III

IRA PVTC IRA PVTC IRA PVTC'

DM 10.17±0.15e 8.44±0.15 f 10.67±0.23e 8.85+0.18 f 10.86±0.19e 8.79±0.05f
N 3.00±0.05e 2.46±0.08f 2.93±0.07e 2.35±0.06f 2.91± 0.06 e 2.29+0.04f
MET 0.23±0.01e 0.16±0.01f 0.24±0.01e 0.14±0.01f 0.26±0.01e /
0.15±0.01f
TRE 0.76±0.01e 0.65±0.02 f 0.71±0.02a 0.66±0.02b 0.72±0.01e 0.61±0.02 f
LEU 1.01±0.02 e 0.78±0.03f 0.97±0.03c 0.78+0.04d 1.02±0.02 e 0.73±0.02 f
LYS 0.60±0.01e 0.48±0.02 f 0.58+0.02 0.53±0.02 0.78+0.01e 0.58±0.02 f

MEANS IN THE SAME ROW AND WITHIN A COLLECTION PERIOD WITH DIFFERENT SUPERSCRIPTS DIFFER P < .01
MEANS IN THE SAME ROW AND WITHIN A COLLECTION PERIOD WITH DIFFERENT SUPERSCRIPTS DIFFER P < .001

Table 3presents data on thelevelofdifferent microbialmetabolites in digesta

collected bythe different methods described. Inallthree periods the amount ofDAPA
in the digesta of IRA pigs was higher than in PVTC pigs. Moreover, this difference
increased continously (P< .05, P< .0001 and P< .0001 from week 3 to 12 after
surgery). In all three periods total amount ofVFAmeasured in digesta from IRApigs
was higher (P< .0001) than in PVTCpigs. In PVTCpigs the highest amount ofVFA
was found three weeks after surgery. In IRA pigs the VFA concentration increased
continuously. The acetate / propionate ratios in IRA pigs were different in
comparison with PVTCpigs. In IRApigs this ratio was about 1.80 whereas in PVTC
pigs the ratio increased from 3.92 in the 1 stperiod to 6.65 in the 3 r d period.
Average concentration of sodium and potassium in digesta of IRA-and PVTC
pigs are sammarized in Table 4. In IRApigs considerable lower (P< .0001) sodium
and higher (P< .0001) potassium concentrations were found in all three periods.

Discussion and Conclusions

The measurement of protein and amino acid digestibilities at the distal ileum of pigs
has been proposed to eliminate the influence of the bacterial activity in the hind gut
on protein digestion (Zebrowska, 1973). However, results given in Table 2 show
significant differences between the two methods designed to measure ileal
digestibilities. A fundamental difference between both techniques is the passage of
digesta through the rectum of the IRApigs. In a previous paper (Köhler et al. 1991)
it was shown that the girth of the rectum in IRApigs was larger (P< .05) than in
351
PVTC or intact pigs. As a consequence the volume of the rectum was increased and
the digesta flow changed. This may lead to a higher water absorption. Leterme et
al.(1990) reported a systematically lower apparent and true N and amino acid
digestibility in IRApigs compared to T-cannulated pigs. This means that the higher
concentration of N and amino acids in the digesta of IRApigs may be the result of
an increased secretion of endogenous sources and a lower N and amino acid
digestibility.

IRA seems to have an influence on the extent of fermentation. The DAPA

measurements in ileal digesta indicate that micribial activity was markedly affected
by the type of collection technique. DAPAconcentrations in digesta of IRApigs were
higher (P< .05 in week 3, P< .001 in weeks 9 and 12, respectively) than in PVTC
pigs. This indicates a rapid change in bacterial activity between both treatments
following surgery. The results for DAPAlevels in digesta correspond with the results
for volatile fatty acid (VFA) levels in digesta. The amount of VFAin PVTC pigs was
comparable with results reported in literature (Clemens et al., 1975; Argenzio &
Southworth, 1975; Drochner, 1984; Mosenthin, 1987). In IRApigs the level ofVFA
was 3-8 times higher.Aninfluence of the collection technique was also found for the
acetate/propionate ratio which was considerable lower (P< .01 ; P< .001) in IRA
pigs than in PVTCpigs. In PVTCpigs the percentage of acetate was in a range of 74-
83 %and in agreement with ileal data giveninliterature (Argenzio and Southworth,
1974; Clemens et al., 1975; Drochner, 1984; Mosenthin, 1987). In IRA pigs the
molare proportion of acetate was about 58 %.This is in agreement with data which
have been presented for faeces (Argenzio & Southworth, 1974; Drochner, 1984;
Sauer et al., unpublished.).

TABLE3. AVERAGECONCENTRATIONOFVOLATILEFATTYACIDS(MMOI/L)ANDDAPA(mg/gDM)INDIGESTAOFPIGS
FITTEDWITHHEO-RECTALANASTOMOSIS (IRA) ORPOST-VALVET-CAECUM(PVTC) CANNULA3, 9 AND 12
WEEKSAFTERSURGERY.MEANSAND SE.
TIME PERIODI PERIODII PERIODIII

IRA PVTC IRA PVTC IRA PVTC

DAPA 0.61±0.04 a 0.47±0.03 b 0.68± 0.04e 0.34±0.03f 0.79±0.0Se 0.34±0.02f
VFA 112.33±9.20e 31.22±3.71 f 116.41±11.48e 2I.41±2.86 f 162.7S±S.79e 20.55±2.60f
C 2 :C 3 1.74±0.07e 4.12±0.43 f 1.84± 0.06c S.80±1.0Sd 1.86+0.07e 7.13±0.86f
ab
MEANSINTHE SAMEROWANDWITHINACOLLECTIONPERIODWITHDIFFERENTSUPERSCRIPTS DIFFERP< .05
cd
MEANSINTHE SAMEROWANDWITHIN ACOLLECTION PERIODWITHDIFFERENTSUPERSCRIPTS DIFFER P< .01
ef
MEANSINTHE SAMEROWANDWITHIN ACOLLECTION PERIODWITH DIFFERENTSUPERSCRIPTS DIFFER p< .001

The average concentrations of sodium and potassium demonstrate the

importance ofthe large intestine for mineral absorption. For sodium a negative ileal
digestibilityhasbeenreported bydifferent authors (Partridge, 1978; Drochner, 1982;
den Hartog et al.,1985; Partridge et al.,1986). Asodium concentration of about 1%
i.DMwhichwas found in digesta from IRApigs compared with 2.8 -3.2%i.DM found
in PVTC pigs can be explained as an intestinal adaptation in IRA pigs to conserve
sodium. These results are in agreement with results found for the renal sodium
excretion which was also extremely lower in IRA pigs (P< .05) than in PVTC or
intact pigs (Köhleret al.1991).Anincreased re-absorption ofsodium bythe kidneys
and anincreased sodium absorption atthe distal colon (rectum) has been described
352
TABLE4. AVERAGECONCENTRATIONOFSODIUMANDPOTASSIUM (%i.DM)INDIGESTAOFPIGSFITTEDWITHILEO-
RECTAL ANASTOMOSIS (IRA) OR POST-VALVE T-CAECUM (PVTC) CANNULA 3, 9 AND 12 WEEKSAFTER
SURGERY.MEANSANDSE.
TIME PERIODI PERIOD II PERIODIII

IRA PVTC IRA PVTC IRA PVTC

Na 1.02±0.04a 3.00±0.10 b 0.97+0.043 2.90±0.07 b 0.95±0.04a 3.24±0.06 b
K 2.85±0.04 a 1.29±0.0Sb 2.79±0.06 a 1.35±0.16b 2.86±0.08 a 1.24±0.09b

as a result of an increased aldosterone activity (Rechkemmer, 1990) and is in

agreement with a higher weight of the adrenal glands which was found in IRApigs
(Köhler et al. 1991b). In all three periods the potassium concentration in the digesta
of IRApigswas higher (P< .001) than in PVTCpigs.These results are in accordance
with results reported by Heitzmann and Drochner (1990). These authors found an
increased potassium and decreased sodium concentration in ileal digesta when pigs
were fed a diet with a low sodium content.

In conclusion the results of our experiment show a clear adaptation to the

missing hind gut digestion in IRApigs. Moreover, the change in digesta composition
could already be observed three weeks after surgery. It can be accepted that this
intestinal adaptation has an influence on the digestibility, the intestinal fermentation
and the aldosterone activity. Digesta collected in pigs fitted with an end-to-side IRA
including the ileo-caecalvalve seems to be quite different from ileal digesta collected
atthe distalileumincannulated pigs.Furtherstudiesarewarranted toinvestigate the
effect of different IRAtechniques and different mineral supplementations on digesta
composition and digestibility.

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1-65.

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Clemens,E.T.; Stevens,C.E.; Southworth,M.Sites oforganic acid production and pattern ofdigesta

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DenHartog,L.A.;Huisman, J.; Thielen,W.J.G.;van Schayk, G.H.A.; Boer,H.;vanWeerden, E.J.The

effect of includingvarious structural polysaccarides inpig diets on ileal and faecal digestibilityof
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Köhler, T.;Verstegen, M.W.A.; Mosenthin, R.; den Hartog, L.A.;Huisman, J. Effect of ileo-rectal
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Schweine auf die endogene Stickstoff- und Enzymsekretion in den Verdauungstrakt sowie auf
praecaecale und postileale Umsetzungen N-haltigerVerbindungen. Habilitationsschrift der
Universität Kiel,Germany, 1987, 128pp.

Partridge, I.G. Studies on digestion and absorption in the intestines of growing pigs. 3.Net
movements of mineral nutrients in the digestive tract. Br.J.Nutr. 1978, 39,527-545.

Partridge, I.G.; Simon, O.;Bergner, H.The effects of treated straw meal on ileal and faecal
digestibility ofnutrients in pigs.Arch.Anim.Nutr. 1986, 36,351-359.

Picard,M.;Bertrand, S.;Genin,F.;Maillard, R.Digestibilityofamino acids:interest ofthe ileo-rectal

shunt technique in pig.Journées Recherche Porcine en France. 1984, 16,355-360.

Rechkemmer, G.Regulation der Elektrolytresorption und -Sekretion im Dickdarm. J. Anim.Physiol.

a. Anim.Nutr. 1990, 64, 8-9.

SAS. 1985.SASUser's Guide: Statistics.SAS Inst.,Inc.,Cary,NC.

Sauer, W.C.,Ph.D.Thesis, 1976.Univ.of Manitoba. 180pp.

354
Sauer,W.C.;Mosenthin, R.;Ahrens,F.;den Hartog, L.A. The effect of source offiber on amino acid
digestibility and bacterial nitrogen excretion in growingpigs. 1990,J.Anim.Sei. in press.

Souffrant, W. B.;Schumann, B.;Matkowitz, R.; Gebhardt, G.Untersuchungen zur Stickstoff- und

Aminosäurenresorption imDünndarmvonwachsenenSchweinen.Arch.Anim.Nutr. 1985,35, 781-
789.

Zebrowska,T.Digestionandabsorption ofnitrogenouscompoundsinthelargeintestineofpigs.Rocz.
Nauk. Roln. 1973, B.95 :80.

355
 DETERMINATION OF TRYPSIN AND CHYMOTRYPSIN
ACTIVITY INPANCREATICJUICE,TISSUEAND CHYME: THE
EFFECT OF FREEZE DRYING AND STORAGE
M.J. van Baak ^ , E.C.Rietveld 1 ) and C.A.Makkink2^

'TNO-Institute forAnimal NutritionandPhysiology (ILOB),

Wageningen,
' DepartmentofAnimal Nutrition,Agricultural University, Wagemngen,
The Netherlands

Abstract
Asacontribution todigestive physiological studies analysisof
trypsinandchymotrypsin activities inpancreatic tissue ,juiceandchyme
are carried out.Knowledgeofstorage conditionsofthese samplesin
relationtoenzym activity hastobeacquired. Several "pilot experiments"
were carried out.Pancreatic tissue,juiceandchymewere freeze driedand
analyzedfortrypsinandchymotrypsin activity.Results indicatean
improvementofthestorage conditionsofthese biological samplesbyusing
thefreeze drying technique.Fordefinite conclusions more experiments
with more samples will beneeded. Experimentsareplanned innearfuture.
Keywords: trypsin, chymotrypsin, pancreas, pancreatic juice, chyme,
storage conditions, freeze drying.

1. Introduction
Determinationoftheactivityofproteolytic enzymes indifferent
matrices,mayhaveanimportant contribution indigestive fysiological
studies. Fistulation techniquesforpancreatic juice collectionandchyme
y-collectionmakeitpossibletostudy enzym actvitiesinthesematrices.
Usually,thecollected samples cannotbeanalyzed immediately,sothey
havetobestored.Astudyontheinfluence of storage temperatureon
enzym activities inpancreatic juicehasbeen carried outbyMakkinketal
(1990).Forshortorlong term storage,freeze-drying mightbea
possibilitytoprevent enzyme activity changes.Experiments were carried
outtogetinformation aboutthe effectoffreeze-drying ontheactivity
of trypsineandchymotrypsineinpancreatic juice,pancreasandchyme.
2.Materialsand Methods
2.1 Sample collection
To collect pancreatic juiceacastrated male pig,fitted witha
pancreatic cannula accordingtothemethodofHeeetal (1985)wasused.
An otherpig was fitted withanileal T-cannula accordingtothemethodof
van Leeuwenetal(1988)tocollect chyme.
By dissectionofthree pigletsandanoneyearoldcastrated male pig,
homogenized pancreases were obtained. Sampleswereworkedupimmediately
after collectionatthelaboratory.Aliquotsofeach samplewere analysed
for enzym activities.Theremainderofeach samplewas frozen (-20°C)
immediately.

356
2.2 Freeze drying and storage
Thefrozen juice,chyme and pancreaswere freeze dried the day after
sampling. After freeze drying,pancreas and chymewere grounded with a
Retsch grinder using a 1mm sieve.The dried pancreatic juice and pancreas
were kept in sealed polyethylene containers and stored ina refrigerator.
Freeze dried chymewas stored inasealed container which was placed into
a exsiccator filled with silicagel atambient temperature.
2.3 Reconstitution of thefreeze dried material
At 1gram freeze dried chyme 20ml démineraiizedwaterwas added.
Bymeans of aPolytron this samplewas homogenized. An aliquot of 5ml was
taken and transfered into atube andwas centrifuged during 10minutes
(46000g,4°C).50mgfreeze dried pancreatic juicewas reconstituted in
2.5 ml démineraiizedwater (4°C).At 200mg freeze dried pancreas tissue
25ml démineraiizedwater was added.Homogenization and sub-sampling are
carried out as described for chyme.

2.4 Activation procedure

To determine total enzymactivity inpancreatic juice and tissue,
zymogens have to be activated. Oneml of an enterokinase solution
(4.3U/ml)was added to 1ml of the reconstituted sample,mixed and placed
into an ice-bath.Tissue should be incubated with enterokinase during 24
hours .Forthe determination of total enzym activity inpancreatic juice
an incubation time of 2hours has to be applied.
Because intestinal mucous membrane contains enterokinase, zymogens will be
activated in-vivo.Therefore an incubation of ileumchymewith enterokinase
wasfound to be superfluous.
2.5 Determination of trypsin and chymotrypsin activities (analytical
procedure).
Trypsin and chymotrypsin activities were determined according to
Bergmeyer.
Table 1. Determination of trypsin and chymotrypsin activities according to
Bergmeyer (1974).
Determination of Determination of
Trypsin activity Chymotrypsin activity
Buffer solution Tris.HCl buffer solution Tris.HCl buffersolution
pH8.1 ;2.6ml pH 7.8 ;1.50 ml
Substrate 189.5TAME /50ml 33.6mg BTEE /100ml
bidest ;300u.1 methanol/water
(1:1,w:w);1.40 ml
Sample volume 100|xl 100 IJLI

Wavelength 247nm 256 nm

357
r
2.6 Experiments
Trypsin- and chymotrypsin activitiesweremeasured immediately at the
daythe sampleswerecollected (day 0). Thefreezedried sampleswere
analysed at several times.Therewas nodefined chronological table.At
times someroutine analysis had tobedonethefreezedried sampleswere
analysed aswell.

3. ResultsandDiscussion
3.1 Theeffectoffreeze drying and storage ofpancreatic juiceon
trypsin and chymotrypsin
Infresh pancreatic juice (atday0)thetrypsin activitywas 95.97
U/ml.The activity ofchymotrypsin was determined tobe30.01 U/ml.
Thefreezedried pancreatic juicewas analyzed at 4,68,70,75,82
and 104daysafter collection.
Table 2. Trypsin and chymotrypsineactivity inpancreatic juice after
freezedrying and storing at+4°C.Activities asapercentageof activity
infresh pancreatic juiceatday0.
Day Trypsin Chymotrypsin
0 100.0 100.0
4 99.2 103.7
68 92.1 84.6
70 92.1 95.8
75 92.4 91.9
82 89.1 90.0
104 83.0 82.5

•Results summarized intable 2showanalmost similairdecline of trypsin

•"andchymotrypsin activities.At day68the chymotrypsin value is
remarkable, itseems nottofit inthedecliningrange.
3.2 Theeffect offreeze drying and storageofpancreason trypsin
Before freezing and freeze drying,samplesweretaken atthree different
placesof thepancreases.Therewere no significant differences between
the activities inthosethree sub-samples.Therefore theaveragewas taken
for comparisionwith theactivity afterfreeze drying.Bydetermination of
the (freeze)drymatter content (weigthpancreas/weigth freezedried
pancreas)thetrypsin activity pergramfreezedried tissuewas corrected
totheactivity per gram (wet)pancreas.Between theanalysis infresh
tissue and freeze dried tissue therewas atimeperiod of 14days.

358

L^
Table 3. Trypsin activity inpancreas before and after
freezedrying,expressed inunitsper gram pancreas
Trypsin activity
Porcine before after %
id.no. (U/g) (U/g) (*)
24 600 651 108.5
23 2516 2221 88.3
12 1911 2072 108.4
(*) =Trypsin activity infreeze dried pancreatic juiceas
a percentageoftheactivity infresh pancreaticjuice.

Inthisexperiment nochymotrypsin analyses havebeendone.

The differences between activities infresh andfreeze driedpancreas,
might berelated to the interassay variation oftheanalytical method.
No investigation for interassay variation orcomparability hasbeen
performed.One pancreaswasfreeze dried and thereafter stored at+4°C.
After 245days itwas analysed,theresults showadecrease intrypsin
activity of 19.6%.The chymotrypsin activity decreased with 66%'
3.3 Theeffectoffreeze drying and storageof ileumchyme on trypsin and
chymotrypsin
Intheoriginal ileumchymethe activityoftrypsine and chymotrypsine
was determined (n= 5). Trypsin activity =12102U/kg (s.d.=239)and
chymotrypsin activity =2984U/kg (s.d.=71).
At 14,20and 245days after collection orfreeze drying theactivityof
both enzymeswere determined and corrected totheactivity intheoriginal
chyme.Theresultswere comparedwith theresultsfound at day0and
expressed as apercentageofthoseactvities.
Table 4. Trypsin en chymotrypsin activity in ileumchyme after freeze
drying and storage at ambient temperature (under dry conditions).
Activities asapercentageofactivity infresh ileum chyme at day0.
Day Trypsin Chymotrypsin
0 100.0 100.0
14 111.0 140.8
20 105.7 129.2
245 131.5 145.8

No decreaseof activités,even after 245days storage,hasbeenfound.

The increaseofchymotrypsin activity cannot beexplained.An invalid
analysis atday0might bethecausetothisapparent increase.
Thedifferencebetween thetrypsin activity atday0and day 14or20is
probably duetothevariability ofthemedhod.After 245days the trypsin
activitywas found to be31.5% higher asatday0.Except variations
caused bytheanalytical method,theunexpected presenceofzymogens,
activated bytrypsine,may bethecauseofthis increase.

359
4. Conclusions
An inadequate storage procedurewill leadtoinvalid resultsandmight
ledtoscientifical misinterpretation.When biological samplesarenot
treatedandstored under appropiate conditions,considerable changesof
proteolitic enzyme activitieswill appear.
Working with frozen pancreatic juiceandtissuecangive unpredictable
changesinactivity just during thawing.Apossible solutiontothis
problem mightbetheuseoffreeze dried material.Afreeze dried sample-
poolcanbeusedasacontrol/reference sampletocheck compariabilityof
the results from different laboratories,ortocheck day-to-day variances
withinonelaboratory.The experiments described, indicate that freeze
dryingmayprovide considerable changesofenzym activities during several
months.The experiments werementas"pilotexperiments" justtogetbasic
information aboutthepossiblitiesoffreeze drying inrelationtoenzym
activitys.Fordefinite resultsandconclusions abouttheeffectoffreeze
dryingandstorage more experiments,with more sampleswillbeneeded.
Experimentsareplanned innearfuture.

5. References
Bergmeyer,H.U., 1974.MethodenderEnzymatischenAnalyse.Third
Edition.Weinheim: Verlag Chemie
Hee,J.H.,W.C.Sauer,R.Berzins,L.Ozimek, 1985.Permanent re-entrant
diversionofporcine panceatic juice.Canadian JournalofAnimal Science
65,451.
Van Leeuwen,P.,J.Huisman,M.W.A.Verstegen,M.J.'van Baak,D.J. van
Kleef,E.J.vanWeerdenandL.A.denHartog, 1988.Proceedingsofthe
4th International Seminarondigestive physiologyinthepig.Jablona,
Poland.
Makkink,C.A., L.A.J,vander Westeriaken,L.A.denHartog,M.J.vanBaak
and J.Huisman, 1990.Storageofporcine pancreatic juice:effecton
enzyme activities.JournalofAnimal PhysiologyandAnimal Nutrition63:
267-272.

360
COMPARISON OF THE RATE OF PASSAGE OF DIGESTAEST
PIGSMODIFIED BYILEO-RECTALANASTOMOSIS OR FITTED
WITH AN ILEAL T-CANNULA
P.Leterme,L.Pirard, A.ThéwisandE.François1
FacultédesSciencesagronomiques.UERdeZootechnieB-5030GEMBLOUX(Belgium)
1
Ministèredel'Agriculture.StationdeChimieetPhysiqueagricolesB-5030GEMBLOUX(Belgium)

Abstract
The rate of passage of digesta through the digestive tract of pigs with an ileo-rectal
anastomosis (IRA) or an ileal T-cannula was measured according to the single marker
dosemethod byusingpolyethyleneglycol (PEG) asliquidmarker, Cr 2 0 3 assolidphase
marker and Yb203-mordanted cell walls as fibre marker. The rate of passage was
estimatedbytheslopeoftheregressionequationsofInofmarkerconcentration withtime.
PEG was eliminated a lot faster from the digestive tract of both kinds of pigs than the
solid phase markers, while Cr 2 0 3wasretained a little longer than Yb 2 0 3 . Both Cr 2 0 3
andYb 2 0 3 passedthroughthegutofIRApigsfaster thanthroughthatofcannulatedpigs
but the difference was only significant (P < 0.05) for Cr 2 0 3 . The results are discussed
andhypotheses areputforward toexplainthedifferences observedbetweenbothkindsof
pigs.

Introduction
Ileal analysis is the most commonly used method for thedetermination of amino acid
digestibilitiesinfeedstuffs forpigsbutitrequirestheuseoffistulated pigs.Theproblems
linkedtotheuseofcannulas (simpleorre-entrant)tocollect thedigestaarewellknown:
difficulty toobtainrepresentativesamplesofdigesta,blockagesinthecannulas,etc. Ileo-
rectal anastomosis (IRA) has been proposed as an alternative method tocannulation in
order to overcome these problems (Laplace et al., 1985). That technique needs to be
validated bycomparison withafistulationtechnique.Forthatpurpose,two experiments
wererecentlycarriedout :thefirst onetocompareIRAtotheuseofT-cannula (Leterme
etal., 1990),theotheronetocompareIRAtotheileo-colicpost-valve (ICPV) fistulation
(Darcy andLaplace, 1990).Inbothcases,thedigestibilitiesobserved werelowerwiththe
IRA technique. With the surgical IRA procedure, the ileo-caeco-colic sphincter is not
preserved. We could thus wonder whether the absence of the sphincter modified the
transittimeof thedigestainthepig's smallintestine,therebydecreasing the digestibility
ofthenutrients.

Accordingly, theaimofthepresent workwastocompare,byuseofmarkers,thetransit

time of digesta in the gastro-intestinal tract of IRA pigs or pigs fitted with an ileal T-
cannula.Asthepracticalneedsofpassagestudiesmakeitdesirabletohavemeasurements
ofbothliquid and solidfractions of thedigesta, weusedpolyethylene glycol (PEG) asa
liquid marker and chromic oxide (Cr 2 0 3 ) as a solid marker. In an attempt to study the
behaviour of the fibrous fraction, we labelled barley cell walls by the mordanting
procedure with arare earth oxide :ytterbium oxide (Yb 2 0 3 ). Those mordanted fibres
werealsoincludedintheproofdietofthepigs.
Materials and Methods
EightBelgianLandraceHnmalepigs(initial weight : 42+2kg)wereused.Fourwere
fittedwith aT-cannula (internal 0 :18mm; 10cmanterior totheileo-colic valve).IRA
wasperformed onthe4otherpigsaccordingtothesurgicalmethoddescribedbyGreenet
al.(1987).Tendaysbefore theexperiment,thepigswerefed twicedaily (8-16h)witha
basal diet (66%barley, 30 % peas and4 %min./vit.premix) attherateof 60gDM/kg

361
W0-75. In order to compensate for the bypass of the large intestine, IRA pigs were
continuously allowed extra water, NaCl (7.5 g.day 1 ), NaHC0 3 (7.5«.day 1 ) and Na
bisulfite menadioneorvitamineK3(0.2g.day1).
Thetestmealincluded 24gPEGand3gCr203/kgDM.Eight %of thediet (onaDM
basis)weresubstitutedbytheYb203-mordantedcellwalls.Thecellwallextractionofthe
barley seeds wasrealized by acetichydrolysis (Pond et al., 1986).The cell walls were
then soakedat 100°Cfor24hinanhydrochloric solutionofYb 2 0 3(20mg/gcellwalls).
TheexcessofYb 2 0 3 wasrecoveredwith acitric solution.Thechemicalcompositionof
thedietwas thenasfollows :94%oforganicmatter, 14.4%of crudeprotein, 7.8 %of
crudefibre,23.8 %of NDFand8.9 %ofADF.
Theuniqueexperimental diet wasgiven tothepigsthefirst day oftheexperiment at8
a.m. The following diets were allconstituted by thebasal diet. For theIRA pigs, each
discharge of digesta was collected and weighed and the hour was noted for 18h post-
prandial.Thereafter, thedigestawerecollectedatintervalsof2or4h.Themeantimeof
theperiod wasconsidered tobethehourofcollect.Forthecannulated pigs,the digesta
werecollectedinplastic bagsfixed tothecannula.When theplasticbagwasfilled with
digesta in one emission, digesta were immediately collected, weighed and the hour of
collectnoted.Whenthedischargeofdigestawasprogressive,themeantimeoftheperiod
(max.2hfor thefirst 24handmax.4hthereafter) wasnoted asthehourofcollect and
thedigestawerecollected andweighed.

Thedigestawerethenfreeze-dried andgroundthrough a 1 mm-mesh screen.Ytterbium

wasestimatedbyatomic absorption accordingtoamodification ofthemethodof Siddons
et al.(1985),PEGbyturbidimetry (Hyden, 1955)and chromiumbytitration withMohr
saltafter anitro-perchloricoxidization ofthesample(Françoisetal.,1978).

Results and Discussion

As anexample,theexcretion curves of the 3markers attheileallevel of acannulated
andanIRApigisgiveninfigure 1. Thepostprandial increaseofmarkerconcentrationsin
thedigesta isveryfast. Thedecreaseof PEGconcentrationsis alsorapid,which means
thattheliquidfraction passedthroughthegutfaster thanthesolidone.
*" a.IRApig

• • • Cr203 FB3 'Ö- Yb203

%max

10 15 20 25
Postprandial time (hours)

362
b.Cannulatedpig
A-FB3 O- Yb203

A •—D

%max

o 5 10 15 20 25
Postprandial time (hours)
Figure 1. Evolution ofthePEG,Cr 2 0 3 andYb 2 0 3concentration (% max.)inileal
digestaofcannulatedandIRApigsfollowing feeding ofamarkedmeal.
AsGrahamandAman (1986)showedthatfibres left thestomach2h30to4h30later
than Cr 2 0 3 , we could wait for a slower evolution of the Yb 2 0 3 concentration in
comparison with Cr 2 0 3 . It was not the case here but we must remember that the
mordanted cell walls were added tothediet and were thus not bound tothe other feed
components.Ontheotherhand,theeffect offibres onintestinemotilityiswellknown.
Thecalculationofthemeanretentiontimeofthedigestainthedigestivetractnecessitates
theadjustment of amathematical function totheexcretion profile of the markers.Some
problemsduringthecollectwiththecannulalimitedtheamountofsamplesandprevented
usfrom calculatingthesefunctions. Forthesamereasons,thedetermination of themean
retention timebymeansof themethod ofmomentswasnotpossible (Thielemans etal.,
1978).Inordertocomparetherateofpassageofthemarkersbetweenbothkindsofpigs,
wedeterminedtheregression equationofInofmarkerconcentration (expressed asa% of
the maximum of excretion (Cm)) with time (t) : In Cm = a + b. t . The slope of the
regression line (b) is an estimate of rate of passage. A fast decrease in marker
concentration thuscorrespondstoafastrateofpassage.
The main parameters of theregression equations obtained for both kinds of pigs are
presentedinTable 1.Theregression lineswereobtainedbyassemblingthedataofallthe
pigs.The statistical analysis wasrealized withtheregression line obtainedfor each pig
and consisted in a test of parallelism of the regression lines with the t distribution of
Student(Dagnelie, 1980).Thedataofonecannulatedpigwerediscarded.
Table 1. Slopeanddispersionparametersoftheregression linesofInofthemarker
concentration (% ofmax.concentration)with time.

<*Y.x
PEG Cr 2 0 3 Yb 2 0 3 PEG Cr 2 0 3 Yb 2 0 3 PEG Cr 2 0 3 Yb 2 0 3

IRApigs - 0.36 •0.09a -0.15 0.44 0.33 0.23 -0.92 -0.93 -0.92
Cannulatedpigs - 0.38 •0.07b -0.13 0.66 0.23 0.54 -0.94 -0.96 -0.93

a,b : P < 0.05

363
 Therateof passage of thefibrous fraction (Yb203) wasfaster than therestof the solid
fraction (Cr 2 0 3 ), for thereasons given above.Therate of passage of Cra0 3 and Yb 2 0 3
wasfaster for theIRApigsbut thedifference is significative (P<0.05) only for Cr 2 0 3 .
In allcases,thevariability (o Y . x ) w a s v e r v important.Thefaster transittimeofdigestain
the small intestine of the IRA pigs can explain the lower ileal digestibility observed
previously incomparison with thecannulatedpigs (Letermeetal., 1990).Nevertheless,
Pond et al. (1986) found no influence of the digesta rate of passage on the nutrient
digestibility butitonlyconcernedthefaecaldigestibilityofthosenutrients.
Darcy-VrillonandLaplace (1990)recently incriminated thelackof theileo-colicvalve
function inIRApigsbecausethevalveinfluences theretentiontimeofdigestainthesmall
intestine.Ten years ago,these sameauthors showed thatthedigestarateofpassageina
pig small intestine was 60 to 90 minutes faster in pigs fitted with an ileal re-entrant
cannulacomparedwithanICPVcannula (Darcyetal., 1980).Butincannulatedpigs,we
donotknow if the sphincter canregulate thedigesta rate of passage when the cannula,
which is before the sphincter, is open. Moreover, Green (1988) showed that a 'post-
valve'IRAdidnotimprovethedigestibility ofNoraminoacids.

Wecanalsowonderwhetherthereisnota'feed-back' effect ofthelargeintestineonthe

upper digestive tract which would modify the digestive secretions and in this way the
digestibility ofthenutrients.Thathypothesisshouldneverthelessbeconfirmed.
Theproblemsencountered duringthecollectofdigestaincannulatedpigs (few digesta,
long time between 2 collections, etc) may also have influenced the slopes of the
regression lines.Besides,Laplaceetal.(1983)demonstratedthatthetwomainsourcesof
variationintherateofpassageinapigsmallintestinewastheindividualvariation among
pigsandtheparticularreactionofeachpigtotheproof diet.Furtherinvestigations should
beundertaken withmorepigsinordertocomparebothkindsofpigsinthebestway.
Asaconclusion,thedigestarateofpassageinthesmallintestineisalittlefaster inIRA
thanincannulatedpigs,whichcanexplainthesmalldifference ofdigestibility previously
observed between both kinds of pigs (Leterme et al., 1990). Nevertheless, new
experiments shouldbeperformed toconfirm thepresentdata.

References
Dagnelie P. 1980 Théorie et méthodes statistiques. Les Presses agronomiques de
Gembloux,Gembloux, Belgium, 463p.
Darcy B.,LaplaceJ., Villiers P. 1980Ann.Zootech.29 (3),277-298
Darcy-Vrillon B.,Laplace J. 1990Anim.FeedSei.Technol. 27,307-316
François E., Thill N.,Théwis A. (1978) Ann.Zootech.27, 355-361
Graham H., Aman P. 1986Anim. Prod. 43, 133-140
Green S.,Bertrand S., Duron M.,Maillard R. 1987/. Sei.FoodAgric. 41,29-43
Green S. 1988Anim. Prod. 47, 317-320
Hyden S. 1955KLantbr. Högsk.Annlr.22, 139-145
Laplace J., Darcy B.,Pons O. 1983Ann.Zootech.27, 355-361
Leterme P.,Théwis A.,BeckersY.,Baudart E. 1990J.Sei.FoodAgric.52,485-497
PondW., Pond K., Ellis W., MatisJ. (1986) J.Anim. Sei.63, 1140-1149
Siddons R.C., Paradine J., Beever D.E. and Cornell P.R. 1985Br.J.Nutr. 54, 509-519
Thielemans M., François E., Bodart C , Théwis A. (1978) Ann. Biol. anim. Bioch.
Biophys. 18 (2A), 237-247

This work was supported by the 'Institut pour l'Encouragement de la Recherche

Scientifiquedansl'Industrieetl'Agriculture (IRSIA),Brussels,Belgium

364
SESSION 5
Digestion of carbohydrates in the pig
DIGESTION OFCARBOHYDRATES INTHEPIG

W.Drochner
Institute forAnimalNutrition,Veterinary School,Hanoverf e -
deralRepublic of Germany

Abstract
Areviewoncarbohydrate digestion inthepig isgiven.The
cascade ofdigestion inthemouth,stomach,small andlarge
intestine isdescribed.Principlesofenzymatic andfermenta-
tivedigestion according tonew resultswithfistulated ani-
malsarediscussed.Theefficacy andquality of fermentation
inthelarge intestinedepending onlevel andqualityof
carbohydrates inthedietaredemonstrated.Someaspectsof
energetical efficacy ofhindgutdigestionarediscussed.

