Constructed Wetlands For Wastewater Treatment by Dr. Fabio Masi PH.D

CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS
FOR WASTEWATER
TREATMENT
by Dr. Fabio Masi Ph.D.
1
Constructed Wetlands
DEFINITION:
“Constructed wetlands can be defined as engineered

water saturated areas in which the natural removal
processes for the water pollutants are reproduced and
enhanced in order to optimize the purification
performances”
A main part of the pollutants contained in wastewater are nutrients that can be removed in wastewater
treatment plants by reproducing natural self-purification processes. Conventional treatment plants like
activated sludge plants enforce biological organisms with energy-intensive mechanical equipment to
decompose complex compounds, to incorporate the nutrients in biomass and finally to separate that
biomass from the purified water. Thus such plants are energy intensive reactors with relatively small
area demand that are suitable for centralized wastewater treatment.
Constructed wetlands are principally using the same natural degradation processes and nutrient
uptake but they are acting as “extensive systems”. The high degree of biodiversity present in these
systems allows multiple and various degradation mechanisms for several classes of compounds, and
therefore higher performances in comparison with the technological treatment plants in which only few
families of specialised bacteria are grown. The purifying processes take place without input of “human
produced” energy by, for instance, oxygenating pumps. Furthermore there is no excess sludge to be
removed since there is a balance of biomass growth and decomposition in the constructed wetland
system. As a compensation to the low energy demand there is a relatively large area demand.
Accordingly constructed wetlands are usually suitable and cost effective for small and medium size
wastewater treatment.
Within the last 20-30 years various types of constructed wetlands have been developed in different
countries. There is a wide acceptance and interest within the population because of the following
advantages:
‫٭‬ Less expensive to build than other treatment options

‫٭‬ Simple construction, operation and maintenance
‫٭‬ Low operation and maintenance costs
‫٭‬ High ability to tolerate fluctuations in flow and inlet quality
‫٭‬ High process stability (buffering effect)
‫٭‬ Sludge produced only by the primary treatment stage
‫٭‬ High pathogen removal – good water reuse and recycling options
‫٭‬ Optimal aesthetic appearance
2
Application Fields 1
POINT SOURCE POLLUTION:

Secondary treatment of the following kinds of
wastewater:
- domestic
- municipal
Applications of constructed wetlands
Domestic or municipal wastewater:

Treatment of domestic or municipal wastewater is currently a conventional application. There are
several thousand of operating constructed wetlands worldwide, since more than 15-20 years, and the
most used are the subsurface flow systems. The most available sets of monitoring data (like as the
North American Database, the UK Wrc database, several european collections and so on) are related
to this kind of application.
Industrial wastewater: There are numerous possibilities also for industrial wastewater like chemical
industry, laboratory effluents, landfills, acid mines... and agricultural or agro-food wastewaters like
wineries, olive oil mills, dairy, and in general all the high organic content characterised waters.
Link: www.wetlandsurvey.org
Literature for deepening:

Hammer, D.A. (1989), Costructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment Municipal, Industrial and
Agricultural. Lewis Publishers, Michigan.
Cooper P.F.,Job G.D., Green M.B., Shutes R.B.E. (1996) – Reed beds and constructed wetlands for
wastewater treatment - WRc plc,Swindon, UK.
Crites Tchobanoglous (1998) - Small and decentralized wastewater management systems - McGraw-
Hill (USA).
Department of Land and Water Conservation (DLWC, NSW) (1998) - The Constructed Wetlands
Manual - Department of Land and Water Conservation, New South Wales, Australia.
Kadlec R.H. & Knight R.L. (1996) - Treatment Wetlands - Lewis Publisher CRC press, Florida.
Vymazal, J., Brix, H., Cooper, P.F., Green, M.B., Haberl, R., Eds. (1998) - Constructed wetlands for
wastewater treatment in Europe - Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands.
3

wastewater:
- domestic
- municipal
- industrial


Hill (USA).
4

wastewater:
- domestic
- municipal
- industrial


Hill (USA).
5

wastewater:
- domestic
- municipal
- industrial


Hill (USA).
6

wastewater:
- domestic
- municipal
- industrial
-Tertiary treatment as polishing stage in conventional
treatments plants


Hill (USA).
7
DIFFUSE POLLUTION:
Agricultural Runoff
Urban Runoff
Highway Runoff
Airports Runoff
Polluted Surface Waters and Growndwaters
A lately developed application of constructed wetland is related to the diffuse (or non-point) pollution
treatment. Several kinds of diffuse pollution, like agricultural or urban or infrastructures runoff can be
faced using extensive natural treatments, which effectiveness in the removal of nutrients (Nitrogen and
Phosphorous) and micropollutants, like persistent organic compounds (i.e. Polyciclic Aromatic
Hydrocarbons generated by vehicles fuel engines) makes this kind of techniques very suitable for
watershed scale approaches wherever a specific local treatment turns out to be inapplicable.
Due to the commonly very high amount of needed surface for this kind of applications, the most used
systems are the Free Water Surface (FWS) constructed wetlands; their realisation and manteinance
costs expenses are in fact observably lower than the subsurface systems, not considering the added
values produced by their high naturality and the acceptability and the enrichment of the environment
as of the biodiversity.

