CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

The global concern across the world and in Nigeria in particular demands that materials used for

construction of buildings meet minimum requirement. Many ancient civilizations used to employ a

system of columns and beams. In the Bronze Age (3000-1000 BCE), Egyptian, Assyrian, and Minoan

columns with various structural elements appeared. For example, the Minoans used columns to

construct open-plan areas, light wells, and religious rites. The Minoans used complete tree trunks

(flipped upside down to prevent regrowth) on a stylobate (floor base) and topped with a simple sphere

capital. These were then painted like the palace of Knossos. Later, Mycenaeans retained these customs,

especially in the palace megaron. Symbols, like Mycenae’s famed Lion Gate, show the importance of

columns and their connection to palaces and other places of authority. Since they were built of wood,

the early columns have not survived, but their stone bases have. Thanks to them, we can see how

columns were used and arranged in these palace structures. Train tracks were initially made of prismatic

wood pieces with a metal band at their extrados that served as a rolling plane for the tracks. Cast-iron

components with an embryonic I section composed of two bulbs. The English engineer William Jessop

introduced a web in 1789 as a more durable alternative to these designs. When the first hot-rolled steel

was introduced, it entirely replaced the usage of cold-rolled steel. This had two reasons: the production

process’s low productivity and the reduced tensile strength. At first, the original iron or laminated steel

rails underwent a rapid evolution, achieving the current design known as the Vignoles rail in 1831 by

American colonel Robert L. Stevens. Shipbuilding and civil engineering also began using the I profile

simultaneously with railways. Taking advantage of Eaton Hodgkinson’s work as a scientific consultant,

Sir William Fairbairn conducted theoretical and experimental studies in the 1930s to determine the best

profile for both cast iron full beams for rail crossing and hot-rolled steel reinforcing. The findings of

Fairbairn and Hodgkinson were extremely valuable in civil construction, particularly in the construction

of long-span bridges. James Watt introduced the T-section in early 1800, which was replaced by the

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 hot-rolling process in the mid-nineteenth century with I profiles, which replaced the wooden rectangular

or circular members and the cast iron T-sections previously employed.

Column and beam are the main parts of the structural frame. Beams transfer the total loads from the

slab to the column and columns carry it to the foundation and provide stability to the structure.

Comparative analysis of shearing stress in structural elements using bamboo planks, palm trees, and

wire mesh. The proposed project aims are to investigate and compare the shearing stress of different

construction materials namely; bamboo, wooden planks, palm trees, and wire mesh. In relation to their

availability in rainforest environments. Shearing stress is a critical factor in determining the structural

stability and safety of beams and columns in construction. By evaluating these materials, we can better

understand the viability for the use in sustainable construction practices.

We hereby our proposal for the construction of the ground floor, columns, and lintels for the project.

Our team has extensive experience in the construction industry and it is well equipped to undertake this

project with utmost professionalism and attention to detail. This proposal outlines our approach,

timeline, and estimated costs for the successful completion of the project. Column formwork is a cost-

effective and efficient method of construction that provides a smooth and uniform finish to the concrete

surface. It is widely used in various construction projects such as high-rise buildings, bridges, and

tunnels.

1.2 Problem of the Study

The filling and compaction of the foundation to Civillon Lecture Theater is a necessity to fully prepare

the sub structure of the building, so as to enable it carry and evenly distribute the loads coming from

the super structure to the ground. This is also a necessity to prevent future settlements in the ground.

Building column and lintel should be constructed with standard formwork so as to enable it stand the

required test

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1.3 Aim and objectives

The aim of this study is to form the formwork and construction of ground floor, column and lintel of

Civillon Lecture Theater of civil engineering department federal polytechnic Ede.

The objectives are;

i. To construct formwork for column

ii. To arrange reinforcement for column and lintel

iii. To cast fresh concrete for column and lintel

iv. To determine the compressive strength of the column produced

1.4 Significance of the Study

With the alarming increase in the number of students admitted into the department of Civil Engineering

Technology, Federal Polytechnic Ede, and there is no enough lecture room. Those ones available do not

have enough capacity to accommodate the number of students in many classes. Construction of civil lecture

theater in the department brings greater benefits as the students will enjoy a more conducive learning

environment which increases their comfort ability and increase their interest in learning.

1.4 Scope and limitation of the study

The scope of work for this project includes but is not limited to:

i. Excavation and site preparation

ii. Foundation construction

iii. Reinforced concrete slabs for the ground floor

iv. Installation of vertical columns

v. Construction of horizontal lintels

vi. Integration of design specifications and architectural plans

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Formwork

Formwork, Mold used to form concrete into structural shapes (beams, columns, slabs, shells)

for building. Formwork can be of timber, steel, plastic, or fiberglass. The inside surface is

coated with a bond breaker (plastic or oil) to keep the concrete from sticking to the mold. The

term 'formwork' refers to a temporary mould into which concrete is poured and formed so that

it can set to the required shape. Traditional formwork is fabricated using timber shuttering, but

it can also be constructed from steel, glass fibre reinforced plastics, plywood and other

materials.

Shuttering is most common type of formwork, constructed on site using timber and plywood.

A special grade of plywood is necessary for shuttering, as it must be water-resistant. Shuttering

is relatively easy to produce, although it can be time consuming for large structures or complex

shapes. This type of temporary formwork is used when the labor costs are lower than the cost

of producing re-usable formwork from materials such as steel or plastic. Both shuttering and

other types of formworks need to be supported by falsework. Falsework refers to poles,

stabilizers, and other supports that keep the shuttering or formwork in place as the concrete

dries. For more information, see Falsework. Once the concrete has gained sufficient strength

the formwork can be struck (removed). A minimum value of 5 N/mm2 is recommended in all

cases when striking vertical formwork as so not to damage the concrete in the process.