Keywords:carbohydrate digestion,solublecarbohydrates,
starch,fiber,enzymes,fermentation,efficacy /

Introduction
Thecarbohydrate-fractioninfeeds isheterogenous:
-monosaccharides(glucose,fructose,mannose,pentoses)
-disaccharides (lactose,sucrose)
-oligosaccharides(raffinoseetal.)
-polysaccharides(starch,inulin,cellulose,hemicellulose,pen-
tosanes andpectic substances)
Thusadistinction between carbohydrates digested byenzy-
maticdegradation and thosewhich arefermented ishelpfull.
Longland etal.(1988)suggested theterminusnon-starch poly-
saccharide including cellulose,hemicellulose,pectinsbutnot
lignin.The relationbetween enzymatic and fermentativediges-
tion indifferent partsof the intestinal tractvariâtes.Thus
itwillberich inmeaning todiscuss carbohydrate digestion
incorrelation toitslocation intheintestine.
I-FEEDINTAKEANDDIGESTION INTHE STOMACH
A)Feed intake
Increasing levels of crude fiber >6-7%of thedietreducevo-
luntary feed intake.Lower levels stimulate compensatory ener-
gyingestion(Campbell&Taverner,1986,Drochner&Coenen 1986).
Suckling pigspréfèredietswith low fibercontent.
Digestion inthemouth of thepig isneglectable.Intakeof
dry feedinduces secretionofsaliva .containingwater,mucus
and alpha-amylase.Kudryavtsev(1935) andKvasnitskii(1951)have
shown,thatthesaliva ofman,dog andpig isquite similar in
composition.Theenzyme-content depends onlevelofsecretion,
water-content of thedietageandcorresponds roughlywith
thelevelof feed intake(Arkhipovets,1956).Thebreakdown-pro-
ductsofpig-alpha-amylasefrom saliva aremaltose,maltotri-
oseandsomedextrins.The activity of saliva-amylase isde-

367
 pendend onthepresence of chlorine(Myrbäck,1926).forfull
activitywithin apH-range of 3,8-9,4with anoptimum,inpre-
senceofchlorine ,of6.9(Bernfeld etal.,1948),butthede-
scribed conditions havebeen evaluated withhumansaliva.
B.Digestion inthe stomach
1)Sugarsand starches
A limited breakdown of sugars and starches inthestomachhas
beendemonstrated,it isdue tofermentation.Thisdegradation
results information ofvolatile fatty acids and lactic acid.
Thegastricmucosa isable toabsorb limited amounts ofscfa
- but itsefficiency isnot comparable to thatof thesmall
intestine,cecum orcolon(ArgenzioandSouthworth,1974).The
capacity of thestomach flora.toproduce scfahasbeenproved
tobeashigh as150mmol/1inslaughter pigs and 30to90
mmol/1inyoungpiglets (Friendetal.,1963).Inthefirst
weeks of life,lacticacid isthemostprominent scfa,dueto
thelactose content of sow'smilk.Itsdistribution isnot
homogenous:Slivitskii(1973)found thehighest concentrations
inthedorsalpartofgastric contentswithpH-levelsnearto
3.Thereisapostprandial rhythm:theconcentration fallsfor
a shortperiod (Cranwell etal.,1968)and then increases for
a time of ten to12hours(depending onfeeding intervall)
(Etienne,1971).The intensity of thegastric fermentation is
due toadaptation,availabilty of carbohydrates andpH-level.
Especially aninverse correllation betweenHCl-secretionand
lactic acidproduction hasbeendemonstrated by Cranwell et
al.(1976)in thesucklingpiglet.Theinfluence of ageonlac-
tic acid fermentation hasbeen shownbyFriend et al.(1963).
Theydemonstrated high levelsof this acid intheveryyoung
sucklingpiglet and increasing amounts of scfa inolderpigs
parallel toareduction of thepHof thegastriccontents.
'Substratesof fermentationinsucklingpiglets oryoungear-
lyweaned pigs are monosaccharides,lactose,sucroseand even
degradation productsofstarch,formedbysaliva-amylase.A
limited formation oforganic acidsfromhemicellulose and
pectic substances aswell asfromalpha-limit-dextrins
(branched chains from terminal starchunits after amylase-
splitting)isneglectable.High levelsofenzymatically undi-
gestible carbohydrates(asfor instance cellulose) rarely are
found inthedietsofsucklingpiglets.They showhoweverin-
teractions with thegastral fermentative process inweaning
pigs (retardation of the formation of scfa,bufferingeffects
(Drochner &Coenen,1986)).Newbornpiglets showaquitehigh
pH inthestomach,thus,the "colonisation"of thegastrointe-
stinal tractwithbacteria ispossible.Subsequently,thebar-
rier-function of thestomach ismaintained by lowpH-levels,
formed by lactic acid fermentation and stepby stepincrea-
sing amounts of secreted HCl.Thetypeofdiet fed inthepe-
riodofweaning isresponsible fortheamountof lacticacid
formation and levelofHCl-secretion.ApostprandialpH-
rhythmwasdemonstrated by Seve andLaplace(1975),anagede-
pendency by Schnabel etal.(1982).Cerealdiets inexchangeto
lactose-containing diets induceacontinuous reductionofthe
formation of lactic acid and anaugmentation of theconcen-

368
trationofvolatile fattyacids (Friendet al.,1963).
2).Enzymaticallyundiqestible carbohydrates
Digestionof carbohydrates of fiber-orcell-wall-typusin
thestomach islimited .Small amounts of hemicelluloses
mightbe fermented aswell assmall amounts ofpectic sub-
stances(Drochner,1984).Acertainbreak-down ofhemicellulo-
sesinthestomach hasbeendemonstrated byKeys andDeBar-
the,1974.Thisbreak down seems tobeofbacterial origin,but
adirecthydrolytic splitoff of some carbohydrate-molecules
fromthepolymer chainunder low-pH-conditionsisdiscussed
aswell.Thecited authors aswelldemonstrated,that thetype
of fiber andperhaps thelignin-coating isresponsible for
theintensity ofdigestion.Additionally,aselected separa-
tionof soluble ingredients of thedietproceeds causinga
retention of fiber-rich material inthe stomach.Thisreser-
voirpartly remains inthestomach till thenext feeding
time.SopH-levels inthiscavity remain low asfeed-af-
terbeeing swallowed- ismixed withalow-pH-chyme.See
tab.Nr.1.Saliva-volumeincreases,dependingon fibercon-
tentof thediet(Zebrowskaand Low,1989)(tab.2). ,

Tab.1:Postprandial pH-values(fundus)feeding diets richin

fiber(Z=6%crude fiber)orcontroll(A)

time
7.45 2,19(0,17) 2,50(0,40)
feeding 8.00
8.15 3,94(1,76) 2,52(0,12)
9.00 3,75(1,95) 2,88(0,91)
10.00 3,80(1,22) 2,49(0,25)
11.00 3,49(0,98) 2,29(0,17)*
12.00 3,23(1,02) 2,91(0,83)
13.00 2,87(0,70) 2,58(0,60)
14.00 2,32(0,29) 2,44(0,47)
15.00 2,20(0,31) 2,42(0,21)

n=5,coefficientofvariation inbrackets
(Drochner &Coenen,1986)

Tab.2:Secretion of saliva/gastric mucus,bileand pancreatic

chyme inpigs (40kgliveweight,24hours)feeding ahigh-
fiberdiet(B) compared toacontrol
dietA(5%NDR) dietB(18%NDR)
saliva/gastric mucus 4,0 1 8,01
bile 1,2 1 1,7 1
pancreatic chyme 1,2 1 2,21
(datafrom Zebrowska andLow,1987)

369
II.DIGESTION INTHESMALL INTESTINE
A.Non-fiber-carbohydrates
Thedigesta-carbohydrates entering thesmall intestine are
digested indifferentways.Monosaccharidesasglucose areab-
sorbed quite quickly whereas different monosaccharides-as
for instance fructose-showamore orlessretarded absorp-
tion.Attheend oftheileum,theconcentration ofglucosein
thedigestaisextremely low(Drochner,1984)but small levels
of fructose canbe found.Thusglucose is-concerning toits
absorbability- the ideal energy supply inanimalswith dis-
turbed absorptive capacity.Fromveryyoung piglets-according
toJohnson(1949)- fructose and -according toWise et al.
(1954)-xylose arenotwell tolerated.
Disaccharides normally aresplittomonosaccharidesprecee-
ding the absorptive process andonly traces canbe absorbed
directly by themucosa(Taufel.etal.,1967).Qualityandquan-
tityof the "disaccharide-digestive-process" isdependend on
theactivity of thecorresponding enzymes.
The lactase acitivity invery young piglets ishigh.It islo-
cated in thebrushborder of the small intestine.Accordingto
SatoandYamashina(1974),several enzymeswithbeta-galactosi-
dase-activity canbe found;thedigestive enzyme hydrolyses
different typesofbeta-galactosides,normally itisnamed
brush-border-lactase.ThepH-optimum isnear to6,theconcen-
tration decreaseswithwith age(Plimmer,1907).Thisknowledge
hasbeen confirmed inthe lastyearswithdetailed studies
anddifferentiatedmethods(includingblockageof internal
cellular lactaseswhich arenon-digestive enzymes).
Indetailed studiesManners and Stevens(1972)showed,thatthe
fall inactivity happend predomimantly inthe firstweek and
subsequently was slowandmostly located totheendofthe
small intestine.Inthisconnection aresult of aSwedish
groupof scientists should bementioned(Ekstrom et al.,1975).
They found,thatlactase levelsof 21dayoldpigletswere
merelyaffectedby alactose-containing dietbutbygenetical
aspects andbreeddifferences.
Since 1880(Brown &Heron),itiswellknown,thatpigintesti-
nalmucosa showsmaltase-and sucrase-activities,whichhave
been classified in recentyears,namelybyDahlquist(1962).
Thesemaltases should bedifferentiatedinto:
-isomaltase,splitting isomaltose and some limitdextrins,re-
sulting from alpha-amylase-splittingofstarches,
-sucrase,splitting sucrose into fructose andglucose
-glucoamylaseI,splittingdextrins,certainstarches,isomalto-
seand limitdextrins,
-glucoamylase II ,aquiteheatresistantmaltase,withproper-
ties comparable tothoseofglucoamylase I.
Normally isomaltase and sucrase arecorrelated strictly,a
so-called doublemolecule thereforehasbeendiscussed(Kid-
der andManners,1976).ThepH-optimum for this complex isli-
mited tothesmall space from 6,0 to6,5.Theglucoamylases
tolerate abroader spectrum from 6,5-7,5(Dahlquist,1960).
The activity of sucrase isquitehighexcept innewborn and
veryyoungpiglets(Mannersand Stevens,1972).Thus tolerance

370
ofyoungpiglets for sucrose islimited.In the firstquarter
of thesmall intestine,themaximum inartificially reared
piglets canbemeasured between the second and thirdweekof
life,inlowerparts of theintestinum(secondquarter,thisma-
ximum risesup in4weeksoldpiglets.A certain rise of acti-
vity,esp.inthefirstand second quarter of thesmallinte-
stine canbeobserved even in twoor threeyears oldpigs.The
level inilealmucosa remains quitelow.
These findigsare a confirmation ofolder observations,that
pigletperformance onsucrose diets inthefirstdaysoflife
isvery poor(Becker et al,1954).
Comparable to thoseresults,totalmaltaseactivity rose in
correlation tosucrase.Obviouslynotonly agebuteven -toa
smalldegree -diet,esp. starch and sugar content of thefeed,
mightberesponsible forhigh activities of the correspon-
ding enzymes intheyoungpiglet.High individual variations
betweenmembers ofone litterwere found byManners and Ste-
vens(1972).Additionally theconcentration ofmucosal enzymes
isdependend ongut-dilatation and feed content of sections
of the intestinal tract(Stevensand Kidder,1972).Indilated
sections they found alower levelof sucrase andglucoamyla-
se.Inlaterpublished studies,Kidder andManners(1978)showed,
thatdifferent glucoamylases showed thisdepression aswell.
The secretion of thepancreas predominantly performs/starch
digestion inthesmall intestine.Theconcentrations ofalpha-
amylase inthissubstrat act inthesameway ashasbeende-
scribed forsaliva-amylase.

I.E. I
ILipase
II.E.
.3040* 6

15«10•"

milk fat
feed fat
i4—feed carbo-
'/ hydrates

feed/g/day
I,
s age(weeks)
Fig.1:AmylaseandLipase (activity) dependingon
ageandtypeoffeed(Aumaitre,1983)
371
Thebreakdown-productsare:
maltose,alpha-limit-dextrin,maltotriose and someglucose.The
dependency ofpancreatic flowonfiber contents of thediet
hasbeenreviewed byMakking andVersteegen(1990)recently.
Themainvariation factorsare:ageand starch content ofthe
diet.Ashasbeendescribed byCorring etal.(1978),andAumai-
tre(1983)-see fig.1- amylase-activity butnot thatof lipase
canbeinduced byadaptation.It'ssurprising thatalpha-amy-
laseseems tobeadsorbed tointestinalmucosa,amechanism
which cannotbe interpretated now (Ruttloff et.al.,1967).The
intensity of corn starch and lactosedigestion inpigsvari-
âtes.Rerat(1980)found large intraluminal amounts ofmaize
and lactose 8hoursafter feeding.Hedemonstrated agoodcon-
cordance(fig.2) betweenpostprandial gastric emptying after
ingestionof starch(La-place,1979)and thecorresponding ar-
terio-porto-difference forreducing sugarsdemonstrating a
certain"storage capacity" for.highly~availablecarbohydrates.
Thatdifferences andblood flowmeasurements allowed aquan-
tification of absorption of ingested reducing sugars(Rerat,A.
A.,1985).Hedemonstrated,that theportal level of thesesu-
gars after ingestion ofmaize starch,glucose andsucrose,is
comparably high inthefirst 3hoursafter feed intake,butit
islower inolderpigs,eatinghigh levelsof lactose(fig.2).

AMIDON DE MAÏS GLUCOSE

(corn starch)

0,51 1 i 1 1 1 I 1 1— 0,5l_ I 1 I i I I I l_
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TEMPS(H) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
portal vein hour2io|_9'1
Veine porte
- Carotide
carotis
9/1 LACTOSE

1.0

0,5-

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TEMPS(H)

Fig.2:Postprandial cineticsofsugar concentrationsin

the blood after ingestionofdifferent carbohydrates
(n=5) (Rerat,1981)

372
B.Carbohydratesoffiber-character
Prececal feed transit ri sesbyaddition of fiber orpectin
todiets(Drochner,1984).It mightbeargued,thatfibrousmate-
rialbindswater(colloidal, osmosis,vanderWaalbinding),af-
fectingluminalviscosity.I nteractions betweenmucosalmem-
branes anddigesta mightaf fecthormonel feedback.Thussmall
intestineperistalsismight beretarded.Someaspects hitherto
arediscussed from Laplace andRoman(1979).A fermentative
breakdown of carbohydrates during thepassage ofdigesta
through thesmall intestine mighthappen aswell(tab.3).
Tab.3:Digestionof fiber inthesmall intestine ofpic
variant HZ RZ
parameter

NDR 11,3(4,3) 2,0(0,8)*** 5,8(4,8)** 20,2(2,7)***

hemicellulose 27,3(3,0) 12,2(3,5)*** 12,0(4,8)***42,5(3,5)***
A= lowfiber-control,HZ=supplementation of 5%crudewood-pro-
duct,RZ= 5%cellulose,P=5%pectins;standard deviations-in
brackets;n=15;Drochner,1984
The total amount ofprececal fermentation obviously islimi-
ted.Ontheotherhand somescientists(Poppeetal.,1983and
Drochner,1984)found considerable amounts ofmicrobial pro-
tein inileal chyme,measured bydetermination ofDaP(Di-ami-
no-pimelic acid),whichisamarkeramino-acid for cellwall
proteins ofbacteria(fig.3).Intotal aprececal fermentation
isevident.Millard andChesson(1984)found aremarkablede-
gradation ofuronic acids(ca.50%)andofphenolic compounds
fromBrassica napus,Graham andAman(1987)forpeas andLong-
land etal.(1988)forsugarbeetpulp.Longland etal(1989)
found aremarkable break down ofnon-starch-polysaccharides
inpigswith ileorectalshunts.

not defined
N of cell walls

bacterial N

Fig.3.
I 1I mucin-N

N-fractions in i l e a l ( i ) and fecal d i -

gesta(f) feeding low and high (HZ) f i -
ber diets(7% crude fiber,n=6)

373
Some aspects concerning prececal fermentationarenotclear:
- thelevelofDaP incellwallsofbacteria frompig ileal
chyme isvariating(Ahrens,1984),
- break downofbacteria passing through thesmall intestine
causes anenrichment of cellwalls attheendof the ileum,
soestimation ofbacterial proteins isaffected,
- thelevelofbreakdown ofß-glucosidicbounds by thesebac-
teria isunknown.
Intotal theprececal digestibility of cellulose islow,itis
higher butlimited forhemicelluloseandpectic substances
(tab. 3).Thus ,theconcentration of scfainilealchymeof
pigs islow(0,01-0,05mmol/1liquid Drochner&Meyer,1990).

C.Interactions
The fiber content ofadiethowever isbasis forsomeinter-
actions intheprececal digestiveprocess.The followingas-
pects should bediscussed indetail:
-prececal digestibility declines (organicmatter and protein)
-ileocecal flowofdigesta increases,partlydue tohigherwa-
ter flow,dependingonreduced prececaldigestibility(fig4 ) ,
-ileocecal flowofbuffering componentsincreases,
-volume of thesmall intestineenlarges.

g ileocecal digestaflow/kg liveweight/day

n=17

mil
ne 8

7
/

€_ I
Fig.4.: Dally flow of digesta after variation
of diet-fiber(A=control ,HZ= +53Scrude
wood product,R= +5%cellulose,P= + 5%
pectins) (Drochner.1984)

Theprececal apparentdigestibility of theorganicmatterde-

374
clines correlated toincreasing levelsof fiber inthediet.
Thecoefficient ofregression is-2,8(fig5)and thusbyfar
higher thanfor thetotaldigestive tract(-l,8).
Thereasons for thisdecline ofapparentprececaldigestibi-
litymightbe: .
-coating ofhighly digestible material byfibrousmaterial,
-stimulated endogenoussecretions,
-reduced enzymatic break-down ofnutrients(bulkyfluidand
directbinding ofnutrients to fibers),
-differences inbacterialactivities.
%app.digestibility

r= - 0 . 8 3 3 ' * '
y. 92.24-1.86x

total
insgesamt

x ArbelUgnjpoe Reading na 2-6

o vanWeerden et.al. n* 8
o Sauer el.el. n- 2-4
a eigene Dalen n- 16
A • - m i t Peklln n. 16

%crude
fiber
Fig.5: Prececal and postileal digestibility of
organic matter with increasing fiber
contents of the diet(Drochner,1984)

According toMaenhoutet al.(1987),fiber-correlated reduction

ofprececalN-digestioni s notduetostimul atedtrypsin-se-
cretion.LowandRainbird( 1986)foundhowever augmented levels
ofendogenous secretions after feedingguar gum.Zebrowskaand
Low(1987)documented ari seofpancreatic se cretion within-
creasing levelsofcrude fiber.Indeed,thepr ececalN-digesti-
bilitydeclines(Drochner, 1984)without anyc ompensation in
thecolon.Thereasonfor that iscomplexand not completely

375
understood.The following factsarediscussed:
- cageeffect(proteincoating by fibrous material)
~ increase of endogenous secretions anddesquamations,
- riseof ileocecal urea flow,whichisdependend fromblood
concentration and levelof ileocecal flowofchyme,
- stimulated prececal bacterial protein synthesis (fig.3),
- directbinding ofNandbileacids tofibers.
A lotof those listed points should bestated by additional
experiments inthe future.The correlation between intestinal
N-lossand fiber-contentof thediethowever hasbeen stated
byMangold andBehm in1954.Ithasbeen evaluated bysome
other scientists,for instance Low(1989),whodemonstrated,that
increasing ileocecal flowofwater,electrolytes,secretory
products from liver,pancreasandmucosacellscorrelateswith
increasing fiber levels inthediet.
The fiber -induced enlargementof theprececal intestinal
tracthasbeendescribed byPekas(1986).Heshowedhowever,
thatanindividual genetic dispositionmightbe responsible
for abroad variation.
III.DIGESTIONOFCARBOHYDRATES INTHELARGE INTESTINE
A.Non-fiber carbohydrates
Colondigestion isof fermentativecharacter -Smallamountsof
enzymes seem tobedegraded quickly after transit throughthe
ileocecalvalve.A lotofmicroorganisms havebeen shownto
degrade cellulose andother fibers.A short reviewonthis
wasgivenbyLow et al.(1988).
Carbohydrates,flowing tothe large intestine almost consist
ofpolymers.Somestarches(for instance from crude potatoes),
small amounts ofdisaccharides(esp. lactose),and feed crude
fiberpass the ileocecal valve and are fermented withdiffe-
rent intensity.Small amounts ofmonosaccharides passing the
ileocecal valve arefermented completely.Thecapacity ofthe
large intestine tometabolize disaccharides aslactoseas
well isvery high.Inolderpigs for lactose themain formof
digestion seems tobefermentation(Reratetal.,1983).Inex-
periments(8hour-periods)intracecally infused lactose(0,3g/
kgbm/h)was tolerated withoutdeviations of fecal consisten-
cy .Thetolerance for sucrosewas evenhigher(Drochner et al.
1987b).Actuallyaflowashighasthislevelwillnotbepre-
sentassuming normal feeding conditions.Feedinghigh levels
ofmolasses (Lyetal.,1975)results inaremarkable flowof
sucrose,and high amountsofwhey(Kimetal.,1978)causedan
intensive ileocecal flowoflactose tothelarge intestine,
of slughterpigs,whereasyoungpiglets show ahighprececal
lactose-digestion.Levelsof starch,passing through theileo-
cecalvalve arelowwith someexceptions:Crudepotatoe stare):
andpartly maize starchpass inhigher amounts the ileocecal
valvedepending onthephysical structure of the starches
(Drochner,1988),whereascooked potatoe starch isdigested to
highdegrees-comparable tocereals inthesmallintestine.
Mason andJust(1976)foundquite lowlevelsofdigestion,but
theyusedpotatoe-starch whichwasheated atpracticalcon-
ditions.Theamount of cereal starch,digested inthecolonis
normally less than 5%of the totaldigestion.The colonicdi-

376
gestion of starch isperformed bymicrobial alpha-amylase,de-
rived fromCl.butyricum(etc.)(Whelan &Nasr,1951).Normally,
theefficacy ofpostileal starchdigestion isveryhigh(>80%
of crudepotatoe starch,Rensing,1984).
Anintensive microbial degradation occurs,resulting ina
highproduction of:
-short chain fattyacids,
-carbondioxide,
-hydrogen-andmethane(Levittet al.,1974),
-partly evenofd- and1-lacticacid (Drochner et al.,1987a).
Exceeding thecapacity of the colon anacidosis-likedysfer-
mentationresults:Adecline of fecalpHand lossof thefecal
consistency canbeobserved.Thistypeofdiarrhea hasbeen
classified byourresearchgroupasthe"acidotic fermentative
colonicdiarrhea"
A comparable form ofdiarrheamightbeobserved after feeding
dietswithhigh levels ofmolasses,containing tri-andtetra-
saccharides,beingnotabsorbed inthesmall intestine(raffi-
nose,stachyose),wheyorofsome crude starches (for instance
crudepotatoe starch).
B.Carbohydratesoffiber-character
Carbohydrates of fiber-type however willpass theileocecal
valvenearly entirely.Aswasdiscussed before,thepectin-
hemicellulose-fractioninpigsprececally tosomedegree is
fermented opposite tocellulose,which isnotdegraded.Onthe
otherhand thepostileal digestibility of ithowever isby
farhigher than thatof isolated orlignin-coated cellulose.
Cellulose isfermented bysplitting theterminal sugar from
thepolymer stepbystep.Thuscellulose fermentation istime-
consuming(vanSoest,1982)and dependenton:
- transittime,
- adaptation( age)(availability ofmicrobial enzymes),
-particle size,physicaland chemicalpretreatment,typeof
cellulose(forinstancewood orstraw)(conformation ofthe
polymershighly branched=more soluble;degree ofpolymeriza-
tionhigh=low solubility),
- coating of cellulose byligninorsilicates,
- individual factors,breed.
Thehighvariation correlated totransit time isdocumented
byexperiments fromHorszczaruk and Slijivovacki(1966),who
used stripes of cellulose ,deponed intothececum offistula-
tedpigs fordifferent times.They showed,thatcellulose-dige-
stibility inthececum isnearly complete,when timeofincu-
bationwas sufficiently long.Ontheotherhand itcanbecon-
cluded,that increasing amounts of ingested crude fiber ina
dietreduce apparentdigestibilities of cellulose intheco-
lon.Actually,Henry andEtienne(1969),Schneider andKirchges-
sner(1977),Kassetal.(1980andGargallo andZimmmerman(1980)
found adistinctnegative correlation between fiber intake
level and apparent digestibility.
Highlevelsof cellulose favour thedevelopment of acellulo-
lytic flora inthe largeintestine(vanSoest,1982).Additio-
nally ,thevolume of thelarge intestine increases parallel
tofiber-level of thediet(DrochnerundCoenen,1987).Thisin-
teractionwas stated byHenkel(1977) aswell.Passage timeand

377
 volume of the colon aredependend ononeanother,soapolyfac-
torial analysis isdifficult and complex(this has-beendemon-
strated byAuffray,MartinetandRerat(1967)).Thefactorof
agepartly isidenticalwith adpatation,volumeof thecolon
and interfering transit time,aninterpretation,whichhasbeen
discussed already byKellner(1916).In contrast tothesefac-
tors,the age for it'sonehas onlyvery small effects(Rerat,
1978);butHorszczarukandSlijvovacki(1971)demonstrated,that
cellulosebreak down invery youngpigletswas extremely low.
Differences between cellulose fromwood and straw show(Hen-
kel,1977),that structure and typeof cellulose arefactors,
influencing thedigestibility ofthismaterial inthelarge
intestine(Henkel &Schulz,1980).Thesedifferences were des-
cribed already byBreirem etal(1958)and later onstatedby
Kupke andHenkel(1977).A recent study fromRobertson et al.
(1987)with thenylonbag technique inthe large intestineof
pigsverifies thewell knowndifferencens indigestibility
between vegetable and cerealfibers.
Digestibility ofligninandsilicates inthelarge intestine
isnear tozero,whichmeans,thatlarge-intestine bacteria are
not able todegrade lignin innoticable amounts.A coatingof
cellulosic material byligninwill thusdiminish bacterial
access tothisnutrient.
Theparticle size andphysico-chemical treatments ofcellulo-
secanaffect fiberdigestibility inthe largeintestine.An
incubation of cellulosewith alcali and additional finegrin-
dingresulted inhighdigestibilities(Woodm'anandEvans,
1947).A comparable resultwas obtained byBergner andBetzin
(1979),whodeveloped aprocedure toincubate straw-meal with
hydrochloric acid.Theacid treatmenthas theadditional ef-
fect,thatpH-levelsinthe stomach arereduced,themicrobial
quality of the fiber isexcellent and thediarrheadisposi-
tionofweaning pigletsdeclines,resulting inrisingdaily
weight gain.Theeffects of treated strawmeal on fecaland
.ilealdigestibilties havebeen evaluated by Partridge et
'al.(1986).
Incontrast tocelluloses,thedigestibility of isolatedpec-
tins inthe large intestine ofpigs isveryhigh(80-90%).An
ashighdegradation ofpectic substances inthepig largein-
testinewas shownby several authors(Albers andHenkel,1970,
DeWilde,1980).Thisaswellhasbeen confirmed byDrochner
(1984)bymeansofdigestibility trialswithreentrant-cannu-
latedpigs.AdditionallyKirchgessner et al.(1987)demonstra-
ted inpigs fitted with cecal fistulas,that intracecally
infused pectinswere fermented inthe large intestine toa
veryhighdegree.Theeffects ofpectic substances inthe
large intestine insomerespects aredifferent from thoseof
cellulose.According tothehighdegradability of thismatter,
thefecalvolume onelymoderately istenlarged.Thepassage-
time isnearlyunchanged,thefecaldrymatter ishigher than
after feeding cellulose.
Differences between breedshavebeendescribed byFévrieret
al.(1988),documentingahigherdigestive capacity forfiber
inChineseMeishan pigs than inLargeWhites.
C.Interactions

378
1.Microorganisms
Thediet-effect onquality andquantity ofmicrobialdevelop-
ment inthe colon recently hasbeen studied byVarel(1987).
Heconfirmed,that theintensity oflarge-intestine-fermenta-
tionisdependend ontotalnumber and typeofmicrobialpopu-
lation.High fiber rations onlymoderately affect thetotal
number ofmicroorganisms but fiberdegrading bacteria are
favourized ,replacingothers.Therise infibrolytic organisms
correlates with elevated cellulase-andxylanase activitiesin
growing and adultpigs.Bacteroidessuccinogenes and rumino-
coccus flavefaciens predominantly seem tobe favourizedby
related diets.Generally there isastriking resemblance of
colonmicroflora tothatof therumen.Sosome sientistsre-
gard thecolon asaspecial form ofrumen.Pond(1987)looking
tothe futureperspectives of scientific research inmicro-
bialdigestion,discusses thepossibility of introducingre-
combinantDNA incloning techniques forcellulase genesper-
haps forxylanase and evenforligninase..
Ontheotherhand ourbasisknowledge oneffiency of energy
supply from large intestinedigestion isnot sufficient to
point out thebiological limitations. /
Reviews onmicrobial biology of thelarge intestine ofpigs
havebeenpublished recently by several scientists(Allison,
1989,Fonty&Gouet,1989,Savage,1989,Ducluzeau&Raibaud,1989).
2.Finalproducts ofmicrobial fermentation
a)Concentration and levelofproduction ofvfa
The finalproducts of carbohydrate-fermentation inthe large
intestine areenergy containing:short chain fatty acids,lac-
ticacid,methaneorfreeofavailable energy:carbondioxide,
hydrogen,waterandheat.Concentrationand level ofscfa-pro-
duction aredependend ondegradability of thesubstrate,mi-
crobial adaptation and absorption(dependend onpH).Butv.En-
gelhardt etal.(1989)found alowdependency onpH asthecon-
stantpHmicroclimate attheepithelial surface seems tobe
responsible for theefficiency ofabsorption.
The adaptation inhighbreed pigs seems tobeexcellent,infe-
ralpigshowever quite limited(Roseet al,1987).
Di-oroligosaccharides arehighly attacked by colonicmicro-
flora,sothat aquick and intensive production of scfa canbe
expected(Drochner etal,1987a).Pectic substances show amore
retarded microbial break down(Drochner etal.1984).Cellulose
isdegraded stepby stepby"end toend"hydrolysis.Thismeans,
that thedegradation proceeds slowly.Thusresulting concen-
trations of scfa aremoderate(0,1-0,12Mol/1liquid),espe-
ciallywhen ileocecally flowing digesta arerich incellulo-
se(Friend etal.,1963).Indeed,MünchowandHäger(1989) found
a reduction of theproduction ofvolatile fatty acidsafter
feeding 10%rye strawmealuntreated or treated withhydro-
chloric acid compared with alowfibercontrol.
The scfa-level intheintestine variâtesaccording tothe
location:inthe stomachquite low ,inthesmall intestine
l/10thof that inthelarge intestine.Concentrations of scfa
inthe cecum variatewith therhythm ofdigestion depending

379
 on feed intake time(Drochner,1984).Thehighest levelsofscfa
arepresent inthecolon especially there,were thepassageof
digesta slowsdownmarkedly(Clemensetal,1974)(partlymore
than 200umol/1of digesta).
The absorptive capacity ofthelarge intestine ofpigsfor
shortchainfatty acids isveryhigh.Experimentswithcannu-
latedpigs,receiving short chain fatty acidsvia thececal
cannula tolerated 2mmol acetic acidper kgbody
weight,infusedbyonesingledosage.Increasingdrymatter
contents of the feceswere observed.The acetic acidwasab-
sorbed ormetabolized completely(Drochner,1987a).
Thevolatile fatty acids seem tobeutilized at the tissue
levelwith areduced efficacy.Acetic acid forinstance,fedto
rats,showed aby 15%reduced nutritive value formaintenance
andgrowth compared toequivalent levelsof starch(Veromel,
1968).Thismightbe causedbyareduced uptake ofportal ace-
ticacid-compared toc3andc4by theliver(Reratet al,1987).
Additionally,thisauthor found,that-inrelation to thebuty-
ric acid contentofcolonicdigesta-the corresponding concen-
tration intheportal bloodwasmuch lower and thatlarge
amounts of energy wereretained during theirpassage through
themucosa,confirming results of ImotoandNamioka(1978).High
concentrations of circulating lactic acid arenot correlated
tointraluminal levelsof thisacidtReratet al.,1987).
The spectrum ofvfa incecal and colonal fluid dependson
nutrients present inilealchyme.Asthissubstrate isrichin
fiber(15-30%ofdrymatter),apredominating-levelof acetic
acid isevident.Butyric- andpropionic acidvariate,according
to ileocecal flowofstarch,sugarsandN (Drochner,et al.,
1987a).Pectinsseem tofavour formation ofC4-acids.
Highly fermentable carbohydrates passing theileocecal valve
cancausedysfermentationswith strictdecline ofpH anden-
richment ofd-/l-lactic acid(35mmol/1andmore)in thelumen
(Drochner et al.,1987b).
The total level of scfa-productioninthe large intestine is
stilldiscussed.According toMarty andDemeyer(1973),theore-
tically 0,7 gscfamight result from fermentation of1gof
organicmatter.Invivomeasurements ofvfa-productionbyKass
etal.(1980)wereperformed byregression-calculation using
increasing levelsofdietary fiber.Theresultswere astrict
underestimation.Kennelly(1981)used isotopedilutiontech-
niques inthececum tolerating thevariation of cecal content
andvolumeduring postprandial rhythm.Sothemostdirectac-
cess seems tobe themeasurement ofportalblood flowwith
determinations of sugar andvfa concentrations(Reratet al.
1985).Calculating abreak-down ofabout 3gorganic matter
perkgliveweight andday inthepig large intestine,ale-
velof 20mmol/kgbodymass anddaywouldresult.
Guisi andRerat(1987)measured theportal flowofscfa,calcula-
tinganabsorbtion of 15mmol/kg liveweight andday after
arationwithhighamounts ofalfalfa-meal(fig.6).
b)Energetical aspectsofhindqut-diqestion
Modelcalculations fromDemeyer etal(1989)pointout,that
postileal fermentation oforganicmatter energetically might
bemore efficient than in therumen(spectrum,lossofmethane).

380
 ISO.
CD HFL
ISO. E23 RL«
HO.

130.

2 «0.

| »0.

100.

30.

00. J! Jl
'0. iE
10 12 H 16 18 20 22 2<

Fig6:Circadian variationofvolatile fatty acid absorption

after ingestionofaserai-syntheticdiet containing
22% lucerne meal(RFL)(i.e.6% fibre)or 22%lactoseand
6% purified cellulose(RLa).(Giusi etal.,1987)
Vervaeke et al.(1989)usedthreedifferent approaches inor-
der toestimate the valueofpostilealdigestion:
measuring production ratesofvolatile fatty acids invitro;
stoichiometric calculation fromspectrum ofscfa and amount
ofdigested organicmatter invivoand invitro;simulation
ofhindgutdigestionusing rumen flora.They found, thatmean
quantity ofvfaproduced inthehindgutwas lOg/lO0gfeed
intake.Percentageofnettoenergy resulting fromhindgutfer-
mentation inrelation tototalwas calculated with 11,3%,
Dierick etal.(1989).In1990thisgroup confirmed(Diericket
al.,1990),thatvfa contribute only toasmallbut remarkable
extent tothemaintenance requirements andpartly forgrowth.
They claim,thatrespiration andbalance trialswould bea
prerequisite fornetto-energy-estimations ,supportedbycar-
cassanalysis.Dierick etal(1990)foundonly 50%of thetheo-
retical levelof scfa-productionwhich couldbe shown in in
vivostudieswithpigs,fistulated atthececum.
Ingrowingpigs,thehindgut fermentation contributes upto
15% of the totaldigestion of theorganicmatter(Diericket
al.,1990),whereas thislevel canreach 50%insows(Müller&
Kirchgessner,1983a,b).Regardingweightgain,thetotaldiges-
tibility showshigher correlations thanprececal digestion
(Livingstone &Fowler,1987,Laplaceet al.,1989).
Vfacontribute essentially tothemaintenance requirementsof
thegutitself.Thelevelof energyused from the intestinal
wall and supplied byintraluminal production of scfahasbeer
estimated toamount to70%of themaintenance requirementsof
thisorgan (Henning&Hird,1972,-McNeiletal.,1978).According

381
toReratetal.(1987),thecontribution ofvfa tomaintenance
requirements wasnearly 30%(animals of 60kg liveweight),
whenhigh levelsofnutrientswith lowprececal andhigh
postileal digestibility were fed.Theselevels correspond to
anamount of 2,244molofscfa,flowing totheportalvein.
Concerning practical swine feeding,thecontribution ofthe
large intestine for total energy supplywill variatebetween
5 and 15%of thedigestible energy,according tomodelcalcu-
lations concerning disappearance oforganicmatter,concentra-
tionsofvfa intheportalblood,blood flowmeasurements and
arterio-venous-differences (Rerat,1978).Allcitedpapersde-
monstrate ahighvariation ofenergetical value ofhindgut-
digestion.Factors ofvariationare:
- spectrum ofvfa inrelation tocomposition of thediet.
- level ofmethane-production ,heatloss,
-maintenance requirements ofthefiber-related hypertrophic
gut(Drochner &Coenen,1987,Pond etal.1989,Pekas(1986),
- fiber related levelof endogenous secretions,proliferation
of epithelial cells(Sakata,1988)stimulatedbyscfa,
- depressive effect of crude fiber forprececal apparentdi-
gestibility of organicmatter.
Justet al.(1983)showed,thattheefficay ofenergyutiliza-
tion-in termsofnetto energy-falls astheproportion ofhind-
gut fermentation raises.Sofor eachunitdigested inthehind-
gut,areduction inefficiency of0,8%mustbe calculated.
The fecal lossofvolatile fatty acids isless than 1%of the
digestible energy(Drochner,1984,Kirchgessner et al,1987).
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388
EFFECT OF SOURCE AND LEVEL OF DIETARY FIBRE ON
MICROBIALFERMENTATION INTHE LARGE INTESTINE OF
PIGS
Knud Erik Bach Knudsen &Bent Borg Jensen

National Institute of Animal Science, Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Foulum,

P.O.Box 39,DK-8830Tjele, Denmark

Abstract
Present investigation was undertaken to study the effect of source and level of
dietary fibre (DF) on microbial fermentation in the large intestine of pigs. The data
confirm that the carbohydrates, in particular non-starch polysaccharides, are the main
energy substrates for large intestine microbial fermentation. More than 80% of the
substrates fermented in the large intestine derive from carbohydrate sources. In
addition of being the key factor for the overall microbial fermentation, the source of
DF also affects the ratio between the short chain fatty acids (SCFA) produced. It
was demonstrated that total production of SCFA increased from approximately 500
mmol/d on a wheat flour diet (low DF) to approximately 2000 mmol/d on a oat bran
diet (high DF),whilebutyric acid production increased from 35mmol/d to260 mmol/d
on the same two diets.

Introduction
Microbial fermentation occurs to avarying degree in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract of
most mammals including the pig and has important implications for nutrient
assimilation (e.g. Mason & Just, 1976; Bach Knudsen et al. 1990). The substrates for
large intestine fermentation are a wide variety of dietary carbohydrates (non-starch
polysaccharides (NSP), starch, sugars), dietary and endogenous proteins,
glycoproteins, mucopolysaccharides etc (e.g. Mason, 1984; Bach Knudsen & Hansen,
1990). During the course of microbial fermentation these substrates are broken down
to short chain fatty acids (SCFA; acetic-, propionic-, butyric acids) and various
gasses (CO2, CH4,H2).The SCFA produced are rapidly absorbed from the gut lumen
(Argenzio & Stevens, 1984), stimulate water and sodium absorption (Argenzio &
Whipp, 1979) and play an important role for the overall energy metabolism (Mason,
1980; Bach Knudsen & Hansen, 1990). The SCFA absorbed might have different
effects in the body. Butyrate is belived to have important implications for the
metabolism, structure and function of the epithelia cells lining the large intestine
(Sakata & Yajima, 1984) where it is the prefered fuel over glucose (Roediger, 1980),
whilepropionate may modify hepatic metabolism (Chen et al. 1984).
In recent studies (Jensen, 1989; Bach Knudsen et al. 1990), we have shown
that the adenine nucleotides (ATP, adenosine 5'-triphosphate; ADP, adenosine 5'-
diphosphate; AMP, adenosine 5'-monophosphate), the energy couplers between
catabolic and anabolic processes in all living cells, are usefull indicators for microbial
activity in the GI tract of pigs. The aim of the present investigation was therefore to
study the effect of source and level of dietary fibre (DF) on microbial activity and
microbial density in the large intestine of pigs. As DF sources were used various
wheat- and oat products varying in content and composition of DF (Bach Knudsen,
1991).