Vymazal Jan Ed. (2001). Transormation of Nutrients in Natural and Constructed Wetlands. Backhuys
Publisher, Leiden.
Crumpton W.G. (2001). Using wetlands for water quality improvement in agricultural watersheds: the
importance of a watershed scale approach. Water Science & Technology, 44, n.11/12, 559-564.
Revitt D.M., Worrall P. and Brewer D. (2001). The integration of constructed wetlands into a treatment
system for airport runoff. Water Science & Technology, 44, n.11/12, 469-476.
Shutes B. et al. (2001). An experimental constructed wetland system for the treatment of highway
runoff in the UK. Water Science & Technology, 44, n.11/12, 571-578.
8
PARTICULAR APPLICATIONS:
- Landfill leachate
- Sludge dewatering and mineralisation
Rain and other liquid that flows through the landfill comes into contact with buried waste. The liquid is
called leachate and picks up many contaminants on its way to the bottom of the landfill. Leachate must
be treated before it can be safely returned to the environment. Usually this leachate is collected into
dedicated tanks and then transported to large wastewater treatment plants, but local treatments seem to
be a preferable option for several aspects. Constructed wetlands achive interesting results for the
leachate treatment, like as a very high removal of the main pollutants (organic matter, ammonia, nitrates,
heavy metals,...) and reduction of the wastewater quantity for evapotranspiration.
Reed beds can also be used to dewater and stabilize excess sludge from technical plants. About the
70% of the operating Activated Sludge Plants in Denmark have adopted this kind of treatment instead of
the existing mechanical processes. This application can also be used to treat the primary sludges
(coming from Imhoff or septic tanks) in small or medium size facilities. The stabilized material have to be
removed perodiocally (like every ten years, and, accordingly to its chemical quality, it can be used as soil
fertiliser.

Bulc T., Vrhovsek D., Kukanja V., “The use of constructed wetland for landfill leachate treatment”, Wat.
Sci. Tech., vol. 35, n. 5, pp. 301-306, 1997.
Martin C.D., Moshiri G.A., Miller C.C., “Mitigation of landfill leachate incorporating in-series constructed
wetlands of a closed-loop design”, in Constructed Wetlands for Water Quality Improvement, Moshiri G.A.
Ed., Lewis Publisher, London, p.473-477, 1993
Mulamoottil G., McBean E.A., Rovers F., Eds. “Constructed wetlands for the treatment of landfill
leachates”, Lewis Publishers, 1999.
Urbanc Bercic O., “Investigation into the use of constructed reedbeds for municipal waste dump leachate
treatment”, Water science and technology: a journal of the International Association on Water Pollution
Research and Control, v.29, p.289-294, 1994.
Trautmann N.M., Martin J.H., Porter K.S., Hawk K.C., “Use of artificial wetlands for treatment of
municipal solid waste landfill leachate”, in Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment, Hammer
D.A. Ed., Lewis Publisher, London, p.245-253, 1989.
9
Classification
KIND OF USED MACROPHYTES

1. Floating macrophyte-based system
2. Submerged macrophyte –based system
3. Rooted emergent macrophyte –based system
KIND OF WATER FLOW DIRECTION

a) Systems with free water surface (FWS)
b) Systems with horizontal subsurface flow (SFS-h or
HF)
c) Systems with vertical subsurface flow (SFS-v or VF)
d) Hybrid systems (combinations of a,b,c)
Constructed wetlands can be classified according the life form of the macrophytes (plants) in the
system:
1. Floating macrophyte-based system (i.e. Lemna spp or Eichornia crassipes)
2. Submerged macrophyte –based system (i.e. Elodea canadiensis)
3. Rooted emergent macrophyte –based system (i.e. Phragmites australis, Tipha spp,..)
The third tipology is described with more detail because it is the most common used in Europe and in
the world. It can be categorized according to the flow pattern:
a) Systems with free water surface (FWS)

b) Systems with horizontal subsurface flow (SFS-h or HF)
c) Systems with vertical subsurface flow (SFS-v or VF)
d) Hybrid systems (combinations of a,b,c)
The most widespread systems are the subsurface flow systems and the free water surface systems. In
the first type, the water flows under the ground, in a gravel bed located within a waterproof liner or
layer, where vegetation species, usually the common reed, have been planted; the second type is
represented by a series of shallow ponds containing different plants with various purification potentials
(such as Phragmites, Scirpus, Tipha, submerged macrophytes).
Literature: see pdf file ScienticReport8 (by International Water Association – Specialist group on the
use of macrophytes for water pollution control)
10
Treatment Process Scheme
The most common treatment scheme consists of a primary treatment by a filtration-sedimention