High quality workmanship and inspection are necessary to ensure a high standard and

appearance of the resulting concrete structure, particularly where the concrete will remain

visible in the completed structure.

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 2.1.1 Formwork specifications

When selecting formwork, the type of concrete and temperature of the pour are important

considerations as they both effect the pressure exerted. The formwork sides must be capable

of resisting the hydrostatic pressure of the wet concrete which will diminish to zero within

several hours depending on the rate of setting and curing. The formwork base or soffit must be

capable of resisting the initial dead load of the wet concrete and the dead load of the dry set

concrete.

Formwork should be:

i. Strong enough to withstand dead and live loads.

ii. Capable of retaining its shape by being efficiently propped and braced horizontally and

vertically.

iii. Designed constructed to prevent leakage of cement grout, with sealed joints.

iv. Capable of being removed in various parts without damaging the concrete.

v. Suitable for reuse.

vi. Set accurately to the desired line.

vii. As lightweight as possible.

viii. Resistant to warping and distortion.

ix. Resting on a firm base.

2.1.2 Types of formworks

A range of different types of formworks are described below.

1. Beam formwork

Formwork for beams takes the form of a three-sided box which is supported and propped in the

correct position and to the desired level. The removal time for the formwork will vary with air

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temperature, humidity and consequent curing rate. Typical striking times are as follows (using air

temperature of 7-16 ºC):

i. Beam sides: 9-12 hours.

ii. Beam soffits: 8-14 days.

iii. Beam props: 15-21 days.

2. Column formwork

This consists of a vertical mould of the desired shape and size for the column to be poured. As a

means of keeping the formwork material thickness to a minimum, horizontal steel or timber clamps

(or yokes) are used at equal centres for batch filling and at varying centres for filling that is

completed in one pour.

The head of the column formwork can be used to provide support for the beam formwork, but

while this gives good top lateral restraint it can make the formwork complex. Alternatively, the

column can be cast to the underside of the beams. Later on, a collar of formwork can be clamped

around the cast column to complete the casting and support the incoming beam formwork.

3. Plastic formwork

Re-usable plastic formwork is generally used for quick pours of concrete. The formwork is

assembled either from interlocking panels or from a modular system and is used for relatively

simple concrete structures. It is not as versatile as timber formwork due to the prefabrication

requirements and is best suited to lost-cost, repetitive structures such as mass housing schemes.

Stay-in-place structural formwork is generally assembled on site using prefabricated fibre-

reinforced plastic. It is used for concrete columns and piers and stays in place, acting as permanent

axial and shear reinforcement for the structural member. It also provides resistance to

environmental damage for both the concrete and reinforcing bars.

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Proprietary systems are used to support vertical formwork while concrete cures, consisting of a

series of tubes and ties.

(Reference BS5975:2008 + A1: 2001 Code of Practice for Temporary Works Procedures and the

Permissible Stress Design of Falsework (BSI 2011)

Formwork systems used for concrete frame construction have continued to develop significantly

since the early 1990s. The major innovations have focused on on-site efficiency of production,

health and safety, and environmental issues, driving the concrete construction industry towards

ever-increasing efficiency.

Different formwork systems provide a wide range of concrete construction solutions that can be

chosen to suit the needs of a particular development.

Traditional formwork for concrete construction normally consisted of bespoke solutions requiring

skilled craftsmen. This type of formwork often had poor safety features and gave slow rates of

construction on-site and huge levels of waste.

2.2 Reinforcement

Reinforcement is one type of material which is used in construction. It's one type of bar that

provide ductility to any structure member like Columns, beams, slabs, etc. Reinforcement has

ductile behavior which increase strength of building and give sign.

Steel reinforcement are steel bars that are provided in combination with plain cement concrete to

make it reinforced concrete. Hence these structures form steel reinforced cement concrete structure

(R.C.C). Steel reinforcement is commonly called as ‘rebars’.

2.2.1 Need for Steel Reinforcement

Plain concrete is weak in tension and strong in compression. Tensile property for concrete

structures is obtained by incorporating steel reinforcement. The steel reinforcement is strong in

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both tension and compression. The tensile property provided by the steel reinforcement will

prevent and minimize concrete cracks under tension loads. The coefficient of thermal expansion

of steel reinforcement and concrete are similar in that they undergo similar expansions during

temperature changes. This property will ensure that the concrete is subjected to minimal stress

during temperature variations. The surface of the steel reinforcement bars is patterned to have a

proper bond with the surrounding concrete material. The two main factors that provide strength to

the concrete structures are steel and concrete. The design engineer will combine both the elements

and design the structural element such a way that the steel resists the induced tensile and shear

force, while the concrete takes up the compressive forces.

2.2.2 Types of Steel Reinforcement

The steel reinforcement used in concrete construction is mainly of 4 types. They are:

i. Hot Rolled Deformed Steel Bars

ii. Cold Worked Steel Bars

iii. Mild Steel Plain Bars

iv. Prestressing Steel Bars

1. Hot Rolled Deformed Bars

Hot rolled deformed bars are most commonly used steel reinforcement for R.C.C structures. As

the name says, the hot rolling of the reinforcement is undergone leaving certain deformations on

its surface in the form of ribs. These ribs help to form a bond with the concrete. The typical yield

strength of hot-rolled deformed bars is 60000psi.

2. Cold Worked Steel Bars

A cold worked reinforcement bar is obtained by letting the hot rolled steel bars to undergo cold

working. In the cold working process, the bars will undergo twisting and drawing. The process is

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performed at room temperature. The cold worked steel bars do not undergo a plastic yield thus

have less ductility when compared with hot rolled bars.