389
Materials and Methods
The experimental diets were prepared from refined wheat flour (WF) (low DF,
control), wheat flour + wheat bran (WFWB), wheat flour + oat bran (WFOB), oat
flour (OF), rolled oats + oat bran (ROOB) and oat bran (OB). The six experimental
diets were tested in two series of experiments. Expr. 1 include the diets: WF,
WFWB, WFOB, and ROOB, while Expr. 2 comprise the diets: OF and OB. The low
DF control provided on the day of slaughtering 62 g DF/d, diet WFWB 106 g DF/d,
diet WFOB 109g DF/d, diet OF 113gDF/d, diet ROOB 194gDF/d and diet OB 283
g DF/d. The experimental diets were fed to a total of twenty four ileum cannulated
pigs; sixteen pigs in Expr. 1and eight pigs in Expr. 2 with four pigs on each diets.
Digestibility of polysaccharides and other major constituents in the large intestine
were measured in a balance trial lasting four weeks (Bach Knudsen, 1991). After
finishing the balance experiment, the pigs were fed the morning ration and killed 4 h
post feeding. Immediately after slaughtering, the GI tract was removed and separated
by ligatures into twelve sections. These comprise the cranial and caudal halves of the
stomach (Si, S2), three equal segments Of the small intestine (SIi, SI2, SI3), the
caecum (Ce) and six segments of the colon (Ci, C2,C3,C4,C5,CO). The total content
of each GI segments was carefully collected for determination of dry matter, pH,
adenine nucleotides and SCFA. In Expr. 2 was digesta also collected from Si, SIi,
SI2,SI3,CeandC4for counting of totalculturable microorganism. Theconcentration of
adenine nucleotides in digesta content was estimated by the luciferin-luciferase
method (McElroy, 1947; Bach Knudsen et al. 1990), while analyses of SCFA was
performed as described by Bach Knudsen & Hansen (1990) and pH as described by
Bach Knudsen et al. (1990). Quantitative bacteriological analyses of the predominant
bacteria were performed using non-selective and selective media and the Hungate
technique (Jensen, 1989).

Results and Discussion

Quantification of the amount of nutrients which are digested within the large intestine
of pigs fed the wheat- and oat based diets point to the carbohydrates as the most
important energy substrates for the large intestine microbial fermentation (Table 1).
The bulk (77-86%) of the substrates fermented within this GI segment derives from
carbohydrate sources of which NSP was by far the most important. Moreover, while
the amount of low-molecular weight carbohydrates (LMW-CHO) and starch
fermented were independent of the DF intake, the amount of NSP fermented varied in
respons to the DF intake amounting to approximately 40 g/d when feeding the DF
depleted wheat flour diet (DF intake 62 g/d) and to 184 g/d when feeding the oat
bran diets (DF intake 283 g/d). This has important implications for the microbial
activity in the large intestine which increased significantly in respons to more
substrates entering the large intestine (Figure 1). Hence, the amount of substrates
fermented and the microbial activity in the large intestine are largely regulated by the
dietary composition in particular the DFcontent of diets.
In agreement with recent studies at this Institute with pigs (Jensen, 1989),
the microbial activity and density at the various sites of the pig GI tract varied
substantially, as shown for the two diets in Expr. 2 (Figure 2). Moreover, although
the density of micro-organisms in caecum and colon is quit constant (approximately
10 10 ), the decrease in ATP concentration from caecum and proximal colon to distal
colon suggests a decrease in metabolic activity once the energy becomes limiting
during the movement aborally through the large intestine. Studies with pure rumen
bacteria (Forsberg & Lam, 1977) and with mixed populations from pigs caecum (B.B.
Jensen, unpublished) in batch cultures have shown that the ATP pool size is higher
390
during early exponential growth but decreases rapidly during the stationary phase.
The substrates in caecum and proximal colon with all diets are the readily
fermentable carbohydrates such as starch and sugar residues, mucus, soluble NSP,
etc. which are known to favour propionic producing micro-organism (Leng, 1969;
Wolin, 1975). The consequence is a rapid proliferation, a decrease in pH and an
increase in propionic acid levels. As digesta moves aborally it is depleted of readily
fermentable energy sources. The substrate available in distal colon comprise,
therefore, the most difficult degradable cell wall materials of the ligno-cellulose type
(Bach Knudsen & Hansen, 1990). These, conditions are known to favour acetic acid
producing micro-organisms (Leng, 1969).

Table 1. Intake of dietary fibre and calculated digested nutrients (g/d) in the large
intestine of pigs fed wheat- and oat based diets

Expr.... 1 2
WF WFWB WFOB ROOB OF OB

DF intake (g/d) 62 106 109 194 113 283

Nutrients (g/d)
Nitrogen 2.2 2.5 2.9 4.6 2.9 , 3.5
Fat 0.6 0.8 0.5 8.8 6.5 10.8
LMW-CHO 8.0 10.1 16.8 2.0 0.6 0.4
Starch 3.5 7.5 17.5 42.7 15.0 10.8
NSP 40.1 60.0 55.2 106.3 61.4 183.8
Total CHO 51.6 77.8 89.5 151.0 77.0 195.0

DF = dietary fibre; LMW-CHO = low-molecular weight carbohydrates; NSP = non-

starch polysaccharides; CHO = carbohydrates; WF = wheat flour; WFWB = wheat
flour + wheat bran; WFOB = wheat flour + oat bran; ROOB = rolled oats + oat bran;
OF =oat flour; OB= oat bran.

HJ
•
40 - •
* • •
35 -
GO
• •
ID
t>0 30 • • •
25 - • •
• •
3 20 •
•
15 •
• •
10 •
•
5
i • i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0
o o(N O O o00 oCN o• * oVO oOO ç C
TT VO 8
DigestedCHO(g/d)
Figure 1. Correlation between the average ATP concentration in the large intestine
and the amount of carbohydrate digested
391
r

oat bran
CH0=195g/d

colon
stomach stomach

Figure 2. Adenosine 5'-triphosphate concentration and density of anaerobe micro-

organism of the gastrointestinal content of pigs fed the oat flour and oat bran diets in
Expr. 2.

Table 2. Fermented carbohydrates, calculated production of short chain fatty acids

and pH values in the large intestine of pigs fed wheat and oat based diets

Ratio
Diet WF WFWB OB OB/WFWB

Fermented CHO (g/d) 52 78 195 2.5

SCFA produced
(mmol/d) 520 780 1950 2.5
Acetic acid 322 423 936 2.2
Propionicacid 125 206 574 2.8
Butyricacid 31 62 260 4.2
pH 7.0 6.4 6.1

CHO = carbohydrates; SCFA = short chain fatty acids; WF = wheat flour; WFWB
wheat flour +wheat bran; OB =oat bran.

The importance of fermentation for pigs and other simple-stomached animals,

however, lies mainly in the type of products formed and their fate in the body. The
major end products of fermentation, SCFA were the main anion in caecum and colon
where they, independent of the dietary composition, were found in concentrations of
60-140 mmol/1in caecum and the two upper segments of colon (C1-C2) and from 35
mmol/1 to 60 mmol/1 in the lower portions of colon (C3-C6). Assuming that the
equation for converting carbohydrate and proteins into SCFA given for man (Miller
and Worin, 1979; Macfarlane et al. 1986) are valid for pigs, the amount of fermented
carbohydrates in theory leads to aproduction of approximately 500 mmol SCFA/d for
diet WF to 2000 mmol SCFA/d for diet OB (Table 2) and the amount of fermented
protein from approximately 36 mmol/d for diet WF to 75 mmol/d for diet ROOB. In
addition there is an unknown quantity of lactic acidproduced in the stomach and small
intestine. Apart from providing the host with significant amounts of energy (Bach
392
Knudsen & Hansen, 1990) the SCFA produced might have more specific GI and
metabolic effects (Cummings & Englyst, 1987). Butyrate, particularly, is considered
tohave important implications for metabolism, structure and function of epithelia cells
lining the large intestine (Sakata and Yajima, 1984) where it is the preferred fuel over
glucose (Roediger, 1980). Interestingly enough, DF addition and oat DF in particular
not only causes an increase in butyric acid concentration in accordance with the
overall SCFA, but type of DF source also affects the ratio of butyric acid relative to
the other SCFA's. Hence, while the total production of SCFA increased from
approximately 500 mmol/d for diet WF to 2000 mmol/d for diet OB; the increase in
butyric acid production wasfrom 35mmol/dto260 mmol/1 for the twodiets (Table2).
Certainly this is one of the most important factors to consider when discussing the
mitogenic response in large intestine of certain DF sources (Lupton et al. 1988) and
the heavier gut mucosa generally found infibre-fed pigs (Kass et al. 1980).
The high proportion of ß-glucans in oat compared to wheat products (Bach
Knudsen, 1991) encourage us to speculate whether this was responsible for the
increased butyric acidproduction when feeding oatproducts. A thorough investigation
of the composition of fermented NSP when feeding wheat flour and oat bran shows
the following proportion of fermented polysaccharides in wheat flour: ß-glucans, 1%;
cellulose, 6%; arabinoxylans, 78% and in oat bran: ß-glucans, 57%; cellulose, 7%;
arabinoxylans 32%. However, we failed to verify this suggestion in a,separate
investigation. To a dietary fibre depleted wheat flour diet was added the same
amount of DF in form of either oat bran, purified ß-glucans or the insoluble residues
after extraction of ß-glucans. Mean butyric acid proportion of large intestine digesta
was: wheat flour, 7%; wheat flour + ß-glucans, 7%; wheat flour + insoluble residues,
11% and wheat flour + oat bran, 10%.The results from this latter study, thus, indicate
that the reason to the increased butyric acid production of oat products should be
found in the insoluble residues consisting mainly of arabinoxylans and some insoluble
ß-glucans.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Danish Agricultural and Veterinary Research
Council.
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Utilization of dietary fiber from alfalfa by growing swine.I.Apparent digestibility of
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394
 APPARENT ILEAL DIGESTIBILITY OF STARCH AND a
GALACTOSIDES FROM PEAS BY EARLY WEANED PIGS:
EFFECT OF EXTRUSION
J.BengalsFreire,A.Aumaitre,J.PeiniauandY.Lebreton

Institut NationaldelaRechercheAgronomique,Saint-Gilles,35590L'Hermitage, France

Abstract
Ileo-rectal anastomosis was tested to measure the apparent ileal digestibility (ID) of starch and a
galactosides supplied byraw or extruded peas incorporated at the levelof 45 % in the diet of weaned
piglets.Termino-terminal procedure was finally choosen bycomparison with the termino-lateral one,
in order to prevent the microbial degradation caused bya backflow of digesta into the large intestine,
demonstrated bythe addition of a marker in the diet ID of dietary nitrogen was affected by period or
ageof pigletsand varietyof peas ;itincreased from 72.0 % to 78.6%after extrusion ofthe seeds. ID
of raw starchwas lower inwinter (94.4 %)than in springpeas (97.1%) ; it increased from 95.8% in
rawto99% inextruded peas ;thatof a galactosidesaveraged 75.7%whatever theperiod,varietyand
treatment Animals fed extruded peas had a higher postprandial serum glucose and insulin levels,and
the amylase content and specific activity in their pancreas was increased by 70 % and 50 % ,
respectively.

Introduction /
Peas are presently considered asa consistent alternative indigenous sourceof proteins for monogastric
animals in Europe.They are characterized bythe presence of 20 % of resistant starch (Colonna and
Mercier, 1979), a galactosides (Cristofaro et al.,1977 ; Besle et ai, 1981) and they contain various
antinutritional factors (ANFs), including antitryptic and antiamylase factors but also large amount of
lectins (Huiseman, 1989;Bertrand etal., (1988)).Dietary starch isdigested inthe smallintestine ofthe
pig(Bengala-Freire etal.,1988),butpartially hydrolysedandhighlyresistant granulescould be further
fermented inthe large intestine bythe microflora In addition, a galactosideswhich are not hydrolyzed
in the small intestine, are shown to cause deleterious fermentations in the hindgut as demonstrated in
theratbyCristofaroetai, (1977).
Because of a low level of amylase in the pancreas (Corring etal.,1978),the digestive potential of the
earlyweaned piglet could be consequently altered by a diet containing fermentative pea carbohydrates
(Graham et al., 1989). Extrusion of peas, which destroys the physical structure of starch and ANFs
(Bertrand etal.,1982),isassumed tobeavaluabletreatment toimprovethe digestiveutilization of pea
nutrients. Measurement of ileal digestibility in the pig proposed for amino acids (Darcy-Vrillon and
Laplace, 1990), is of a great interest to characterize the digestive potential of the piglet towards
polysaccharides.Ithasbeenparticularlyconsidered inthepresent experiment
Moreover,the postprandialincreaseinglycaemiaofthepigwasreversely proportional tothemolecular
weight of dietary carbohydrate (Aumaitre et al., 1973). Large differences in the rate of intestinal
breakdown of polysaccharides, and consequently monosaccharides absorption, were responsible for
these results (Rérat et al., 1984). Total amylase biosynthesis in the pancreas of the rat was also
particularly stimulated bythe ingestion of carbohydrates of lowmolecular weight such asglucose (Ben
Abdeljlill and Desnuelle, 1964). These parameters should be of a further interest in case of early
weaned piglets receiving large amounts of either raw starch or starch partially hydrolyzed after
extrusionandmostlysuppliedbypeas.

Materials and Methods

The methodological approach involved 3 groups of 6 piglets each weaned at 21 days of age. Total
apparent digestibility (TD) was determined on group I (6 intact piglets) ; 6 animals of group II were
fitted with a termino-lateral (TL) ileo-rectal anastomosis (Bengala-Freire etal, 1988) and 6animals
of group III were fitted with a termino-terminal (TT) ileo-rectal anastomosis (Laplace et al.,1985).
Animalswere pair-fed the samecomplexdietcontaining 0.5 % oftitanousdioxide (Ti02) asa marker;
total collection of faeces was performed, TL and TT ileal digesta were collected continuously incold

395
rr

absolute alcohol to inhibit enzymes and microorganisms activities (Besle and Pitiot, 1976).Animalsof
groupIIwere slaughtered and thecontent of their caecum,proximateanddistalcolonwassampled for
drymatterand markeranalysis(Figure1).

The experiment was performed on 24 pair-fed male piglets from 6 litters and fitted with a TT ileo-
rectal anastomosis. They were affected in six successive blocks to 4 treatments allowing a comparison
between twovarietiesofpeasincorporatedat thelevelof45%inthedietandtwotreatments (rawand
extruded for 30secondsat 150°C).The starchcontent offeed andilealeffluents andtheinvitro rateof
hydrolysis of starch were measured on the two varieties of peas, before and after extrusion, using
pancreatic juice of piglet according to the method proposed byMercier (1968).Alpha-galactosides in
feedweremeasuredafter extractioninuridine(0.4mg/ml),deproteinization andcentrifugation, byHigh
Performance Liquid Chromatography. Extraction inilealeffluents required a further filtration on C 18
cartridge of Millipore SEP-PAK (Quemener, personnal communication). Serum glucose and insulin
levelswere measuredon bloodsamplestakenat the endoftheexperiment after an overnight fast, and
30 minutes after feeding (Aumaitre et ai, 1973). Animals were slaughtered and the pancreas was
removedfor enzymaticessays(Coningetal., 1978).

Table 1.Composition (1)andanalysisofexperimentaldiets(asDM)

Peavariety Spring Winter Spring Winter

Extrusion + +
Content :

GE (MJ/kg) (2) 18.9 18.9 19.08 19.05

CP (%) (2) 25.7 25.5 26.0 25.8 .

DE (MJ/kg) (3) 16.13 14.74 16.70 16.50

DP (%) (3) 21.05 18.51 22.7 22.1

Starch(%) 49.3 50.2 51.3 48.6

ct-D Galactosides
<% DMofdiets

Raffinose 0.59 0.94 0.22 030

Stachyose 1.71 1.08 1.98 0.96
Verbascose 1.26 2.11 1.58 2.99
ATFs(IU/mg) (4) 1.43 3.85 0 0

(1)Ingredientscomposition (%)ofthedietwas:Wheat :36.4;SpringorWinter pea :45.0;Soluble

FishProtein Concentrate (90%CP) : 10.0;Vegetableoil: 4.0;L- Tryptophan :0.10 ;Ti02 : 0.50.
Mineral,TraceelementsandVitamins :4 (BengaiaFreireetal.,1988).
(2) GrossEnergyandCrudeProtein(Nx6,25)respectively.
(3)DigestibleEnergyandDigestibleProteinrespectively.
(4)Antitryptic factors.

Results and Discussion

The content of the marker was higher in TL than in the TT excreta, both beeing significantly lower
thaninfaeces.The levelinthedistalcolonwashighandnot significantly different than thatoftheileal
effluent collected from termino-lateral procedure.Itwassignificantly lower in the proximalcolon,and
very lowin the caecum (Figure 1).These results indicated clearlythat the TL anastomosis permitted a

396
 backflow of the digests in the large intestine as it was suspected by Bengala Freire et al.,(1988).
Thereby the TL anastomosis was not suitable for measuring the ileal digestibility of fermentative
carbohydrates (Grahametal., 1989;DarcyVrillonandLaplace,1990).

Winter peascontained the sameproportion of starch but higher amountof a galactosides,particularly

verbascose,thanthespringcultivar.Theinitialrateofhydrolysisofwinterpeastarchwassimilartothat
ofthewheat starch,but considerably higher (8-9 fold) for the springpeastarch. Extrusion doubled the
initialrate ofhydrolysisandincreasedby50%the percentageof starch hydrofyzed in 2hours.Alpha-
galactosides content was not affected by the treatment, but all the antitryptic factors were destroyed
(Table 1).These results are in good agreement with those of Colonna and Mercier, (1979) for starch
andthoseofBertrandetal., (1982)for antinutrional factors.

Figure2.Percentageof marker (Ti02) atdifferent levelsof thedigestivetractofthe piglet :assessment

ofatechniquefor theexpressionofilealdigestibility
Ti02 (%DM)
5T
Ilealdigesta Contents (TL)
Faeces
3 Termino
lateral

Termino
3 terminal

2+

1 Diet

0
a,b P<0,05 n= (

Comparedwithdietsbased onspringpeas,TDof energyand of protein of thewholedietwerereduced

inthe dietcontainingwinter peas,leadingtoa lowercontent of Digestible Energy (DE) and Digestible
Crude Protein (DP). Extrusion of both varieties of peas improved the TD of protein an dietary DP
content (Table 1).ID ofnitrogenwasmarkedly improved (77.5vs71.2 % ;P < 0.01)between the first
and the second week of the experiment i.e.between the 5 t n and the 6 th week of age, in agreement
with our previous observations (Aumaître, 1983 ; Bengala Freire etal.,1988).It was lower for winter
than for springvariety (72.0vs78.6 ;P < 0.05),despite theabsence of the effect of pea lectin levelon
the brush border of the small intestine (Bertrand et al.,1988). It was further increased by extrusion
(76.6 vs72.2 % ; P < 0.05) due to the destruction of ANF$as suspected by Christison and Parra de
Solano(1982).
IDofdietary starchwashigh,averaging97.4%inagreementwithGrahamet al, (1989) butaffected by
variety and extrusion, in agreement with Bertrand et al.,(1982) and Huisman, (1989). Assuming that
the ilealdigestibilityofwheatstarch, supplying75% ofthetotal,wasnearly 100% in piglets(Bengala
Freireetal.,1988),onecouldconcludethat starchofwinterpeawasparticularly resistant toamylasein
the small intestine, in good agreement with previous in vitro data The value of ID of a galactosides
washighlyvariable,and not affected bythe treatments (Table 2).Itwas2-fold higher than that found
byBesleetal.,1981for the apparent digestibility of field beansa galactosides inthe small intestineof
thepreruminant calf.Itcouldbestressedonthepresenceofbacteria inthe smallintestine of thepiglet,
responsible for a partial breakdown, or on a backflow of bacteria from the rectum, induced by the
surgicalpreparation (Darcy-VrillonandLaplace,1990).

397
 Table2.Apparent IlealDigestibility (ID)ofstarchanda galactosidesfrom peas ;effect ofdieton
pancreaticamylaseandplasmainsulinandglucoselevels.
Variety Spring Winter Spring Winter Statisticalanalysis
Extrusion - - + + RSD Effects
AID (%) of :
Starch (1) 97.1 94.4 98.9 99.1 1.3 V»* E "
a Galactosides (2) 78.5 76.2 72.7 75.3 16.8 NS NS
Nitrogen (3) 78.8 65.7 74.5 78.4 6.5 V* E '
Insulin (uIU/ml) W
Fasting <6 <6 <6 <6 - -
30 mn 77a 39a 134b 100b 44 E*
Glucosemg/100 ml
Fasting 95 99 104 105 12 -
30mn 1173 Ilia 139b 149b 23 E"
Amylase(IU) P)
Total(x103) 1448 2094 2988 3030 1031 E*
Specific 293 360 441 444 120 E*
(1)Significant effect ofVariety V " P< 0.01,Extrusion E " P< 0.01 and period ,and Interaction
VarietyxExtrusion, P <0.01.
(2)a Galactosides =Raffinose +Stachyose +Verbascose
(3)Significant effect ofperiod P<0.01.
(4)Plasma insulinandglucose,measuredbefore (F)and30minutesafter testmeal.
(5)Total (T)andspecific activityasIUpancreasorIU/mgofprotein/mn

The ingestion of easily degradable extruded starch was associated with higher levels of serum glucose
and insulin and an increaseintheactivityof pancreaticamylase (Table 2).Postprandial hyperglycaemia
already describedbyAumaîtreetal., (1973) and Rératetal., (1984),after an intakeof starch derivative
in pig was associated with a parallel increase in serum insulin level similar to that observed by
Anderson, (1974) inatrialbloodof thepig.Moreover intherat,an increase inperipheric bloodglucose
stimulated the biosynthesis of pancreatic amylase (Ben Abdeljlill and Desnuelle, (1963). Favourable
consequences on the ID of dietary starch and energy previously described could be generated by the
•fstimulation of the biosynthesis of pancreatic amylase through insulin mediation, this suggesting a
relationshipbetweenendocrineandexocrinesecretionsinthepancreas.
But, because of a dramatically low ID of nitrogen, mostly supplied by raw winter peas, one could
suspect that favourable consequences of heat treatment (extrusion) were not only associated with the
damageof starch,ingoodagreement withthe hypothesisof Colonna, (1984).The destruction of lectin,
particularly in the case ofwinter peas,could bebeneficial despiteany evidence of their attachement to
the intestinal mucosa was provided (Bertrand et al., 1988). Consequently, other ANFs, only
characterized by trypsin inhibitors in the present study could be involved in the disturbance of the
digestiveorthe metabolicprocesses.
Inconclusion, thetechniqueofterminno-terminalileo-rectalanastomosisappeared tobeaconvenient
methodfor themeasurement ofIDofdietarycomponentsintheweaned pig,andfor theestimationof
thedigestiveeffect ofANFsofthepeas.Postprandialbloodglucoseandinsulinlevelstogetherwith
amylasecontent inthepancreascouldbeindicatorsofbeneficial effects of hydrothermaltreatmentson
starchrichleguminousseeds.

Aknowledgement to the memory of the Late Robert Levrel for taking care of animals and collecting
samples.

398
 References
Anderson, D.M., 1974.The effect of feeding on the concentration of glucose and insulin in the portal
andatrialplasmainpigs.J.Agric.Sei.,Camb.,82:29-36.

Aumaître, A., 1983. Die Entwicklung der Verdaungsfuncktionen beim Ferkel sowie Probleme des
Abstezens.Ubers.Tierernähr., 11:103-132.

Aumaître, A., A.A. Rérat, P. Vaissade & P. Vaugelade, 1973. Etude expérimentale qualitative de
l'absorption intestinale des glucides après ingestion d'un repas à base de glucose ou d'amidon. Ann.
Biol.Anim.Bioch.Biophy.,13:784-788.

Ben Abdeljlill, A., P. Desnuelle, 1964. Sur l'adaptation des enzymes exocrines du pancréas à la
compositiondurégime.Biochim.Biophys.Acta,81:136-149.

Bengala Freire, J.P.,J. Peiniau,Y. Lebreton &A. Aumaître, 1988.Determination of ileal digestibility
by shunt technique in the early-weaned pig : methodological aspects and utilisation of starch-rich
diets.Livest.Prod.Sei.,20:233-247.

Bertrand, D., J. Delort-Laval, J.P. Melcion & P. Valdebouze, 1982. Influence de 1'extrusion et de
1'infranisation sur les facteurs antinutritionnels et lavaleur alimentaire du pois (Pisum sativum L).
Sei.Aliments,2,H.S.II,p.197-202.

Bertrand, G., B.Sève, DJ. Gallant &R.Tomé, 1988.Absence d'effets antinutritionnels deslectines de
pois, sous forme native ou purifiée chez le porcelet; comparaison avec les lectines natives de soja.
Sei.Alim.,8:187-212.

Besle, J.M. & M. Pitiot, 1976. Extraction et purification des glucides,: application à divers aliments
dérivésdusoja.Ann.Biol.Anim.Bioch.Biophys.,16:753-772.

Besle,J.M., B.Lassalas &P.Thivend, 1981.Digestion desglucidescytoplasmiquesdelafèverole parle

veaupréruminanLReprod.Nutr.Develop.,21:629-649.

Christison, G.I. & N.M. Parra de Solano, 1982. Utilization of protein from peas, barley, buttermilk
powderand soybean mealbyearly-weaned pigs.Can.J.Anim.Sei.,62:899-905.

Colonna, P., C. Mercier, 1979. Les amidons de légumineuses : aspects, composition, structure et
propriétés physico-chimiques.Lebensm.Wiss. Technol., 12:1-12.

Colonna, P. 1984.Lesamidonsde légumineuses :structures et propriétés.Thèse Université Paris6,53

pp.

Corring, T., A. Aumaitre & G. Durand, 1978. Development of digestive enzymes in the piglet from
birth to8weeks.I.Pancreasandpancreaticenzymes.Nutr.Metab., 22:231-243.

Cristofaro, E., F. Mottu & JJ. Wuhrmann, 1974. Involvement of the raffinose family of
oligosaccharides in flatulence. In : H.L. Sipple, K.W. Mc Nutt, Sugars in nutrition, p 313-336.
AcademicPressEd.,NewYork.

Darcy-Vrillon, B. & J.P. Laplace, 1990. Digesta collection procedure may affect ileal digestibility in
pigsfed dietsbasedonwheatbranorbeetpulp.Anim.FeedSei.Technol.,27:307-316.

Graham, H., J.G. Fadel, C.W. Newman & R.K. Newman, 1989. Effect of pelleting and ß Glucanase
supplementation on the ileal and fecal digestibility of barley-based diet in the pig. J. Anim. Sei.,
67:1293-1298.

399
rr

Huisman, J., 1989.Antinutritional factors (ANFs) in the nutrition of monogastric farm animals. In :
Nutrition and digestive physiology in monogastric animals. Eds : Van Weerden EJ., Huisman, J.,
Wageningen Pudoc.101 pp.

Laplace, J.P., B. Darcy-Vrillon & M. Picard, 1985.Evaluation de la digestibilité des acides aminés :
choixraisonnesd'uneméthode.JournéesRech.PorcineenFrance,17:353-370.

Mercier, G, 1968. Contribution à l'étude de la structure du grain d'amidon au moyen de méthodes

physiquesetenzymatiques.Thèse,Paris,87pp.

Rérat,A.A.,P.Vaissade &P.Vaugelade, 1984.Absorption kinetics of somecarbohydrates in concious

pigs.1. Qualitativeaspects.Brit J.Nutr,51:505-515.

400
DEFINITIONANDANALYSISOFDIETARYFIBRE:EFFECT ON
NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION

12 1 2
H.Graham ',J. Inborr &P.Aman
FinnfeedsInternational Ltd.,ForumHouse,Redhill,
SurreyRH16YS,England
SwedishUniversity ofAgriculturalSciences,
S-75007Uppsala,Sweden

Abstract
Dietary fibre isagroup ofchemically heterogeneous
compoundsdifferingwidely inphysicalpropertiesand /
physiological activity. Inrecentyearsmethods forthe
analysisofdietary fibre,defined asthesumofnon-starch
polysaccharides (NSP)andKlason lignin,havebeenavailable.
Useofthesemethodshave illustrated thatprevious
analyticaltechnigueshaveunderestimated boththecontent
anddegradability of fibre,leading toamisunderstanding of
thedietary contentandthusenergy contributionof
degradable fibre.However little isknownofthe
physico-chemical properties of fibrepolysaccharides orof
the factorsthatcontrol degradability.

Introduction
High fibredietshave longbeen associatedwithreduced
digestibility inpigs,withAxelsson (1939)statingthata1%
increase inthecrude fibrecontentofthedietwill leadto
a 1.7%decrease inorganicmatterdigestibility ingrowing
pigs,.Thiscanbeattributed bothtothepresenceof
undegraded fibreandtotheeffectof fibre inreducing the
apparentdigestibility ofotherdietarycomponents.The
recent surge ininterest indietary fibrehasresulted from
theincreased availability ofhigh fibre feedstuffs,the
development ofaccurateanalytical methodsandthe
realization that fibrecancontrol therateandextentof
digestion and absorption othernutrients.
Onemajorproblem inthestudy ofdietary fibrehasbeen
definitionand analysis.However,dietary fibreisnow
defined either fromaphysiological pointofviewasthe
dietary components resistant tohydrolysisbymammalian
enzymesorchemically asthesum ofnon-starch
polysaccharides andKlason lignin (Theander &Aman, 1979).
This latterdefinition hasallowed thedevelopmentof
analyticalmethods forfibre.

401
 Analytical Method
Briefly,themethod fortheanalysisofdietary fibreas
describedbyTheander &Aman (1979), laternamedtheUppsala
method,isbased onthepriorremovalofstarch.A
representative sample,usually 100-500mg,oftheground
material isincubated atpH 5withathermostableamylase
(95C, 1h)andamyloglucosidase (60°C,overnight).Soluble
fibresarethenprecipitated withadditionofethanolto80%
andtotal fibrerecovered bycentrifugation.Following drying
atlowtemperature,the fibreresidueisswollen in12M
sulfuricacid (30C,1h)andhydrolyzed in0.4M sulfuric
acid (125C,1 h). Klason lignin,theacid insolubleresidue,
isremovedby filtration anddeterminedgravimetrically.The
neutralNSPresidues inthehydrolysatearereducedand
acetylated beforequantificationbyGLC.Uronicacid residues
areestimated bydecarboxylation inboilinghydriodicacid,
with released carbondioxidedetermined conductivimetrically.
Alternatively uronicacid residuesmaybequantified
spectrophotometrically (Englyst &Cummings, 1988).

Aswithanyanalytical technique,thereareseveral
criticalpointswhichdeterminetheaccuracyoftheresults.
Intheenzymatic step itisnecessary toeffectacomplete
degradation ofthestarch tooligomerssoluble in80%
ethanol.Anyresidual starchwillgiveanelevated contentof
glucoseresiduesand thusof fibre,which isdifficultto
detect.Theenzymes employedmustnotcontainany fibre
degradingactivityundertheassay conditionsemployed,and
eachenzymebatchshouldbetested foratleastmixed-linked
beta-glucanaseandxylanase activitiesbeforeuse.The
hydrolysis step isalsorathercritical,with
under-hydrolysisgivinghighKlasonligninandlowNSPvalues
andover-treatment alsogiving lowNSPvalues,particularly
ofxyloseresidues.Thus itisimperativethathydrolysis
"conditions,including thenumberofsamplesbeingprocessed,
**arekeptconstant.Incomplete reductionofthehydrolyzed
monosaccharide residues isoftenthemostcommonproblemof
themethod,and this ismanifested byahighapparent content
ofmannoseresiduesand alowcontentofothersugars.This
isoftenduetoanincorrectreductionpHoraninactive
reducing agent.Itshould alsobekept inmindthatthe
responseoftheGLCwill changewithcolumnage,andthus
correction factorstoallow forlossesduringhydrolysisand
derivization and fordifferentGLCresponsesmustbe
continually up-dated. It isobviousthatthisanalytical
procedure israthersensitive,and itisadvisablethateven
experienced analysts includeatleastonestandard samplein
allanalytical runstocheck starchdegradation and fibre
hydrolysis.

402
Table 1.Thedietary fibre (DF),neutraldetergent fibre
(NDF),aciddetergent fibre (ADF)andcrude fibre (CF)
contents (g/kgDM)ofsomefeedstuffs
Content (g/kg DM As % Of DF

Feedstuff DF NDF ADF CF NDF ADF CF

maize 94 82 22 20 91 23 21
wheat 108 98 32 23 91 30 21
barley 188 152 50 42 81 27 22
peas 163 104 71 52 64 44 32
soybean meal 241 151 88 76 66 37 32

Fibre inPier Feeds

Fibrepolysaccharides inpig feedsaregenerally classified

intothreegroups:cellulose,hemicellulose andpectins.This
classificationisessentially arbitrary anddoesnot fully
reflectproperties suchasdegradability. Older analytical
methodsbasically determined fibreastheresidue insoluble
inaspecific solvent.Ascouldbeexpected,thiscanlead to
widely divergentresults.Forexamplethecrude fibremethod,
whichrecoveredmostofthecellulose and someofthelignin,
givesacontentmuch lessthandietary fibre (Table 1 ) .The
detergentmethods,aciddetergent fibre (ADF)andneutral
detergent fibre (NDF),giveresultssomewhat intermediate as
the formerrecoversalmostallcelluloseand ligninandthe
latterthesetwocomponentsplusmostofthehemicellulose
(VanSoest, 1982). However,therelationshipsbetween these
methodsarenotpredictable.Further,aseachmethod recovers
a specific fraction,apparentdegradability willdifferwith
analyticalmethod employed.Ascanbeseen fromTable 2,the
amountofdegraded fibreinthefaeceswillvary from 15to
123g/kg intake,depending onwhetherthis iscalculated on
theADF ordietary fibremethod.Thustheestimated energetic
valueoffibre inthe feedwoulddifferovereight fold.

Table 2.Content (g/kgDM)and ilealand faecalapparent

degradability (%) ofdietary fibre (DF),neutral detergent
fibre (NDF), aciddetergent fibre (ADF)andcrude fibre (CF)
inacereal-based pigdiet.

DF NDF ADF CF

Dietary content (g/kgDM) 196 163 47 46

Ilealdigestibility (%) 23 28 -6 7
Feacaldigestibility(%) 63 59 32 36

403
 A complete analysisofthefibrecontentoffeedsgivesno
information onthephysiological attributesofthe fibre
present,although anexperienced analystcanmakeafew
generalized statements.Inanefforttofurther characterize
fibremanyanalyticalmethods includeaseperate
determination ofsoluble fibre.Unfortunately theyield of
soluble fibre isverymuchdependentontheextraction
conditionsemployed,withpre-treatment,temperatureandpH
ofparticular interest (Grahamet al., 1988). Further,
solubilityper sedoesnotnecessarily conferany particular
characteristicstoa fibre,eventhoughsoluble fibrestend
tobemoresolubleandtohaveagreatereffectonthe,
digestionofothernutrients inthesmall intestine (Graham,
1988). Certain fibrescanalsobepartially solubilized
duringpassagethrough thesmall intestine,withthe
solubility ofNSPresidues inasugarbeetpulpbased diet
increasing from 11%inthedietto20%attheduodenum and
35% atthe ileum (Grahamet al., 1986). Littlesoluble fibre
isrecovered inthe faecesofpigs.

Inconclusion,methods forthecompleteanalysisofdietary
fibreareavailable andtheirusehasgreatlyadvanced the
understanding ofthephysiological roleoffibreinpigs.
However furtherresearch isneeded intothe relationships
between fibre structure andphysico-chemical properties such
asdegradability andwater-and ion-bindingcapacities.A
betterunderstanding oftheprocessesoffibredegradation
andutilizationwould alsobewelcome.
References
Axelsson,J. 1939.Swine feedingandmanagement.Part 1. (In
Swedish).NordiskRotogravyr,Stockholm,p.82-86.
Englyst,H.N. &J. H.Cummings,1988.Improvedmethod for
measurement ofdietary fiberasnon-starch polysaccharides
*inplant foods.J. Assoc.Off.Anal.Chem.71:808-814.
'"Graham,H. 1988.Dietary fiberconcentration and assimilation
inswine.ISIAtlasofScience;Animal andPlantSciences
1:76-79.
Graham,H.,M.-B.GronRydberg &P.Aman,1988.Extractionof
solubledietary fiber.J.Agric. FoodChem.36:494-497.
Graham,H.,K.Hesselman&P.Aman,1986.The influence of
wheatbranand sugarbeetpulponthedigestibilityof
dietary components inacerealbasedpigdiet.J.Nutr.
116:242-251.
Theander,O. &P.Aman,1979.Studiesondietary fibres.1.
Analysis and chemical characterization ofwater-soluble and
water-insoluble dietary fibres.Swed.J.Agric.Res.
9:97-106.
VanSoest,P. 1982.Nutritional ecology oftheruminant.O&
BBooks,Corvallis,Or.p.75-117.