device, like as septic or Imhoff thanks and often grids and degreasers, followed by a subsurface flow
constructed wetland as secondary stage and then by a FWS CW as polishing stage.
When denitrification has to be obtained with a high N removal rate, the third stage should preferably be
an horizontal flow reed bed.
The primary treatment should be sized with a volume per person of about 500-600 liters.
11
Common configurations
Some examples of common configurations are shown in this slide. The simplest one is a single HF
reed bed, advicable when the requested treatment goal are limited to the Organic Content and Total
Suspended Solids removal. This configuration has the simplest and cheapest management and for
this reason is very affordable in the long period.
When a high removal of Ammonia is needed, it’s necessary to adopt a VF system, that needs a
pumping system or an energy-free feeding system (like as syphons or floating valves or tipping
buckets) to spread the wastewater in an alternate way on the bed surface. It’s normally adviced to
divide the needed surface in paralled beds, in order to permit a longer resting time after each load of
the system.
Hybrid system, that are basically combinations of the three tipologies, HF, VF and FWS, are the most
effective in obtaining a very complete purification.
A remarkable optimization of the treatment scheme can be obtained with the segregation of black and
grey wastewater, especially with the final aim of efflent reuse. In fact, greywater are more easily
purified than the black ones, and the effluents are usually less contaminated by pathogens.
12
Horizontal Flow RBTS (HF or SFS-h)
This type of RBTS consists in a properly designed basin that contains gravel or sand as substrate,
wetland plants (normally Reeds) and microrganisms; the bed is fed with wastewater coming from a
suitable primary treatment by a simple inlet device.
The subsurface horizontal flow systems (commonly named reed beds when planted with Phragmites)
are most appropriate for treating primary wastewater, because there isn’t an atmosphere/water
interface, and this fact makes this technology particularly safe from the public health point of view.
Therefore these systems are actually useful for on-site treatment of septic tank effluents and grey
water. The HF systems are realized as gravel containing beds where the filling material is sized to
offer an appropriate hydraulic conductivity (the most used media are coarse gravel, fine gravel and
coarse sand) and to furnish a large available surface for the biofilm growing.
The beds are waterproofed by plastic membrane liners (HDPE or PVC) or clay. The water level
remains always under the surface of the bed; the wastewater flows horizontally by a slope (about 1%)
obtained by a sand layer under the membrane liner. The subsurface flow prevents odors and
mosquitoes and permits public access in the wetland area. This kind od CW is particularly efficient in
Suspended Solids, Carbon and Pathogens removal, as well as for Denitrification, while, due to its
prevalently anoxic conditions, nitrification is quite limited.
The bed depth depends from the used macrophytes; when using Phragmites it’s commonly set to 0.6
– 0.7 meters.
The preferred values for the Widht/Lenght ratio are W/L>1, with 3meters<L<30meters.
In the inlet and outlet zones is adviced to use a large filling material, like as stones, in order to ensure
an easy cleaning if clogging happens.
13
Vertical Flow RBTS (VF or SFS-v)
Vertical flow reed beds (VF) differ from the horizontal ones for the feeding method, the direction of the
water flow and the filling media. In these systems the wastewater is applied through a distribution
system on the whole surface area and passes the filter in a more or less vertical path. The pre-treated
wastewater is dosed on the bed in a large batch (intermittent feeding), thus flooding the surface.
During the time between the feedings the pores within the filter media can fill up with air which is
trapped by the next dose of liquid. Thus oxygen requiring nitrifying bacteria are favoured and full
nitrification can be achieved, but only a small part of the formed nitrate is denitrified under aerobic
conditions. The denitrification and thus total nitrogen elimination can be increased by a partial
recirculation of the nitrified effluent into the first chamber of the septic tank. The treated water is
collected in a bottom drainage system to be discharged. The beds are waterproofed by plastic
membrane liners (HDPE or PVC) or clay. The water level can be mantained with a height of about 5-
10 cm from the bottom of the bed, or otherwise the beds can be totally empty after each feeding pulse.
The sand layer have to be at least 30-40 cm high, with an insulating top layer of gravel and a drainage
bottom layer of the same gravel.
The aeration of the bottom layers can be improved connecting the drainage pipes to pipes that rise up
the top, in direct contact with atmoshetre.
VF beds depth is normally set equal to 0.9-1 meter.
This kind of CW is particularly efficient in nitrification, carbon and suspended solids removal. Due to its
prevalently aerobic conditions denitrification is poor.
14
Free Water Surface (FWS)
Surface flow wetlands are densely vegetated basins, optionally including open water areas, with some
sort of subsurface barrier to prevent seepage, soil or another suitable medium to support the emergent
vegetation, and water at a relatively shallow depth flowing through the unit. Particulates tend to settle
and to be trapped in the system; in such a way they enter into the biogeochemical element cycles
within the water column and surface soils of the wetland. At the same time dissolved elements enter
the overall mineral cycles of the wetland system.
This kind of Constructed wetlands is particularly efficient in the pathogens removal, due to the high
exposure of the wastewater to the UV component of the sunlight. For that reason, and also for a good
denitrification power, these systems are often used as tertiary treatment (polishing stage).
15
Removal mechanisms
Wetland systems reduce many contaminants, including organics (BOD, COD), suspended solids,
nitrogen, phosphorus, trace metals, and pathogens. This reduction may be accomplished by diverse
treatment mechanisms such as:
•Sedimentation (Gravitational settling of solids)
•Filtration (Particulates filtered mechanically as water passes through substrate, root masses or fish)
•Adsorption (Interparticle attractive force – van der Waals force)
•Volatilisation (Volatilisation of NH3 from the wastewater)
•Chemical Precipitation (Formation or co-precipitation with insoluble compounds)
•Chemical Adsorption (Adsorption onto substrate and plant surface)
•Chemical Decomposition (Decomposition or alteration of less stable compounds by phenomena such
as UV irradiation, oxidation and reduction)
•Bacterial Metabolism (Removal of colloidal solids and soluble organics by suspended, benthic, and
plant supported bacteria. Bacterial nitrification and denitrification)
•Plant Metabolism (Uptake and metabolism of organics by plants. Root excretion may be toxic to
organisms of enteric origin)
•Plant Absorption (Under proper conditions significant quantities of Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Heavy
Metals or Refractory Organics will be taken up by plants)
•Natural Die-off (Natural decay of organisms in an unfavourable environment)
16
Role of plants
The main role of the aquatic plants (please be sure to select only aquatic plants because of the always
water saturated enviroment that is a fundamental aspect in contructed wetlands) is to act as catalyzers
in the purification process. This process, as seen before, is a combination of microbiological, chemical
and physical processes. The plants haven’t a significant action as direct removal (for some
substances, like N and P or organic matter, we can talk of a contribution in the order of 10-20% during
the vegetative season); they offer instead a vey efficient support for the growth of aerobic bacteria
colonies on their rhizomes. Air is pumped towards the root zone by several mechanisms, like
convection.
Another important plant’s function is the manteinance and continuous re-estabilishment of the
hydraulic conductivity inside the beds (preventing that way hydraulic short-cuts that could produce
unexpected and undesired HRT decreases).
Amongst all macrophytes, Phragmites australis or communis is the most used worlwide for its optimal
performances, for its ability in developing deep roots (0.5-0.7 m), for its resistance to aggressive
wastewaters and to diseases.
17
Design Criteria
Hydrology
Hydraulic Retention Time
Hydraulic Loading Rate
Filling Media (porosity, hydraulic conductivity kf)
Redox conditions (aerobic, anaerobic, mix reactor)
Geometry of the bed
Waterproofing
Inlet and Oulet devices
Cells configuration (series and/or parallel)
Choose of macrophytes
Treatment goals (in terms of specific pollutants overall removal)
In designing constructed wetlands, the aim is to maximise contact between the polluted water column
and various wetland components, like biofilms, plants, the sediment layer and so on. The efficacy of
contact is related to the flow path of water in the system, which in turn is related to both the physical
dimensions and the residence time. Most of the constructed wetland specialists warn against the
blanket use of simplistic guidelines for all situations. CWs must be individually designed for a particular
set of objectives and constraints. Designing CWs for the treatment of pollutants entails:
•sizing for a particular wastewater flowrate, mass loading, and desired removal of a given pollutant;
•inlet and outlet structures for water level control, recycling, flow splitting and distribution;
•flow path configuration for cells in parallel and/or series;
•depth variation within and between cells for habitat diversity, if required, better flow distribution, and
pollutant removal;
•planting details, including species selection, planting density, range of species;
•an operation and manteinance plan.
Literature:
see pdf file CW Manual EPA 1999
18
HF systems sizing
First order kinetic approach – plug-flow reactor