3. Mild Steel Plain Bars

The mild steel plain reinforcement bars do not have ribs on their surface. They have a plain

surface. These bars are used for small projects where the major concern is the economy. The

tensile yield strength of these bars has a value of 40000psi.

4. Prestressing Steel Bars

The prestressing steel reinforcement are steel bars used in the form of strands or tendons.

Multiple strands are employed in concrete in order to perform the prestressing action. The

strands are made of multiple wires either 2 or 3 or 7 wire strands. The wires used here are cold

formed and have a high tensile strength ranging from 250000 – 270000 psi. This high strength

helps to effectively prestress the concrete.

2.2.3 Advantages of Steel Reinforcement

Steel reinforcement is a reinforcing choice compared to other reinforcing materials due to its

unique advantages. They are:

 Compatibility with Concrete: The fresh concrete is placed on the formwork mold already

prepared with reinforcement. The steel reinforcement won’t float in concrete during the

concrete placing procedure. Hence, steel reinforcement does not demand special tying up

with formworks.

 Robustness of Steel Reinforcement: The steel bars are robust in nature that they have the

ability to withstand the rigors, the wear and tear during the construction activities.

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  Bent Property of Steel Reinforcement: The steel bars once manufactured to standard size,

it can be bent to the required specifications. Hence fabricated steel bars are delivered easily

at the site.

 Recycling Property: The steel reinforced left over after the service life of a structure is

recycled again and used for new construction.

 Easily Available: Every region of a country will have a steel supplier or manufacturer.

Hence steel reinforcement is easily available.

2.2.4 Disadvantages of Steel Reinforcement

The main disadvantages of steel reinforcement are mentioned below:

 Reactive Nature of Steel Reinforcement: In concrete structures where the cover is small

and subjected to external moisture and salt action, the reinforcement undergoes reaction

and starts to corrode. These can lessen the strength of concrete and finally to failure.

 Expensive: The cost of steel reinforcement in high. This will increase the cost of

construction

 Melts at high temperature: At higher temperatures, the steel reinforcement may melt.

This is the reason why the steel reinforcement is tied up and not welded.

2.2.5 Reinforced concrete

Concrete in which steel is embedded in such a manner that the two materials act together in

resisting forces. The reinforcing steel—rods, bars, or mesh—absorbs the tensile, shear, and

sometimes the compressive stresses in a concrete structure. Plain concrete does not easily

withstand tensile and shear stresses caused by wind, earthquakes, vibrations, and other forces and

is therefore unsuitable in most structural applications. In reinforced concrete, the tensile strength

of steel and the compressive strength of concrete work together to allow the member to sustain

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these stresses over considerable spans. The invention of reinforced concrete in the 19th century

revolutionized the construction industry, and concrete became one of the world’s most common

building materials.

2.3 Concrete

Concrete is a composite material composed of aggregate bonded together with a fluid cement that

cures over time. Concrete is the second-most-used substance in the world after water, (M. Shazwan,

2019) and is the most widely used building material. Its usage worldwide, ton for ton, is twice that

of steel, wood, plastics, and aluminium combined. (M. H. Strickland, 2010). When aggregate is

mixed with dry Portland cement and water, the mixture forms a fluid slurry that is easily poured

and molded into shape. The cement reacts with the water through a process called concrete

hydration that hardens it over several hours to form a hard matrix that binds the materials together

into a durable stone-like material that has many uses. This time allows concrete to not only be cast

in forms, but also to have a variety of tooled processes performed. The hydration process is

exothermic, which means ambient temperature plays a significant role in how long it takes concrete

to set. Often, additives (such as pozzolans or superplasticizers) are included in the mixture to

improve the physical properties of the wet mix, delay or accelerate the curing time, or otherwise

change the finished material. Most concrete is poured with reinforcing materials (such as steel

rebar) embedded to provide tensile strength, yielding reinforced concrete. In the past, lime based

cement binders, such as lime putty, were often used but sometimes with other hydraulic cements,

(water resistant) such as a calcium aluminate cement or with Portland cement to form Portland

cement concrete (named for its visual resemblance to Portland stone). Many other non-

cementitious types of concrete exist with other methods of binding aggregate together, including

asphalt concrete with a bitumen binder, which is frequently used for road surfaces, and polymer

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concretes that use polymers as a binder. Concrete is distinct from mortar. Whereas concrete is itself

a building material, mortar is a bonding agent that typically holds bricks, tiles and other masonry

units together (Wigbout, 1987). Grout is another material associated with concrete and cement. It

does not contain coarse aggregates and is usually either pourable or thixotropic, and is used to fill

gaps between masonry components or coarse aggregate which has already been put in place. Some

methods of concrete manufacture and repair involve pumping grout into the gaps to make up a

solid mass in situ.

2.3.1 Composition

Concrete is an artificial composite material, comprising a matrix of cementitious binder (typically

Portland cement paste or asphalt) and a dispersed phase or "filler" of aggregate (typically a rocky

material, loose stones, and sand). The binder "glues" the filler together to form a synthetic

conglomerate. Many types of concrete are available, determined by the formulations of binders

and the types of aggregate used to suit the application of the engineered material. These variables

determine strength and density, as well as chemical and thermal resistance of the finished product.

Cross section of a concrete railway sleeper below a rail

Aggregates consist of large chunks of material in a concrete mix, generally a coarse gravel or

crushed rocks such as limestone, or granite, along with finer materials such as sand.

Cement paste, most commonly made of Portland cement, is the most prevalent kind of concrete

binder. For cementitious binders, water is mixed with the dry cement powder and aggregate, which

produces a semi-liquid slurry (paste) that can be shaped, typically by pouring it into a form. The

concrete solidifies and hardens through a chemical process called hydration. The water reacts with

the cement, which bonds the other components together, creating a robust, stone-like material.