404
THE INFLUENCE OF SUPPLEMENTARY FEED ENZYMES ON
NUTRIENT DISAPPEARENCE AND DIGESTA
CHARACTERISTICS IN THE GI-TRACT OF EARLY WEANED
PIGS
J. Inborr1,M.R,Bedford2,J.F. Patience2andH.L. Classen2
1
Finnfeeds International Ltd., 41-51 Brighton Road, Redhill,
SurreyRH1 6YS,United Kingdom.
2
Department ofAnimal and Poultry Science,University of
Saskatchewan,Saskatoon,Saskatchewan,CanadaS7K017.

Abstract
Two trials were conducted to investigate the influence of
supplementary feed enzymes on the performance and gastro-
intestinal function of the weanling pig. In experiment 1
pentosanase and in experiment 2 /3-glucanase were added to
rye-based or barley-based control diets, respectively,
containing chromicoxideasanexternalmarker.After 10days
on the test diets, pigs were euthanized and contents of the
small intestine (divided into 4 segments),colon and'rectum
collected and analysed. Pentosanase supplementation did not
directly affect performance or digestibility of starch or
protein in any gut segment. However, digesta viscosity was
increased (p<0.05) in segments 1 and 3 of the small
intestine,whereas pH in segment 3and drymatter in segment
1 were decresed (p<0.05) by the enzyme supplement. In Expt.
2, /3-glucanase increased weight gain (p<0.05) and advanced
protein, but not starch, digestion along the GI tract. pH,
drymatterandviscositywereunaffected.Byaltering digesta
pH, viscosity and drymatter,pentosanase at the level added
appeared tohave indirectandpossiblyundesirable effectson
rye digestion. In barley, /3-glucanaseeffects appeared tobe
more direct and beneficial. Information on specific gastro-
intestinal inter-action between endogenous and exogenous
enzymeswill leadtooptimized use inpigproduction.

Introduction
Due to the slowdevelopment intheproduction of digestive
enzymes the capability to digest nutrients (otherthan those
inthe sow'smilk) is limited intheyoung pig. Forexample,
the production of maltase increases up to the 8th week of
age (Aumaitre &Corring, 1978). Inaddition,reduced amylase
and protease production in the immediate postweaning period
have been reported (Lindemann et al., 1986; Owsley et al.,
1986), which may impede the digestion of dietary starch and
proteins. The digestion of fibre poly-saccharides is even
more limited, since fibre degrading enzymes cannot be
produced bythepigandthemicroflora capableofdoing sois
poorly developed (Graham etal,1988a).
Rye and barley contain soluble fibre referred to as the
pentosans (rye) and /3-glucans (barley). In the chick, these
arethought to interferewith digestionbyconferringviscous

405
characteristics to the digesta, thereby reducing the physical
exposure of substrates to the endogenous enzymes (Fengler &
Marquardt, 1988). Addition of microbial enzymes capable of
degrading these components have significantly improved the
nutritive value of these two cereal grains in the chick
(Hesselman, 1983: Pettersson & Aman, 1988). In the pig,
enzyme supplementation of rye- and barley-based diets have
not given as consistent results as in the chick (Thacker et
al., 1988; Graham et al., 1986). The age of the pig may well
influence its response to enzyme supplementation as it
appears to do in chickens (Säterby, 1985).
The objectives of this study were to use young, weanling
pigs in an attempt to determine whether their immature
digestive system was further compromised by feeding rye or
barley, and if so, whether addition of a pentosanase and ß-
glucanase preparation to the rye and barley diets,
respectively, would alleviate this situation by increasing
the rate of digestion. This was determined by measuring
digestibility of starch and nitrogen in transit through the
small intestine.

Materials and Methods

Pairs of littermate pigs were selected at weaning from a
minimum disease herd and assigned to one of the experimental
treatments. Non-1ittermates were housed in pairs in pens,
providing 6 pens and 12 pigs per treaement in each of two
replicate groups. Following a five day acclimation period,
the experimental diets - basal with and without added enzymes
(Table 1) - were offered ad libitum for 10 days in a
completely randomized design, during which feed intake and
body weight change were recorded.
1
Table 1. Composition of the basal diets (%).

Main ingredients Experiment 1 Experiment2

Rye 63.2 0
Hulless barley 0 63.2
Soybean meal (47) 20.4 20.4
Dried skim milk 5.0 5.0

Nutrient content, per kg

Digestible energy, MJ 13.9 13.5

Crude protein, g 162.1 188.2
Lysine, g 12.0 11.8
Calcium, g 10.0 10.0
Phosphorus, g 8.5 8.5

Enzyme preparation added to basal diet at 2 g/kg at the

expense of rye and barley in experiments 1 and 2, respec-
tively.
Following 10 days on the experimental diets, the pigs were
euthanized by barbituate overdose administered intravenously,

406
followed by exsanguination. The abdominal cavitywas exposed
and the intestinal tract removed. The small intestine was
divided into4segments ofapproximately equal length.pHwas
immediately determined and the results corrected for equal
sample temperature. The total contents of each segment were
collected into plastic bags and then frozen in liquid
nitrogen (Expt. 1) or on dry ice (Expt. 2). Samples of
colonic and rectal contents were handled in a similar
fashion. For viscosity determination in Expt l, 0.3 g of
sample was resuspended in 1.5 ml water and incubated at 37°C
for 30 mins. Viscosity was determined on the 12,000 g
supernatant (5 1 ). In Expt. 2, viscosity was determined
directly on the 12,000 g (5') supernatant of collected
digesta.

Table2.Effect ofenzyme supplementation ofarye-based diet

onweight gain, feed intake and feed efficiency inyoung pigs.

Treatment Weight Feed Feed/

gain, kg intake, kg Gain

Control 4.24 6.94 1.64 '

Enzyme 4.24 6.64 1.57

p values

treatment 0.684 0.525 0.753

feed intake 0.104 0.733

Results
Weight gain, feed intake and feed efficiency were
unaffected by the pentosanase supplementation (Table 2).
Starch and protein digestibility were also unaffected
throughout the entire intestinal tract (Table 3), but
viscosity increased significantly in sections 1and 3and pH
decreased in section 3 of the small intestine due to the
pentosanase.Drymatterwas significantlydecreased byenzyme
supplementation insection 1.
ß-glucanase supplementation significantly improved weight
gain, whereas feed intake and efficiency were unaffected
(Table 4).Enzyme supplementation of the barley-based diet
significantly improved nitrogen digestibility in the colon,
but did not influence starch digestibility (Table 5 ) .
Viscosity, pH or dry matter in each section of the Gl tract
wereaffectedby treatment.
Discussion
Enzyme supplementation of both rye and barley-based diets
has generally proven less effective and consistent in pigs
than in poultry. For example, Newman et al. (1980) did not
obtain any improvement in the performance of growing pigs
when adding bacterial diastase to a hulless barley-based

407
diet, but did so in a repeated attempt three years later
(Newman et al., 1983). In contrast, consistent'improvements
in both rate and efficiency of gain due to enzyme supple-
mentation ofchicken diets based onbothryeandbarley have
been repeatedly reported (Antoniou &Marquardt 1981;Rotter
et al., 1989). In the current trials with weanling pigs,
enzyme supplementation oftherye-based dietdidnotimprove
animal performance, whereas weight gain was significantly
improved onthehullessbarley-baseddiet.

Table3.Effectofenzyme supplementationofarye-based diet

onstarchandnitrogen digestibility,andsomedigestapara-
metersinyoungpigs (treatment means).
Treatment
Sect 1 Sect 2 Sect 3 Sect 4 Colon Rectum

Control 6.71 32.5 59.8 81.9 94.9 96.5

Enzyme -2.40 29.9 66.0 84.1 95.5 97.1

p values 0.521 0.652 0.967 0.714 0.516 0.922

Control -59. -27.0 27.6 63.4 73.2 75.8

Enzyme -103. -33.0 -4.7 57.7 75.9 64.6

p values 0.166 0.238 0.605 0.484 0.262 0.270

-Viscosity
Control 3.75 4.46 4.38 6.01 4.76 5.28
Enzyme 5.07 4.60 6.03 6.89 4.71 4.85

•pvalues 0.015 0.874 0.018 0.237 0.894 0.431

—pH
Control 6.04 6.13 6.28 6.61 6.64
6.51
Enzyme 6.28 6.35 6.00 6.43 6.64
6.57
p values 0.280 0.562 0.042 0.695 0.089 0.926

-Dry Matte
Control 10.31 10.01 10.35 10.19 23.48 24.41
Enzyme 7.75 9.67 8.88 10.21 25.04 26.51

p values 0.024 0.776 0.278 0.992 0.344 0.102

Pentosanase supplementation significantly increased digesta

viscosity in segments 1and3,which correlated with reduced
protein digestibility, suggesting that digestion may be
limited by diffusion. Pettersson and Aman (1989) also
reported anincrease inviscosity ofanextractofarye-

408
Table 4.Effect of enzyme supplementation ofa barley-based
diet onweight gain, feed intake and feed efficiency in
young pigs.

Treatment Weight Feed Feed/

gain, kg intake, kg Gain

Control 5.24 9.05 1.75

Enzyme 6.14 9.57 1.55

p values

treatment 0.045 0.251 0.102

feed intake 0.170 0.433

Table 5. Effect of enzyme supplementation ofa barley-based

diet on starch andnitrogen digestibility, and some digesta
parameters inyoung pigs (treatment means).

Treatment
Sect 1 Sect 2 Sect 3 Sect 4 Colon,Rectum

Starch
Control -42.0 6.1 49.3 73.8 92.8 95.6
Enzyme -48.0 19.3 49.4 71.5 94.8 96.3
p values 0.201 0.279 0.902 0.394 0.303 0.251

Nitrogen
Control -164.0 -83.0 5.97 63.4 61.0 67.0
Enzyme -171.0 -18.0 19.40 42.6 71.3 71.5
p values 0.682 0.291 0.412 0.247 0.038 0.192
Viscosity-
Control 2.89 3.21 3.08 3.17
Enzyme 2.87 2.97 2.76 3.96
p values 0.312 0.448 0.212 0.375

pH
Control 5.86 5.87 6.20 6.19 6.46
Enzyme 5.76 5.87 6.20 6.19 6.34
p values 0.529 0.988 0.995 0.975 0.331

Dry Matter
Control 12.54 13.11 12.14 12.10 24.54 25.24
Enzyme 11.74 13.23 12.57 12.60 25.62 25.29
p values 0.554 0.920 0.735 0.653 0.375 0.975

based diet when incubated with a high level of pentosanase

and concluded this was due to enzyme-mediated release of
insoluble pentosans into solution. This may explain the
observations made inthis trial.

409
 Protein digestibility was significantly improved in the
colon and further analysis of sections'2-4 as a whole
revealed a significant (p<0.05) improvement due to the ß-
glucanase supplementation of the barley-based diet. Improved
nitrogen digestibility has been observed with /3-glucanase
supplementation of barley-based diets in 19-25kg (Graham et
al., 1988b) and 40 kg pigs (Thacker et al., 1988) when
measured at the terminal ileum. In rye-fed pigs, numerically
decreased protein digestibility correlated with increased
viscosity in sections 1 and 3 (p=0.028 and 0.025),
indicating that viscosity may influence protein digestion in
young pigs fed diets with high rye (pentosan) content.
Similarobservationswerenotmade inthebarley fedpigs.
Starch digestibility was unaffected by the changes in
digesta characteristics of both diet typesdue to the enzyme
treatments. This is in variance with previous reports using
ileum cannulated pigs (Graham et al., 1988b, 1989) and
observationsmade inchickens (Hesselman, 1983).
In summary, pentosanase supplementation of the rye-based
diet did not seem to provide any benefit, whereas a
significant improvement in weight gain was brought about by
/3-glucanasesupplementation ofthebarley-baseddiet.
References
Aumaitre,A. &Corring,T. 1978.Nutr.Metab.22:244-255.
Antoniou,T &Marquardt,R.R. 1981.Poult.Sei.60:1898-1904.
Fengler, A.I. & Marquardt, R.R. 1988. Cereal Chem. 65:298-
302.
Graham,H.,Hesselman,K.,Jonsson,E.&Aman,P. 1986.Nutr.
Rep. Int.43:1089-1096.
Graham, H., Aman, P. and Löwgren,W. 1988a. 4th Int.Seminar
on Digestive Physiology in the Pig, Jablonna, Poland.
Proceedingspp.371-376.
Graham, H., Löwgren, W., Pettersson, D & Aman, P. 1988b.
Nutr.Rep.Int.38:1073-1079.
r
Graham,H., Fadel,J.G., Newman,C.W.&Newman,R.K. 1989.J.
Anim. Sei.67:1293-1298.
Hesselman, K. 1983. PhD dissertation. Swedish University of
Agricultural Sciences,Uppsala,Sweden.
Lindemann, M.D., Cornelius, S.G., El-Kandelgey, S.M., Moser,
R.L. &Pettigrew,J.E. 1986.J.Anim. Sei.62:1298-1307.
Newman,C.W., Eslick,R.F.,Pepper,J.W. andEl-Negoumy,A.M.
1980.Nutr.Rep.Int.22,833-836.
Newman, C.W., Eslick, R.F. and El-Negoumy, A.M. 1983.Nutr.
Rep. Int.28,139-146.
Owsley, W.F., Orr, D.E., Jr & Tribble, L.F. 1986. J. Anim.
Sei.63:497-504.
Pettersson, D & Aman, P. 1988. Anim. Feed Sei. Technol.
20:313-324.
Pettersson,D&Aman, P. 1989.Br.J. Nutr.62:139-149.
Rotter,B.A., Marquardt,R.R. &Guenter,W.,Biliaderis,C.&
Newman,C.W. 1989.Can.J.Anim.Sei.69:431-439.
Säterby, B. 1985.Report. Swedish University of Agricultural
Sciences,Poultry Division,Uppsala,Sweden.
Thacker, P.A., Campbell, G.L. & GrootWassink, J.W.D. 1988.
Nutr.Rep.Int.38:91-99.

410
DIGESTION AND UTILIZATION OF D-XYLOSE IN PIGS AS
AFFECTED BY AGE, FREQUENCY OF FEEDING AND
DIETARY LEVEL
J.B. Schutte,G.M. Beelen,G.B. DerksenandJ.Wiebenga.
TNO-InstituteofAnimal NutritionandPhysiology (ILOB)
P.O.Box15,6700AAWageningen,The Netherlands.

Abstract
The pentose sugar D-xyloseisone of the most abundant components
which will result from inacomplete chemicalorenzymatic hydrolysisof
nonstarch polysaccharides of feed ingredients of vegetable origin.
Because of the uncertainties aboutthenutritional valueofD-xylose,
two trialswith pigswere conductedtoinvestigatetheurinary excretion
of xylose in relation to the ageofpigs,frequencyoffeedingand
dietary inclusion levelofD-xylose. Moreovertheeffectofinclusionof
D-xylose inpigdietsonNandenergy utilization was examined.
Urinary excretionofxylosewasnotsignificantly affectedbyage and
frequency offeeding.Theextentofurinary excretionofxylosein%of
intake increased linearly(P<0.05)asthedietary levelofthis sugar
was increased. Inpigsfedonadiet containing25gD-xylose/kg about
20%oftheD-xylose consumed appeared intheurine.This level'increased
to about 43%when pigswerefedadiet containing100gD-xylose/kg.
RetentionofNwas slightly decreasedwhen pigswerefed100g
D-xylose/kg diet.Urinary excretionofenergy bearing components tended
to increaseinpigsfedonD-xylose diets.Liverandkidney weight, pH
of urine and blood composition were not significantly affectedby
inclusion D-xylose inthe diets.

Introduction
Nonstarch polysaccharides (NSP)can form a major fraction ofthe
carbohydrate content of practical dietsforpigs. TheseNSPincludea
mixtureofsubstances such as cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin and
oligosaccharides which contain hexose and pentose sugarsanduronic
acids.Itiswell known thatNSPareresistanttothedigestive enzymes
of saliva,stomachandsmall intestineofpigs.Asaresult they passto
the hind gutwhere microbial degradation takes place.The end products
of a microbial degradationofNSP(lactic acid,volatile fatty acids)
arereadily absorbedandcanbeutilizedbythepigasanenergy source,
but with a lower efficiency than e.g. glucose (Agricultural Research
Council, 1981;Justetal.. 1983;VanEs, 1987).
In a literature review, Chesson (1987) concluded that the
digestibilityoffeed ingredients containing high levelsofNSP canbe
improved by treatment with enzymes which can hydrolysetheNSPto
monosaccharides.Thiswas confirmed inarecently performed studyatour
institute (Schutte etal..1990).Ourstudy showed thatinadditionto
an improvementofthedigestibilityofcellwall components, digestion
of proteinandfatwas also improved inpigswhen wheat branwas treated
withacellulolytic enzymepreparation. However, it remains an open
question as to what extent pentose sugars anduronic acidscanbe
utilized inpigs. NexttoD-glucosethe pentose sugar D-xylose isoneof
the most important componentstobereleased inanenzymatic hydrolysis
ofNSP(Carre&Brillouet, 1986;Brillouetetal.. 1988). It is well
recognized that D-xylose isreadily absorbed from the intestinal tract

411
of monogastric animals (Cori,1925;M il1er& Lewis, 1932;Arnal-Peyrot &
Adrian, 1974; Schutte et al., 1991a 1991b). These studies also showed
that part of the digested D-xylose is excreted inthe urine.The extent
of urinary xylose output may be affected by several factors like
intestinal bacterial growth, stateof health, age and dietary level
(Hindmarsh,1976).
In the two trials reported herein the influence of frequency of
feeding, age and dietary D-xylose 1 evel on urinary excretion of xylose
was investigated inpigs. Inaddition i,inthese trials the effect of
D-xylose on nitrogen and energyutili zation was examined.

Materialsand Methods
Animals and diets
Two separate trialswere conducted with growing castrated male pigs
(Dutch Landrace xDutch Yorkshire). Inboth trials thepigswere indi-
vidually housed inmetabolism cages under a12h light -12 h twilight
cycle throughout. The nutritionally complete basal diet used was based
on maize,wheat starch and isolated soya protein.The composition of the
basal diet and its chemical characteristics are shown inTable 1.
Table 1.Composition of the basal diet.
Ingredient g/kg
Maize meal 287
Wheat starch 287
Soyabean oil 40
Animal fat 40
Soy isolate (880g protein/kg) 223.3
Cellulose ("Arbocel B800") 60
Monocalcium phosphate 24
Limestone 10
Potassium bicarbonate 15
Iodized salt 10
Mineral/vitamin mix * 5
DL-methiom'ne 0.7
Contents (g/kg) Expt 1 Expt2
Drymatter ** 886 891
Gross energy (MJ/kg) ** 17.6 17.8
Crude protein ** 216 223
Calcium *** 8.4 8.4
Phosphorus *** 7.0 7.0
Lysine *** 12.6 12.6
Methionine +cystine *** 6.8 6.8
Threonine *** 8.3 8.3
Tryptophan *** 2.6 2.6
Provided (mg/kg diet): magnesium, 400; zinc, 110; copper, 25
manganese, 45; iron, 80; cobalt, 0.5; selenium 0.1; thiamin, 2
riboflavin, 5;nicotinamide, 30;pantothenic acid, 12;pyridoxine,
cyanocobalamin, 0,04; biotin, 0.1; folic acid, 1;menadione,
ascorbic acid, 50;retinol,3.1; cholecalciferol,0.045; vitamin
40; choline chloride,1000.
** Analysed *** Calculated
412
 The test sugars (D-glucose and D-xylose), supplied as anhydrous
monosaccharides,were substituted byweightforwheat starch.
In both trials the experimental dietswere fed at adaily rateof
approximately 0.9 MJmetabolizableenergy (ME)/kgmetabolic bodyweight,
assuming that D-xylose hasthe sameME content asD-glucose.The daily
amount of feedwas adjusted weekly according to body weight. The feed
was mixed with water (1partfeed + 1partwater). Inaddition,water
wasfreely available.

Experirnen.ta1_projtocpj..
Experiment 1.The objectives of this trial were to determine the
effect of D-xylose at adietary inclusion level of 100g/kg on faecal
digestibilityof nitrogen (N)and grossenergy (GE),retention of N,and
urinary excretion of xylose, N and energy in relation to feeding
frequency. The feeding frequencies applied were 2 and 4 times/d,
respectively. The daily amount offeed was offered at two,respectively,
four equal meals at intervals of 12and 6h,respectively.
The trial involved 12pigswith amean age of8weeks atthe startof
thetrial.The pigswere accustomed to cages and basal diet (Table 1)
for 25days before starting theexperimental period.At the start of the
experimental period three groupsoffour pigs, each of similar average
bodyweight,were formed and fed diets containing either D-glucose or
D-xylose. As is illustrated in Table 2, the experimental period
consisted of two phases. During both phases the D-glucose diet
(treatment 1)was fed four times/d,whereas thefrequency of feeding of
pigs fed the D-xylose diets (treatments 2and 3)was changed inphase
two. Each of the two phases consisted of a4d adaptation and a 5 d
collection period.
At the start of the experimental period,the pigs weighed 25.2 (SD
1.1) kg and attheend 34.6 (SD1.2)kg.
Table 2.Design of experiment 1.

Treatment n Sugar* Frequency of feeding

Phase 1 Phase 2

D-glucose 4 times/d 4 times/d

D-xylose 2 times/d 4 times/d
D-xylose 4 times/d 2 times/d
* Included inthe diet ata level of 100 g/kg.

Experiment 2. Inthis trial the effect ofgraded dietary levels (25to

100 g/kg) of D-xylose on N digestibility, Nretention,and urinary
excretion ofxylose and N in relation to the age of the pigs was
examined. Moreover, specific density and pHof urine, liver and kidney
weight, and blood composition were examined.
This trial involved 16pigs:8young pigswith an age of 7weeks and 8
older pigswith an ageof 15weeks at the start of the trial. The pigs
were accustomed to cages and basal diet (Table 1)for 14days before
starting theexperimental period. At the start of the experimental
period two treatment groups each involving 4young and 4older pigswere
formed and fed diets containing either D-glucose or D-xylose. As is

413
illustrated in Table 3, the experimental period consisted of four
phases, during which time the pigsof the two treatment groupswere fed
consecutively on adiet containing 25,50,75and 100gD-glucose or D-
xylose/kg.The daily amount offeed was offered attwoequal meals at
intervals of 12h. Each of thefour phases consisted of a3d adaptation
and a4 dcollection period. At the start of the experimental period the
young and older pigsweighed on average 17.0 (SD 1.3) and 55.3 (SD 5.6)
kg, respectively. At theend of this period the pigs weighed 27.9 (SD
1.8) and 74.8 (SD8.0) kg, respectively.

Table 3.Design of experiment 2.

Treatment n Sugar Dietary sugar level (g/kg)
phase 1 phase 2 phase 3 phase 4

1 8 D-glucose 25 50 75 100
2 8 D-xylose 25 50 75 100

Faeces and urine collection

Faeces were collected directly intoabag fitted around the anus, and
the urinewas collected using afunnel fitted under the cage. Total
collection of faeces and urinewas carried out during each five (Expt 1)
and four (Expt 2)24 hcollection periods from the individual animals at
intervals of 12h.Thefaeceswere stored at -20 °C.All faeces produced
during each collection period were pooled for each pig separately,
homogenized and sampled. Next the sampleswere freeze-dried. Urinewas
collected incontainers provided with merthiolate sodium (Thimerosal,
BDH Chemicals Ltd, Poole,England)at intervals of approximately 4 h.
The portion from each interval was pooled daily from individual animals.
A representative sample of 10%of thepooled urinewas taken and frozen
at*'-20 °C.Thefive (Expt 1)and four (Expt 2)day sub-samples of urine
were pooled for each animal separately, homogenized and sampled. Faeces
and urinewere kept at -20 °Cbetween sampling and before analysis.

Analytical methods
Samples of feed and freeze-dried faecesweremilled to pass through a
1.0 mm screen (Retsch mill ZMI, Retsch BV,Ochten,The Netherlands)
before analysis.All analyses were carried out induplicate. Dry matter
was determined by drying the samples toconstantweight at 101 °C.
Inorganic matter and nitrogen were determined by standard methods
(Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 1975). Gross energywas
determined using an IKA-C4000 adiabatic bomb calorimeter.
Concentrations of glucose and xylose inurinewere determined according
the procedure described by Schutte et al. (1991a).
Statisticalanaly_sjs
The results of both trials were analysed by means of analysis of
variance (Cochran & Cox, 1957). The computer program Genstat 5
(Reference Manual, 1987,Oxford University Press, NewYork)was used to
calculate the analysis of variance. Although the treatments were
confounded by time and age, itwas assumed that differences are due to

414
the test sugars or increase indietary sugar. InExpt 1the treatment
factorswere type of sugar, frequency of feeding and phase. The
differences in results achieved on the D-xylose diets inthe first and
second phase at an equal feeding frequency were small and statistically
not significant.Therefore,the results of phase 1and 2of pigs fed the
D-xylose diet two times/d and those obtained at feeding this diet 4
times/d were combined in the statistical analysis. In Expt 2the
treatment factors were type of sugar,dietary level of sugar and age.In
this experiment the sum of squares for levelswas partitioned into a set
of orthogonal linear and quadratic polynomial regression components.
Resultsand Discussion
Table 4,which incorporates values of a previous study (Schutte et
al.. 1991a), indicates that D-xylose was digested almost completely at
the terminal ileum. Thiswould suggest an almost complete absorption of
this pentose sugar as such.However,administration of D-xylose to pigs
was associated with an increased ileal flow of VFA and a decreased ileal
chyme pH. Both symptoms point to amore extensive microbial activity in
the small intestine.This is further supported by the decrease in
apparent ileal digestibility of N inpigs fed on the D-xylose diets.
From the results of this study iswas concluded that at leasf part of
the ingested D-xylose has been consumed bythe intestinal microbes.
This conclusion issupported by data of Schiffer et al. (1962), Cooke et
al. (1963)and Goldstein et al. (1970)who reported an increased urinary
xylose excretion after antibiotics inman with small intestinal diverti-
culosis. The extent ofmicrobial degradation of D-xylose inour study
with pigs cannot be derived simply from the differences in ileal flowof
VFA between the D-glucose and D-xylose treatments,because some of the
VFAwill be absorbed already inthe small intestine.Wyngaarden et aj..
(1957)reported that approximately 15%of an intravenously infused dose
Table 4.Apparent ileal digestibility data of pigs fed on D-glucose and
D-xylose diets *.

Sugar D-glucose D-xyllose

Dietary level (g/kg) 200 100 200
Digestibilities
0M 87.6* 87.2 a 84.7u
GE 87.6 a 87.5? 84.5?
N 90.3 a 89.l a 87.2 D
D-glucose 99.3
D-xylose 98.7 a 98.6 a
Ileal chyme pH 6.5a 6.2 b 6.0C
Ileal flow of VFA (mg/12h) 1106 a 2062 b 4888 C

* Data from Schutte et al. (1991 a).

a
' 'cWithinarow,mean valueswith different superscript letters were
significantly different (P< 0.05).

415
of D-xylose can berecovered ascarbondioxide intheexpired air. In a
previous study (Schutte etal..1991a)itwasfound that"atadietary
inclusion level of 100g/kg,about45% of the ingested D-xylose was
excreted in the urineof pigs.Assuming that15%ofthedosehasbeen
metabolized tocarbon dioxide (Wyngaarden et al. (1957), the remaining
40% not accounted for may have been fermented by the intestinal
microbes.
One of the main objectives of the present experiments was to
investigatewhetheror noturinaryexcretion ofxylose is affected by
feeding frequency,ageand dietary inclusion level ofthis pentose sugar
inpigs.

Table5.Expt 1. InfluenceoffeedingfrequencyofD-xylose dietsonN

and energy utilization,and urinaryexcretion ofxylose.
Sugar(100g/kg diet) D-glucose D-xylose SED
Frequencyoffeeding 4 times/d 4 times/d 2times/d 1~2 2~3
(1) (2) (3) 1~3

DM intake (g/pig/d) 754 a 751 a 764 a 9.9 4.1

Faecal digestibility (%)
N 92.5? 92.9a 93.0 a 0.5 0.4
Grossenergy 90.3 a 90.5 a ND 0.6
Urinaryexcretion
(% of intake)
Glucose + + +
Xylose + 41.0 a 39.9a 1.8
N 32.2 a 35.9? 37.4 a 2.4 2.3
Energy 2.3a 7.2b ND 0.6
ß retained (% of intake) 60.4 a 57.0 a 55.6a 2.3 2.2
ME (MJ/kg DM)
Diets* 16.7a 15.9b ND 0.1
D-glucose ** 15.2 -
D-xylose *** 7.8 ND

SED=standard errorof differenceofmeans

ND =notdetermined
+ Small tracesofglucose (0.1-0.3g/L)andxylose (0.01-0.2g/L)were
found intheurineoftheseexperimental treatments.
* Corrected tozeroNbalancebyusing thefactor 31.4kJ/gretained N.
** Calculated as98%ofGEvalue.
*** Derived from thedifferences inMEvaluebetween theD-glucose and
. D-xylosediets.
' Within arow,mean valueswith different superscript letterswere
significantly different (P<0,05).

416
 The resultsof Expt 1 (Table5)showthat urinary excretion of xylose
was not clearly affected bythefrequency of feeding diets containing
this pentose sugar. The dietary inclusion level of D-xylose,however,
did appear toeffect theurinary excretion ofxylose (Expt2,Table 6 ) .
In bothyoung and olderpigsapositive correlation between the dietary
level and theurinary excretion ofxylosewas found. This correlation
was more pronounced in the young than intheolder pigs. Taking the
resultsof both ages together it appeared that urinary excretion of
xylose in %of intakewas linearly (P<0.01) increased when the dietary
level ofthis sugarwas increased. Similar results were found in a
previous trial with ileostomised adult cocks (Schutte etal..1991b).
Wagh &Waibel (1966)reported that theME valueof D-xylose in chicks
was decreased when the dietary levelwas increased.This observation
suggests also adosage-dependent urinaryexcretion of D-xylose. In the
present study no VFA measurements inthe ileal chymewere performed.
Thus itcannotbe simply stated that the observed dosage-dependent
urinary excretion of xylose is exclusively due to differences in
microbial degradation ofthis sugaratthedifferentdietary levels. In
addition the low renal threshold for this sugar as suggested byLoos
(1954)may haveaffected our resultsfor urinaryexcretion.
Fowler & Cooke (1960), Finlay et al. (1964)andHindmarsh (1976)
reported that urinary xyloseoutput inman declineswith age.Jhe reason
for this isunknown,but ithasbeen postulated thatrenal function,and
consequently xylose excretion, is affected by the ageing process
(Kendall, 1970).In our study an age dependent urinary excretion of
xylosewas not clearly demonstrated (Table6 ) .
Table 6. Expt 2.Urinary excretion ofxylose andenergy inyoung (A)and
older (B)pigsfed onD-glucose (Glue)and D-xylose(Xyl)diets.
Sugar Dietary DMi ntake Xyloseexcreted Energy excreted
level (g/pig/d) inurine inurine
(g/kg) (% of intake) (% of intake)
A B A B A B

Glue 25 524 1142 + + 2.76 3.61

50 569 1220 + + 2.92 3.36
75 621 1291 + + 2.75 3.41
100 678 1362 + + 2.96 3.34
Xyl 25 540 1100 18.4 22.6 3.87 4.34
50 604 1254 29.2 34.1 5.04 5.96
75 666 1326 36.6 41.3 5.51 7.60
100 723 1435 43.2 42.5 8.18 9.19
Analysis of variance (exc lusiveDMi ntake)
Source of variation Probabili ty
between animal stratum
Age 0.41 0 01
Sugar - 0 01
Agex sugar - 0 14
Residual MS 110.5 0.46
+ Small traces (0.01-0.1 g/1)of xylosewerefound intheurine of these
experimental treatments.

417
Table 7.Expt 2.Apparent faecal digestibilityof N, urinary excretion
of N and N retained in young (A) andolder (B)pigsfed
onD-glucose (Glue)andD-xylose (Xyl)diets.
Sugar Dietary Ndigestibility Nexcreted N retained
level (%) inurine (%of intake)
(g/kg) (% of intake)
A B A B A B

Glue 50 92.8 93.9 38.1 51.5 54.7 42.4

100 93.2 94.3 40.4 53.7 52.8 40.7
Xyl 50 93.0 94.3 38.5 51.4 54.5 42.9
100 93.1 94.4 41.6 55.9 51.5 38.5
Analysis of variance
Probability
Sourceof variation
between animal stratum
Age 0.01 0.01 0.01
Sugar 0.65 0.60 0.65
Agex sugar 0.73 0.95 0.99
Residual MS 1.08 22.81 23.0

Table8.Expt 2.Specific density and pHofurine,and liverand kidney

weight (in % of bodyweight) inyoung (A)and older (B)pigs
fed on D-glucose (Glue)and D-xylose (Xyl)diets.
Sugar Urine values* Organ weights
Spec,density pH Liver Kidney
A B A A B A B

Glue 1.006 1.023 7.1 6.7 1.8 1.5 0.372 0.282

Xyl 1.014 1.026 7.0 6.6 1.9 1.6 0.352 0.301
Analysis of variance
Sourceof variation
between animal stratum
Age 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Sugar 0.06 0.10 0.34 0.96
Agexsugar 0.34 0.75 0.56 0.22
Residual MS 32.11 0.01 0.02 0.01

* Determined during phase4only;each value represents 16 individual

observations (oneobservation/animal/d).

418
 The losses of xylose intothe urine were reflected in the urinary
excretion of energy (Tables 5and 6), but the differences in urinary
excretion ofenergy between theD-glucoseand D-xylosetreatments could
not be fully explained bythexylose losses.Calculations have pointed
out thatwhen the increases inurinaryexcretion ofenergy of the
D-xylose treatments over theD-glucose treatmentswere attributed to
D-xylose, thiswould represent about 50%of theD-xylose intake in Expt
1 (Table 5 ) .Thus compared tothe lossesof xylose inthe urine (40%),
10%of theenergy excreted inthe urine isnot accounted for. InExpt 2
(Table 6) theextra lossesofenergy into the urine of pigs fed on the
D-xylose dietswould represent about 47 and 52%of the xylose intake in
young and older pigs, respectively. The values found for urinary
excretion of xylose inboth young and older pigswere much lower, being
as a mean 32 and 35%,respectively. It isobvious that other energy
bearing substances than xylose have contributed tothe extra losses of
energy into the urine of pigs fed on the D-xylose diets.This is
supported bythe slight increase inurinary excretion of N when pigs
were fed on diets containing 100gD-xylose/kg (Tables 5and 7 ) .Wise et
al. (1954)reported that Nretention was significantly decreased when
pigs were fed on adiet containing 560 gD-xylose/kg, indicating alsoa
greater urinary excretion of N.These investigators believe that the
observed reduction inNretention inpigsfed on D-xylose dietswas due
to an energy deficiency and consequently greater Ncatabolism. This is
supported by data of Wagh &Waibel (1966)who found that plasma uric
acid was significantly increased when chicks were fed on diets
containing 200and 400gD-xylose/kg. Further they reported that feeding
these diets to birds resulted indecreased liverweights. The data of
Wise et al. (1954)and Wagh &Waibel (1966)are not strictly comparable
with the results of our study since lower levels of D-xylose were
included inour diets.An energy deficiency when occuring inour study,
was not reflected in liverweights (Table8 ) .
Wagh & Waibel (1967) reported that blood hematocrit, cholesterol,
serine and proline inplasmawere increased and plasma glutamic acid was
decreased when birds were fed on diets containing 100to400 g D-xylose
per kg. Inorder to studywhether ornot inclusion of D-xylose in pig
diets will change blood composition, blood sampleswere collected from
pigsof Expt 2.These sampleswere taken after termination of the last
phase (phase 4)and involved thefollowing determinations; leucocytes,
hemoglobin (Hb),erythrocytes, hematocrit,mean corpuscular value, mean
corpuscular Hb concentration, glucose, bilirubin, bilirubinester,
cholesterol,triglycerides,albumine and total protein.The differences
in these blood parameters between pigsfed on the D-glucose diets and
those fed on the D-xylose were small and not significant. Further it is
noteworthy that histo-pathological examination of the liver and kidneys
did not show abnormalities inpigs fed on either D-glucose or D-xylose
diets (Expt 2 ) . Specific density of urine appeared to be slightly
increased (Table8)when pigswere fed on diets containing D-xylose;
this will be theresult of the increased urinary excretion of energy on
this diet.No effect of D-xylose on thepH valueof urine was observed
(Table8 ) .
In conclusion itcan be stated that theenergy value of D-xylose is
much lower than that of D-glucose. From the results of Expt 1 itwas
calculated that at adietary level of 100g/kg, D-xylose has aME value
ofonly 7.8 MJ/kg, which value isapproximately 50%of that of
D-glucose. Considering thedatafor urinary excretion of xylose, it may

419
be expected that at lower dietary inclusion levels than 100g/kg theME
value of this pentose sugarwill increase.The net utilization of
D-xylose in pigs is difficult toaccess from the present study.This
because of the unknown metabolic pathwayof this sugar.The results ofa
previous study (Schutte et al.,1991a) indicated that at least partof
thexylose isfermented inthe small intestine. Itmayeven be possible
that all xylose has to befermented before itcan beused as an energy
source for pigs.
Further studies are inpreparation toclarify themetabolism of this
sugar in pigs.
References
Agricultural Research Council, 1981.The Nutrient requirements of pigs.
Slough:Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux. ~
Arnal-Peyrot,F. & Adrian, J., 1974.Métabolisme des pentosanes de
céréale chez lerat. (metabolism of cereal pentosans inrat).Int.
J. Vit.Nutr.Res.44:543-552.
Association of Official Analytical Chemists 1975.Official Methods of
Analysis, 12th ed. Association of Official Analytical Chemists,
Washington,DC.
Brillouet, J.M., Rouau,X., Hoebler, C , Barry, J.L., Carre, B. &
Lorta, E., 1988. A newmethod for determination of insoluble cell
walls and soluble non-starchy polysaccharides from plant material.
J. Agr. Food Chem. 36:969-979.
Carre, B.& Brillouet, J.M., 1986.Yield and composition of cell wall
residues isolated from various feedstuffs used for non-ruminant
farm animals.J. Sei. FoodAgri.37:341-351.
Chesson, A., 1987.Supplementary enzymes to improvethe utilization of
f pig and poultry diets. Recent Advances in Animal Nutrition.
Butterworth, Londen,pp 71-90.
Cochran,W.G.&Cox G.M., 1957.Experimental designs,2nd ed. John Wiley
and Sons, Inc.NewYork.
Cooke,W.T.,Cox,E.V. & Föne,D.J., 1963.The clinical and metabolic
significance of jejunal diverticula.Gut.4:115-131.
Cori, F., 1925.The fateof sugar inthe animal body. 1.The rateof
absorption of hexoses and pentoses from the intestinal tract.
J. Biol.Chem. 66:691-715.
Finlay, J.M., Hogarth, J. &Wightman,K.J.R.,1964.A clinical evalu-
ation of the D-xylose tolerance test.Ann. Intern.Med. 61:411-422.
Fowler, D. & Cooke, W.T., 1960.Diagnostic significance of D-xylose
excretion test.Gut.1: 67-70.
Goldstein, F., Karacadag, S., Wirts, C.W. &Kowlessar,O.D.,1970.
Intraluminal small intestinal utilization of D-xylose by bacteria.
Gastroenterology. 59:380-386.