Kadlec&Knight’s equation
 Ce − C *  − K
ln =
* 
C
 i − C  q
365 ⋅ Q  Ce − C * 
As = ln 
* 
K C
 i − C 
Sizing the beds

Sizing of horizontal flow subsurface systems depends on many parameters that have to be checked
out during the preliminary feasibility assessment. After defining the treatments goal and the more
appropriate treatment scheme, the sizing procedure can be performed using the well known and
scientifically approved methods, like the various first order kinetical equations commonly used (Reed,
Kadlec, Kickuth, Cooper) for the pollutants removal and the Darcy law for the hydraulic aspects. As
alternative and more simple way it is possible to use “rule of thumb” approaches to the design, based
on areal coefficients like “area per p.e.” or “area per gramm of COD”. The EPA itself, in its last manual
for Constructed wetlands for municipal wastewater treatment, advice the use of an Areal Loading Rate
as a “conservative” approach to ensure reliable functioning and the respect of fixed concentration
limits.
Untill now only simple deterministic models can be calibrated for the prevision of performances
assuming the horizontal subsurface flow system as a plug-flow reactor and so applying the first-order
removal equations. It’s well proved that many pollutants decline exponentially to a background
concentration (C*) on passage through a water-saturated environment and the net pollutant decrease
rate (J) can be expressed by the following equation.
J = k(C-C*)
The net pollutant removal rate is the mass removal per unit wetland surface area (g m2 yr-1), and the
kinetic rate constant k is proportional to the amount of active area, such as biofilms, plants and algae,
per unit wetland area. (IWA STR Nr.8)
Literature:
IWA Specialist Group on use of Macrophytes in Water Pollution Control, Constructed Wetlands For
Pollution Control.- Processes, performance, design and operation. Scientific and Technical Report n°
8. IWA Publishing, London, 2000.
Kadlec R.H., Knight R.L., Treatment wetlands, Lewis, Boca Raton, 1996.
Reed S.C., Crites R.W., Mittlebrooks E.J. - Natural systems for waste management and treatment,
2nd Ed. Mc Graw Hill inc., N.Y. 1995.
Vymazal J., Brix H., Cooper P.F., Green M.B., Haberl R., - Constructed wetlands for wastewater
treatment in Europe. Backhuys publ. Leiden 1998.
19
HF systems sizing
Values of semiempirical constants and background

concentrations in the Kadlec’s equation
Parameters NH4-N NO3-N TP FC

BOD5 SST
K20 180 1000 34 50 12 95
θ 1.00 1.00 1.04 1.09 1.0 1
C* 3.5+0.053 7.8+0.063 0.00 0.00 0.02 10

Ci Ci
Previous literature has suggested two different approaches for the definition of the removal rate
constant, that can be either area-specific (k: m yr-1) or volume-specific (kv: d-1). Both k and Kv are
temperature dependant. The effects of temperature on both the constants can be summerized by the
use of a modified Arrhenius equation:
Kt = K20 . θ(T-20)
Where
Kt = removal rate constant at T °C
K20 = removal rate constant at T=20 °C
θ = temperature correction factor, empirically estimated for available data sets on any single pollutant
The Kinetic constant is then used inside the following equation in order to determine the needed
surface area of the HF bed.
where
As = Superficial area of the bed;
Ce = Outlet concentration, mg/l;
Ci = Inlet concentration, mg/l;
n = porosity (as percentage);
y = mean depth of the water saturated zone;
Q = daily mean hydraulic load (m3/d).
20
HF systems sizing
First order kinetic approach – plug-flow reactor