Other cementitious materials, such as fly ash and slag cement, are sometimes added—either pre-

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blended with the cement or directly as a concrete component—and become a part of the binder for

the aggregate. Fly ash and slag can enhance some properties of concrete such as fresh properties

and durability. Alternatively, other materials can also be used as a concrete binder: the most

prevalent substitute is asphalt, which is used as the binder in asphalt concrete. Admixtures are

added to modify the cure rate or properties of the material. Mineral admixtures use recycled

materials as concrete ingredients. Conspicuous materials include fly ash, a by-product of coal-fired

power plants; ground granulated blast furnace slag, a by-product of steelmaking; and silica fume,

a by-product of industrial electric arc furnaces.

Structures employing Portland cement concrete usually include steel reinforcement because this

type of concrete can be formulated with high compressive strength, but always has lower tensile

strength. Therefore, it is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in tension, typically steel

rebar.

The mix design depends on the type of structure being built, how the concrete is mixed and

delivered, and how it is placed to form the structure.

2.3.2 Portland cement

is the most common type of cement in general usage. It is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar,

and many plasters. British masonry worker Joseph Aspdin patented Portland cement in 1824. It

was named because of the similarity of its color to Portland limestone, quarried from the English

Isle of Portland and used extensively in London architecture. It consists of a mixture of calcium

silicates (alite, belite), aluminates and ferrites—compounds which combine calcium, silicon,

aluminium and iron in forms which will react with water. Portland cement and similar materials

are made by heating limestone (a source of calcium) with clay or shale (a source of silicon,

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aluminium and iron) and grinding this product (called clinker) with a source of sulfate (most

commonly gypsum).

In modern cement kilns, many advanced features are used to lower the fuel consumption per ton

of clinker produced. Cement kilns are extremely large, complex, and inherently dusty industrial

installations, and have emissions which must be controlled. Of the various ingredients used to

produce a given quantity of concrete, the cement is the most energetically expensive. Even

complex and efficient kilns require 3.3 to 3.6 gigajoules of energy to produce a ton of clinker and

then grind it into cement. Many kilns can be fueled with difficult-to-dispose-of wastes, the most

common being used tires. The extremely high temperatures and long periods of time at those

temperatures allows cement kilns to efficiently and completely burn even difficult-to-use fuel

Cement.

2.3.3 Water

Combining water with a cementitious material forms a cement paste by the process of hydration.

The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills voids within it, and makes it flow more freely.

As stated by Abrams' law, a lower water-to-cement ratio yields a stronger, more durable concrete,

whereas more water gives a freer-flowing concrete with a higher slump. Impure water used to

make concrete can cause problems when setting or in causing premature failure of the structure.

Portland cement consists of five major compounds of calcium silicates and aluminates ranging

from 5 to 50% in weight, which all undergo hydration to contribute to final material's strength.

Thus, the hydration of cement involves many reactions, often occurring at the same time. As the

reactions proceed, the products of the cement hydration process gradually bond together the

individual sand and gravel particles and other components of the concrete to form a solid mass.

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2.3.4 Aggregates

Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture. Sand, natural gravel, and

crushed stone are used mainly for this purpose. Recycled aggregates (from construction,

demolition, and excavation waste) are increasingly used as partial replacements for natural

aggregates, while a number of manufactured aggregates, including air-cooled blast furnace slag

and bottom ash are also permitted.

The size distribution of the aggregate determines how much binder is required. Aggregate with a

very even size distribution has the biggest gaps whereas adding aggregate with smaller particles

tends to fill these gaps. The binder must fill the gaps between the aggregate as well as paste the

surfaces of the aggregate together, and is typically the most expensive component. Thus, variation

in sizes of the aggregate reduces the cost of concrete. The aggregate is nearly always stronger than

the binder, so its use does not negatively affect the strength of the concrete.

Redistribution of aggregates after compaction often creates non-homogeneity due to the influence

of vibration. This can lead to strength gradients.

Decorative stones such as quartzite, small river stones or crushed glass are sometimes added to the

surface of concrete for a decorative "exposed aggregate" finish, popular among landscape

designers.

Admixtures

Admixtures are materials in the form of powder or fluids that are added to the concrete to give it

certain characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete mixes. Admixtures are defined as

additions "made as the concrete mix is being prepared". The most common admixtures are

retarders and accelerators. In normal use, admixture dosages are less than 5% by mass of cement

15
and are added to the concrete at the time of batching/mixing.[46] (See § Production below.) The

common types of admixtures are as follows:

Accelerators speed up the hydration (hardening) of the concrete. Typical materials used are

calcium chloride, calcium nitrate and sodium nitrate. However, use of chlorides may cause

corrosion in steel reinforcing and is prohibited in some countries, so that nitrates may be favored,

even though they are less effective than the chloride salt. Accelerating admixtures are especially

useful for modifying the properties of concrete in cold weather.

Air entraining agents add and entrain tiny air bubbles in the concrete, which reduces damage during

freeze-thaw cycles, increasing durability. However, entrained air entails a tradeoff with strength,

as each 1% of air may decrease compressive strength by 5%.[48] If too much air becomes trapped

in the concrete as a result of the mixing process, defoamers can be used to encourage the air bubble

to agglomerate, rise to the surface of the wet concrete and then disperse.

Bonding agents are used to create a bond between old and new concrete (typically a type of

polymer) with wide temperature tolerance and corrosion resistance.

Corrosion inhibitors are used to minimize the corrosion of steel and steel bars in concrete.

Crystalline admixtures are typically added during batching of the concrete to lower permeability.

The reaction takes place when exposed to water and un-hydrated cement particles to form insoluble

needle-shaped crystals, which fill capillary pores and micro-cracks in the concrete to block

pathways for water and waterborne contaminates. Concrete with crystalline admixture can expect

to self-seal as constant exposure to water will continuously initiate crystallization to ensure

permanent waterproof protection.