420
Hindmarsh,J.T., 1976.Xylose absorption and itsclinical significance.
Clin. Biochem. 9:141-143.
Just,A.,Fernandez,J.A.&Jorgensen,H., 1983.The net energy value
of diets for growth in pigs in relation to the fermentative
processes inthe digestivetract and the siteof absorption of the
nutrients. Livestock Prod. Sei. 10:171-186.
Kendall,M.J., 1970.The influence ofageonthexylose absorption test.
Gut. 11:498-501.
Loos,M., 1954.Studies intheutilization ofpentoses indiabetes.
ActaMed. Scand. 148:425-431.
Miller,M.M.& Lewis,H.B., 1932. Pentose metabolism.1. The rate of
absorption ofD-xyloseand theformation of glycogen intheorganism
of thewhite rat afteroral administration of D- xylose. J. Biol.
Chem.98:133-140.
Schiffer, L.M., Faloon, W.W. & Chodos, R.B., 1962. Malabsorption
syndrome associated with intestinal diverticulosis.
Gastroenterology. 42:63-68. ,
Schutte, J.B., Kempen, G.J.M. van, & Hamer, R.J., 1990.
Possibilities to improvetheutilization offeed ingredientsrich in
non-starch polysaccharides forpoultry. Proc.Vlll European Poultry
Conference,Barcelona, pp128-135.
Schutte, J.B., Jong, J.de, Polziehn, R. &Verstegen,M.W.A.,1991a.
Nutritional implications of D-xylose in pigs. Br. J. Nutr. (in
press)
Schutte, J.B., Leeuwen, P. van & Lichtendonk, W.J., 1991b. Ileal
digestibility and urinary excretion of D-xylose and L-arabinose in
ileostomised adult roosters.Poultry Sei. (in press)
Van Es, A.J.H., 1987. Energy utilization of low digestibility
carbohydrates.Proc.LowDigestibilityCarbohydrates,Pudoc
Press,Wageningen,pp121-127.
Wagh, P.V. & Waibel, P.E., 1966. Metabolizability and nutritional
implications of L-arabinose and D-xylose for chicks.J. Nutr.90:
207-211.
Wagh,P.V. &Waibel,P.E., 1967.Metabolism ofL-arabinose and D-xylose
by chicks.J. Nutr.92:491-496.
Wise, M.B. Barrick, E.R., Wise,G.H. &Osborne,J.C., 1954.Effectsof
substituting xylosefor glucose inapurified diet forpigs.
J. Amin. Sei. 13:365-374.
Wyngaarden, J.B., Segal, S. & Foley, J.B., 1957. Physiological
disposition and metabolic fateof infused pentoses inman.J.Clin.
Invest. 36:1395-1407.

421
EFFECTS OF CARBOHYDRATE SOURCES AND ORGANIC
ACIDS ON INTESTINAL MICROFLORA AND PERFORMANCE
OF THE WEANLING PIG1
A. L.Sutton,A.G.Mathew,A.B.Scheidt,J.A.Patterson,andD.T.Kelly

Department ofAnimalSciencesandDepartmentofVeterinaryClinicalSciences,
PurdueUniversity,WestLafayette,Indiana,USA47907

Abstract
Twofour week feeding experiments were conducted to determine the effects of carbohydrate
sourcesandorganicacidson E.. coliandLactobacillus populations and fermentation patternsin
theGItractof theweanling pig. InExperiment 1,48weanlingpigswererandomlyassigned to6
diets,which included a basal (22% CP) corn-soy control with 10%whey (C),diets with 20%
whey(W), 15%corn bran (B),.25%Luprosil-NC®(L),.3% sodium propionate (SP),and .3%
sodium fumarate (SF). In Experiment II, 24 weanling pigs were assigned to 4 diets which
included the corn-soy based control (C),dietswith 15%wheat midds (WM),5%soyflour (S)
and 1% fumaric acid (F). At the end of the trial, stomach, small intestine, cecal and colon
digesta were sampled and E. coli. Lactobacillus, and volatile fatty acid concentrations are
reported.

E. çoH concentrations in the cecum and colon of pigs fed Luprosil-NC and control were
lower compared to other treatments. Sodium fumarate fed pigs had increased (P<.01) E. coli
concentrations in the duodenum with the same trend in the cecum and colon. Lactobacillus
concentrations in the duodenum, cecum and proximal colon increased (P<.03) with whey and
decreased with sodium fumarate. Incidences of diarrhea were higher with pigs fed the control,
whey and sodium fumarate diets. The pigs fed the control and wheat midds diets had higher
(P<.05) populations of E.coli in the stomach than those fed fumaric acid and soyflour. The
pigs fed the soy flour also had lower (P<.05) concentrations of Lactobacillus in stomach
contents.

Introduction
v Digestive and enteric disorders, such as colibacillosis and diarrhea, significantly reduce pig
gains and often cause mortality, especially during the stressful time of weaning. The lag phase
which often accompanies such disorders causes swineproducers unneeded feed and fuel costs,
tiesupfacilities andinterruptstheflowofproduction.

Antibiotic administration on thesubclinical level hasbeen utilized to minimize the potential

for colibacillosis and therapeutic levels are sometimes used to correct an outbreak. However,
there is concern about repeated use of drugs in production units. In addition to cost, other
concerns include the development of resistance to the drug by the bacteria, and unintentional
contamination of other feeds withdrugs requiringlongwithdrawal periods.In the future, other
methods may need to be developed to decrease undesirable enteric bacteria in the
gastrointestinaltractofyoungpigs. Thismayincludethemanipulationofthediettoproducean
environmentwhichislessfavorable tothosebacteriacapableofcausingdigestivedisorders.

Research supported in part by grants from the Indiana Pork Producers Association and
National Pork Producers Council. Luprosil-NC is a registered product of the BASF Corp.,
Parsippany,NJ 07054.

422
 Establishing large populations of Lactobacilli in the gastrointestinal tract can mediate the
adverse effects of R coli induced diarrhea and other intestinal disorders (Muralidhara, et al.
1977; Nekrep, et al., 1976). Pollman et al., (1980) showed that the addition of lactose with
Lactobacillus acidophilus greatlyenhanced colonization of L.acidophilus in the intestinal tract
andimproved weight gains (11%) and feed conversion (1.5%) inyoungpigs. Useofwheyasa
lactosesource improved energy utilization (Février, 1978)and increased lactase activity in the
cecum and colon of pigs and increased volatile fatty acid (VFA) production in the intestine
(Kim,et al., 1978). They proposed that increased VFA production contributed significantly to
theenergysupplyofthepig. Othershavesuggested thatVFAand pHhaveantibacterial effects
onE.çoHandT.hvodvsenteriae.

Addition of organic acids and certain carbohydrate sources have been proposed to alter pH
and VFA's of the GI contents in the pig. The objective of this research was to evaluate
microflora andfermentation patterns intheweanlingpigwithdifferent dietarycomponents.

Materials and Methods

Two trials with 4week old weanling pigswere conducted. In the first trial, 48 pigs, initially
weighing 8.3 kg., were randomly assigned to 6 experimental diets with 8 pigs per dietary
treatment. All experimental dietswerecorn-soy basedwith 22%crude protein and 1.0% lysine
butwithdifferent carbohydrateororganicacidsources.Inaddition tothebasalcorn-soycontrol
(C)with 10%whey,dietswith20%whey(W),15%corn bran (B),.25%Luprosil-NC®(L), .3%
of sodium propionate (SP) and .3% sodium fumarate (SF) were compared. The control diet
contained .125%.tylan-sulfawhereas,theother dietsdidnotcontain anyantibiotic. Atweaning,
thepigswereplaced in individual pensfor the4week nurseryfeeding trial. Subsequently, the
pigswere euthanatized and stomach, duodenal, cecal and colon (proximal and distal) contents
wereobtained. Gastrointestinal contents wereassayed for Lactobacilli and E. coli,volatile fatty
acids,pH,drymatterandammoniumnitrogen. MicrobialandVFAdataarepresentedhere.

Inasecond trial,24weanlingpigsaveraging9.1 kg.wererandomlyassigned to4 experimental

diets with 6 pigs per dietary treatment. All diets were corn-soy based as indicated in the first
studyexcept therewasnoantibioticincluded inthecontrol diet. Inaddition to thecontrol (C),
dietswith 15%wheat midds(WM),5%soy flour [78%crude protein] (S) and 1%fumaric acid
(F)werecompared. Thesameprotocolwasusedinthistrialasindicated inthefirst trial.

Results and Discussion

Experiment 1

Although pigs fed Luprosil-NC ,sodium fumarate and whey tended to gain faster and more
efficiently thantheother treatments,thesedifferences werenot statisticallysignificant at the5%
level.Pigsfed sodium propionateand corn bran showed the poorestgainsthroughout thestudy.
Loweredconsumption appeared toaffect gainsofpigsfed thesodium propionate. Pigs oncorn
brangainedlessduetolessefficient conversionoffeednutrientsintoliveweightgain.

VFAconcentrations inintestinal contentswerenot significantly changed due todiet (Table1)

except for acetatelevels inthe colon. Pigsfed Luprosil-NC® had thelowest concentrationsof
acetatein thecolon andpigsfedadditional driedwheyhadhighest concentrations ofacetatein
the colon contents. Acetate levels in colon contents were intermediate in pigs fed the other
experimental diets. When the individual VFAdata wereexpressed asa percentage of the total
VFAproduction, VFA patterns werenot changed due to diets except in thestomach. Pigs fed
corn bran had a higher proportion (percentage) of acetate accompanied by a shift to a lower
proportion (percentage) of propionate in the total VFA concentrations as compared to the
otherdietarytreatments.

423
 Table1. Effect ofCarbohydrateSourcesonVolatileFattyAcidsConcentrations inPig
IntestinalContents (Exp. 1).

It
Volatile Fatty Acid (raM/L)

Location/Diet A P B T

Stomach

Control 4.68 2.46 2.01 9.30

Corn Bran 11.51 4.80 3.30 22.31
Sodium Fumarate 11.23 10.66 4.46 29.00
Luprosil-NC® 10.23 6.79 4.09 23.42
Sodium Propionate 7.75 6.11 2.11 17.55
Dried Whey 7.67 4.23 2.67 16.50

Duodenum

Control 1.49 .65 .38 3.13

Corn Bran 1.18 .46 .32 2.41
Sodium Fumarate 4.03 2.56 .84 8.50
Luprosil-NC® 1.35 .45 .45 3.04
Sodiium Propionate 1.75 1.24 .36 3.82
Dried Whey 1.34 .44 .31 2.82

Cecum

Control 66.68 49.14 26.56 161.79

Corn Bran 63.98 38.73 24.50 135.08
Sodium Fumarate 82.35 53.81 25.59 171.25
Luprosil-NC® 82.71 41.95 28.86 162.96
Sodium Propionate 67.05 43.77 25.40 146.04
Dried Whey 81.57 51.82 29.76 172.61

Colon

Control 74.06 ab 41.35 22.60 149.54 ab

Corn Bran 67.81 a b 40.01 24.47 142.44 ab
Sodium Fumarate 74.45 a b 43.48 23.97 153.30 ab
Luprosil-NC® 61.28 b 33.99 22.69 128.27b
Sodium Propionate 74.98 a b 41.95 26.41 155.22 ab
Dried Whey 93.84 a 46.45 27.39 178.59a

* A= Acetate,P= Propionate,B= Butyrate,T = Total

Meanswithdifferent superscriptsaresignificantly different (P<.05)

Lactobacillus populations tended to be lower in the large intestine of pigs fed corn bran and
sodium fumarate diets (Table 2). Conversely, these pigs also had the highest population of E.
coli in the cecum and large intestine. Pigs fed whey, Luprosil-NC and sodium propionate
tended to have higher levels of Lactobacillus in the contents of the lower portion of the
intestinalsystem.

424
Table2:Effect ofCarbohydratesonE.ColiandLactobacillus (Exp1).

Location*

Diet S D C PC DC

E.coli,Log jQ/gram

Control 5.619 5.926 6.705 7.079 7.356

Corn Bran 6.033 5.423 6.700 7.160 7.166
Na Fumarate 5.730 6.291 6.961 7.321 7.254
Lurposil-NC® 6.053 6.133 6.589 6.750 6.380
Na Propionate 5.912 5.765 6.756 6.991 6.976
Dried Whey 5.863 5.971 6.792 7.100 6.804

Lactobacillus ,Log 10 /gram

Control 6.739 7.137 8.501 8.893 8.868

Corn Bran 6.830 7.046 8.459 8.678 8.529
Na Fumarate 6.765 6.478 8.250 8.583 8.759
Luprosil-NC® 7.474 6.683 8.499 8.764 8.727
Na Propionate 7.130 6.983 8.778 9.046 9.150
Dried Whey 6.598 7.091 8.784 9.199 9.021

S= Stomach,D=Duodenum, C=Cecum,PC= ProximalColon,DC=Distal Colon

Experiment2

Inthe secondexperiment, pigperformance was notchanged significantly dueto experimental

diets.In thefirst week,the pigsfed the fumaric acid diet tended to gainfaster, whereas,pigsfed
thecontrolshowedthepoorest gainsand efficiency.

Asignificantly higher population ofE.coliin thestomachofpigsfed controlandwheatmidds

wasobservedcompared to thosefed fumaric acidandsoyflour (Table3). Soyflour fed pigsalso
had lower concentrations of Lactobacillus in pig stomach contents. Diets did not affect the
concentration ofmicrobesassayedinthesmallintestineorcecalandcolonsamplesofthepigs.

Volatile fatty acid concentrations weresignificantly different between diets in the duodenum
and cecum (Table 4). The pigs fed fumaric acid had higher levels of acetate in the duodenum
than the pigs fed soy flour and wheat midds. Pigs fed fumaric acid also had higher total VFA
than the pigs fed soyflour. In thececum, thepigs fed the control diet had the lowest levelsof
acetateandpropionate,whilethepigsfedfumaric acidhadthehighestlevelsofVFA's. Thepigs
fed thecontroldietalsohadsignificantly lowertotalVFA'sthantheother threediets.

425
rp

Table3:Effect ofCarbohydrateSourcesonE.ColiandLactobacillus (Exp2)

Location*

Diet S D C PC DC

E. Coli, L o g 1 Q J 'gram

Control 4.460 a 4.887 6.489 6.840 6.737

Wheat midds 4.436 a 5.067 6.512 6.409 6.415
Fumaric acid 3.870 b 5.888 6.535 6.724 6.889
Soy flour 3.748 b 5.360 6.521 6.542 6.707

Lactpbacillus, Log 1 0 /gram

Control 7.703 a 7.534 8.384 8.314 8.255

Wheat midds 7.402 a 7.173 9.061 8.067 7.680
Fumaric acid 7.276 a 7.066 7.978 8.203 8.347
Soy flour 6.6S6b 6.855 7.882 7.735 7.716
S=Stomach,D=Duodenum,C=Cecum,PC=Proximal Colon,DC=Distal Colon
Meanswithdifferent superscripts aresignificantly different (P<.05)

Table4. Effect ofCarbohydrateSourcesonVolatileFatlyAcidConcentrations inPigIntestinal

Contents (Exp.2).

Volatile Fatty Acid (mM/L)*

Location/Diet A P B V T

Stomach
Control 8.42 2.85 1.05 .35 12.93
Soy Flour 11.48 5.36 1.96 .52 19.71
Wheat Midds 7.51 3.88 1.92 .68 14.64
Fumaric Acid 10.52 6.30 2.91 .87 20.99
Duodenum
Control 1.89 ab .58 .17 .03 3.05 a b
Soy Flour .99 b .48 .08 .01 2.13 b
Wheat Midds 1.20b .63 .19 .04 2.76 a b
Fumaric Acid 2.79 a .67 .10 .04 4.20 a
Cecum
Control 52.28 b 36.34 b 26.31 7.69 123.56 b
Soy flour 56.23 b 54.81 a b 29.68 10.26 151.07 3
Wheat Midds 74.36 a 54.54 ab 24.92 6.34 161.67a
Fumaric Acid 68.29 a 60.93 a 27.66 8.06 166.34a
Colon
Control 61.14 39.56 25.03 8.15 135.95
Soy Flour 62.62 44.74 24.71 8.49 143.35
Wheat Midds 73.77 45.02 24.98 6.85 153.09
Fumaric Acid 64.17 42.35 23.18 6.59 139.51
' A = Acetate,P = Propionate,B= Butyrate,V = Valerate,T = Total
Meanswithdifferent superscripts aresignificantly different (P<.05)

426
Conclusions
These studies indicate that carbohydrate sources and specific organic compounds do change
entericbacterial populationsand themicrobial ecologyin different segments oftheyoung pig's
intestinal system. Difference in VFA's in the intestinal system also reflected these changes.
Fibrous types of carbohydrates, such as corn bran and wheat midds, which require more
extensivefermentative pathwaysofdegradation,appeared to leadtohigher concentrations ofE.
coliandlowerconcentrationsofLactobacillusinthelowergastrointestinal tract.

References
Février,C. 1978. Use of driedwheyin pigdiets. Part 1-Interaction with the dietary protein
levelaccordingtogrowthstageandsex. Ann.Zootech.27:195.
Kim,K.I.,N.J.BenevengaandR. H.Grummer. 1978. LactoseactivityandVFAproduction in
thececumandcolonofpigsfedacorn-soyor40%wheydiet. J.Anim.Sei. :1648.
Muralidhara, K.S., G. G. Sheggeby, P. R. Elliker, D. C.England and W.E. San Dine. 1977.
Effect of feeding Lactobacilli on the coliform and Lactobacillus flora of intestinal tissue and
feedfrom piglets. J.FoodProt.40:288.
Nekrep, F.,J. Stekar, F. Zagozen and I. Rotar. 1976. The effect of Lactobacillus acidophilis
supplementation on intestinal microflora in weaned piglets. ZB Biotech Fak Univ Ljublj
Kmetijstvo7-38.
Pollman,D.S.,D.M.Danielson and E.R.Peo,Jr. 1980b. Effect ofLactobacillus acidphilison
starterpigsfedadietsupplementedwithlactose. J.Anim.Sei. 51:638.

427
 BREAKDOWN OF PLANT POLYSACCHARIDES IN THE
GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT OF PIGS
Knud ErikBach Knudsen

National Institute of Animal Science, Animal Physiology and Biochemistry, Foulum,

P.O.Box 39,DK-8830 Tjele, Denmark

Abstract
Present investigation was undertaken to study the quantitative breakdown of wheat
and oat polysaccharides in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract of pigs. Starch from both
cereal grains was almost completely digested (>97%) at the end of the small
intestine (ileum), while the recovery of wheat non-starch polysaccharides at this site
was 90-97 % of intake. The recovery of pat NSP was significantly lower; 64-82 %,
primarily due to a low recovery of mixed linked ß(l->3;l->4)-D-glucans (ß-glucans)
in the small intestine. The general order of breakdown of the various NSP
constituents over the entire GI tract was ß-glucans»arabinoxylans>cellulose.
While only trace levels of ß-glucans survived breakdown irrespective source, the
degree of cell wall lignification played amajor role for the breakdown of cellulose and
arabinoxylans.

Introduction
Plant polysaccharides, starch and non-starch polysaccharides (NSP), are the most
important energy sources when feeding pigs and other single-stomached animals
(Just et al. 1983). It is generally accepted that cereal starches represent a highly
digestible energy source. Most studies have shown that less than 5% of dietary
starch escape digestion in the small intestine of pigs (e.g. Graham et al. 1986a; Bach
Knudsen & Hansen, 1990). In contrast to starch no enzymes are present in the small
intestine which can cleave the bondings in NSP. Studies with pigs have shown that
r more than 80% of NSP are recovered at the terminal ileum, while avariable fraction of
NSP is broken down by the microflora in the large intestine (e.g. Graham et al. 1986a;
Bach Knudsen & Hansen, 1990). The physico-chemical properties of soluble and
insoluble dietary fibres (DF: non-starch polysaccharides + lignin), however, suggest
that they may affect the digestion and absorption processes in the different segments
of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract to a variable degree. Wheat bran for instance has a
high proportion of of insoluble DF (Selvandran, 1984) and behave more or less like a
inert marker in the GI tract. Consequently, wheat bran has little or no effect on
digestion and absorption of nutrients in the small intestine and is highly resistant to
microbial degradation in the large intestine of monogastricts. In contrast to the highly
insoluble wheat bran, soluble DF as in oat bran and oat products derived from oat
endosperm, may increase the viscosity of the luminal content within the GI tract, so
delaying gastric emptying, increasing mouth-to-caecum transit time and reducing the
rate of nutrient absorption from the small intestine (e.g. Jenkins et al. 1978). Like
other soluble DF sources oat fibres are likely to be readily fermented by colonic
microorganisms.
The aim of the present investigation was to study the breakdown of
polysaccharides from wheat and oats in the various segments of the GI tract of pigs.
To a DF depleted wheat flour diet was added DF in the form of either insoluble DF
(wheat bran) or soluble DF (oat bran and oat products).

428
 Materials and Mpthnrk
The experimental diets were prepared from refined wheat flour (WF) (low DF,
control), wheat flour + wheat bran (WFWB), wheat flour + oat bran (WFOB), oat
flour (OF), rolled oats + oat bran (ROOB) and oat bran (OB). The six experimental
diets were tested in two series of experiments. Expr. 1 include the diets: WF,
WFWB, WFOB, and ROOB, while Expr. 2 comprise the diets: OF and OB. The low
DF control provided in the balance period 54 g DF/d, diet WFWB 95 g DF/d, diet
WFOB 95 g DF/d, diet OF 90 g DF/d, diet ROOB 173 g DF/d and diet OB 235 g
DF/d. Pigs (40-50 kg), cannulated at the end of the small intestine were used.
Surgery was performed at 30-35 kg and a "T" cannula was placed in the ileum
approximately 150 mm anterior to the ileo-caecal junction. The experimental diets
were fed to a total of twentyfour ileum cannulated pigs; sixteen pigs in Expr. 1 and
eight pigs in Expr. 2 with four pigs on each diets. The animals were fed three times
daily at 07.00, 15.00 and 23.00 hours with 1.5-1.8 kg/d adjusted to give the same
amount of net energy per day. The feed was thoroughly mixed with water before
feeding. After a 7 d adaptation period, faeces were collected quantitatively on dayes
7-11 and ileal digesta on dayes 12-14.Ileal digesta were collected for a total period of
12 hours; on day 12 at 9.00-11.00 hours and 13.00-15.00 hours, on day 13 at 8.00-
10.00 hours and 12.00-14.00 hours and on day 14 at 7.00-9.00 hours and 11.00-13.00
hours. The whole procedure was repeted with the same pig on dayes 15-/28. After
finishing the balance experiment, the pigs were fed the morning ration and killed 4 h
post feeding. Immediately after slaughtering, the GI tract was removed and separated
by ligatures into twelve sections and samples taken for analysis (Bach Knudsen &
Jensen, 1991).
Cr2Û3 analysis was performed on wet materials, all other analyses were
carried out on freeze-dried materials. Cr203 was determined using the method of
Schüren et al. (1950), starch by the enzymic method of Bach Knudsen et al. (1987)
and ß-glucans by the fluorometric method of J0rgensen & Aastrup (1987) and the
enzymic method of McCleary &Glennie-Holmes (1985). Total, soluble and insoluble
NSP and their constituent sugars were determined as alditol acetates by gas-liquid
chromatography for neutral sugars, and by a decarboxylation method for uronic acids
(A.U.) using a modification of the Theander & Aman (1979) and Theander &
Westerlund (1986) and Englyst et al. (1982) procedures. Klason lignin was
measured gravimetrically as the residue resistant to 12 M-H2SO4 (Theander &
Westerlund, 1986). The content of polysaccharide residues was calculated as
anhydrosugars, and all digestibilities were calculated relative to the Cr203content.

Results and Discussion

The wheat and oat fractions used in the current experiment with pigs varied
significantly in chemical and structurel composition. The refined wheat and oat flour
were nearly pure endosperm tissues asjudge from the high content (g/kg dry matter)
of starch of 829 g/kg and712 g/kg and low content of NSP (34 g/kg and 48 g/kg) and
Klason lignin (1g/kg and 7g/kg) in wheat and oat,respectively. Notisable for the oat
flour is the much higher content of ß-glucans of 22g/kg in oatflour compared to4 g/kg
in wheat flour. Arabinoxylans (AX) and cellulose were about the same in the two
cereals. More marked differences were found for the two bran fractions. Cell wall
materials (CWM) of wheat bran comprise pericarp/testa, aleurone and some minor
amounts of endosperm tissues (Bacic & Stone, 1981a,b), while CWM of oat bran
consist of aleurone, subaleurone and various parts of endospem tissues (Wood,
1986). These differences are clearly reflected in the DF composition; absolute content
of lignin and cellulose being much higher inthebranfrom wheat (86 g/kg and 98 g/kg)
429
than of oat (30 g/kg and 8 g/kg). The aleurone and subaleurone CWM of oat bran are
heavily packed with ß-glucans (Wood, 1986) which is responsible for the high ß-
glucan content in this fraction. The composition of rolled oats is between oat bran and
flour fractions.
The composition of NSP, in particular the content of ß-glucans, has great
impact on the physical properties especially the solubility of NSP. In wheat bran only
15% of the NSP was soluble while in oat bran 59%was soluble (Table 1).

Table 1. Chemical composition of the applied wheat- and oat fractions (g/kg dry
matter)

Flour Bran Rolled

Wheat Oat Wheat Oa t Oats

Starch 829 712 168 424 646

NSP:
Cellulose 5 4 • 98 8 14
ß-glucans 4 (4) 22 (19) 14 (12) 98 (77) 42 (38)
AX 22 (11) 21 (8) 287 (46) 43 ( I D 29 (8)
Arabinose 8 (4) 7 (2) 94 (ID 15 (4) H (4)
Xylose 13 (6) 7 (1) 168 (26) 21 (4) 13 (2)
U.A. 1 (<D 7 (5) 25 (9) 7 (3) 5 (2)
Total NSP 34 (17) 48 (27) 414 (63) 155 (91) 91 (47)
Klason lignin 1 7 86 30 15
DF 35 56 500 185 106

NSP = non-starch polysaccharides; AX = arabinoxylans; DF = dietary fibre; Values

in parentheses are soluble NSP.

Table 2. Digestibility of polysaccharides in the small intestine of pigs fed wheat- and
oat based diets
*- DF
intake Digestibilitv.%
Diet Starch NSP ß-glucans
Expr. 1
Wheat flour 54 98.7 3 88
Wheat flour + wheat bran 95 98.7 10 64
Wheat flour + oat bran 95 98.6 36 75
Rolled oats + oat bran 173 97.0 34 64
Expr. 2
Oat flour 90 98.6 27 30
Oat bran 235 98.6 18 18

NSP = non-starch polysaccharides; DF =dietary fibre.

The results from the present pig experiment are consistent with the current
physiological knowledge concerning digestion of cereal polysacchardies in various
segments of the digestive tract in pigs (e.g Graham et al. 1986a; Bach Knudsen &
Hansen, 1990). In spite of the lower starch digestibility of diet ROOB it can be
concluded that starch was almost completely digested at the end of the small
intestine (Table 2). It can also be concluded that neither insoluble DF (wheat bran)
nor soluble DF (oat bran) affect digestibility of starch in the small intestine of pigs.
430
Thus oat bran, in spite of the fact that it affect the rate of nutrient absorption from the
small intestine of both pig and man (Wood, 1990;Bach Knudsen et al. 1990b),did not
result in malabsorption of starch in the small intestine. The recovery of wheat NSP at
the end of the small intestine was almost complete (90-97%), while there was a
significant loss of oat NSP mainly in form of soluble ß-glucans. Similar results were
obtained in other studies with pigs fed insoluble and soluble DF sources (e.g.
Graham et al. 1986a). When feeding a diet based on cereal grains to pigs, 80% of
NSP was recovered in ileal digesta while NSP recovery was raised to 89 % when one
third of the basal diet was substitutet with insoluble DF in form of wheat bran. When
substituting one third of the basal diet with soluble DF in form of sugar beet pulp,
NSPrecovery droped to 63 %(Graham et al. 1986a).
In agreement with studies with barley given to pigs (Graham et al. 1986b)
there was a significant loss of ß-glucans in the small intestine. In Expr. 1, 64-88 %of
oat ß-glucans were digested anterior to the terminal ileum and in Expr. 2 18-30 %
(Table 2). However, the fate of oat ß-glucans is different to that of barley. As seen of
Figure 1, the ß-glucans of oats are mainly broken down in the ileum segment of the
small intestine, where microbial activity reach considerable levels (Bach Knudsen et
al. 1990a). This is strongly in contrast to what is found in barley where 26% was
broken down at the duodenum presumably by endogenous ß-glucanases (Graham et
al. 1986b).

120

100

•ä 80
c

£ 60
>
I 40

20 -

SL S Ileum Caecum Colon

h
Figure 1. Recovery of ß-glucans at the various sites of the gastrointestinal tract of
pigs. The recovery values are average values for the diets: wheat flour + oat bran,
rolled oats + oat bran, oat flour and oat bran. SI2 = midle third of the small intestine,
SI3 = last third of the small intestine.

The general order of breakdown of the various NSP polysaccharides over the
entire GI tract was ß-glucans»AX>cellulose (Table 3). That ß-glucans are a readily
fermentable energy source for the microflora in the large intestine is verified by the
431
data in Figure 1,which shows that 96-99 %of dietary ß-glucans were broken down in
caecum and proximal colon and only trace levels survived breakdown over the entire
GI tract (Table 3). In contrast to ß-glucans, the breakdown of AX"and cellulose is
mainly regulated by the physical and chemical structure of CWM explicitly pointed
out by the much lower digestibility of AX and cellulose in wheat bran than in oat bran
and other nonlignified CWM (wheat and oat flour). As discussed by Bach Knudsen &
Hansen (1990), the degree of lignification not only explain the overall digestibility of
NSP in the GI tract, but also the relative degradation of AX and cellulose within the
various type of CWM.

Table 3. Digestibility of non-starch polysaccharides in the digestive tract of pigs fed

wheat- and oat based diets

DF
intake Digestibil itv. %
Diet (2/d) NSP Cellulose ß-glucans AX
Expr. 1
Wheat flour 54 85 38 100 87
Wheat flour + wheat bran 95 62 44 100 62
Wheat flour + oat bran 95 91 83 100 90
Rolled oats + oat bran 173 92 83 100 84
Expr. 2
Oat flour 90 87 65 100 83
Oat bran 235 88 71 100 83

NSP = non-starch polysaccharides; AX = arabinoxylans; DF =dietary fibre.

The digestibility of polysaccharides and other major constituents are important

factors to consider when discussing the GI implications of various DF sources. In
keeping with other studies (Stephan & Cummings, 1980), lignified DF sources
(wheat bran) are only degraded to a small extent resulting in an increase in faecal
dey matter and bulk by virtue of its physical presence and its water holding capacity.
In colon these DF sources caused a dilution of the content. In contrast oat DF was
extensively degraded in the large intestine. This stimulation of microbial activity
(Bach Knudsen & Jensen, 1991) lead to an increased microbial biomass in feacal
materials and a more soft faeces. The same was found with cell walls from other
soluble DF sources: cabbage, pectins, and carrots (Stephen & Cummings, 1980).

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Danish Agricultural and Veterinary Research
Council.

References
Bacic, A. & Stone, B. A., 1981a. Isolation and ultrastructure of aleurone cell walls
from wheat and barley. Australian Journal Plant Physiology 8,453-474.
Bacic, A. & Stone, B. A., 1981b. Chemistry and organization of aleurone cell wall
components from wheat and barley. Australian Journal Plant Physiology 8, 475-
495.

432
Bach Knudsen, K. E. & Hansen, I., 1990. Gastrointestinal implications in pigs of
wheat and oat dietary fibre 1. Digestibility and bulking properties of
polysaccharides and other major constituents. British Journal of Nutrition (In
Press).
Bach Knudsen, K. E. &Jensen, B.B., 1991.Effect of source and level of dietary fibre
on microbial fermentation in the large intestine of pigs. Proc V th International
Congress on Digestive Physiology in Pigs (This Proceedings)
Bach Knudsen, K. E., Borg Jensen, B., Andersen, J. O., Hansen, I., 1990a.
Gastrointestinal implications of wheat and oat dietary fiber 2. Microbial activity in
the gastrointestinal tract of pigs. British Journal of Nutrition (In Press).
Bach Knudsen, K. E., Hansen, L, Borg Jensen, B. & 0stergârd, K., 1990b.
Physiological implications of wheat and oat dietary fiber. Dietary Fiber-New
Developments: Physiological Effects and Physiochemical Properties,. New
York:Plenum Press, pp 135-150.
Englyst, H. N., Wiggins, H. S. & Cummings, J. H., 1982.Determination of non-starch
polysaccharides in plant foods by gas-liquid chromatography of constituent sugars
as alditol acetates. Analyst 107,307-318.
Graham, H., Hesselman, K & Aman, P., 1986a. The Influence of wheat bran and
sugar-beet pulp on the digestibility of dietary components in a cereal-based pig
diet. Journal ofNutrition 116,242-251.
Graham, H., Hesselman, K., Jonsson, E. &Aman, P., 1986b. Influence of ß-glucanase
supplementation on digestion of a barley-based diet in the pig gastrointestinal
tract. Nutrition Reports International 34, 1089-1096.
Jenkins, D. J. A., Wolever, T. M. S., Leeds, A. R., Gassull, M. A., Haisman, P.,
Dilawari, J., Goff, D. V., Metz,G. L. & Alberti, K. G. M. M., 1978. Dietary fibres,
fibre analogues and glucose tolerance: Importance of viscosity. British Medical
Journal 1,1392-1394.
Just, A., Fernandez, J. A., J0rgensen, H., 1983. The net energy value of diets for
growth in pigs in relation to the fermentation processes in the digestive tract and
the site of absorption of the nutrients. Livestock Production Science 10, 171-186.
J0rgensen, K. G. &Aastrup, S., 1987.Determination of ß-glucan in barley, malt, wort
and beer. Modern Methods of Plant Analysis, Vol 7, Berlin:Springer-Verlag,pp88-
108.
McCleary, B. V. & Glennie-Holmes, M., 1985.Enzymic quantification of (1-3),(1-4)-
ß-D-glucanin barley and malt. Journal of theInstitute of Brewing 91, 285-295.
Selvendran, R. R., 1984.Theplant cell wall asa source of dietary fibre: chemistry and
structure. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 39,320-337.
Stephen, A. M. & Cummings, J. H., 1980.The microbial contribution to human faecal
mass. Journal Medical Microbiology 13, 45-56.
Schürch, A., LLoyd, L. E., and Crapton, E. W., 1950.The use of chromic oxide as an
index for determining thedigestibility ofadiet.Journal ofNutrition 50,629-636.
Theander, O. & Aman, P., 1979. Studies on dietary fibre. 1. Analysis and chemical
characterization of water-soluble and water-insoluble dietary fibres. Swedish
Journal of Agricultural Research 9,97-106.
Theander, O. & Westerlund, E. A., 1986. Studies on dietary fiber. 3. improved
procedures for analysis of dietary fiber. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.
34,330-336.
Wood, P. J., 1986. Oat ß-glucan: Structure, location, and properties. Oats: Chemistry
and Technology, St. Paul: American Association of Cereal Chemists, pp. 121-152.
Wood, P., 1989.Physicochemical properties and physiological effects of the (1->3)(1-
>4)-ß-D-glucan of oats, Dietary Fiber - New Developments: Physiological Effects
and Physiochemical Properties, Plenum Press, New York, pp 119-127.