Reed’s equation
Q C 
As = ln i 
K T ⋅ y ⋅ n  Ce 
(TW −TR )
K R ⋅θ R
21
HF systems sizing
Values of semiempirical constants in the Reed’s

equation
if 1<Tw<10
Parameter BOD5 NH4-N NO3-N FC
TR 20 10 10 20
C* 6 0.20 0.20 -
KR 1.104 K10 1.000 2.6
θR 1.06 1.15 1.15 1.19
if Tw>10
Parameter BOD5 NH4-N NO3-N FC
TR 20 20 20 20
C* 6 0.20 0.20 -
KR 1.104 KNH 1.000 2.6
θR 1.06 1.048 1.15 1.19
22
HF systems sizing
Rule of thumb – conservative approach
Parameters Germany Austria Germany USA Czech United Denmark EC Guidelines

Republic Kingdom CEMAGREF
ATV Önorm IÖV EPA Brix, Johansen
Vymazal WRC Cooper
Surface Area 5 m2/pe 6 m2/pe for 5 m2/pe 2°: 5 m2/pe 2°: 5 m2/pe 2 m2/pe in 5 m2/pe for BOD
BOD combination with <300mg/l
2
minimum size 3°: 1 m /pe 3°:0.5-1 a second stage otherwise 10
20 m2 m2/pe VF-RBTS and m2/pe
recirculation
Organic Load 11.2 gr 6 gr BOD/m2.d 8 gr

BOD/m2.d BOD/m2.d
Rules of thumb – Conservative approaches

Deriving from the experiences performed in the different countries, often using different construction
practices and materials, some national guidelines have been estabilished containing simple
recommendations for the sizing of HF systems, as shown in the table.
23
HF systems design
Hydraulic considerations for geometry definition:
Darcy law Q = Ks A S
2⋅ L⋅Q
H i2 = H 2f −
W ⋅ KS
Hydraulic requirements
The hydraulic regime of horizontal flow subsurface systems (SFS-h) can be defined by the Darcy law
in which the flux depends by the hydraulic conductivity of the filling media and the hydraulic gradient of
the system.
Q = Ks A S
where:
Q = daily mean flow (m3);
Ks = hydraulic conductivity of a unit surface orthogonal to the flux direction (m/s);
A = cross area (m2);
S = slope (hydraulic gradient)
The Darcy equation rules the water flow and level as a function of hydraulic conductivity Ks, cross
section W, length of the bed L, slope of the bottom and daily flow Q. Applying the equation to the
initial and final height of the bed, Hi and Hf, it’s possible to verify if the choosen geometry is
appropriate. It’s of extreme importance to evaluate the peak flow in respect to tourism facilities
fluctuations to be able to choose the right L/W ratio of the beds.
The bed bottom slope is designed in order to respect Darcy’s Law and permit to drain the incoming
hydraulic load, maintaining the subsurface flow condition in all the possible management scenaries.
The bottom’s slope ranges from 1% to 5%.
Filling Material
The filter media consists in a combinations of various size gravel. Commonly, the first meter of the
bed is filled with coarse rock (average 100 mm diameter) and the remaining part with a fine well
cleaned gravel (average 5-10 mm diameter).
The media depth varies, in dependance of the used vegetal essences, from 0,6 mt to 0,8 mt.
24
HF systems design
Detailed Component Design:
Inlet device
Common goal of feeding systems is to permit an uniform distribution of the wastewater alongs all the
bed cross surface. Generally the feeding system is realized by HDPe or PVC pipe parts and fittings,
placed in the first meter of the bed (with a coarse filling medium all around). It’s usually placed at the
same height of the water level, but it can also be set up on the bottom (this choose presents more
difficulties in mainteinance operations).
T 90° JOINTS FEEDING SYSTEM: This system is realized by HDPe or PVC pipes linked to T 90°
joints placed close to themselves with a free manhole to let wastewater out. Feeding system has on
every side a screw-plug to permit mainteinance operation if clogging occurrs (ie pumping inside
pressurized water). It can be employed on every kind of HF System plant and every climate. If placed
10-15 cm under the top of the bed, the pipes are freeze-protected.
HDPe or PVC pipes are most commonly used. If PVC pipes are used, the feeding system must be
realized by fitting the parts with glue. HDPe pipes permits many fitting methods: head-to-head welding
is the most commonly used. Another fitting kind is the elettrofusion. Compression fittings are available
and are easier to use but more expensive than the others.
Pipe’s diameters are depending from previewed hydraulic load: minimal diameter should be 63 mm.
Bigger diameters than 160 mm are not generally used.
The distance between feeding’s manhole (between every T 90° joint) could be ranged depending of
the bed width: commonly it ranges from 0,5 mt for smallest beds to 1,5 mt for the biggest ones.
Feeding system’s width is generally the same of the bed width. For very large beds (over 15 mt) the
realization of two or more feeding system units is recommended in order to reach an uniform
wastewater distribution.
Pipe’s clogging is the main problem that happens. If this problem occurs it is necessary a pressurized
water cleaning throught a manhole screw-plug placed on each side of the pipe. In the worst case it is
necessary to clean directly all the feeding system after removing the coarse filling medium that covers
it.
25
HF systems design
Detailed Component Design:
Outlet device
Vegetation
The medium is tipically planted with the same types of emergent macrophyes present in the natural
wetlands. The most commonly used macrophyte is Phragmites australis (Reeds) but also Typha spp
(cattail) and Scirpus spp. (bulrush) can be easily used.
Waterproofing
The HF System bed is waterproofed by a plastic materials made geomembrane: the most common
choice is HDPE. HDPE geomembrane presents the following advantages:
Total impermeability of the system – that prevents the wastewater infiltration in the ground.
Chemical, solvent and most bacteriological agents resistant
Roots and rodent resistant
Non toxic
Easy to carry and move
Recyclable materials
Minimal thickness required is depending by the bed size but has to be set equal or greater than 1 mm.
Already sized premanifacturated liners are availabe by factories on demand or available in rolls, and
they are normally installed with a double-track welding on place. The HDPE liner should be holded
between two TNT liners with 200 gr/m2 minimal density and placed on flatted and unvenness ground.
In the case of sealing with natural soil a Kf <10-7 m/sec is required and a minimum thickness of 30 cm
should be given.
Outlet device
The water level has to be always maintained under the filling medium surface: referring to average
hydraulic load, the water level will be 5-10 cm under the bed surface. The horizontal flow reed beds
outlets include subsurface manifold that should be located just above the bottom of the bed to provide
complete control of water level, including floading and draining. The use of an adjustable outlet is
recommended to mantain an adequate hydraulic gradient in the bed and it can also have significant
benefits in operating and mantaining the wetland. Adjustable pipes, preregulated pipes or flexible
hoses offer a simple control of the water level.
26
VF systems sizing
Parameters ATV Önorm IÖV EC Cemagref Vymazal WRC Cooper
2°: under 100 pe:

2°: 1 m2/pe for BOD
1st bed
2°: 2 m2/pe for BOD+N
0,8-2 m2/pe
2nd bed
under 100 pe:
2.5 m2/pe 50-60% of the 1st
Area 2
5 m /pe for BOD 2-4 m2/pe bed size 1st bed: 3.5P0.35+0.6P
min. value 10 m2
2
1 m /pe for BOD 2nd bed: 50% of the 1st
bed size
2-5 m2/pe for
BOD+N P=population equivalent
3°: Range 2-4 m2/pe; 0.78

m2/pe for 100 pe
2
41-2 m /pe
Hydraulic
Loading Rate 60 mm/d 30-60 mm/d 30 mm/d 20-80 mm/d
(HLR)
Organic Loading 10-20g

Rate (OLR) BOD/m2*g
Sizing procedure for VF beds is mainly based on the nitrification process; in fact, when the treatment
goals normally required for ammonium concentration are fullfilled, all the other parameters are
satisfactory eliminated too.
A common practice for dimensioning VF reed beds is to calculate an area coefficient per person
equivalent. There are guidelines available in several countries. They work with theoretical inlet
concentrations and loads and treatment goals that are defined by the particular national requirements.
Usually they work well for small plants with domestic wastewater. It is very important to proof the
applicability of these income and outcome values from case to case.
27
VF systems sizing
Organic Loading Rate = 20 g COD/m2.d with a

maximum TSS concentration of 100 mg/l
TSS Loading Rate = 5 g/m2.d
Hydraulic Loading Rate = <80 mm/d in winter and 120

mm/d in summer
Clogging prevention
One upper limit for the performance of VF beds is the formation of clogging phenomena on the
surface. Soil clogging appears when the conductivity of the filter media is reduced. Following the
increase of biomass and development of biofilms and microorganisms leads to a strong reduction of
oxygen presence in the lower layer and consequently to a decrease in efficiency yealds for all the
oxydizing processes (nitrification, carbon oxydation, pathogen removal). Concerning the causes for the
reduction of the conductivity of the filter media some empirical values for upper inlet concentrations
and loads were found which can be used as dimensioning tool. German experiences have shown that
good performances of VF reed beds dimensioned according the German guidelines (ATV 262) can be
achieved in a long term period using the two following empirical values:
Organic Loading Rate = 20 g COD/m2.d with a maximum TSS concentration of 100 mg/l
TSS Loading Rate = 5 g/m2.d
Hydraulic Loading Rate = <80 mm/d in winter and 120 mm/d in summer (Geller &Höhner, p. 35)
28
VF systems sizing
OI d + OI c - OD > 0 (gr/g)
OD = Oxygen Demand = 0,85 x (BODin – BODout) [g/d]

+ 4,3 x (TKNin – TKNout) [g/d] + 0,1 x 2,9 x (TKNin –
TKNout) [g/d]
As = (OD / Ka) x 1.25
Calculation of Oxygen Demand

Another approach for the sizing is to calculate the necessary area demand by varifying the
oxygen availability within the filter in respect to the oxygen demand.
Since Nitrification is an oxygen consuming process, the following oxygen balance has to be
respected:
OI d + OI c - OD > 0 (gr/g)
where:
OI d (g O2/day) = input of oxygen to the system by diffusion = 1 [g O2 h-1 m-2] x Surface of
the bed [m2] x (24 [h] – 1,5 [h] x number of daily feedings)
OI c (g O2/day) = input of oxygen to the system by convection = 0,3 [g O2 l-1] x Qd [m3/d] x
1000 [l/m3]
OD = Oxygen Demand = 0,85 x (BODin – BODout) [g/d] + 4,3 x (TKNin – TKNout) [g/d] + 0,1
x 2,9 x (TKNin – TKNout) [g/d]. (Platzer 1998)
As = OD/ka where Ka is an empirical aeration coefficient assumed in the range 30-56
grO2/m2.d
Special ways of VF construction:
In Norway the vertical beds are socalled Pre Filters, covered to keep the temperature.
The French VF construction (Cemagref) is working without special pre treatment.
In the UK the VF reeb beds are assembled in series (multistage) and the beds consist of a
several layers of filter substrate (multilayer).
29
VF systems design
Feeding and distribution system
Syphons
Floating Valves
Distribution system
Electric Pumps
Intermittent feeding system:

Through intermittent feeding the pre-treated wastewater can be charged to the filter area in intervals.
The wastewater is distributed above the whole surface through perforated pipes.
Depending on the terrain different options are given: the presence of a difference in height between
the pre treated wastewater and the vertical filter bed allows the utilization of mechanical devices
without (using electric, fossil or solar) energy.
The intermittent feeding device could be switched either quantity or time related, or both. Usually a
quantity related feeding is applied.
Systems without energy:
‫٭‬ Valve/Siphon (Rohrventil)
‫٭‬ Tipping bucket
‫٭‬ Saugheber (Phytofilt)
Electric systems:
‫٭‬ Pump
‫٭‬ Electric slide
Distribution system:
An even distribution of the wastewater on the whole surface has to be achieved.
This is dependant on the cross section of the pipes, the distance of pipes, the distance of holes and
the feeding quantity per interval. The feeding system should be situated above the surface to be
accessible for maintenance works.
30
VF systems design
Filling media
Parameters Germany Austria Germany UK Czech United Denmark EC
Republic Kingdom Guidelines
ATV Önorm IÖV Crites Brix, CEMAGREF
Vymazal WRC Cooper Johansen
Tchob.
Filling material Sand or fine Gravel Gravel: Washed Washed U=d60/d10 Washed
gravel Gravel: Gravel: <5 Gravel:
(Substrate) Inlet: Inlet:
U=d60/d10 <5 3-16 mm 3-6 mm d10 > 0.3 mm 3-6 mm
16/32 (4/8) 50 mm
Bed: 5-10 mm 5-10 mm
Bed:
3-32 mm 6-12 mm 6-12 mm
4/8 (2/4)
Permeability Kf 10-4–10-3 Kf 10-3 - 3*10-3 Kf 10-3 m/s Kf 1*10-3 Kf 1*10-3 m/s

m/s m/s m/s to3*10-3
Sealing of the planted filter

Bottom and sidewalls of the filter bed have to be waterproof, if a contamination of the groundwater can
be expected.
In the case of sealing with natural soil a Kf <10-7 m/sec is required and a minimum thickness of 30 cm
should be given.
Artificial sealing with impermeable layer: The material should be acid-resistant and alkali proof, frost-
resistant, roots and rodent resistant, non toxic, easy to carry and move, made of recyclable materials
(preferred material: HDPE or LDPE).
If no special sealing has been installed in the beds there must be a possibility to take a sample of the
treated wastewater before it leaves the filter bed.
Filter media
The main filter layer consists of washed sand of selected size. An effective grain size of d10 > 0,2 mm
and a uniformity factor U (d60/d10)< 5 and a Kf 10-4 to 10-3 m/s are recommended reference
numbers.
The drainage can be achieved either with drainage pipes and/or with coarse gravel.
In cold climate a shallow gravel cover upon the main sand layer is recommended.
Vegetation
The filter beds are usually planted with the same types of emergent macrophytes as present in the
natural wetlands. Most common is Phragmites australis (reeds) but also Typha ssp. (cattail) and
Scirpus ssp. (bulrush) can be used.
31
VF systems design
Filling media
Schlämmkorn Siebkorn
Feinstes Schluffkorn Sandkorn Kieskorn Stein

fein mittel grob fein mittel grob fein mittel grob
100
90
80
d 10 > 0, 2 mm
Ma
sse
d 60
<5
nan 70
teil
ea
der
Kör 60 d 10
ner
>d
in 50
G.-
%
40
30
20
d 10
0
0,001 0,002 0,006 0,02 0,06 0,2 0,63 2,0 6,3 20 63 100
Korndurchmesser d in mm
German guidelines ATV (graph by Akut)
Literature:
Abwassertechnische Vereinigung (ATV), Grundsätze für Bemessung, Bau und Betrieb von
Pflanzenbeeten für kommunales Abwasser bei Ausbaugrößen bis 1000 EW, Arbeitsblatt A 262,
Hennef, 1998.
Österreichisches Normungsinstitut (ON), Bepflanzte Bodenfilter (Pflanzenkläranlagen) – Anwendung,
Bemessung, Bau und Betrieb, ÖNORM B 2505, Wien: 16, 1997.
32
FWS Design
An example of
design for a FWS
Sizing of the Free Water Surface system is calculated using the basic plug-flow equation as
suggested by Reed, Crites e Middlebrooks (1996):
Ce/Ci = exp (-Kt . t)
where:
Ci = outlet concentration of pollutant (mg/l),
Ce = inlet concentration of pollutant (mg/l);
KT = constant temperature dependant (d-l ),
t = hydraulic retention time (d).
A = Q (ln Ci/Ce) / Kt . d . n
where:
A = Superficial area of the constructed wetland (m2);
Ci = outlet concentration of pollutant (mg/l),
Ce = inlet concentration of pollutant (mg/l);
Q = average water daily flow (m3/d);
d = average depth of water in the FWS system (m);
n = porosity of filling materials (commonly used 0.75 for FWS).
Investigations about pathogen removal in free water systems showed that the total elimination
increases when the whole area is divided into several single units instead of one.
33
Performances
Estimated number of CW systems in Europe:

Germany 50 000, UK 800, Austria 500,
Denmark, 300, Italy 300, Czech Republic 160,
Poland, Portugal 120, France 100, Norway,
Slovenia, Estonia, Spain, Switzerland,
Ireland, the Netherlands, Lithuania……..
Links:
http://firehole.humboldt.edu/wetland/twdb.html
Constructed Treatment Wetland System Description and Performance Database
This web site serves as a access point to a database on constructed treatment wetlands. The
treatment wetland database (TWDB) contains system descriptions and performance data for a large
number of pilot, and full-scale wetland systems treating a variety of sources, including municipal
wastewater, stormwater runoff, industrial wastewater, and agricultural runoff. The database contains
the bulk of the entries in the revised EPA sponsored North American Database (NADB Version 2),
and data from many additional treatment wetlands. While the emphasis is on constructed wetlands,
natural wetlands are also included in the database.
http://www.swamp-eu.org
Several sets of data of Constructed Wetlands (HF, VF and Hybrid systems) realised in different
touristic facilities in Austria, Germany, Italy, Latvia and Lithuania.
34
Performances
Treatment efficiency of vegetated beds of HSF CWs – world wide experience
(AUS, AUT, BRA, CAN, CZE, DEN, GER, IND, ITA, MEX, NZL, POL, SLO, SWE,
USA, UK )
Parameter Inflow Outflow Removed Efficiency N
__________________________________________________________
kg ha-1 d-1 %
BOD5 39.2 7.6 31.6 80.6 131
COD 120 34.6 85.4 71.2 110
TSS 53.6 11.6 42.0 78.4 130
g m-2 yr-1
TP 141 96 45 31.9 104
TN 644 394 250 38.8 113
NH4-N 388 255 133 34.3 90
NO3-N 98 67 31 31.6 66
__________________________________________________________
Links:
http://firehole.humboldt.edu/wetland/twdb.html
Constructed Treatment Wetland System Description and Performance Database
This web site serves as a access point to a database on constructed treatment wetlands. The
treatment wetland database (TWDB) contains system descriptions and performance data for a large
number of pilot, and full-scale wetland systems treating a variety of sources, including municipal
wastewater, stormwater runoff, industrial wastewater, and agricultural runoff. The database contains
the bulk of the entries in the revised EPA sponsored North American Database (NADB Version 2),
and data from many additional treatment wetlands. While the emphasis is on constructed wetlands,
natural wetlands are also included in the database.
http://www.swamp-eu.org
Several sets of data of Constructed Wetlands (HF, VF and Hybrid systems) realised in different
touristic facilities in Austria, Germany, Italy, Latvia and Lithuania.
35
Performances
Mean outlet values on 62 german VF CWs for

secondary treatment < 50 pe
Typical annual pattern of NH4-N output

concentration of a VF system under German
climatic conditions (Wiedersberg, Sax. at 400
m altitude)
Literature:
Geller, G. and Höner, G. (2002): Anwenderhandbuch Bewachsene Bodenfilter mit CD-Rom -
Evaluation von bewachsenen Bodenfiltern im deutschsprachigen Raum und Hinweise zum
Qualitätsmanagement, AZ 14178-09. - Ingenieur-büro Ökolog Geller und Partner, Augsburg, – Report
AZ 14178-01, Deutsche Bundesstiftung Umwelt
36
THANK YOU FOR YOUR
ATTENTION
Literature:
Geller, G. and Höner, G. (2002): Anwenderhandbuch Bewachsene Bodenfilter mit CD-Rom -
Evaluation von bewachsenen Bodenfiltern im deutschsprachigen Raum und Hinweise zum
Qualitätsmanagement, AZ 14178-09. - Ingenieur-büro Ökolog Geller und Partner, Augsburg, – Report
AZ 14178-01, Deutsche Bundesstiftung Umwelt
37

Constructed Wetlands For Wastewater Treatment by Dr. Fabio Masi PH.D

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CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS

by Dr. Fabio Masi Ph.D.

“Constructed wetlands can be defined as engineered

‫٭‬ Less expensive to build than other treatment options

POINT SOURCE POLLUTION:

Applications of constructed wetlands

Domestic or municipal wastewater:

Literature for deepening:

POINT SOURCE POLLUTION:

Applications of constructed wetlands

Domestic or municipal wastewater:

Literature for deepening:

POINT SOURCE POLLUTION:

Applications of constructed wetlands

Domestic or municipal wastewater:

Literature for deepening:

POINT SOURCE POLLUTION:

Applications of constructed wetlands

Domestic or municipal wastewater:

Literature for deepening:

POINT SOURCE POLLUTION:

Applications of constructed wetlands

Domestic or municipal wastewater:

Literature for deepening:

Polluted Surface Waters and Growndwaters

Literature for deepening:

- Sludge dewatering and mineralisation

Literature for deepening:

KIND OF USED MACROPHYTES

KIND OF WATER FLOW DIRECTION

a) Systems with free water surface (FWS)

The most common treatment scheme consists of a primary treatment by a filtration-sedimention

First order kinetic approach – plug-flow reactor

Sizing the beds

Values of semiempirical constants and background

Parameters NH4-N NO3-N TP FC

C* 3.5+0.053 7.8+0.063 0.00 0.00 0.02 10

First order kinetic approach – plug-flow reactor

Values of semiempirical constants in the Reed’s

Rule of thumb – conservative approach

Parameters Germany Austria Germany USA Czech United Denmark EC Guidelines

Organic Load 11.2 gr 6 gr BOD/m2.d 8 gr

Rules of thumb – Conservative approaches

Hydraulic considerations for geometry definition:

Detailed Component Design:

Detailed Component Design:

2°: under 100 pe:

3°: Range 2-4 m2/pe; 0.78

Organic Loading 10-20g

Organic Loading Rate = 20 g COD/m2.d with a

TSS Loading Rate = 5 g/m2.d

Hydraulic Loading Rate = <80 mm/d in winter and 120

OD = Oxygen Demand = 0,85 x (BODin – BODout) [g/d]

As = (OD / Ka) x 1.25

Calculation of Oxygen Demand

Feeding and distribution system

Intermittent feeding system:

Permeability Kf 10-4–10-3 Kf 10-3 - 3*10-3 Kf 10-3 m/s Kf 1*10-3 Kf 1*10-3 m/s

Sealing of the planted filter

Permeability Kf 10-4–10-3 Kf 10-3 - 310-3 Kf 10-3 m/s Kf 110-3 Kf 1*10-3 m/s