Pigments can be used to change the color of concrete, for aesthetics.

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Plasticizers increase the workability of plastic, or "fresh", concrete, allowing it to be placed more

easily, with less consolidating effort. A typical plasticizer is lignosulfonate. Plasticizers can be

used to reduce the water content of a concrete while maintaining workability and are sometimes

called water reducers due to this use. Such treatment improves its strength and durability

characteristics.

Superplasticizers (also called high-range water-reducers) are a class of plasticizers that have fewer

deleterious effects and can be used to increase workability more than is practical with traditional

plasticizers. Superplasticizers are used to increase compressive strength. It increases the

workability of the concrete and lowers the need for water content by 15–30%.

Pumping aids improve pumpability, thicken the paste and reduce separation and bleeding.

Retarders slow the hydration of concrete and are used in large or difficult pours where partial

setting is undesirable before completion of the pour. Typical polyol retarders are sugar, sucrose,

sodium gluconate, glucose, citric acid, and tartaric acid.

2.3.4 Production

Concrete plant showing a concrete mixer being filled from ingredient silos

Concrete mixing plant in Birmingham, Alabama in 1936

Concrete production is the process of mixing together the various ingredients—water, aggregate,

cement, and any additives—to produce concrete. Concrete production is time-sensitive. Once the

ingredients are mixed, workers must put the concrete in place before it hardens. In modern usage,

most concrete production takes place in a large type of industrial facility called a concrete plant,

or often a batch plant. The usual method of placement is casting in formwork, which holds the mix

in shape until it has set enough to hold its shape unaided.

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In general usage, concrete plants come in two main types, ready mix plants and central mix plants.

A ready-mix plant mixes all the ingredients except water, while a central mix plant mixes all the

ingredients including water. A central-mix plant offers more accurate control of the concrete

quality through better measurements of the amount of water added, but must be placed closer to

the work site where the concrete will be used, since hydration begins at the plant.

A concrete plant consists of large storage hoppers for various reactive ingredients like cement,

storage for bulk ingredients like aggregate and water, mechanisms for the addition of various

additives and amendments, machinery to accurately weigh, move, and mix some or all of those

ingredients, and facilities to dispense the mixed concrete, often to a concrete mixer truck.

Modern concrete is usually prepared as a viscous fluid, so that it may be poured into forms, which

are containers erected in the field to give the concrete its desired shape. Concrete formwork can be

prepared in several ways, such as slip forming and steel plate construction. Alternatively, concrete

can be mixed into dryer, non-fluid forms and used in factory settings to manufacture precast

concrete products.

A wide variety of equipment is used for processing concrete, from hand tools to heavy industrial

machinery. Whichever equipment builders use, however, the objective is to produce the desired

building material; ingredients must be properly mixed, placed, shaped, and retained within time

constraints. Any interruption in pouring the concrete can cause the initially placed material to begin

to set before the next batch is added on top. This creates a horizontal plane of weakness called a

cold joint between the two batches. Once the mix is where it should be, the curing process must be

controlled to ensure that the concrete attains the desired attributes. During concrete preparation,

various technical details may affect the quality and nature of the product.

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2.3.5 Design mix

Design mix ratios are decided by an engineer after analyzing the properties of the specific

ingredients being used. Instead of using a 'nominal mix' of 1 part cement, 2 parts sand, and 4 parts

aggregate (the second example from above), a civil engineer will custom-design a concrete mix to

exactly meet the requirements of the site and conditions, setting material ratios and often designing

an admixture package to fine-tune the properties or increase the performance envelope of the mix.

Design-mix concrete can have very broad specifications that cannot be met with more basic

nominal mixes, but the involvement of the engineer often increases the cost of the concrete mix.

Concrete Mixes are primarily divided into nominal mix, standard mix and design mix.

Nominal mix ratios are given in volume of

Cement: Sand: Aggregate

{\display style {\text {Cement: Sand: Aggregate}}}. Nominal mixes are a simple, fast way of

getting a basic idea of the properties of the finished concrete without having to perform testing in

advance.

Various governing bodies (such as British Standards) define nominal mix ratios into a number of

grades, usually ranging from lower compressive strength to higher compressive strength. The

grades usually indicate the 28-day cube strength.

2.3.6 Mixing

Volumetric concrete mixer and Concrete mixer

Thorough mixing is essential to produce uniform, high-quality concrete.

Separate paste mixing has shown that the mixing of cement and water into a paste before

combining these materials with aggregates can increase the compressive strength of the resulting

concrete. The paste is generally mixed in a high-speed, shear-type mixer at a w/c (water to cement

19
ratio) of 0.30 to 0.45 by mass. The cement paste premix may include admixtures such as

accelerators or retarders, superplasticizers, pigments, or silica fume. The premixed paste is then

blended with aggregates and any remaining batch water and final mixing is completed in

conventional concrete mixing equipment.

Sample analysis – Workability

Concrete floor of a parking garage being placed

Pouring and smoothing out concrete at Palisades Park in Washington, DC

Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mold properly with the

desired work (pouring, pumping, spreading, tamping, vibration) and without reducing the

concrete's quality. Workability depends on water content, aggregate (shape and size distribution),

cementitious content and age (level of hydration) and can be modified by adding chemical

admixtures, like superplasticizer. Raising the water content or adding chemical admixtures

increases concrete workability. Excessive water leads to increased bleeding or segregation of

aggregates (when the cement and aggregates start to separate), with the resulting concrete having

reduced quality. Changes in gradation can also affect workability of the concrete, although a wide

range of gradation can be used for various applications.[63][64] An undesirable gradation can

mean using a large aggregate that is too large for the size of the formwork, or which has too few

smaller aggregate grades to serve to fill the gaps between the larger grades, or using too little or

too much sand for the same reason, or using too little water, or too much cement, or even using

jagged crushed stone instead of smoother round aggregate such as pebbles. Any combination of

these factors and others may result in a mix which is too harsh, i.e., which does not flow or spread

out smoothly, is difficult to get into the formwork, and which is difficult to surface finish.