433
 DIGESTION OFPLANTCELLWALLPOLYSACCHARIDESINPIGS
FED ON DIETS VARYING IN CELL WALL AND LACTOSE
CONTENTS
Elisabeth CHABEAUTI ,Yolande JAGUELIN ,C.FEVRIER
LEBRETON*

* I.N.R.A.-S.R.P., Saint-Gilles 35590L'Hermitage

** I.N.R.A.-S.R.A.,Nouzilly 37380 Monnaie

Abstract
Ileal and fecal apparent digestibilities (AD)ofplant cell walls were
measured on LargeWhite castrated growing pigs fed ondiets containing
wheat for the control diets (about-7%ofWICW) andwheat bran or sugar
beet pulp for the fibre diets (about 15%ofWICW),either alone (diets
WS,BS and PS)or in combination with lactose (dietsWL,BL andPL).
Fibre from sugar beet pulpwasbetter degraded than those fromwheat
bran at the end of the ileum aswell as in the overall tract. The
addition of lactose significantly depressed the ileal and fecalAD ofGE
andN. But the ileal AD of dietary fibre in all the diets and the fecal
AD ofwheat bran and sugarbeet pulp plant cell wallswere not affected.
Keywords: pig, digestibility, lactose,dietary fibre, non-starch
polysaccharides.

Introduction
The nutritive value of thepigdiets ismore andmoreprecisely known,
but the effects of the interactions between some unconventional
feedstuffs are still achallenge for an accurate computerization of
diets. Theseproblems aremore frequent with the increasing use ofagro-
industrial by-products. Themore widely studied interactions are those
relative tothepresence of dietary fibre onthe apparent digestibility
(AD)of the nutrients in growing pigs (Drochner, 1984;Laplace et al,
1989). But highly fermentative components, such aswhey, can also have
such interactive effects (Cheeke &Stangel, 1973;Jost et al, 1982).

Therefore, the present work was designed to study the ileal and fecal
AD of non-starch polysaccharides from two fibre sources,wheat bran or
sugar beet pulp, either alone or in combination with lactose. The
classical determinations oftheplant cell walls asVan Soest's splitting
upwereprecised by themore exact knowledge of their non-starch-
polysaccharides (Carré et al, 1990).

Materials and Methods

Diets

A basic dietWS wasmainly made with wheat (60%)and starch (25%),

cc plementedwith animal protein (5%of soluble fishprotein concentrate
and 5% of hydrochloric casein with 5%minerals and vitamins). From this
diet,wheat bran (28.5%) or sugarbeet-pulp (19.7%)partially replaced
wheat to formulated two diets BS andPS respectively, in order to contain
15p.cent ofWICW (Water Insoluble Cell Wall). Lactose (25%) replaced
starch in three other dietsWL,BL andPL.

434
Fecal digestibility

24 castratedmale growing pigsweighing on average 59.4 kg at 116 days

of agewere allocated tothe diets,according to acomplete block design.
After a 14-day period of adaptation toexperimental conditions,the total
fecal collections were performed during the following 10days (Chabeauti
et al, 1991).The animals werepair-fed twice aday with wet diets (2
water/1 feed) supplying a similar amount of calculated digestible energy
for starch diets (28.5 MJ/d).

Ileal digestibility

A termino-terminal ileorectal anastomosis wasperformed on 4 castrated

male growing pigs, for ileal digestibility measurements (Laplace et al.,
1989). After a3-weekpost-operative period of recovery, the pigs were
housed in the same conditions as for fecal collection. Each pig was
allocated to each diet during twoweeks and the ileal effluents were
quantitatively collected during the second week. Their mean initial
weight was 34.4 kg for 147days ofage.

Chemical analysis

Ash, nitrogen and gross energy were determined in feeds and digesta
according toAOACmethods (1975). Neutral Detergent Fibre (NDF), Acid
Detergent Fibre (ADF)andAcid Detergent Lignin (ADL)were evaluated in
feeds and digesta according tothemodified Van Soest's fibre splitting
up for starch-rich feeds (Giger SPochet,1987). TheWICW (Carré&
Brillouet, 1989) was applied on feeds.The non-starch polysaccharides
(NSP)were determined in feeds anddigesta by gas-liquid chromatography
of the alditol acetates frompolysaccharide monomers as described by
Carré et al. (1990). Uronic acids were determined from acid hydrolysates
of samples using them-phenylphenolmethod, with galacturonic acid asa
standard (Blumenkrantz &Asboe-Hansen,1973).

Calculation and statistical analysis

The General LinearModel ofthe Statistical Analysis System (1987)

including an analysis ofvariance,the Duncan's test and themethod of
contrasts to test the interactive effects was used for the statistical
analysis.

Results
Composition ofplant cell walls indiets (table 1)

In all the diets,NDF amounts were lower than theWICW ones, the
largest difference occurring with thepulp diets (38,0g/kg vs 15,5 g/kg
forwheat bran diets). Total-NSP contents ofdietswere expressed asthe
sumofNSP fromwater soluble cell walls and fromWICW. The average ratio
of soluble NSP to total-NSP varied according to the different plant cell
walls used in the diets:0.067forwheat bran, 0.117 forwheat and 0.174
for sugar beet pulp. Thediets containing wheat orwheat bran hada
similar total-NSP composition with 43 %or 45 %forxylose and 4% or5%
for uronic acids, respectively. They differed significantly from sugar
beet pulpdiets whose total-NSP contained only 13 %ofxylose but 19 %of
uronicacids.

435
TABLE 1: CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF THEEXPERIMENTAL DIETS g/kg dry matter

DIETS WS WL BS BL PS PL

NDF 57 58 136 133 126 116

ADF 25 23 50 48 67 64
ADL 7 7 13 13 10 9
WICW 71 66 150 150 158 161

Arabinose 13 12 27 27 37 37
Xylose 25 23 55 54 19 19
Galactose 3 3 4 5 9 12
Glucose 14 13 29 29 45 44
UronicAc. 3 2 6 6 27 27
Total-NSP 58 54 120 121 143 142

Apparent digestibility ofmain nutrients (table2)

Increasing plant cell wall amount significantly lowered the fecal and
ilealAD ofenergy andnitrogen. Thiswas reinforced by the presence of
lactose inplace of starch (except for ilealADvalues frompulp diets).
Moreover, the fecalAD of energy andnitrogen was significantly lower in
the BS and BL diets than inthePS andPL ones, but this difference
wasn't noticed at the ileum. However, 35%and 41%of ingested lactose
reached the end of the ileumwithWL andBLdiets but only 18%with PL
diet.

TABLE 2:APPARENT DIGESTIBILITY OFMAINNUTRIENTS (1)

DIETS WS WL BS BL PS PL A S L A*L S*L SEM

GE 86a 75b75b
II 86a 60c 60c
74b 74b 74b ** 68b
74b 68b ** ** NS NS 4
F 92a 91a 84d 82e 88b 87c ** ** ** NS NS 1
I 85a 81ab 80ab 72c 76bc 71c •* NS ** NS NS 4
F 92a 88b 87bc 79d 84c 78d ** NS ** NS NS 2

(1)-NS:non significant; *: P<0.05;**: P<0.01; data with the same

superscript onthe same ligne arenot significantly different between
diets.
(2)-A: effect of plant cellwall amount; S:effect ofplant cell wall
source; L: effect of lactose addition;A*L and S*L: interaction effects;
S.E.M.:standard error ofthemean.

Apparent digestibility ofplant cellwalls (table 3)

By using theVan Soest's fibre splitting up,the ilealAD of

hemicellulose (NDF-ADF) was significantly decreasedby lactoseonly for
thepulp diets. Its fecalAD was higher inPS andPLdiets than inBS and
BL ones. In an other way,the ilealAD of cellulose (ADF-ADL)was higher
forwheat bran diets than forpulp ones. Interactions with lactose

436
occurred onitsfecal A D ,with thelevel of fibre aswell aswithits
origin.

TABLE 3:APPARENT DIGESTIBILITY OFPLANT CELL WALLS (1)

DIETS WS WL BS BL PS PL A S L A*L S*LSEM

NDF-ADF I -lb -3b -lb lb 39a -13b NS * NS

NS ** 13
F 41c 47b 45b 45b 71a 70a NS ** * ** NS 2
ÄDF-ADL I 29a 23a 22a 16ab 4b 5b NS ** NS NS NS 9
F 45b 45b 30c 24d 76a 81a ** ** NS * ** 3

Arabin. I 28abc 19bc -5d 17c 37ab 43a ** ** NS * NS 12

F 55b 51b 42c 43c 88a 87a ** ** NS NS NS 5
Xylose I 24ab 13bc 3c 20bc 25ab 38a NS ** NS * NS 11
F 72 69 67 66 69 67 NS NS NS NS NS 4
Glucose I 39c 35c 44bc 36c 62a 60ab NS ** NS NS NS 11
F 65b 56bc 62bc 52c 84a 90a NS ** NS NS * 7
Uronics I -15 3 -15 3 -17 -23 NS NS NS NS NS 21
F 42b 25c 29c 31c 93a 92a NS ** * ** NS 5
T-NSP I 28 19 9 19 32 34 NS NS NS NS NS 12
F 65b 59c 58c 55c 85a 85a ** ** * NS /NS 3

( 1 ) - N S :nonsignificant; *:P<0.05; **:P<0.01; data with same

supercript onthesame ligne arenot significantly different between
diets.
( 2 ) - A : effect ofplant cell wall amount; S: effect of cell wall source;
L: effect of lactose addition; A*L andS*L:interaction effects;SEM:
standard error ofthemean.

The ileal ADof arabinose andxylose from bran diets wasimproved by

lactose while itwasdepreciated forwheat ones. Total-NSP and individual
oses from pulp diets were more digestible than those from wheat bran
diets attheendoftheileum (except fortheir uronic acids which were
not digested) as well asfortheoverall digestive tract (except for
x y l o s e ) . Lactose decreased thefecal ADoftotal-NSP only forwheat diets
but d i dnotaffect theutilization ofneutral oses andtotal-NSP from
other diets.

Discussion
The important decrease of ileal and fecalAD ofmajor nutrients by an
increase of levels ofdietary fibre had tobemodulated with their
botanical origin, ingood agreement with classical results (StanogiasS
Pearce, 1985;Graham et al, 1986).Nevertheless,the lack ofvariation of
ileal and fecal AD ofNbetween wheat bran and sugar beet pulp diets is
more controversial (Grahamet al, 1986;Low et al,1988).

Our results concerning the grading of the ileal and fecal AD values for
wheat, wheat bran and sugarbeet pulp based dietswere also reported by
Graham et al (1986), Low et al (1988) and Laplace et al (1989). The
observed differences canbe related to the chemical composition (high
digestible pectic substances inthepulp, lesser digestibility of

437
 hemioellulosesinwheat andwheat bran,high lignin content inbran) and
to the physical form ofplant cellwalls (Chabeauti et al, 1991).

Numerous authors observed degradation of fibre at the end of the ileum

in growing pigs, varying with theplant cell wall origin and components
(Drochner, 1984;Graham et al, 1986;Laplace et al, 1989). Thus, fora
same amount ofWICW, considering the ratio of ilealAD to fecalAD of
total-NSP or ofNDF, thewheat bran dietswere better fermented in the
large intestine than thebeet pulp diets as already pointed outby Graham
et al (1986). This explains that thedifferences observed in the ileal
digestion ofxylose between these diets couldno longer be observed after
the fermentation in the large intestine.

Thedepressive effect of lactose on the fecal digestibility ofmajor

nutrients is in good agreement with otherprevious results obtained with
whey (Cheeke &Stangel, 1973;Jost et al, 1982;Février &Lachance,
1988). But,the interactive effect is less important,probably because
whey contains also high levels ofminerals which increase the osmotic
pressure, reduce the intestinal transit time and further depress the
digestive process (Low, 1988).

The fecalAD of total-NSP and individual oses fromwheat based diets

decreased with the adding of lactose. Thus, itwould seemthat the
priority of degradation by the intestinal bacteria ofthe hindgut was
given to the lactose instead ofwheat fibres (Sheareret al, 1969;
Thévenet, 1988). But,this effect was not sufficient enough to influence
fecal digestibility ofplant cellwalls from high fibrous diets.This
couldbe explained, firstly, by thedecrease ofthe transit time
associated with high levels of fibre (Furuya sTakahashi, 1975) allowing
an increased capacity of fermentation ofplant cell walls (wheatbran and
pulp) and, secondly, by the high degree ofdigestibility of some plant
cellwalls (pulp).Moreover, lactose did not seem to interfer with plant
cell wallbreakdown up tothe caecumbut the higher the ileal digestion
offibre was,the higher the degradation oflactose.
*~
From thesedigestibility data,including sugarbeetpulp in adiet
containing lactose seem tobemore suitable than addingwheat bran for
dietary fibre supply.

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du lactosérum chez leporc en croissance-finition. Journ.Rech.Porc.
Fr. 14,239-248. /
Laplace, J.P., Darcy-Vrillon, B.,Perez,J.M., Henry,Y., Giger, S.S
Sauvant,D. (1989). Associative effects between two fibre sources on
ileal and fecaldigestibility of amino acids,energy and cell-wall
components in growing pigs.Br.J. Nutr., 61,75-87.
Low,A.G. (1988). Gut transit and carbohydrate uptake.Proc. Nutr. S o c ,
47, 153-159.
Low,A.G., Partridge, I.G., Taylor,J.A. (1988). Effects of différents
types of supplementary non-starch polysaccharides on nitrogen and
energy digestibility (ileal andoverall) and retention inpigs.Wiss.
Z.Univ. Rostock, N. Reihe, 37(2), 98-99.
SAS Institute Inc. (1987). SASUser's Guide: Statistics, 1987 Ed., SAS
(StatisticalAnalysis System) Institute Inc.,Cary, NC.
Shearer, I. J. &Dunkin,A.C. (1969). Urinary and fecal sugar losses in
growing pigs feddiets containing lactose.N-Z.J. Agric. Res.12,321-
332.
Stanogias, G. &Pearce,G. R. (1985). The digestion of fibreby pigs.I.
Theeffects of amount and type of fibre on apparent digestibility,
nitrogen balance and rate ofpassage.Br.J. Nutr. 53,513-530.
Thévenet,P. (1988). Utilisation du test respiratoire àl'hydrogène chez
leporc: application àl'étudede la digestion du lactose.D.E.A.de
Nutrition, Université de ParisVII.

439
EFFECT OF VARIOUS SOURCES OF DIETARY FIBRE ON
CHEMICO-PHYSICALCHARACTERISTICSOFDIGESTAINTHE
STOMACH AND THE SMALL INTESTINE OF THE PIG
J.vanderMeulen&J.G.M.Bakker

ResearchInstituteforLivestockFeedingandNutrition (IWO),Lelystad,
TheNetherlands

Abstract
Theeffectofincludingdietaryfibrefromvarioussourcesina
basallow-fibredietontheamountofdigesta,pH,osmolarity,redox
potentialandvolatilefattyacid(VFA)concentrationinthestomachand
thesmallintestinewasstudied.Eighteenfinishingpigs (78kg)werefed
for3weeksabasallow-fibre(80gNDF/kg)dietwithoutorwith20%
wheatbran,sunflowermeal,beetpulp,soybeanhullsorpeahulls.
Immediatelyafterkilling (4.5hafterfeeding),samplesofdigestawere
takenfromthestomachand4sectionsofthesmallintestine.Theamount
ofdigestainthestomachandthesmallintestineincreasedbyincluding
fibre,particularlywheatbran,sunflowermealandpeahulls.ThepHin
thestomachandthe2proximalsectionsofthesmallintestinedecreased
byinclusionofdietaryfibre.Theredoxpotentialdecreasedalongthe
smallintestine.Comparedwiththestomachtheosmolarityinthesmall
intestinewashigher.TheVFAconcentrationinthestomachwaslowand
increasedalongthesmallintestine,butwasnotaffectedbyinclusionof
fibreinthediet.

Introduction
Nowadaysthereisstillconsiderableinterestintheuseofhigh-fibre
by-productsofthefoodindustryinfeedsforpigs.Thestructural
.polysaccharidesofthesehigh-fibreby-productsareresistanttothe
mammalianenzymes,butarefermentedtoagreaterorlesserextentbythe
microflorainthegastrointestinaltract.Thisfermentationoccurs
largelyinthecaecumandthecolon(Argenzio&Southworth,1975).
Beforereachingthelargeintestinethepolysaccharideshavetopassthe
stomachandthesmallintestine,andmaythereaffectthechemico-
physicalconditions.Changesinthechemico-physicalconditionsinthe
stomachandthesmallintestineinturnmayaffecttheefficiencyof
enzymes,whicharesupplementedtoimprovetheutilizationofpigdiets
(Chesson,1987).
Inthisstudytheeffectofincludingdietaryfibrefromvarioussources
onpH,osmolarity,redoxpotential,conductivityandvolatilefattyacid
(VFA)concentrationinthestomachandthesmallintestineoffinishing
pigswasinvestigated.

Materials and Methods

EighteenfinishingDutchLandracepigswithaninitialweightof
77.7+4.6kgwereusedin3periods.Ineachperiod6pigswerehoused
individuallyandfedtwicedaily (07:00and16:00h)abasallow-fibre
dietwithout (B)orwith20%wheatbran (Wb),sunflowermeal (Sm), beet
pulp (Bp),soybeanhulls (Sh)orpeahulls(Ph)(Table 1).After3weeks
theanimalswerekilled4.5hoursafterlastfeeding.Immediatelyafter

440
killingthesmallintestinewasseparatedbyligaturesinto4equal
sections (numbered1to4fromproximaltodistalend),andthestomach
andthesmallintestinewereremoved.Thecontentsofstomachandeach
sectionofthesmallintestinewerecollectedandweighed.Immediately
aftercollectionofthedigesta,thepHandtheredoxpotentialwere
determined.Thereafter,thesamplesweredividedintwosubsamplesand
storedat-20C.Inthefirstsubsampledrymattercontentwas
determined.Thesecondsubsamplewascentrifuged(1000 g, 10min)to
measuretheamountoffreewater.Intheobtainedsupernatant
conductivity,osmolarityandVFAconcentrationweredetermined.

Table1.Compositionandchemicalanalysisofthe6diets(B=basal,
Wb=wheatbran,Sm=sunflowermeal,Bp=beetpulp,Sh=soybeanhulls,Ph=pea
hulls).

Diet

Ingredients (g/kg) B Wb Sm Bp Sh Ph

Maizestarch 200 /
Wheatbran 200
Sunflowermeal 200
Beetpulp 200
Soybeanhulls 200
Peahulls 200
Maize 320 320 320 320 320 320
Tapiocameal 200 200 200 200 200 200
Herringmeal 50 50 50 50 50 50
Meatmeal 50 50 50 50 50 50
Soybean 140 140 140 140 140 140
Soybeanoil 18 18 18 18 18 18
DL-Methionine 2 2 2 2 2 2
Vitamin-mineralpremix 20 20 20 20 20 20

Chemicalanalysis
Crudeprotein 242 265 254 292 301 259
NDF 79 179 170 154 159 183
NDADF 14 48 59 67 74 110

ResultsandDiscussion
Theproximalsectionofthesmallintestinecontainedlittledigesta
comparedwiththeothersections.Thisisinagreementwithresultsof
Clemensetal. (1975),whorecoveredlessfluidanddigestamarkersfrom
theproximalthanfromthedistalpartofthesmallintestine.Amountsof
freshanddrieddigestafromthestomachandthesmallintestineofthe
pigsfedthebasaldietwerelessthaninthepigsfedthehigh-fibre
diets,howeverthiswasonlysignificantforthecontentofthestomach
(Table2).WhentheyincreasedtheNDFlevelofthefeedupto300g/kg,
Stanogias&Pearce (1985)observedasignificantincreaseintheamounts
ofdrieddigestafromboththestomachandthesmallintestine.
InthestomachthepHrangedfrom3.2-4.5andincreasedalongthesmall
intestine,reachingvaluesof6.4-6.8inthedistalsection(Table3).

441
Table2.Themean(n=3)amountsoffreshanddrieddigestafromthe
stomachandthesmallintestine.

Diet

Wb Sm Bp Sh Ph

Amountoffreshdigesta(g)
stomach 1150a 1925° 1360b 1525b 2422° 1900e
smallintestine 631 982 927 728 1039 839

Amountofdrydigesta(g)
stomach 217a 465° 271 aÖ 306aÖ 553° 397 bc
smallintestine 85 106 109 106 122 132

Valueswithadifferentsuperscriptdiffersignificantly (P<0.05).

Table3.Themean(n=3)pHandredoxpotentialinthestomachandthe
smallintestine.

Diet

B Wb Sm Bp Sh Ph

PH
stomach 4.513 3.83 3.94 3.49b 3.61b 3.26b
smallintestine1 6.29 5.86 5.86 6.06 6.04 6.04
smallintestine2 6.43 6.32 5.95 6.39 6.09 6.15
smallintestine3 6.50 6.28 6.40 6.55 6.66 6.42
smallintestine4 6.58 6.68 6.80 6.56 6.59 6.43

Redoxpotential(mV)
•stomach -37 -165 -47 -176 -151 -48
**smallintestine1 -166 -397 -64 -394 -348 -259
smallintestine2 -345 -410 -167 -449 -396 -337
smallintestine3 -419 -532 -284 -512 -485 -426
smallintestine4 -404 -493 -513 -490 -479 -388

Valueswithadifferentsuperscriptdiffersignificantly(P<0.05).

ThisagreeswiththepH-valuesmeasuredbyArgenzio&Southworth(1975)
andClemensetal. (1975).ThepHofthegastricdigestafromthepigs
fedthehigh-fibredietswaslowerthaninthepigsfedthebasaldiet,
butthiswasonlysignificantwhenbeetpulp,soybeanhullsorpeahulls
werefed.Also,inthe2proximalsectionsofthesmallintestinethepH
waslowerinthepigsfedthehigh-fibrediets,butthiswasnot
significant (Table 3).Afterfeedingalow-protein,high-cellulosediet
Argenzio&Southworth (1975)observedlowerpH-valuesinthestomachand
theproximalsmallintestine.Increasingthefibrelevelofmaize-based
dietsbyaddingcoarsebranalsoloweredthepHlevelinthestomach
(Lawrence,1972),althoughKassetal. (1980)observednounequivocal
effectofincreasingthelevelofalfalfamealonthepHlevelinthe
stomachandthesmallintestine.Inexperimentsaimedtoimprovethe

442
Table4.Themean(n=3)percentageoffreewater,osmolarity,
conductivityandVFAcontentinthestomachandthesmallintestine.

Diet

Wb Sm Bp Sh Ph

Freewater (%ofwetweight)
stomach 54.3 44.1 32.8 44.2 48.6 51.2
smallintestine1 59.0 65.3 84.6 78.7 79.4 64.9
smallintestine2 63.9 65.9 44.4 57.8 65.1 49.2
smallintestine3 49.1 51.2 36.2, 56.4 52.2 48.3
smallintestine4 54.3 52.4 24.5 39.7 48.0" 38.8

Osmolarity(Osm)
stomach 0.34 0.39 0.44 0.31 0.35 0.32
smallintestine1 0.58 0.54 0.51 0.54 0.53 0.55
smallintestine2 0.58 0.48 0.54 0.62 0.52 0.58
smallintestine3 0.54 0.51 0.49 0.50 0.46 0.52
smallintestine4 0.51 0.50 0.41 0.45 0.43 0.43

Conductivity (mS/cm)
stomach 10.85 10.97 10.49 10.63 11.09 10.52
smallintestine1 8.40 9.44 10.23 9.07 h 1 0 - 2 3 h 9.69
smallintestine2 8.45 9.09 9.72 9.49 10.30° 9.43
smallintestine3 na
9.04a "8.96
' 9.77 8.96a10.14 9.43
smallintestine4 8.64 9.38 9.85 9.24 9.91 9.80

VFA(mmol/1)
stomach 12.3 9.6 25.5° 13.6 13.4
smallintestine1 3.9 22.1 6.5 6.5 10.4 7
smallintestine2 14.3. 16.1. 5.7 15.1. 14.2. 11.4.
smallintestine3 26.0 26.9 10.6 31.0 34.9 37.1
smallintestine4 61.7 56.4 27.6 54.7 44.5 45.9

Valueswithadifferentsuperscriptdiffersignificantly(P<0.05).

availabilityofnutrientsfromfibrousby-productsbyenzyme
supplementation,theobservedpHdecreaseinthestomachandtheproximal
smallintestinehastobetakenintoaccounttoattainoptimumenzyme
activity.
Theredoxpotentialinthestomachvariedfrom-30to-180mVand
decreasedalongthesmallintestine.Theredoxpotentialinthestomach
andthesmallintestinedidnotdifferbetweenpigsfedthebasalandthe
high-fibrediets (Table 3). Thedecreaseintheredoxpotentialalongthe
smallintestinemaybecausedbyabsorptionofreducingsubstances
(Sambrook,1980)andanincreaseinbacterialfermentationresultingin
anincreaseinreducedsubstances.
Thepercentageoffreewaterwashigherintheproximalpartofthesmall
intestine (59-84%)thaninthestomach (32-54%),anddecreasedalongthe
smallintestinetill24-54%inthedistalsection.Theosmolaritypursued
almostthesamecoursealongthestomachandthesmallintestineasthe
percentageoffreewater.Theconductivitywashighinthestomach
(10.5-11.0mS/cm)andremainedrelativelyconstant(8.4-10.3mS/cm)in
thesmallintestine.Nosignificantdifferencewasobservedinthe

443
percentageoffreewater,osmolarityandconductivityinthestomachand
thesmallintestinebetweenpigsfedthebasalandthehigh-fibrediets
(Table4).However,inallthepigsfedthehigh-fibredietsthe
percentageoffreewaterintheproximalsectionofthesmallintestine
washigherthaninthepigsfedthebasaldiet.Thismaybecausedbythe
endogenoussecretion,whichincreasesbyfeedinghigh-fibrediets
(Partridgeetal.,1982;Langloisetal.,1987;Zebrowska&Low,1987).
Anincreasedendogenoussecretionmayalsocauseahigherconductivityin
thesmallintestineofthepigsfedthehigh-fibrediets.Thelow
percentageoffreewaterinthedistalsectionsofthesmallintestinein
thepigsfedthehigh-fibredietscontainingbeetpulp,maybecausedby
thehighwater-bindingcapacityofpectinsinbeetpulp.
TheVFAconcentrationwaslowinthestomachandintheproximalpartof
thesmallintestine.TheVFAconcentrationincreasedalongthesmall
intestinetill28-61mmol/1atthedistalend.Nodifferencewasfound
betweenpigsfedthebasalandthehigh-fibrediets (Table4).The
increaseinVFAconcentrationalongthesmallintestineindicatesan
increaseinbacterialfermentation.AlthoughArgenzio&Southworth (1975)
andClemensetal. (1975)didnotobservesuchanincreaseattheendof
thesmallintestine,measurementoftheATPconcentrationalsoindicates
anincreaseinmicrobialactivityinthedistalpartofthesmall
intestine (Jensen,1988).Bothstarchfromthebasaldietandnonstarch
polysaccharidesfromthefibrousdietsmaybeusedasenergysourcesfor
thismicrobialfermentation.

References
Argenzio,R.A.&M.Southworth,1975.Sitesoforganicacidproduction
andabsorptioningastrointestinaltractofthepig.Am.J.Physiol.
228:454-460.
Chesson,A.,1987.Supplementaryenzymestoimprovetheutilizationof
pigandpoultrydiets.In:W.Haresign&D.J.A.Cole (Eds.):Recent
advancesinanimalnutrition1987.Butterworths,London,p.71-89.
Clemens,E.T.,C.E.Stevens&M.Southworth,1975.Sitesoforganic
facidproductionandpatternofdigestamovementinthe
gastrointestinaltractofswine.J.Nutr.105:759-768.
Jensen,B.B.,1988.Effectofdietcompositionandvirginiamycinon
microbialactivityinthedigestivetractofpigs.In:L.
Buraczewska,S.Buraczewski,B.Pastuszewska&T.Zebrowska (Eds.):
Digestivephysiologyinthepig.PolishAcademyofSciences,
Jablona.p.392-400.
Kass,M.L.,P.J.VanSoest&W.G.Pond,1980.Utilizationofdietary
fiberfromalfalfabygrowingswine.II.Volatilefattyacid
concentrationsinanddisappearancefromthegastrointestinaltract.
J.Anim.Sei.50:192-197.
Langlois,A.,T.Corring&C.Frévrier,1987.Effectsofwheatbranon
exocrinepancreassecretioninthepig.Reprod.Nutr.Develop.27:
929-939.
Lawrence,T.J.L.,1972.Theeffectofcertaindieteryfactorsonin
vivopHchangesandpepsinactivityinthestomachofthegrowing
pig. Br.Vet.J.128:402-411.
Partridge,I.G.,A.G.Low&I.E.Sambrook,1982.Theinfluenceofdiet
ontheexocrinepancreaticsecretionofgrowingpigs.Br.J.Nutr.
48:137-145.
Sambrook,I.E.,1980.Digestionandabsorptionofcarbohydrateand
lipidinthestomachandthesmallintestineofthepig.In:A.G.
Low&'I.G.Partridge (Eds):Currentconceptsofdigestionand

444
 absorptionInpigs.TechnicalBulletin3,NationalInstitute
ResearchinDairying,Reading,p.78-93.
Stanogias,G.&G.R.Pearce,1985.Thedigestionoffibrebypigs.3.
Effectsoftheamountandtypeoffibreonphysicalcharacteristics
ofsegmentsofthegastrointestinaltract.Br.J.Nutr.53:537-548.
Zebrowska,T.&A.G.Low,1987.Theinfluenceofdietsbasedonwhole
wheat,wheatflourandwheatbranonexocrinepancreaticsecretion
inpigs.J.Nutr.117:1212-1216.

445
ILEALANDFAECALDIGESTIBILITY OFPOLYSACCHARIDES
INPIGSFEDDIETSWITHDIFFERENT VARIETIES OFPEA
JolantaGdala ,H.Graham ,Lucyna Buraczewska and P.8man
Institute of Animal Physiology and Nutrition,Jablonna,
Poland
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences,Department
of Animal Nutrition and Management,Uppsala,Sweden

Abstract
Nine varieties ofwhite-andcoloured-flowered peawere
analysed forcontent ofprotein,starch,dietary fibreand
fiber fractions,and used intrialsoncannulated growing
pigs toevaluate ileal and faecal digestibility ofcarbo-
hydrates.Pigswereprepared with aT-piece cannula inserted
intheterminal ileum.Each dietcontained 51.7%ofbarley
and 41.5%ofpea.Starch wasthemost variable componentin
thepeas (30-42%). Coloured-flowered peascontained more
NDF and ADF butnot dietary fiber and especially more lignin
than thewhite-flowered peas. Ileal digestibility ofdietary
starch and dietary fiber ranged from 85to93and from 13to
37%, respectively. Total degradation ofdietary fiberand
its fractions washigher in thewhite- than inthecoloured-
-flowered peas.For all thebarley-pea diets,digestibility
coefficient of total dietary fiber ranged from 47to87.
Keywords;ileal digestibility,pigs,polysaccharides,pea.

Introduction
Peaprovides an important source ofhighly digestible pro-
tein and starch indietsfor pigs.However,about onequar-
terofpea drymatter consistsofnon-starchpolysaccharides,
oligosaccharides and lignin which arenot digested bythe
digestive enzymes ofthepig.White-andcoloured-flowering
varieties ofpea differ intheir tannin content and ileal
digestibility ofprotein (Buraczewska et al., 1989). There
isnotmuch evidence available on theability ofpigmicro-
flora toferment pea fibre-components along thedigestive
tract. Theaim of the study was tocompare the apparent
digestibility ofpolysaccharides oftwo typesofpea (nine
varieties),measured attheterminal ileum and overthe
entire digestive tract ofpigs.

Materials and Methods

Large White xLandrace castrated malepigsof 30-80kgwith
T-shape ileal cannula wereoffered tenbarley-pea dietswith
sixwhite-flowered varieties ofpea (Belinda,batches 1and2,
Kaliski,Mige,Opal,Milewska and Koral)and three varieties
with coloured frowers (Matmal,Mazurska and Gomik). Allthe
peaswere spring varieties andhad smooth seeds.Eachdiet
containing 41.5%ofthe tested pea,supplemented with minerals
446
and vitamins,wasoffered every 12hto4-6 pigsfor 2weeks
at3.8%body weight/day.Chromium oxide wasused asanindi-
cator.After seven daysofpreliminary period,faeces (3days)
and digesta (atleast 3x12h)were collected. The peas,
diets and freeze-dried collected samples from each animal
were analysed for starch,NDF andADF content.However,for
analysisofdietary fibre andKlason ligninonly pooled
samples ofdigesta and faecesfrom pigsfed onthesamediet
wereprepared.NDF andADF weredetermined using theTecator
FibertecSystem M.,and theothercomponents according to
Theander and Westerlund procedure (1986).

Resultsand Discussion
Chemical analysis of thepeas (Tables 1and 2)showed that
therewere nogreat differences between the two types ofpea.
Thecoloured-flowered varieties contained more NDF andespe-
cially more Klason lignin.Oneof themost variable component
inallthepeaswasstarch (30to42%)which isconsistent
with observations ofSavage et al. (1989). Thestarch content
tended tobeinversely correlated with dietary fibre content
of thepeas.

Table 1.Chemical composition of Polish peas, %ofDM

(CP -crude protein; EE-ether extract; S-starch;
DF -dietary fibre; CF -crude fibre;R-therest to 100%).
Pea CP EE Ash S DF NDF ADF CF R*

White-flowered

Belinda 1 27.7 1.81 3.62 na** 22.8 11.8 9.0 6.8 na

Kaliski 26.8 1.90 3.28 na 26.0 12.7 10.6 7.6 na
Mige 26.1 1.43 3.30 42.4 21.6 11.7 7.6 6.1 5.2
Belinda 2 26.1 1.40 3.58 38.4 23.4 13.4 8.1 6.4 7.1
Opal 22.4 1.85 3.25 40.6 25.8 12.6 7.6 5.4 9.8
Milewska 22.6 1.85 3.20 34.8 24.5 15.7 9.6 7.2 13.1
Karal 22.1 1.94 3.13 37.0 21.7 12.6 8.3 5.8 14.1

Coloured-flowered
Matmal 26.6 1.57 2.69 30.5 26.1 17.2 10.9 7.4 12.5
Mazurska 22.7 2.18 3.30 33.0 23.0 14.3 9.8 6.6 15.8
Gomik 21.1 1.58 3.60 38.7 22.5 15.8 10.2 7.4 12.4

* R=100-(CP+EE+A+S +DF); *# na - n o t ana lyzed

NDF accounted for 49to70%ofdietary fibrewhile respective

value forADF accounted onaverage for39%.Not analysed part
of dry matter (R)ranged from about 5to 16%in thepeas.
This'fraction can involve 5-8%raffinose family oligosaccha-
rides,which causes flatulence,and also somesucrose (Saini,
1988).
Themonosaccharide composition of dietary fibre showeddo-
minating content ofglucose and relatively about five times
lessof arabinose and uronic acid.Still lower levels,showed

447
 indecreasing order,were found forgalactose,xylose,
rhamnoseandmannose.
As isshown inTable 3,starch content washigher anddie-
tary fibre lower inthebarley-pea diets than inthepeas;
NDF and ADF wereof similarlevel.

Table 2.Content ofdietary fibre monosaccharides and

Klason lignininthe tested peas(%ofDM).
Monosaccharides of dietary fibre
Pea
Glc* Ara UroA Gal Xyl Rha Man KL
White-flowered

Belinda 1 14.91 2.33 2.24. 1.39 0.72 0.30 0.29 0.62

Kaliski 18.11 2.40 2.12 1.02 0.98 0.28 0.28 0.81
Mige 12.33 2.19 2.68 1.63 0.89 0.36 0.39 1.10
Belinda 2 14.36 2.35 2.80 1.62 0.78 0.32 0.43 0.70
Opal 16.24 2.85 2.77 1.68 0.89 0.41 0.39 0.60
Milewska 14.35 2.95 2.94 0.99 1.25 0.27 0.24 1.50
Koral 12.08 3.65 2.68 0.92 1.35 0.36 <0.20 0.65

Coloured-flowered

Matmal 16.10 2.05 2.59 1.58 0.83 0.40 0.48 2.10

Mazurska 12.57 2.66 2.78 0.83 0.99 0.26 0.31 2.56
Gomik 12.28 2.76 3.09 1.00 1.14 0.25 0.23 1.78

* G l c - glucose; Ara - arabinose ; UroA - uronic a c i d ; Gal - galactose;

Xyl - xylose; Rha - rhamnose; Man - mannose; KL - Klason l i g n i n

* * - •

c
Table 3.Thecontent ofstarch,dietary fibre,NDF andADF
inthebarley-pea diets(%ofDM).
Diets with Dietary
Starch NDF ADF
ppa • fi hrp
Belinda 1 51.4 17.7 12.5 7.0
Kaliski 48.5 18.1 13.4 6.6
Mige 49.0 18.3 13.8 6.3
Belinda 2 47.6 18.7 14.3 6.7
Opal 50.7 18.6 13.0 6.2
Milewska 49.0 19.0 14.8 7.1
Koral 47.0 18.5 16.2 6.7
Matmal 46.4 18.5 18.3 7.6
Mazurska 48.1 17.0 13.2 7.0
Gomik 48.5 18.0 14.3 7.2

Ileal and total digestibility ofstarch,dietary fibre,ADF

and Klason lignin ispresented inTable 4.From seven to15%
ofstarch wasnot digested uptotheend ofthesmallintes-
tine. Itseems unlikely that thedigestibility of thestarch

448
i n peas was being l i m i t e d by the presence of i n h i b i t o r s of
the d i g e s t i v e enzymes. Amylase i n h i b i t o r s have never been
detected i n peas ( L i e n e r , 1989).
The r e s u l t s show t h a t i n growing pigs the non-starch p o l y -
saccharides of barley-pea d i e t s are degraded to a considerable
degree and c l e a r l y , p a r t of i t can be fermented i n the small
i n t e s t i n e . The mean values and the range of t o t a l d i g e s t i b i -
l i t y of d i e t a r y f i b r e were higher f o r the d i e t s w i t h w h i t e -
- f l o w e r e d ( 6 1 - 87%) than wth c o l o u r e d - f l o w e r e d peas (47-56%).
The lower d i g e s t i b i l i t y can be explained by higher content
of l i g n i n and tannins (Gdala, 1990) i n t h i s type of pea.
I n the small i n t e s t i n e glucose and galactose dissapeared
to the higher extent then the other monosaccharides of the
d i e t a r y f i b r e . Xylose was the l e s s fermentable component of
f i b r e along th e whole d i g e s t i v e t r a c t . However, the precision
of e s t i m a t i o n i t s d i g e s t i b i l i t y i s low because only small
amounts of t h i s saccharide was d e t e c t a b l e .