20
Workability can be measured by the concrete slump test, a simple measure of the plasticity of a

fresh batch of concrete following the ASTM C 143 or EN 12350-2 test standards. Slump is

normally measured by filling an "Abram’s cone" with a sample from a fresh batch of concrete. The

cone is placed with the wide end down onto a level, non-absorptive surface. It is then filled in three

layers of equal volume, with each layer being tamped with a steel rod to consolidate the layer.

When the cone is carefully lifted off, the enclosed material slumps a certain amount, owing to

gravity. A relatively dry sample slumps very little, having a slump value of one or two inches (25

or 50 mm) out of one foot (300 mm). A relatively wet concrete sample may slump as much as eight

inches. Workability can also be measured by the flow table test.

Slump can be increased by addition of chemical admixtures such as plasticizer or superplasticizer

without changing the water-cement ratio. Some other admixtures, especially air-entraining

admixture, can increase the slump of a mix.

High-flow concrete, like self-consolidating concrete, is tested by other flow-measuring methods.

One of these methods includes placing the cone on the narrow end and observing how the mix

flows through the cone while it is gradually lifted.

After mixing, concrete is a fluid and can be pumped to the location where needed.

2.3.7 Curing

A concrete slab being kept hydrated during water curing by submersion (ponding)

Maintaining optimal conditions for cement hydration

Concrete must be kept moist during curing in order to achieve optimal strength and durability.

During curing hydration occurs, allowing calcium-silicate hydrate (C-S-H) to form. Over 90% of

a mix's final strength is typically reached within four weeks, with the remaining 10% achieved

over years or even decades. The conversion of calcium hydroxide in the concrete into calcium

21
carbonate from absorption of CO2 over several decades further strengthens the concrete and makes

it more resistant to damage. This carbonation reaction, however, lowers the pH of the cement pore

solution and can corrode the reinforcement bars.

Hydration and hardening of concrete during the first three days is critical. Abnormally fast drying

and shrinkage due to factors such as evaporation from wind during placement may lead to

increased tensile stresses at a time when it has not yet gained sufficient strength, resulting in greater

shrinkage cracking. The early strength of the concrete can be increased if it is kept damp during

the curing process. Minimizing stress prior to curing minimizes cracking. High-early-strength

concrete is designed to hydrate faster, often by increased use of cement that increases shrinkage

and cracking. The strength of concrete changes (increases) for up to three years. It depends on

cross-section dimension of elements and conditions of structure exploitation. Addition of short-cut

polymer fibers can improve (reduce) shrinkage-induced stresses during curing and increase early

and ultimate compression strength.

Properly curing concrete leads to increased strength and lower permeability and avoids cracking

where the surface dries out prematurely. Care must also be taken to avoid freezing or overheating

due to the exothermic setting of cement. Improper curing can cause scaling, reduced strength, poor

abrasion resistance and cracking.

22
2.4 Ground floor

A solid ground floor consists of a layer of concrete, which in the case of a domestic building

will be the surface layer brought up to ground floor level with hardcore filling under it. The

advantage of a solid ground floor is the elimination of dry rot and other problems normally

associated with hollow joisted floors. The disadvantage is that the floor is less resilient to walk

upon and may be more tiring for the user. Solid ground floors are usually found or situated in a

kitchen but will be necessary for other rooms where wood blocks and other similar finishes are

required.

2.4.1Finishes

i. Cement screed: The concrete floor may be topped with a 25 mm thick cement and sand

screed troweled to a smooth finish. The usual mix is 1:3 and a coloring agent may be added

to the mix to obtain a more attractive finish. The mix should be as dry as possible and the

sand should be coarsely graded and clean to avoid shrinkage and cracking which might

occur with a wet mix. The floor finish is carefully cured after laying.

ii. Granolithic: Granolithic is composed of cement and fine aggregate mortar, the aggregate

being granite chippings, which will give the hard-wearing quality of the finish. It will be

laid with screed, trowelled or floated to an even and fine finish. Granolithic paving will be

suitable in areas which are to receive hard ware although its appearance would not normally

be suitable for internal domestic work.

iii. PVC tiles: Polyvinyl chloride tiles - These are another commonly used floor finish. After

the floor has been laid with screed, these tiles are fixed with adhesive. They are attractive,

smooth and cool, and damage can be repaired very easily as they are made in small square

23
 size, usually 150 mm to 225 mm. Though due to poor workmanship and dust this type of

floor finish fails through lifting.

iv. Terrazzo: Terrazzo consists of a colored element binder or matrix and marble chips mixed

to specified proportions. The finish is hardwearing, attractive and resistant to chemical

attack.

Ebonite strips divide the terrazzo into bays to avoid shrinkage and expansion.

2.5 Column

Column is a vertical structural member that carry loads mainly in compression. It might transfer

loads from a ceiling, floor slab, roof slab, or from a beam, to a floor or foundations. Commonly,

columns also carry bending moments about one or both of the cross-section axes.

2.5.1 Types of Columns in Building Construction

Columns are classified based on the several conditions which include:

i. Based on Types of Reinforcement

ii. Based on Types of Loading

iii. Based on Slenderness Ratio

iv. Based on Shape

v. Based on Construction Material

2.5.2 Based on Types of Reinforcement

1. Tied Column

This type of column is commonly construction from reinforced concrete. Longitudinal

reinforcement is confined within closely spaced tie reinforcement. It is estimated that 95% of all

columns in buildings are tied.

24
2. Spiral Column

Spiral column is also construction from reinforced concrete. In this type of column, longitudinal

bars are confined within closely spaced and continuously wound spiral reinforcement. Spiral

reinforcement provide lateral restrains (Poisson’s effect) and delays axial load failure (ductile).

3. Composite column

When the longitudinal reinforcement is in the form of structural steel section or pipe with or

without longitudinal bars, it is called as a composite column. This type of column has high strength

with fairly small cross section, in addition to exhibit good fire performance.

2.5.3 Based on Types of Loading

4. Axially Loaded Column

If vertical axial loads act on the center of gravity of the cross-section of the column, then it is

termed as axially loaded column. Axially loaded column is rare in construction since coinciding

vertical loads on the center of gravity of column cross section is not practical. Interior column of

multi-story buildings with symmetrical loads from floor slabs from all sides is an example of this

type of column.

5. Column with Uniaxial Eccentric Loading

When vertical loads do not coincide with center of gravity of column cross section, but rather act

eccentrically either on X or Y axis of the column cross section, then it is called uniaxially eccentric

loading column. Column with uniaxial loading is generally encountered in the case of columns

rigidly connected beam from one side only such as edge columns.

6. Column with Biaxial Eccentric Loading

When vertical on the column is not coincide with center of gravity of column cross section and

does not act on either axis (X and Y axis), then the column is called biaxially eccentric loaded

25
 column. Columns with biaxial loading is common in corner columns with beams rigidly connected

at right angles at the top of columns.

2.5.4 Based on Slenderness Ratio Based on slenderness ratio, (effective length/ least lateral

dimension), columns are categorized as follow:

7. Short Column

If the ratio effective length of the column to the least lateral dimension is less than 12, the column

is called as the short column. A short column fails by crushing (pure compression failure).

8. Long Column

If the ratio effective length of the column to the least lateral dimension exceeds 12, it is called as

long column. A long column fails by bending or buckling.

2.5.5 Based on Shape of Reinforced Concrete Column

9. Square or Rectangular Column

They are generally used in the construction of buildings. It is much easier to construct and cast

rectangular or square columns than circular ones because of ease of shuttering and to support it

from collapsing due to pressure while the concrete is still in flowable form.

10. Circular column

They are specially designed columns, which are mostly used in piling and elevation of the

buildings.

11. L-Shape Column

Commonly, L-shaped column is utilized in the corners of the boundary wall and has similar

characteristics of a rectangular or square column.

12. T-Shape column

26
 It is utilized based on design requirements of a structure. T-Shaped column is widely used in the

construction of bridges.

13. Shape of Steel Column

There are different standard and built-up shape of steel columns which are shown in Fig. and Fig.

Common shapes of steel columns include I, channel, equal angle, and T-shape.

2.5.6 Based on Construction Material Types of columns based on construction materials include:

14. Reinforced Concrete, Steel, timber, Brick, Block, and Stone Column.

2.6 Lintel

In construction, a lintel is a beam placed across the top of an opening in a wall. Used above empty

spaces like entrances and windows in buildings, lintels support the weight of the structures above

them. A lintel is a beam placed across the openings like doors, windows etc. in buildings to support

the load from the structure above. The width of lintel beam is equal to the width of wall, and the

ends of it is built into the wall. Lintels are classified based on their material of construction.

2.6.1 Bearing of Lintel

The bearing provided should be the minimum of following 3 cases.

 10 cm

 Height of beam

 1/10th to 1/12th of span of the lintel.

2.6.2 Types of Lintels used in Building Construction.

Lintels are classified based on the material of construction as:

1. Timber Lintel

27
In olden days of construction, Timber lintels were mostly used. But now a days they are replaced

by several modern techniques, however in hilly areas these are using. The main disadvantages with

timber are more cost and less durable and vulnerable to fire.

If the length of opening is more, then it is provided by joining multiple number of wooden pieces

with the help of steel bolts which was shown in fig (a). In case of wider walls, it is composed of

two wooden pieces kept at a distance with the help of packing pieces made of wood. Sometimes,

these are strengthened by the provision of mild steel plates at their top and bottom, called as

fletched lintels.

2. Stone Lintel

These are the most common type, especially where stone is abundantly available. The thickness of

these is most important factor of its design. These are also provided over the openings in brick

walls. Stone lintel is provided in the form of either one single piece or more than one piece. The

depth of this type is kept equal to 10 cm / meter of span, with a minimum value of 15 cm. They

are used up to spans of 2 meters. In the structure is subjected to vibratory loads, cracks are formed

3. Brick Lintel

These are used when the opening is less than 1m and lesser loads are acting. Its depth varies from

10 cm to 20 cm, depending up on the span. Bricks with frogs are more suitable than normal bricks

because frogs when filled with mortar gives more shear resistance of end joints which is known as

joggled brick lintel.

n the stone lintel because of its weak tensile nature. Hence caution is needed.

4. Reinforced Brick Lintel

These are used when loads are heavy and span is greater than 1m. The depth of reinforced brick

lintel should be equal to 10 cm or 15 cm or multiple of 10 cm. the bricks are so arranged that 2 to

28
3 cm wide space is left length wise between adjacent bricks for the insertion of mild steel bars as

reinforcement. 1:3 cement mortar is used to fill up the gaps.

Vertical stirrups of 6 mm diameter are provided in every 3rd vertical joint. Main reinforcement is

provided at the bottom consists 8 to 10 mm diameter bars, which are cranked up at the ends.

5. Steel Lintel

These are used when the superimposed loads are heavy and openings are large. These consist of

channel sections or rolled steel joists. We can use one single section or in combinations depending

up on the requirement.