Table 4.Ileal and total digestibility ofstarch,fibre

components and Klason lignin inpigs fed barley-peadiets.
Diets with: White flowered pea /n=7/ Coloured flowered peas /n=3/
Digestibility: ileal total ileal total
X range 5t range "x" range X range
Starch 88 85-93 100 87 85-91 100
Dietary fibre 32 20-37 69 61-87 20 13-24 51 47-56
Monosaccharides
of dietary fibre
arabinose 22 0-31 78 71-84 15 0-25 78 75-82
xylose 17 0-27 45 31-60 12 -14-19 40 34-47
galactose 33 16-75 74 4B-83 16 9-29 71 66-77
glucose 47 35-55 71 58-77 41 38-44 58 54-61
uronic acid 25 21-29 80 75-85 10 0-16 65 56-72
ADF 20 9-29 49 41-64 14 -7-29 28 18-43
Klason lignin 4 0-25 27 0-49 9 0-24 10 0-24

Table 5shows that several dietsdiffered significantlyin

NDF digestibility.Degradation ofNDF wasupto48%inthe
small intestine and up to67%inthewhole digestivetract.
Thevariation inresultsmaybedue touncertainty inthe
analysis. Generally,the totaldegradabllity ofNDF tended
tobelower than thatofdietaryfibre.
Itisgenerally believed that indicotyledons such aspeas,
polysaccharides intheprimary cell walls likepectinand
xyloglucan aremuchmore readily degradable than those pre-
vailing inthe secondary walls like cellulose and acidic
xylan(.Grahamet al., 1985;Nordkvist and Aman, 1986).
Pea xylanwasfound tobelargely undigested also bycocke-
rels (Longstaff and McNab, 1987).
Nostatistical differences were found inNDF digestibility
forpigswithin abody weight from 30to 70kg (Table 6),.

449
Table 5.Ileal and totaldigestibility ofNDFin
thebarley-pea diets fed topigs.
Dietwith pea Digestibility,%

Ileal Total
Belinda 1 3.9A 45 7 AB
Kaliski 35.4 B C D 58 0CDE
Mige 33.5 BC 57 2 CD
Belinda 2 31.6 BC 56 4 CD
Opal 19.5B 55 6 CD
Milewska 35.9 CD 66 6 h
Koral 48.0° 63 1 D E
Matmal 29.1 BC 52 QBC
Mazurska 22.7 BC 37 7 A
Gomik 29.2 BC 50 1BC
Values incolumnswith different lettersare
significantly different (P<0.01)

Table 6.Mean ileal and totaldigestibility ofNDFin

all the experimental diets fed topigswith different
range ofbodyweight.
Digestibility
heightof n Daily
pigs,kg intake Ileal * Tot al
g/day g/day 8-*-

30-40 5 160.4 42.8 26.7 73.0 45.5

40-50 14 229.5 87.9 38.3 126.0 54.9
50-60 18 254.4 96.7 38.0 147.0 57.8
60-70 13 304.6 108.0 35.5 184.0 60.4

Regression analysis showed that differences werenot

significant

and fed thebarley-pea dietscontaining both thewhite-

and thecoloured-flowered types ofpea.

450
References
Buraczewska,L.,J.Gdala and W.Grala, 1989.Ilealdigesti-
bility ofprotein inpigsfed dietswith peasof variable
content ofprotein and tannins.In:0.Huisman,T.F.B,
vander Poel and I.E. Liener (Ed.): Recent advancesof
research inantinutritional factors inlegume seeds.Pudoc
Wageningen,1989,p.181-184.
Gdala,J. 1990.Digestion ofnutrients ofdifferentpeas
(Pisum sativum and Pisum arvense)inthedigestive tract
ofgrowing pigs.PhDThesis,IFi2Z,Oablonna (in Polish).
Graham,H.,P.Aman,R.K.Newman and C.W. Newman,1985.
Useof anylonbeg technique forpig feeding digestibility
studies.Br.Û.Nutr.54:719-726.
Liener,I.E., 1982.Toxic Constituents ofPlant Foodstuffs
(London,Academic Press).
Longstaff,Margaret and J.M.McNab,1987.Digestion ofstarch
and fibre carbohydrates inpeasby adultcockerels.Brit.
Poultry Sei. 28:261-285.
Nordkvist,E.and P.Aman,1986.Changesduring growthin
anatomical and chemical composition and invitrodegra-
dability of lucerne.3.Sei.Food Agric.37:1-7. '
Sainj,H.S.,1988.Legume seed oligosaccharides.In:0.
Huisman,T.F.B,vander Poel and I.E. Liener (Ed.): Recent
advances ofresearch inantinutritional factors inlegume
seeds.PudocWageningen,1989,p.329-341.
SavageG.P.,and S.Deo,1989.Thenutritional valueofpeas
(Pisum sativum). ALiterature Review,Nutrition Abstracts
and Reviews (A),59:66-88.
Theander,0.and E.Westerlund, 1986.Studies ondietary
fibers. III.Improved procedures for analysis ofdietary
fibers. J. Agric.Food Chem.34:330-336.

451
EFFECT OF SUPPLEMENTATION OF PROPIONIC ACID ON
ILEALANDFECALNUTRIENTANDENERGYDIGESTIBILITIES
ANDONTHELEVELOFMICROBIALMETABOLITESINILEAL
AND CECALDIGESTA OF GROWING PIGS
1 2 3 2
R.Mosenthin ,W.C.Sauer ,F.Ahrens andC.F.M.deLange
1.Institute of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, University of Kiel,
D-2300 Kiel, Germany
2. Department ofAnimal Science,University ofAlberta,Alberta,
T6G 2P5,Canada
3.I.S.Research InstituteforAnimal Physiology andNutrition
D-2362Wahlstedt, Germany

Abstract
The supplementation of propionic acid to diets forgrowing pigs tends
to increase both the ileal and fecal digestibilities of crude protein
and energy as well as the ileal digestiblilities of most of the amino
acids. Theaddition of propionic acid toa basal diet decreased (p<.05)
the level of ammonia in ileal digesta from 940.9 to 720.4 yg/g DMand
caused a trend towards a lower level of cadaverine and putrescine. In
addition, there was a decrease (p<.05) in the level of cadaverine in
cecal digesta from 821.0to 116 nmol/g DM as well as a trend towards
a lower level of ammonia and putrescine. The effect of propionic acid
supplementation ontheparameters measuredwaslesspronounced when added
in combination with siliceous earth.
Keywords: Propionic acid, pigs, digestibility, amines, ammonia, amino
acids.

i. Introduction
There is growing evidence that the supplementation of some organic
acidsmayimprove both theperformanceofstarter (KirchgessnerandRoth,
1976; Falkowski andAherne, 1984;Giesting andEaster, 1985)andgrower-
finisher pigs (Kirchgessner and Roth, 1978a; 1982). Improvement in feed
conversion efficiency raises questions onthemode of action of organic
acids such as propionic, fumaric, citric and formic acid. As has been
reviewed by Kirchgessner and Roth (1988), theergotropic effect of dif-
ferent organic acids maybyattributed to(1)improvement inthedigesti-
bility of nutrients, (2)gastrointestinal effects, including antimicro-
bial effects in which potentially detrimental bacteria are destroyed
by a reduction inthegastric pHand (3)changes in intermediary metabo-
lism including energetic utilization.
The objective of the present study was to determine the effect of
supplementation of propionic acid to grower diets forpigs on (1)ileal
and fecal digestibilities of energy, protein, and amino acids and (2)
the levelofmicrobial metabolites inilealandcecal digesta.

2. Materials and Methods

Six barrows (Lacombex Yorkshire), with anaverage B.W.of50kg,were
surgically fitted with a simple T-cannula at the distal ileum and in
the cecum according to procedures adapted from Sauer et al. (1983)and
Mosenthin (1987). Following recovery thepigs were fed oneoffour diets

452
according to an incomplete 4x4 Latin square design. The basal diet con-
tained 15 % soybean meal, 61.9 % barley, 10 % wheat bran, 10 % sugar
beet pulp, 2.6 % of a mineral- vitamin mixture and 0.5 % chromic oxide
as digestibility marker.Thedietary treatments were asfollows:

Treatment Is Basal diet (Control)

Treatment 2:Basal diet + 2 . 0 %propionic acid
Treatment 3:Basal diet +2.5 %siliceous earth
Treatment 4:Basaldiet + 2 . 0 %propionic acid +2.5 *siliceous earth

Siliceous earth was supplemented to the diet as a possible adsorbent

for propionic acid, which, in turn may affect the release of propionic
acid during its passage in the gastrointestinal tract and thereby the
site and mode of action. The diets were formulated to contain 17 to 18%
CP(%DM).Thepigs were fed twicedaily, 900 geach meal.
Each experimental period lasted 12d. Following an 8-d adaptation
period feces were collected for 2 d at 12-h intervals followed by a 12-h
collection period of cecal digesta on d 11 and a 12-h collection period
of ileal digesta on d 12.Feces and digesta were frozen immediately after
sampling andpooled,where appropiate.
The pooled samples were freeze-dried, ground in a Wiley mill through
a 1 mm mesh screen and thoroughly mixed prior analyses. Analyses for
N and DM were conducted according to AOAC (1980) methods. Energy was
measured with an adiabatic bomb calorimeter. Chromic oxide levels in
feed, digesta and feces were determined according to Fenton and Fenton
(1979). Amino acid analyses were performed following acid hydrolysis
in 6N HCl for 24h using an amino acid analyzer (LKBAlphatronic).
Ammonia in ileal and cecal digesta was determined photometrically using
a test kit (Sigma No. 640).Analyses for cadaverine and putrescine were
carried out bymeans of HPLC.
The results were subjected to least square analyses of variance for
unequal numbers (Mehlenbacher, 1978). Least square means were compared
using the Student Newman-Keuls multiple range test (Steel and Torrie,
1980).

Results and Discussion

Apparent ileal and fecal digestibilities of energy and protein were not
affected (p>.05) by the different dietary treatments. However, the ileal
digestibilities of all indispensable and dispensable amino acids were
higher when propionic acid or propionic acid in combination with sili-
ceous earth were supplemented. These differences were significant (p<.05)
for histidine and arginine. Compared to the basal diet (control) the
addition of siliceous earth decreased the digestibilities of all aminio
acids. This difference was significant (p<.05) for valine. Compared to
the diet inwhich 2.0 %propionic acid was supplemented, thedigestibili-
ties of most of the indispensable amino acids (arginine, histidine, iso-
leucine, leucine, phenylalanine, threonine, valine) and some of the dis-
pensable amino acids (glutamic acid, serine)was lower (p<.05). The cor-
responding differences ranged from 6.8 (glutamic acid) to 12.5 (valine)
percentage units.From these results can be concluded that the supplemen-
tation of propionic acid todiets of growing pigs will improve theappar-
ent ileal digestibilities of most of theamino acids.Comparative results
in the literature are not yet available. However, studies by Kirchgess-
ner and Roth (1980) also indicate that supplementation of organic acids,
such as fumaric acid, may improve fecal digestibilities of protein and
energy by 2 to 3 percentage units in diets for starter pigs. There was

453
also a tendency for higer fecal digestibilities of protein and energy
in diets for growing pigs, however this effect was not significant
(Kirchgessner and Roth, 1978b). The question arises whether the fecal
analysis method is sensitive enough to measure differences in protein
and amino acid digestibilities resulting from supplementation of organic
acids because of the modifying effect of the microflora in the large
intestine.

Table 1.Effect of supplementation of propionic acid or siliceous earth

or a combination of propionic acid and siliceous earth on the content
of cadaverine,putrescine and ammonia in ilealand cecal digesta.

D i e t

Basal Basal Basal Basal SE

diet diet diet diet
+prop. - +prop.
acid acid
+ silic. +silic.
earth earth

Ileal digesta
Cadaverine,nmol/g DM 335.7 294.8 204.6 220.6 91.2
Putrescine,nmol/g DM 777.6 624.3 903.2 971.7 316.2
Ammonia, yg/g DM 940.9 720.4C 989.4 971.7 85.5

Cecal digesta
Cadaverine,nmol/g DM 821.0 116.5 893.8 338.6. 146.9
be cd 2617.3 1414.0C 292.9
Putrescine,nmol/g DM 2562.2 1870.9
Ammonia, pg/g DM 1037.9 879.6 1120.9 941.9 140.1

Pooled standard error of themean

' ' Means ina rowwithdifferent superscripts differ (p<.05)

The supplementation of propionic acid decreased (p<.05) the level of

ammonia in ileal digesta and a similar trend was observed for cadaverine
and putrescine (Table 1 ) .The addition of siliceous earth as well as
the combination of propionic acid and siliceous earth did not affect
(p>.05)the levelof cadaverine,putrescine and ammonia in ilealdigesta.
The supplementation of propionic acid decreased the concentrations
of the microbial metabolites in cecal digesta of pigs. This difference
was significant (p<.05)for cadaverine. The supplementation of siliceous
earth had no effect on the level of amines and ammonia in cecal digesta
compared to the basal diet. The supplementation of both siliceous earth
and propionic acid seemed to reduce the level of amines and ammonia,
whichwas significant (p<.05)forputrescine compared to thebasaldiet.
The results of the present study support the notion, that supplementa-
tion of pig diets with organic acids, such as propionic acid, will have
a beneficial effect on the processes of digestion and absorption in the
gastrointestinal tract by decreasing the formation of toxic microbial
metabolites andby increasing the ileal amino acid digestibilities.

454
References
AOAC, 1980.Official Methods of Analysis (12 E d . ) .Association ofOffi-
cialAnalytical Chemists,Washington,DC.
Falkowski, J. F. & F. X. Aherne, 1984. Fumaric acid as feed additives
instarter pig nutrition.0.Anim. Sei. 58:935-938.
Fenton, T. W. & M. Fenton, 1979.An improved procedure for determination
of chromic oxide in feed and feces.Can. J.Anim. Sei. 59:631-634.
Giesting, D.W. &R.A. Easter, 1985.Response of starterpigs tosupple-
mentation of corn-soybean meal diets with organic acids. J. Anim. Sei.
60:1288-1294.
Kirchgessner, M. & F. X. Roth, 1976. Zum Einsatz von Fumarsäure in der
Ferkelaufzucht. Züchtungskunde 48:402-406.
Kirchgessner, M. & F. X. Roth, 1978 . Fumarsäure als Futteradditiv in
der Ferkelaufzuchtund Schweinemast. Züchtungskunde50:17-25.
Kirchgessner, M. & F. X. Roth, 1978 .Nährstoff- und Energieverdaulich-
keit bei Fumarsäure - Zulage. Z. Tierphysiol. Tierernährg. Futtermit-
telk.41:71-76.
Kirchgessner, M. & F. X. Roth, 1980.Verdaulichkeit und Bilanz von Pro-
tein, Energie und einigen Mineralstoffen bei Fumarsäurezulagen an Fer-
kel. Z.Tierphysiol.Tierernährg. Futtermittelk. 44:239-246.
Kirchgessner, M. & F. X. Roth, 1982. Propionsäure als Futteradditiv in
der Ferkelaufzucht und Schweinemast. Wirtschaftseig. Futter 28:225-
234.
Kirchgessner, M. & F. X. Roth, 1988. Ergotrope Effekte durch organische
Säuren in der Ferkelaufzucht und Schweinemast. Obers. Tierernährg.
16:93-108.
Mehlenbacher, L.A., 1978.Programs for least square analysis of variance
and covariance. Dept.of Anim. Sei., Univ. ofAlberta,Edmonton,Canada
(Mimeo).
Mosenthin, R., 1987.Untersuchungen zumEinfluß pflanzlicher Kohlenhydra-
te in Rationen wachsender Schweine auf die endogene Stickstoff- und
Enzymsekretion in den Verdauungstrakt sowie auf praecaecale und post-
ileale Umsetzungen N-haltiger Verbindungen. Habilitationsschrift Agr.
Fak.,Univ.Kiel.
Sauer,W. C , H. J^rgenson &R. Berzins, 1983.A modified nylon bag tech-
nique for determining apparent digestibilities of protein in feedstuffs
forpigs.Can.J.Anim. Sei.63:233-237.
Steel, R. G. D. & J. H. Torrie, 1980.Principles and procedures of sta-
tistics.A biometricalapproach.McGraw-Hill Book Co.,New York.

455
MAIZESTARCHDIGESTIBILITYFROMCCMWITHDIFFERENT
CHOPPING DEGREES AND CRUDE FIBRE CONTENTS IN
ILEORECTOMIZED AND INTACTPIGS
C.Wecke &G. Gebhardt
Division ofAnimalNutrition Physiology and Peed Science,
Faculty ofAgriculture,University ofLeipzig, Germany

Abstract
Two experimentswere carried out onileorectomized and
intact growing aswell ason finishing pigs toestimate the
digestibility of starch as the mainnutrient component in
corn-cob-mix (CCM)with particular consideration ofits
chopping degree and crude fibre content.
Independent of the liveweight ofthe animals,the section
of the digestive tract and the chopping degree and crude
fibre content of the tested CCMsilageswere obtained cor-
responding very high starch digestibility values onan
average of 99 %inall treatments.Thisresults confirm,
that themaize starch from CCMsilage isnearly complete
digested by the pig already in the small intestine.

Introduction
The aim of the experimentswas toestimate the starchdi-
gestibility of CCMwith particular consideration of thedi-
gestive capacity ofpigs indifferent liveweight ranges
and of the chopping degree and crude fibre content of CCM
silages. The concerned maize earproductswere derived from
nfaizeplants of the early maturing hybrid varieties "BEMA
210" and "MUTIN".After harvesting of CCMby using combines
with different sieve set equiment,grinding inhammermills
with sieves between 6and 12mm hole diameters andsubse-
quent ensiling incontainers orhorizontale siloswere get
9 CCM silage charges ofvarious composition (s.Tab. 1).
The attained chopping degree included sizes between
"coarse" (46 %of the CCMparticles< 2 mm)and "fine"
(80 %<2 mm).Independence ofthe harvested sharesofcob
parts in the CCM (c.15...75 %of thewhole cob quantities)
the adequate crude fibre contents (estimated byWEENDE
analysis)varyed between 33and 65g perkg drymatter(DM).
The analysis of the starch contents in the dried CCMsilage
charges and faeces ofpigswas realized inacentrallabo-
ratory of the university inHalle-Wittenberg by photometric
measurement ofglucose contents intheextract of thecor-
responding samples,wichwere treated before withperchlo-
ric acid (HCIO4)and by subsequent multiplication ofthese
valueswith adequate conversion factors.In the result of
this investigationswere get values between 50and 54 %
starch in the DMof the tested CCM silages.These dataare
ingood agreement with some literature values (Holmeset al.
1973, Schneider &Kirchgessner 1978).

456
Table 1. Characteristics ofthe tested COMsilages.

Trial Treat- Chopping Sieve Particles Cob Crude Starch

ment decgree holes <2mm share fibre
mm 1 ) % 2) g/kgDM g/kgDM

A coarse 12 46,0
B medium 10 high 496
54,6
(75%) 65
C fine 8 64,4
D medium 10 62,9 high
E fine 6 63 496
79,7 (75%)
P medium 1.0 59,8 medium
G fine 6 78,3 (45%) 48 517

H medium 10 56,6 low

I fine 6 76,9 (15%) 33 538

1)Hole diameters ofthe hammermill sieves

2)Shares ofcobs in the COMinrelation to thewhole cob
quantities

The majority ofthenewervalues of starchcontents in

CCMcanbe placed howeverover thisanalysed results (for
instance:Burgstaller et al. 1984,DLG 1984,Roth-Maier &
Kirchgessner 1984).
Por the determination ofthe starchdigestibilitywere car-
ried out two digestive experiments. In trial 1were used
castrated male pigs inaliveweight range from 95...105kg
and CCMsilageswith 3different chopping degrees,in trial
2 intact aswell as ileorectomized female pigswithlive
weights between 30and 50kg and CCMsilageswith 2diffe-
rent shopping degrees and 3different cob shares ina2x3
factorial procedure.
All experimental datawere interpreted by the help ofthe
2-factorialvariance analysis.
ResultsandDiscussion
Between intact growing pigs inaliveweight range of
circa 40kg and finishing pigswith anaverage of 100kg
liveweight could'nt found significant differences inthe
digestibility ofmaize starch from the tested different CCM
silages (Tab.2 ) .Independent ofthe liveweight ofpigs
and the qualitative composition of the CCMchargeswereob-
tained digestibility values over99 %.
Theresults about the influence of chopping degrees on
starch digestibility also indicate no effect,ifmore than
50%ofthe CCMparticles are smaller than 2mm (Tab. 3).
This isreached by using hammermill sieveswith holedia-
meters of 10mm. The meanvalue intreatment A (98,63 % ) ,

457
Table 2.Influence ofpigs liveweight on starchdigestibi-
lity.
CCM s i l a g e Treat- l i v e weight of p i g s
n
Chopping Cob ment c . 100 kg c. 40 kg
degree share ( T r i a l 1) ( T r i a l 2)
s t a r c h dige ä t i b i l i t y {%)
medium 75 % BD 9 99,27 99,18
±0,03 ±0,14
medium diffe- BDFH 17 99,27 99,29
rent ±0,03 ±0,14
medium diffe- B-I 33 99,30 99,39
-fine rent ±0,05 ±0,09

inwhich only 46 %of the particleswere<2 mm,wassignifi-

cantly lower (<*<0,05)thanall the other digestibility va-
lues obtained at the end ofthedigestive tract,thoughon-
ly 0,6...0,9 %relatively. Porthat reason the investigated
starch digestibilities aregood toarrange in the results
ofcrude nutrient digestibilities ofdifferent grinded CCM
silages (Roth-Maier&Kirchgessner 1984,Wecke et al. 1989).
The increased crude fibre contents inthe CCM silages has
affected the ileal (praecaecal)starch digestibility positi-
vely (°c<0,05;,but likewise toavery small size (0,8 %).
Onthe otherhand,contrary to these results,was observed
i tendentious decrease in the faecal starch digestibilities
of the tested CCM silages under the same conditions.After
addition ofthe starch digestibilities ofbothplacesofdi-
gestionwere get ineach case equal meanvalues,independent
of the crude fibre contents orcob shares inthe CCMsilages.
Thisresults are at last ingood agreement with findings of
Graham et al. (1985)and Metzetal. (1985).A comparison
of the meanvalues of ilealwith the faecal starchdigesti-
bilities showes a significant superiority (<*<0,05)ofthe
latter digestibility values.Doubtless thisresult proceedes
first ofall from the very small standard deviations of
bouthmean values.Therefore it should inno case beoverra-
ted, since the faecal starch digestibilities are higherby
only 0,4 %relatively.
The presented investigations confirm, that the maize
starch from CCMsilages iscomplete digested by thepig.
Thevery high starch digestibilities of99 %good agree
with results from literature. Investigations onpigswith
CCM silages (Roth-Maier &Kirchgessner 1984)and maize corn
(Sugimoto &Takahashi 1986)have also supplied values bet-
ween 98and 100 %. Finally,it canbegoing out aswell
from the results of thepresented digestive trialwith ileo-
rectomized pigs as from literature values (Holmeset al.
1973), that the maize starch from CCMand cornis digested

458
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459
n e a r l y complete a l r e a d y in the small i n t e s t i n e of, growing
p i g s . The m i c r o b i a l s t a r c h d i g e s t i o n i n the colon with i t s
n e g a t i v e e f f e c t on the e n e r g e t i c u t i l i z a t i o n , l i k e observed
f o r i n s t a n c e with unheated p o t a t o e s , i s no object a c c o r d i n g -
l y i n the case of CGM s i l a g e .
References
B u r g s t a l l e r , G., G. Koch & G. Propstmeier, 1984. Wirt-
s c h a f t s e i g . F u t t e r 30:169-183
DLG (Deutsche L a n d w i r t s c h . - G e s e l l . ) , 1984. F u t t e r w e r t t a b e l l e
für Schweine. 5. erw. u. neu g e s t a l t . A u f l . , DLG-Verl.,
Frankfurt/M.
Graham, H., K. Hesselman &H. E v e r t s , 1985. Beretn. S t a t e n s
H u s d y r b r u g s f o r s . , Kobenhavn 580:195-198
Holmes, J . H . G . , H.S. Bayley & F.D. Horney, 1973. B r . J . N u t r .
30:401-410
Metz, S.H.M., R.A. Dekker &H. E v e r t s , 1985. Beretn. S t a t e n s
H u s d y r b r u g s f o r s . , Kobenhavn 580:227-230
Roth-Maier, Dora A. & M. Kirchgessner, 1984. W i r t s c h a f t s e i g .
F u t t e r 30:76-86
Schneider, R. &M. Kirchgessner, 1978. Landwirtsch. Forsch.
31:233-241
Sugimoto, KT. & S. Takahashi, 1986. J a p . J . Swine S e i . 2 3 :
57-61
Wecke, C., H. Jeroch & G. Gebhardt, 1989. Arch. Anim. Nutr.
39:593-601

460
DIGESTIBILITY OF CRUDE FIBRE AND NONSTARCH
POLYSACCHARIDESFROMRYEANDTR1TICALEINPIGLETS
Rosemarie Köhler&F.Reinisch

DivisionofAnimal Nutrition Physiology andFeed Science,

Faculty ofAgriculture,University ofLeipzig, Germany

Abstract
The digestibility ofcrude fibre,NDF,ADF,cellulose,hemicellulose
and lignin inryeandtriticalewasestimated onpiglets.Thedige-
stibility ofNDFwasmuch higher (52,7%inryeand50,1%intriti-
cale)thanthecrude fibredigestibility, which amountedto36,2 %
inryeandto0'%.intriticale.Therewasnosignificant influence
of conservation ofthefaeceswith 5percent sulfuric acid onthe
digestibility ofdietary fibrewith exceptionofthehemicellulose
digestibility ofrye. '
Keywords: digestibility, piglet,dietary fibre,rye,triticale

Introduction
Awell known fact is,thatthevaluesofcrude fibre,obtainedby
theWEENDE analysis,dontmeetthecontent offibreinthefeedstuffs.
The same problem istotaken into consideration forthedigestibility
ofcrude fibre.More certainly inthis caseistheuseofthedietary
fibre concept (vanSoest 1967).Aspointed outbyRobertson andvan
Soest (1981)thefaecal bacterious cellwall substancesaresoluble
in neutralandacid detergentsandconsequently they cannotfalsify
theresults basedonthedetergent methods.Using thesetwodifferent
methodsthedigestibility ofcrude fibreanddietary fibreingrains
ofryeandtriticale should bedetermined.

Materials and Methods

Twelve piglets,weighing about20kg,wererandomly assignedtotwo
experimental groups.Thefirst group received aryediet,thesecond
a dietwhich contained triticaleasthemain component. Eachofthe
two diets contained 96%ofgrain,1,5%ofmineralicmixture,1%
ofvitamine mixture and1,5%ofoil.Thecontent ofnutrientsin
the grainsispresented intable1.Theanimalswere keptinmetabolic
cages.Thefoodwasgiven three times daily. Duringthemainexpe-
rimental period of4daysthefaeceswere sampled twice daily.The
faecesofthree pigletsofeach group were pooled with 5percent
sulfuric acid before deepfreezing,whilsttheremaining samplesof
faeceswere freezed without acid.Dietandfaeces wereanalysedfor
crude fibre,crude protein,fatandash.Thecellwall substancesNDF
(neutral detergent fibre),ADF (acid detergent fibre), cellulose,
hemicellulose andlignin were estimated bythedetergent extraction
method (Goering &vanSoest 1970,Strutz&Becker 1985).

461
Table1.Contentofnutrients(%ofdrymatter)ingrainsofrye
andtriticale.

Rye "Pluto" Trit icale

Crude protein 11,4 15,0
Crudefibre 3,4 4,6
Fat 1,2 1,2
Ash 2,0 3,0
NDF 15,2 15,5
ADF 3,1 4,8
Cellulose 2,5 4,0
Lignin 0,6 0,8
Hemicellulose 12,2 10,7

Results and Discussion

Intable2thedigestibility valuesofnutrientsanddietary fibre
are summarized. Becausethedifferencesindigestibility between
conservingthesamplesoffaeceswithorwithout acid with only
one exception werenotsignificant,allthevaluesofeach group
(6piglets) could beused forthemean value.Theonly significant
difference dependentonsampling offaeceswithorwithout acid
was betweenthedigestibilitiesofhemicelluloseintherye,which
amountedto58,2%respectively 61,2%.Generaltheresultstended
tobehigherinthesamples preserved without acid.
Moreoverthere were considerable differencesinthedrymatter
offaeces betweenthepigletsofthetwogroups.Thehigher values
ofdrymatterwereobservedinthetriticale group:46,4%-3,7
withoutand22,8%-0,6with acid conservation.Againstthisthe
^valuesofdrymatterwereinthefaecesofpigletsoftheryegroup:
32,5%-3,4withoutand18,2-1,5with acid.Theseresults
establishthewell known factofraisingthemoisture contentof
the faeces from young animalsbyryefeeding.
The digestibility oftotal cellwallsubstances (NDF)inryeand
triticaleismuch higherthanthedigestibility ofcrude fibre.In
theryethecrude fibre digestibility islying between digestibili-
ty valuesofADFandcellulose.Intriticalethedigestibilityof

Table2.Digestibility ofdietary fibre (%) ingrainsofrye

andtriticale.

Digestibilityof Rye"Pluto" Triticale "Grado"

Crude fibre 36,2 - 4,2 (-12,5 I 14,1)

NDF 52,7 I 1,3 50,1 I 8,6
ADF 28,0 - 2 , 1 33,3 I 9,9
Cellulose 43,7 - 1,7 44,0 I 9,4
Lignin 2,0 I 4,2 10,1 î 13,2
Hemicellulose 59,8 - 1,7 57,0 Ï 8,4

462
crude fibre amounted to zero (exactly to -12,5 % ) , whilst ADF and
cellulose with regard to digestibility differs only few from the
values inrye.
There isnoexplanation forthe very low digestibility of crude
fibre inthetriticale.Maybe this result isinfluenced bythe age
ofthe animals because inthe feed valuetables ofDLG (1984)the
digestibility of crude fibre intriticale for adult pigs amounts
to 35%. Also the digestibility oflignin intriticale is notreal.
Asalready pointed out by van Soest (1983)higher lignin digesti-
bilities than zero are caused by analytical problems ofrecovery
of low lignin amounts inthefaeces.
Summarizing these results isto conclude,thatthe piglet can
digest the dietary fibre inrye andtriticale to about 50 %and
that the crude fibre isnot ableto givetheright values of
digestibility.

References
DLG-Futterwerttabellen für Schweine,5.Auflage,1984.
DLG-Verlag, Frankfurt amMain.
Goering, H.K. &P.J. Van Soest,1970.Forage fiber analysis. ,
Agr. Handbook No.379,ARS/USDA,Washington, D.C.
Robertson, J.B. &P.J. Van Soest,1981.The detergent system of
analysis and itsapplication to human foods.In:James,W.P.T.
& Theander,0.
The analysis of dietary fiber in food.
Marcel Dekker,Inc.New York, Basel, p.123 -156.
Strutz, M. &K.H. Becker, 1985.Ein Beitrag zur Bestimmung desneu-
tralen Detergenzfasergehaltes beiWinterweizen. Arch.Tierern.35:
527 -533
Van Soest,P.J. 1967.Development ofacomprehensive system of
feed analysis and its application to forages.J. ofAnim. Scie.26:
119 -128
Van Soest,P.J. 1983.Nutritional ecology oftheruminant.
0.& B.Books,Inc.,Corvallis,Oregon.

463
EFFECTS OF A PROPIONIC ACID CONTAINING FEED
ADDITIVEONPERFORMANCEANDINTESTINALMICROBIAL
FERMENTATION OFTHEWEANLINGPIG1
A.G.Mathew,A.L.Sutton,A.B.Scheidt,D.M.Forsyth,J.A.PattersonandD.T.Kelly

Department ofAnimalSciencesandDepartment ofVeterinaryClinicalSciences,Purdue

University,WestLafayette, IndianaUSA47907.

Abstract
(5)
Two experiments were conducted to determine the effects of Luprosil-NC* (L) (propionic
acid,53.5%;ammonium hydroxide9.5%;1,2propanediol, 11.5%;water,25.5%:BASFCorp.)on
performance and entericmicrobial populationsof theyoungpig. InExperiment 1,200weanling
pigswere allotted tofivetreatment diets (0%,.25%,.5%, 1.0% Land .125%tylan-sulfa (TS).
Fivepigs from each treatment were sacrificed on the 4th weekand the 8thweek of the trial to
collect digesta samples from the stomach, duodenum, cecum, proximal and distal colon. Pig
gains and efficiencies were improved (p<.03) when fed theTS diet and the .25%Lduring the
nursery phase. At the eighth week sampling, pigs fed .25%L and TS had higher (p<.02)
Lactobacillus concentrations in the stomach and pigs fed the control had lower (p<.05)
Lactobacillus concentrationsintheduodenum compared totheother treatments.
In the second experiment, two trials were conducted with six 21-day old pigs (twelve total)
fitted with t-cannulasin theproximal ileum.Atweaning,pigswere randomlyassigned to3diets
(0, .5%and 1.0% L). Digesta samples were obtained on days 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 11and 14 after
weaning. Allpigs showed a significant (p<.10) reduction in Lactobacillus and a corresponding
increasein E.coli concentration on day2. Therewasnodifference between diets at the a=.05
level.

Introduction
r
Amajor economicproblem inswineproduction is the occurrenceof digestive disorders,such
as colibacillosis and diarrhea, caused by microbial abnormalities in the lower gastrointestinal
(GI) tract of pigs. Often during the stressful lime of weaning, pigs have reduced bodyweight
gains, poor feed intake, appear lethargic and fail to regain normal health and performance
(KohierandMoon,1984).

Potentialcausesofthesedisordersarclackofpropersanitation, reduced immunity,nutritional

imbalances or poor quality feeds (molds, toxins, etc.), environmental stress (high humidity,
improper ventilation, etc.) and infectious agents (Kohier and Moon, 1984). The effects of
antibiotics,pH,nitrogen sourcesandlevels,carbohydratesources,fiber content andvolatilefatly
acids (VFA) on diarrhea and the E.coliconcentrations in the intestine havebeen investigated
(Dierick, ct al., 1986;Février and Aumaitre, 1979;Kim, et al., 1978;Muralidhara, et al,1977;
Prohaszka and Baron, 1982;Prohaszka and Lucas,1984; Février,1978). Itappears that thetype
of microbial metabolism in the intestine resulting in different proportions of specific end
products, i.e. volatile fatty acids, ammonia, ionized cations, can greatly affect the specific
microbialpopulations that predominate. Ifconditionsexistinthe intestinallumenthat support
microbial populations which will be competitive with and predominate over pathogens, then
resistancetoentericdiseaseswillbeenhanced.

Research supported inpartbygrantsfrom BASFCorporation,ChemicalsDivision,

Parsippany,NJ

464
 Addition of organic acids or salts have been proposed to alter pH and VFA's of the GI
contentsin the pig. Organic acids(propionicacid orpropionic-acetic acidcombinations) have
been shown to preserve high moisture feed ingredients used for livestock and poultry dietsby
controlling mold development and reducing bacterial growth. Luprosil-NC is a product
containing propionic acid, ammonium hydroxide, water, and 1,2, propanediol which is non-
corrosiveto metalequipment,servesasa diet preservative,and hasthe potentialofaltering the
microbialecologywithinthedigestivesystemofthepig. However,researchisneededto
understand the interrelationships between this product and the microbial populations,
competitionfor nutrients bythehost animaland microbes,and thecontrol of harmful microbes
for improved health of the animal. Therefore, the objective of the research studies reported
here, was to determine the effect of Luprosil-NC® on performance, selected microflora
populationsandintestinalfermentation patternsofgrowingpigs.

Materials and Methods

ExperimentI

Twohundredweanlingpigswereusedinanursery-growertrial. Thepigswereassigned tofive

dietarytreatments (0, .25%,.5%,1.0% Luprosil-NC®and.125%tylan-sulfa)withfivereplicate
pensofeachexperimentaldietwitheight(8)pigsperpen.

Pigswere weaned at four (4) weeks of age without prior creep feeding and placed-in raised
nurserydecks. Five pigsper treatment (one from each pen;25pigstotal) were euthanatized at
thefourth weekofthetrial forsamplingofintestinalcontents. Therest ofthepigsweremoved
from the nursery to the growing facility, keeping pigs from all pens together for an additional
four week feedingtrial. An additional pigfrom eachpen (fivepertreatment; 25pigs total)was
euthanatized at theendofthefourweekgrowthphaseforsamplingofintestinalcontents.

Gastrointestinal contents from the stomach, upper portion of the duodenum, cecum, and
proximal and distal colon were collected immediately after the pigs were euthanatized.
Gastrointestinalsampleswereassayed forE.çojiusingBactoEMBagar,andLactobacillususing
Bacto Rogosa SL agar. Volatile fatty acids were also determined on gastrointestinal contents
usinggaschromatographymethods.

ExperimentII

Two trials were conducted with six21-day old pigs (12 total). All pigswere surgically fitted
witht-cannulasintheproximalileum7dayspriortoweaning. After arecoveryperiod of7days,
the pigs were weaned and assigned to 3 experimental diets (control, .5%and 1.0% Luprosil-
NC®). Nofeed antibioticswereused. Thedigesta ofeach pigwassampledon days0,2,4,6,8,
11and14afterweaning. SampleswereanalyzedforE.coli.LactobacillusandpH.

Results and Discussion

ExperimentI

Averagedailygain(ADG) andfeed efficiency (FE)weresuperior (p<.03) for thepigs fed the

.25%Luprosil-NC® diet and antibiotic (tylan-sulfa) compared to the other dietary treatments
duringthe nurseryphase (0-4wks) ofthe experiment.ADGwasimproved by10.3%and14.7%
respectivelyover the control diet and FEwasimproved 11.3% and 13.3% respectively over the
controldietinthatfeeding period.

In the 8week old pigs (4th week on trial), Lactobacillus colony counts were highest in the
cecumandlargeintestine. Ingeneral,theLuprosil-NC1*'dietstended topromotethisgrowthin
the lower GI tract. In the 12week old pig (8th week on trial), Lactobacillus concentrations
increased throughout the GI tract, but there were significant effects of Luprosil-NC and the
antibiotic diets in the stomach and small intestine (Table 1). Pigs fed the Luprosil-NC and
antibiotic diets increased (p<.05) Lactobacillus concentrations in the duodenum. In the

465
 stomach, pigs fed the .25% Luprosil-NC® and the antibiotic diets had higher Lactobacillus
concentrations than those fed thecontrol diet. Therewere nosignificant differences inE.coli
concentrationsbetweendiets(Table2).

Table1. Effect ofLuprosil-NC®onLactobacillusinintestinalcontents (coloniespergram)

(ExpI).

Luprosil -NC® %

Time of
Sampling Location C3 .25 .5 1.00 Aa

4th wk Stomach (xlO 5 ) .66 .46 5.21 4.00 3.08

Duodenum (xl(r) 5.88 0.00 6.76 .45 2.54
Cecum (xlO 7 ) 5.66 8.42 12.12 9.31 5.46
Proximal LI (xlO7) 10.18 15.96 25.46 3.83 12.21
Distal LI (xlO 7 ) 9.22 26.17 22.37 14.22 11.32

8th wk Stomach (xlO6)4* 2.78 31.61 19.79 21.43 32.53

Duodenum fxl0 6 ) c 2.27 18.98 19.37 11.33 31.57
Cecum (xlO s ) 6.32 5.50 1.35 4.47 4.68
Proximal LI (xlO8) 7.96 10.68 6.10 7.49 8.88
Distal LI (xlO 8 ) 10.12 7.00 8.00 9.08 9.83

C= corn-soybasaldietw/oantibiotic;A= corn-soybasaldietwith.125%tylan-sulfa.
' p< .11 fordietarytreatmenteffect inallcontentsin8thweek,
p< .0001for locationeffect inbothsamplingperiods. SEM = 4.5x1 0 .
' p< .05,control < allotherdietarytreatments.
p< .02,.25%Luprosil-NC®,antibiotic > control.

Table2. Effect ofLuprosil-NC®onE.coliinintestinalcontents,(coloniespergram) (ExpI).

^ Luprosil - NC ® %

Time of
Sampling Location C3 .25 .5 1.00 Aa

4th wk Stomach (xlO 6 ) 5.57 4.48 11.70 7.49 16.30

Duodenum (xlO 6 ) 11.00 3.62 14.39 27.67 37.75
Cecum (xlO 6 ) 24.75 5.22 6.12 10.19 17.32
Proximal LI (xlO 6 ) 30.56 5.67 9.20 4.12 14.82
Distal LI (xlO 6 ) 12.13 3.12 51.03 7.85 32.69

8thwk Stomach (xlO 5 ) 8.40 7.01 11.39 .94 3.42

Duodenum (xlO 6 ) 2.75 .42 2.36 .59 .33
Cecum (xlO 6 ) 9.17 12.63 5.80 4.21 62.16
Proximal LI (xlO 6 ) 21.27 .29 7.94 2.83 24.30
Distal LI (xlO6) 17.17 20.75 7.29 2.90 10.38

C= corn-soybasaldietw/oantibiotic;A= corn-soybasaldietwith.125% tylan-sulfa.

466

L
 Volatilefatty acidsof intestinalcontents of thepigsweresimilarinconcentration betweenthe
experimental diets. There were differences at the 8th week sampling (p<.10) with a higher
proportion (%) of butyrate, and valerate, but a lower percent of acetate, isobutyrate and
isovaleratein cecaland stomach contents of pigsfed the .25% Luprosil-NC diet as compared
tothecontrol (Table3).

Table3. Effect ofLuprosü-NC^onvolatilefattyacidsincecalcontents(mMol/L)(ExpI).

Lurposil-NC® %

Time of
Sampling Location d» .25 .5 1.00 Aa SEM

4th wk Acetate 80.2 67.7 67.5 54.0 80.9 5.1

Propionate 44.4 37.0 39.6 33.8 42.7 2.1
Butyrate 22.4 19.7 23.6 24.0 23.1 1.6
Isobutyrate 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.7 .1
Valerate 4.8 4.1 5.6 5.1 6.1 .5
Iso-valerate 4.7 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.7

8thwk Acetate 83.2 76.8 69.5 99.7 64.6 6.3

Propionate 40.5 46.9 59.1 48.6 36.3 3.0
Butyrate 20.2 27.0 22.4 34.1 28.8 1.6
Iso-butyrate 1.0 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.5 .1
Valerate 4.3 7.4 4.0 6.6 9.2 .5
Iso-valerate 2.0 1.4 1.8 1.7 1.2 .2
a
C= corn soybasal diet w/o antibiotic; A = corn soybasal diet with .125% tylan-sulfa.

Experiment II:

Allpigsshowedasignificant decrease(p<.10) inLactobacilluson day2,whenacorresponding

increasein E.coli occurred (Figures 1 and 2). Thiswas followed bya recoveryof Lactobacillus
to near preweaning concentrations over the next several days and a decline in E. coli. E.coli
concentrations were significantly lower (p<.10) for the 1% Luprosil-NC treatment over the
twoweek trial period. There were no differences in pH between diets at thea=.10 level. The
reasonfor thedecrease inLactobacillus soonafter weaningisnotclear. Itmayberelated to the
reduced intake which often occurs the first few days postweaning. Additionally, Lactobacillus
mayrequire a longer adaptation period to thechange in nutrient sources i.e.,sow'smilk to dry
feed, which occurs at weaning. This may give a competitive advantage to E. coli in the
gastrointestinal tractofthenewlyweanedpig.

Conclusions
Low levels of Luprosil-NC in weanling pig diets supported efficient feed utilization and
growth especially during the first four weeksafter weaning. Therewere trends toward reduced
E. coli concentrations and increased Lactobacillus concentrations in upper portions of the
intestinalcontentsofpigsfeddietswithLuprosil-NC®additions.

Abruptchanges inLactobacillus and E.coli canoccur during thestress ofweaning. Luprosil-

NC®didnotsignificantly altervolatilefattyacidconcentrationsofintestinalcontents.

467
 EFFECTOFLUPROSIL-NC®ONILEALLACTOBACILLUS CONCENTRATION

7.S

LOSJLO
Lactobacillus
pergram sample

Daysafter Weaning

Control = solid line,.5%L = dotted line,1.0% = broken line

Standard error = .39

EFFECTOFLUPROSIL-NC'8'ONILEALE.COLI CONCENTRATION

Log 10
r E.coli
pergram sample

0 2 4 6 a 10 12 14

Daysafter Weaning

Control = solidline,.5%L = dotted line,1.0% = broken line

Standard error = .38

468
 Additionalintensiveresearchstudiesareneeded tofurther determinemoreclearlythemodeof
actionandroleofLuprosil-NC onthemicrobialecologyintheGItractofthepig.

References
Dierick,N.A.,I.J.Vervake,J.A.Decuypere and H.K,Henderickx. 1986. Influence ofthegut
flora and ofsome growth-promotingfeed additiveson nitrogenmetabolism inpigs. I.studies
invitro. LivestockProductionSei.14:161-176.
Février, C. 1978. Use of dried whey in pig diets. Part 1- Interaction with the dietary protein
levelaccordingtogrowthstageandsex.Ann.Zootech.27:195-210.
Février,C.andA Aumaitre. 1979. Useofdriedwheyinpigfeeding. Part 3-Consequences on
theactivityofintestinallactoseandpancreaticamylase. Ann.Zootech. 28:19-34.
Kim,K.I.,N.J.BenevengaandR.H.Grummer. 1978. Lactoseactivityand VFAproduction in
thececumandcolonofpigsfedacorn-soyor40%wheydiet. J.Anim.Sei. 46:1648-1657.
Kohler, E. M. and H. Moon. 1984. Enteric colibacillosis of newborn pigs. Pork Industry
Handbook. PurdueUniversityCoop. Ext.Ser.PHI-30.
Muralidhara, K.S., G. G. Sheggeby, P.R. Elliker, D. C. England and W. E. San Dine. 1977.
Effect of feeding Lactobacilli on the coliform and Lactobacillus flora of intestinal tissue and
feed from piglets. J.FoodProt.40:288-295. /
Prohaszka,L.andF.Baron. 1982. Antibacterialeffect ofvolatilefatty-acids on enterobacteriace
inthelargeintestine. Acta.VetAcad.Sei.Hung.30:9-16.
Prohaszka, L. and K.Lucas. 1984. Influence of the diet on the antibacterial effect of volatile
fatty-acids and on the development of swinedysentery. Zentgralbl. Veterinaermed. Reihe B
31:779-785.

469
THE EFFECT OF THE CARBOHYDRATE FRACTION FROM
VARIOUS RAW MATERIALS ON THE PERFORMANCE, THE
ILEALANDFAECALDIGESTIBILITIESANDTHEENERGETIC
VALUEOFTHE DIET
C.H.M.Smits,W.A.G.Veen,G.J. Borggreve,J.J. Heeres-Van derTol

CLO-Institute for Animal Nutrition "De Schothorst", Lelystad, the

Netherlands

Abstract
Three experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of diets
varying in source andamounts of NFEandcrude fibre onthe performance,
the ileal andthefaecal digestibilities andtheenergetic value.
In thegrowth trial thediets with alowproportion of starch intheNFE
and ahigh crude fibre content gaveonaveragea4,5%lower weight gainand
a 3% higher feed conversion than the control diet with the highest
proportion of starch intheNFE.Themeatpercentage inthecarcassesofthe
pigsonthediets high in crude fibre andNFEminus starch wason average
1,5%higher indicating alower fatdeposition.Theadditionofarelatively
inert crude fibre andNFE source (straw and sunflowerseedhulls) didnot
haveanegative influenceontheperformanceofthepigs.Thedigestibility
experiments showed that ofthedNFE fraction more than 80%wasdigestedat
theendofileum inthecontrol diet with 45%ofstarch.Ofthediets based
on,grainbyprodycts,oilseedmeals/expellersandpulps only 62to72%ofthe
NFE fraction wasdigested attheendof theileum. A greater part ofthe
NFE of these diets must have been fermented compared tothecontrol diet.
Itisconcluded that theestimationoftheRostock formula oftheenergetic
value ofdiets is inaccurate fordiets rich indNFE minus starch andcrude
fibre.

Introduction
The energetic value oftherawmaterials ofpigdietsintheNetherlands
is calculated with the Rostock formula (Nehring, 1967): NE p ig S = 2.59x
dcprotein +8,63x dcfat+1,50xdcfibre +3,03xdNFE fraction (Nitrogen
Free Extract). FortheNFEfraction theformula does notdistinguish the
carbohydrate fraction that is digested by enzymes produced by theanimal
itself and the fraction that is fermented by the microbes. This is
important for the energetic value of the diet. Theend products ofthe
praecaecal digestion of carbohydrates are monomeric sugars. During the
digestion steps theenergy losses arerelatively low.Theendproductsof
the fermentation of carbohydrates are volatile fatty acids which have a
lower NEvaille than glucose. Furthermore energy losses will occur bythe
production ofheatandmethane (MullerandKirchgessner, 1986).
Highly fermentable but non digestible carbohydrates are non starch
polysaccharides and a-galactosides like pectins, ß-glucans, pentosans,
stachyose and raffinose. Themain carbohydrate fraction inpigdiets that
is digested by animal produced enzymes isstarch. Muller and Kirchgessner

470
Table 1 Composition of the diets

Content(%) A B C D G
45% starch grain by- oilseed- pulps A incl.
products meals/ pulps and
expellers soybean-
hulls

Feedstuff

citruspulp - - - 6 4,7
animal fat - 3,85 3,35 3,6 0,85
peas 5 5 5 5 4,42
barley 5 5 5 5 4,7
rapeseed oilmeal - - 2,5 - -
hominy feed - 9,6 9,55 - -
maize gluten feed - 10 - - -
molasses, cane 2,8 2,8 2,8 2,8 3,75
maize 12,9 - - - 12,12
maize gluten meal 1,5 - - 1,5 1,41
beetpulp - - - 6 5,64
palmkernel,exp. - - 2,5 - -
wheat middlings - 15 - - -
tapioca meal 34,3 25 30,5 33,3 18,87
wheat 13,6 - - - 12,73
groundnut,exp. - - 2,7 - -
coconut,exp. - - 2,5 - -
soybeanhulls - 0,9 - 10,6 10,15
soybean oilmeal 21,9 19,5 15,4 22,6 16,53
sunflower oilmeal - - 15 - -
limestone 0,2 0,7 0,5 - -
monocalciumphosphate 0,5 0,4 0,4 0,7 0,65
Ca-propionate 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,47
premix 0,5 0,5 0,5 1,35 0,84
salt. 0,3 0,25 0,3 0,25 0,23
diamol 1 1 1 1 0,94

Total 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00 100,00

Calculated contents

energy content(kcalNE/kg) 2197 2197 2195 2195 2077

NFE (gr/kg) 591 526 492 518 549
starch (gr/kg) 447 307 297 288 345
NFEminus starch (gr/kg) 144 219 195 230 214
crude fibre (gr/kg) 30 47 69 73 67
cellulose (gr/kg) 29 36 56 70 66
NCP** (gr/kg) 103 143 120 124 136

* All diets contained 7.3 grammes/kg digestible lysine

** Analysed contents

471
(1989) have calculated that the efficiency of utilization of energy via
hindgut fermentation compared to that of praecaecally digested starchwas
about 70%.Thehypothesis isthat feedstuffs with alowstarch contentand
a high content ofnondigestible butfermentable NFEareoverestimated in
energy content bytheRostock formula and/or feedstuffs with ahigh starch
content areunderestimated.
Another disadvantage of diets rich innonstarch NFEand crude fibre is
that they can have an influence on the digestion of crude fat, crude
protein andminerals (Grahamet al,1986;Laplaceetal,1989;Metz,1985;
Stanogias and Pearce, 1985). Especially the fat digestion seems tobe
depressed bythenonstarch carbohydrate fraction (Drochner, 1984;Justet
al, 1980).

Experimental procedure

Three experiments were conducted to study the effect of the amountand

nature ofNFEand crude fibre ontheperformance, theenergetic valueand
the ileal and faecal digestibilities. Seven diets were formulated
containing different levelsandsourcesofcarbohydrates anddietary fibre.
The positive control diet (A)contained 45%starch and3%crude fibreand
was based on tapiocamealandwheat asmain carbohydrate sources.Thediets
B,CandDwere formulated tocontain thesamenetenergy content according
to the Rostock formula. In these diets starch was exchanged forfatand
crude fibre with different rawmaterials.In treatment.E 30grammes starch
was added toeach kgof dietCinorder togetthesame netenergy content
in thediet as treatment A when thediets were calculated according toa
modified Rostock-formula (Borggreve et al, 1976). Toeach kgofdiet A35
grammes of straw and51grammes of sunflowerseedhulls wasadded toobtain
diet F with theaim to study the influence of a relatively inert crude
fibre source. Diet Gwasbased onthecomposition of diet Abuthada4%
higher crude fibre content with beetpulp, citruspulp andsoybeanhulls as
cr-ude fibre sources.Thecomposition ofthedietsaregivenintable1.The
-diets A, B, C,D, E andF were used in the performance trial. In this
experiment 96 individually housed pigs were allocated to thediets with
each group of 16 animals consisting of 8 barrows and 8 sows. The
experimental diets were given from38to107kgliveweight.
The animals were scale fedduring thepreliminary and the experimental
period.Theintakewasexpected tobe90%oftheadlibitum feed intake.
In thefirst digestibility experiment thedietsA,B,CandDwere usedand
inthesecond trial thediets A,FandG. Ileorectostomised pigs were used
for thedetermination oftheileal digestibilities.Thepigs were placedin
metabolism crates andfed twice daily. Thefeeding level was4%of their
liveweight.Theinitial weightwasonaverage30kg.During thecollection
period there werenofeed refusals.

Resultsand Discussion
The performance data, corrected fordifferences indressing percentage,
are given intable 2.ThedietsB,CandD resulted in lower weight gains
than diet A resp. -4.6,-4.1 and -5.3%. These differences cannot be
explained bythe differences inenergy intake according to theunadapted
Rostock formula i.e.resp. -1.5,-1.5and -0.8%. Thedata seem to confirm
the hypothesis that the formula overestimates the energy content ofthe
diets rich inNFEminus starch andahigh fatcontent.Theresultsof diet
E were expected tobebetter than theresultsofdietCbecauseinaddition
to each kgofdiet C30grammesof cornstarch wasadded toobtain dietE.
472
Table 2 The effect of the amount and source of dietary fibre on the
performance and carcass quality of pigs

Treatment A B C D E F LSD
45% grain- oilseed- pulps C+add. A+add. (0,05)
starch bypro- meals/ corn straw and
ducts expellers starch sunflower
seedhulls
feed supply(%) 100 100 100 100 103 108

38-107ftkq
growth (gr/day) 912 872 876 866 881 918 37
feedintake (kg^day) 2,50 2,48 2,50 2,49 2,56 2,68 0,04
energy intake
(Mcal.NE/day) 5,59 5,50 5,50 5,54 5,63 5,67 0,09
feed conversion 2,74 2,84 2,35 2,88 2,91 2,92 0,11
energy conversion
(Mcal.NE/kg growth)6,13 6,31 6,28 6,43 6,39 6,18 0,24

dressing, % 75,4 74,8 74,0 73,9 75,0 75,3 0,8

carcass meat,% 52,5 53,9 54,5 53,8 53,5 53,8 1,4

* growth corrected for differences indressing percentage

** energy content corrected fordifferences between calculated and
analysed contents

No explanation can begiven for the results of this treatment.

The addition of 8% straw and sunflowerseedhulls to diet A (diet F) did not
have a negative influence on the weight gain or on the energy conversion.
Thus the addition of praecaecal undigestible and poorly fermentable
carbohydrates did not affect the energetic value of theoriginal diet.Diet
A gave a significant lower meatpercentage of the carcasses than the diets
B, Cand D. The lower average meatpercentage of thecarcasses of treatment
A indicate ahigher fat deposition than by treatments B,Cand D.
The results of the two digestibility trials are given in table 3. The
mean digestibility coefficients for diet A were lower in the first
experiment than in the second experiment. In the second experiment the same
ileorectostomised pigs were several weeks older. Therefore, it is only
possible to compare the results of the treatments within each trial. The
calculated crude protein digestibility according to the feedstuffs table
(CVB,1988) is also given in table 3.
The crude protein and crude fat digestibility of diet A was as expected
higher than for the other diets. There was however a discrepancy between
the calculated digestibilities and the measured digestibilities. This can
be explained by differences in the techniques used and age or weight of the
animals.

Remarkably low ileal digestibilities of crude protein, crude fat and NFE
were found for the diets Cand Dbased on resp. oilseedmeals/expellersand
pulps/soybeanhulls. These two diets tended to give also lower ileal starch
digestibilities than diet A. The digestibility of the NFE minus starch at
the end of the ileum was on average 21%and at the end of the intestinal
tract 77%.Especially the diet with the pulps (D) seemed to be fermented
intensive in the caecum and the colon. The experiment shows very clearly
that the starch content isdigested almost completely in the ileum and that
the NFE minus starch is fermented to alarge extent in the caecum and the
colon. In diet A and F approximately 84%of the digested NFE was digested

473
Table 3 The influence of the amount and natureof NFE and crudefibre in
the dietson the ileal and faecaldigestibilities..

crude prot sin crude fat

faecal ileal faecal ileal

determined tab!Le determined tab]Le determined determined

I
A 79,8 + 4,3 (86 9) 66,7 + 3,4 (76 0) 69,4+ 3,2 72,2 + 1,5
B 73,4 + 5,1 (82 5) 55,0 + 5,6 (73 3) 73,9 + 4,6 63,4 + 4,3
C 72,6 + 2,0 (82 6) 45,0 + 10,3 (69 3) 74,1 + 5,0 64.1 + 6,9
n 69,5 £ 2,9 (81 9) 46,2 £ 17,1 (69 9) 71,6 + 3,3 50.2+ 12,9
II
A 81,7 + 1,9 78,6 + 1,4 71,3 + 1,6 75.5 + 3,3
F 79,4 + 1,6 74,4 + 4,6 71,5 + 2,4 70.6 + 5,1
G 73,3 + 2,8 63,6 + 6,0 68,2+ 1,4 69,5+ 4,2
crude fibre starch
faecal ileal faecal ileal

I
A 47,6 + 6,6 0 99,8 + 0,09 98,7 + 0,5
B 44,0 + 3,9 0 99,7 + 0,02 97,4 + 1,1
C 37,7 + 3,0 0 99,5 + 0,2 96,4 + 0,5
D 44,1 £ 10,4 0 99,5 + 0,3 96,2 £ 0,8
II
A 45,6 + 3,6 0 99,8+ 0,09 98,8+ 0,1
F 22,1 + 3,1 0 99,8 + 0,07 98,6 + 0,7
G 34,7 £ 2,7 0 99,8 + 0,1 97,3 + 0,7
NFE NFE minus starch
faecal ileal faecal ileal

I
93,2 + 0,9 76,8 + 0,4 78.2+ 2,9 27.2+ 0,3
<-B 87,4 + 0,3 63,1 + 1,8 73,1 + 0,7 22,9 + 4,8
C 88,4 + 0,8 61,9 + 3,6 75.3 + 1,6 21.3 + 7,4
D 90,7 £ 0,6 56,2 £ 8,2 80,8 + 1,1 11,2 + 17,0
II
A 92,6 + 0,1 78,3 + 0,5 76.4 + 0,4 31,9 + 1,8
F 89,2 + 0,1 74,5 + 1,6 66,9 + 0,2 24,1 + 3,6
G 89,9 £ 0,3 63,7 + 2,2 77.5 + 0,6 21,3 + 5,2
NCP* cellulose
faecal ileal faecal ileal

I
A 71,5 + 1,7 25,4 + 4,3 59,0 + 10,5 0
B 64,4 + 1,7 6,3 £ 5,5 36,0 + 8,1 0
C 65,0 + 1,5 0 45,4+ 11,9 0
D 76,7 £i-i 0 42,8£ 16,8 0
II
A 71,8 + 2,2 31,6 + 2,4 54,9 + 9,8 6,4 + 12,6
F 59,9 + 1,7 18,9 £ 7,4 33,7 + 4,1 0 ~
G 72,1 + 1,2 14,0 + 2,7 28,0+ 3,7 0

* Non CellulosePolysaccharides

474
praecaclly, whereas for the diets B, C, D and G this was between 62 and
72%.
At Ihe end of the intestinal tract on average 69%of the NCP fraction and
46% of the cellulose had been digested in experiment I.
The NCP and cellulose contents were determine*because these fractions are
chemically better defined than the crude fibre fraction (Englyst and
Cummings, 1988). The digestibilities of the different carbohydrate
fractions were in comparison with the results of other workers (Graham et
al, 1986;Guisi-Perier et al,1989;Stanogias and Pearce, 1985).
The results of the digestibility experiments indicate that with the
inclusion of a high level of grain byproducts, oilseedmeals and pulps a
greater proportion of the dNFE fraction is fermented. The energetic value
of these feeds might be overestimated by the Rostock formula because, as
mentioned, the energetic value of post-ileal fermented NFE is lower thanof
praecaecal digested NFE. Another important factor that might contribute to
the inaccuracy of the estimation of the energy content of diets with ahigh
NFE minus starch and crude fibre content is that the net energy from the
fat digestion isoverestimated in these diets (Jongbloed, 1986).
More research has to be done to understand the influence of the
carbohydrate fraction from various raw materials on the digestion, and for
the precise formulation of an adapted formula for the estimation of the
energy content of feedstuffs. '

References
Borggreve,G.J., Van Kempen,G.J.M.,Cornelissen, J.P.,Grünbergen, A.H.M.,
1974. The net energy content of pig feeds according to the Rostock
formula. Thevalue of starch in the feed. Z. Tierphysiol., Tierernährung
u. Futtermittelk.34:199-204.
CVB,1988.Veevoedertabel: Gegegevens over voederwaarde, verteerbaarheid en
samenstelling. Centraal veevoederbureau in Nederland, Lelystad, The
Netherlands.
Drochner,W., 1984.Einfluss wechselender Rohfaser- und Pektingehalte im
Futter auf einige praecaecal und postileale Verdauungsvorgänge beim
wachsenden Schwein. Fortschritte in der Tierphysiologie und Tiernährung,
14 (125pp).
Englyst,H.N. SCummings,J.H., 1988.Improved method formeasurement of
dietary fibre as non starch polysaccharides in plant foods. J. Assoc.
Off. Anal. Chem.71:808-814.
Graham, H., Hesselman, K.SAman, P., 1986.The influence of wheat bran and
sugar-beet pulp on the digestibility of dietary components in a cereal
based pig diet.J. Nutr.116:242-251.
Jongbloed, A.W.,Diepen,J.Th.M. van & Smits,B., 1986.The effect of diets
predominantly based on cereals as byproducts on the performance of
growing pigs. Report no.176,IVVO, Lelystad, The Netherlands.
Just,A.,Andersen,J.O.,J$rgensen, H., 1980.The influence of diet
composition on the apparent digestibility of crude fat and fatty acids at
the terminal ileum and overall in pigs, Z.Tierphysiol.Tiernährung u.
Futtermittelkode, 44:82-92.
Laplace,J.P.,Darcy-Vrillon,B. Perez,J.M., Henry,Y., Giger,S. &
Sauvant,D., 1989. Associative effects between two fibre sources on ileal
and overall digestibilities of amino acids, energy and cell wall
components ingrowing pigs. Brit.J. Nutr. 61:75-87.
Metz,S.H.M.,1985.The physiological roleof dietary fibre indigestion and
metabolism of thepig. Proc. 36th annual meeting of theEAAP.

475
 Müller,H.L.SKirchgessner,1986.Some aspectsof Energy utilization in
pigs. Pignewsand Information.7:420-424.
Müller,H.L.,Kirchgessner,M&Roth,F.X., 1989.Energy utilization of
intracaecally infused carbohydrates and casein in sows. Proc. 11th
symposium on energy metabolism of farm animals, EAAP Publication no.
43:123-126.
Nehring,K., 1967.Further investigations into thescientific foundations
of the net energy fat principle of feed evaluation. Proc. 4th symposium
onenergy metabolism., EAAP,pp.1-36.
Stanogias,G. SPearce,G.R., 1985.The digestion of fibre by pigs.1.The
effects of amount and type of fibre on apparent digestibility, nitrogen
balance and rateof passage.Brit.Journ.of Nutr.53:513-530.
Stanogias,G. &Pearce,G.R., 1985.The digestion of fibre bypigs.3.
Effects of amounts and type of fibre on physical characteristics of
segments of the gastro-intestinal tract. Brit. Journ. of Nutr. 53:537-
548.

" * • <

Aie
List of contributors to the scientific program

AUSTRALIA

P.D. Cranwell
D.B. Hennessy I. Galibois
R.J. Xu H. Malouin
School of Agriculture L. Savoie
La Trobe University Département de Nutrition Humaine
Bundoora Victoria 3083 et de Consommation
AUSTRALIA Université Laval
Québec
CANADA
BELGIUM
M.R. Bedford
P. Leterme H.L. Classen
L. Pirard J.F. Patience
A. Thewis Department of Animal and Poultry Science
Faculté desSciences Agronomiques de l'Etat University of Saskatchewan
Unité de Zootechnie Saskatoon
Passage des Déportés 2 Saskatchewan
B-5800 Gembloux CANADA S7K 017
BELGIUM

M. van Belle DENMARK

Lab. de Biochemie de la Nutrition
Fac. des Sciences Agronomique P.T. Sangild
1348 Louvain-la-Neuve Dept. of Animal Sei. and Animal Health
BELGIUM Royal Vet. and Agric. University
Rolighedsvej 23
E. François 1958 Frederiksberg C.
Ministère de l'Agriculture DENMARK
Station de Chimie et Physique agricoles
B-5030 Gembloux K.E. Bach Knudsen
BELGIUM S. Boisen
B.O. Eggum
J.A. Fernandez
BRASIL B.B. Jensen
A. Just
C. Bellaver National Institute of Animal Science
E.T. Fialho Dept. Animal Physiology and Biochemistry
Department of Swine Nutrition Fors^gsanlaeg Foulum
Nat. Research Center of Swine and Poultry Postboks 39, DK-8830 Tjele
EMBRAPA/CNPSA DENMARK
Concordia, SC.
BRASIL B. Foltmann
Institute of Biochemical Genetics
University of Copenhagen
CANADA i^ster, Farimagsgadt 2A
1353 Copenhagen K
C.F.M, de Lange DENMARK
W.C. Sauer
University of Alberta
Dept. of Animal Science
Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry
Edmonton
CANADA T6G 2P5
477
V

K. Mortensen L. Bueno
H. S^rensen J. Fiaramonti
Chemistry Department V. Theodorou
Royal Veterinary and Agricultural Station de Pharmacologie Toxicologie
University 180Chemin de Tournefeuille
Thorvaldsensvej 40 B.P. 3
DK-1875 Frederiksberg C 31931 Toulouse
DENMARK FRANCE
O. Noren C. Simoes Nunes
H. Sjöström Dept. NASA
L. Wetteberg INRA-CRJ
Department of Biochemistry C 78352 Jouy-en-Josas
The Parrum Institute Cedex
University of Copenhagen FRANCE
Blegdamsvej 3c
DK-2200 Copenhagen N A. Aumaitre
DENMARK J. Bengala Freire
E. Chabeauti
C. Février
FINLAND Y. Jaquelin
Y. Lebreton
M. Nasi J. Peiniau
H. Siljander-Rasi Station de Recherches sur
University of Helsinki l'Elevage des Porcs
Department of Animal Husbandry 35590 Saint-Gilles, L'Hermitage
Viiki 21,SF-00710 Helsinki FRANCE
FINLAND
M.P. Le Guen
Euretec Gie
FRANCE 12 Avenue George V
75008 Paris
T. Corring FRANCE
A. Rerat
I.N.R.A. J.A. Chayvialle
Lab. de Physiologie de la Nutrition Inseron
Domaine de Vilvert Hôpital E. Herriot
78350 Jouy-en-Josas Lyon
FRANCE FRANCE
J.C. Cuber B. Carré
C. Juste INRA-SRA
A. Langlois Nouzilly
C. Philippe 37380 Monnaie
P. Valette FRANCE
I.N.R.A.
Lab. d'Ecologie et de Physiologie du
Systeme Digestif
Domaine de Vilvert
78350 Jouy-en-Josas
FRANCE

478
GERMANY G. Gebhardt
R. Köhler
F. Ahrens F. Liebert
M. Schmitz F. Reinisch
J. Schön C. Wecke
ISForschungsgesellschaft für Experimentelle Karl Marx Universität
Tierphysiologie und Tierernährung mbH Wissenschaftsbereich Tierernährungsphys.
and Co. KG und Futtermittelkunde
Wiesenweg 10a Gustav Köhnstrasse 8
Postfach 1247 7022 Leipzig
2362 Wahlstedt GERMANY
GERMANY
J. Dreyer
H. Henkel Institute of Animal Nutrition
R. Mosenthin Federal Agricultural Research Centre
A. Pfeiffer Braunschweig
Institute of Animal Nutrition GERMANY
University of Kiel
Olshausenstrasse 40-60 H. Hagemeister
D2300 Kiel - 1 Institut für Physiologie und Biochemie
GERMANY der Ernährung
Bundesanstalt für Milchforschung
E. Borgmann Kiel /
T. Heinz GERMANY
U. Hennig
F. Kreienbring
U. Pöhland HUNGARY
W.B. Souffrant
D. Thomaneck Z. Henics
T. Völker J. Tossenberger
J. Wünsche Division of Animal Nutrition
Forschungszentrum für Tierproduktion and Feed Science
Bereich Tierernährung "Oskar Kellner" Faculty of Animal Production
Justus von Liebigweg PF 27-01/02 Kaposvâr
Rostock 2500 HUNGARY
GERMANY

H. Bergner JAPAN
Sektion Tierproduktion und Veterinär
Medizin, bereich Tierernährung S. Kaji
Humbold Universität Shu Furuya
Invalidenstrasse 42 Department of Animal Production
Berlin 1040 Tohoku Nat. Agric. Experiment Station
GERMANY Morioko 020-01
JAPAN
G. Breves
Institut für Vet. Physiologie
Justus von Liebig Universität
Frankfurterstrasse 100
D-6300 Giessen
GERMANY

W. Drochner
Institut für Tierernährung
Tierärztliche Hochschule
Bischofsholer Damm 15
D-3000 Hannover 1
GERMANY
479
fi
THE NETHERLANDS
G.J. Borggreve
H. Boer J.J. Heeres-Van der Tol
B. Kemp C.H.M. Smits
T. Köhler W.A.G. Veen
C A . Makkink CLO "De Schothorst"
A.F.B, van der Poel Postbus 533
M.W.A. Verstegen 8200 AM Lelystad
E.R. Wähle THE NETHERLANDS
Agricultural University Wageningen
Dept. of Animal Nutrition A.C. Beynen
Haagsteeg 4 C E . West
6708 PM Wageningen Dept. of Human Nutrition
THE NETHERLANDS Agricultural University Wageningen
Bomenweg 2
M.J. van Baak 6703 HD Wageningen
G.M. Beelen THE NETHERLANDS
G.B. Derksen
J.M. Fentener van Vlissingen L.A. den Hartog
J. Huisman Research Institute for Pig Husbandry
G.J.M, van Kempen P.O. Box 83
P. van Leeuwen 5240 AB Rosmalen
E.C. Rietveld THE NETHERLANDS
J.B. Schutte
G.H. Tolman D.J. van Zuiliçhem
E.J. van Weerden Dept. of Food Technology,
J. Wiebenga section Process Engeneering
TNO-ILOB Bomenweg 2
Postbus 15 6703 HD Wageningen
6700 AA Wageningen THE NETHERLANDS
THE NETHERLANDS
J.E. van Dijk
J.G.M. Bakker Central Veterinary Institute
,H. Everts P.O. Box 1076
P.W. Goedhart 8200 BB Lelystad
R. Hoste THE NETHERLANDS
L.P. Jager
A.W. Jongbloed F.G.M. Russell
P.A. Kemme Department of Pharmacology
E. Krol-Kramer Faculty of Medicine and Densitry
N.P. Lenis University of Nijmegen
J. van der Meulen THE NETHERLANDS
Z. Mroz
H. de Visser
A.M. van Vuuren POLAND
IVVO
Postbus 160 L. Buraczewska
8200 AD Lelystad S. Buraczewski
THE NETHERLANDS J. Gdala
W.Grala
H.J. van Lonkhuysen G. Janowska
Biochemical and Physical Chemistry Dept. Institute of Animal Physiology and Nutrition
TNO Biotechnology and Chemistry Inst. Polish Academy of Sciences
P.O. Box 360 05-110 Jablonna
3700 AJ ZEIST POLAND
THE NETHERLANDS

480
SWEDEN USA

G.M. Ekström J.T. Yen

B.W. Karlsson USDA, ARS, NPA
J.B. Karlsson Roman L. Hruska
N. Pantzar US Meat Animal Research Center
S.G. Pierzynowski Box 166
J. Svendsen Clay Center, NE 68933
B.R. Weström U.S.A.
University of Lund
Dept. of Zoophysiology M.R.M. Ballard
Helgonavägen 3B M. Harrison
S-223 62 Lund Heartland Lysine, Inc.
SWEDEN 8430 West Bryn Mawr Ave.
Suite 650
P. Aman Chicago, IL 60631
H. Graham U.S.A.
J. Inborr
Swedish University CA. Cook
of Agricultural Sciences R.A. Easter
S-750 07 Uppsala A. Gonzalez /
SWEDEN B.J. Kerr
University of Illinois
W. Lowgren at Urbana-Champaign
Swedish University of Agric. Science Department of Animal Sciences
Box 7051,S-750 07 Uppsala Mumford Hall
SWEDEN 1301 West Gregory Drive
Urbana, IL 61801
U.S.A.
UNITED KINGDOM
T.R. Cline
L.A. Cadenhead D.M. Forsyth
M.F. Fuller D.T. Kelley
Rowett Research Institute A.G. Mathew
Greenburn Road J.A. Patterson
Bucksburn A.B. Scheidt
Aberdeen, AB2 9SB A.L. Sutton
UNITED KINGDOM Purdue University
Department of Animal Science
C.L. Jones Poultry Science Building
J.W. Sissons West Lafayette, IN 47907
AFRC Institute for Grassland U.S.A.
and Animal Production
Shinfield
Reading RG2 9AQ
UNITED KINGDOM

481