When used singly, the steel joist is either embedded in concrete or cladded with stone facing to

keep the width same as width of wall. When more than one unit are placed side by side, they are

kept in position by tube separators.

6. Reinforced Cement Concrete Lintel

At present, the lintel made of reinforced concrete are widely used to span the openings for doors,

windows, etc. in a structure because of their strength, rigidity, fire resistance, economy and ease

in construction. These are suitable for all the loads and for any span. The width is equal to width

of wall and depth depends on length of span and magnitude of loading.

Main reinforcement is provided at the bottom and half of these bars are cranked at the end.

29
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Preamble

This chapter discusses the materials and methods that were used in this project and

work. The project work is center on formwork and casting of ground floor column

lintel of civilnno hall of civil engineering in federal polytechnic Ede. Basic

experimentation was carried out to determine formwork, casting columns and lintel.

3.2 Tools, equipment and materials requirements

In this study, materials, tools and equipment are hand or machine-operated devices employed in

manufacturing, curing and testing of concrete for ground floor, column and lintel. Tools used for

this project are hand trowel, formwork, head pans, shovels, saw, measuring tape and wheel barrow.

Equipment used are compressive test machine, sieve analysis, measuring equipment/ weigh

balance

Materials used are cement, coarse aggregate and water.

Cement: cement as a material with adhesive and cohesive properties which make it capable of

binding mineral fragments into a compact whole. Cement is a binder in the concrete mixture.

Ordinary Portland cement was used to bind a singed size aggregate of concrete together.

Aggregate: Aggregates are the important constituents in concrete that give body to the concrete

as a result, reduce shrinkage and effect economy. To know more about the concrete it is more

important to know about the aggregates which constitute major volume of the concrete about 70-

80%.

30
Water: Water is an important ingredient of concrete as it actively participates in the chemical

reaction with cement. Since it helps to form the strength, giving cement gel, the quantity and

quality of water is required to be looked into very carefully. The water that was used in this project

is tap water at the school premises south campus, building department.

Hand trowel: Hand trowel is a tool with a metal blade and a wooden handle designed for masonry

work in building construction.

Compressive test machine: compressive test machines are universal testing machines to evaluate

static compressive strength characteristics of materials, products and components. It would be used

to determine the compressive strength of the concrete.

Steps for Construction of Formwork

Formwork in construction means the application of support structures and moulds to form

structures out of concrete that is poured into the moulds. Formwork is built up with moulds which

comprise of steel, wood, aluminium and/or prefabricated forms. The process for eliminating the

formwork is called as stripping. Stripped formwork can be reprocessed. Recyclable forms are

defined as panel forms and non-usable are defined as stationary forms.

Plate 3.1: Timber Formwork

31
3.3.1 Production of concrete for lintel and column.

The aggregate/cement ratios that were used for the study are: 4:1 and 0.45 of water/cement ratios

respectively. samples were produced for each aggregate/cement ratio and were tested at the end of

7days, 14days and 28days.

3.3.2 Procedures for mixing

➢ Weigh aggregate, cement and water for the mix.

➢ Moisten the working concrete surface to prevent water absorption.

➢ Add the aggregate to the concrete surface and add approximately half the water and mix

until all the aggregate is wet.

➢ Spread the cement and water uniformly over the surface of the aggregate.

➢ Mix the concrete until the aggregate is evenly covered with cement paste.

➢ Placing of the concrete mix into the formwork and allow to set.

➢ The concrete was CURED for 7days, 14days and 28days to ensure optimum curing is

achieved and each age was tested for compressive strength test.

32
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Compressive strength

The compressive strength concrete was determined after attaining the number of curing days. The

influence of aggregate/cement ratio on the compressive strength of concrete at different ages.

Average compressive strength of concrete at the age of 7days varies between 5.08 and 8.24MPa,

depending mainly on aggregate/cement ratio and decreases with the increase of aggregate/cement

ratio. Mix with aggregate/cement ratio 4:1 gives the highest strength.

Plate 4.1: Crushing of Concrete Samples

33
Table 4.1: Compressive test table result

Age of curing Area of cube Crushing Load CRUSHING Average

(mm2) (KN) Strength Crushing
(N/mm2) Strength
(N/mm2)
7 22,500 60 28.00
7 22,500 60 27.00
7 22,5002 65 28.00 27.67
14 22,500 68 28.60
14 22,500 65 29.00
14 22,500 70 28.00 28.53
21 22,500 75 29.90
21 22,500 105 31.10
21 22,500 85 31.15 30.72
28 22,500 145 29.00
28 22,500 115 39.80
28 22,500 135 32.00 33.60

4.1.1 Compressive strength

The compressive strength of the concrete was determined after 7, 14 and 28 days of water curing.

Table 4.1 show the influence of aggregate/cement ratio on the compressive strength of the concrete

at different ages. Average crushing strength of the concrete at the age of 7days varies from 14 days

and 28 days respectively.

4.2 Concrete slump test

Concrete slump tests are a routine procedure carried out on a fresh concrete mix to determine its

consistency before it is poured. The test is incredibly simple and is a great, quick method to check

that multiple batches of the same concrete are consistent. Freshly mixed concrete that is soon to be

34
poured — should meet a certain standard before being used as part of a construction project. A

concrete slump test measures the consistency of a concrete batch to see how easily the concrete

will flow. The test not only observes consistency between batches, but it also identifies defects in

a mix, giving the operator a chance to amend the mix before it is poured on site. By measuring the

overall ‘slump’ of the concrete, you can tell whether or not the water-cement ratio is too high, and

whether a mix will have high workability or not.

Steps to Carry Out a Slump Test

This easy test is carried out in just seven stages, using a slump cone, a steel rod, and a measuring

stick. Here’s how you carry out the test:

• Place the cone on a flat, smooth, horizontal surface and stand on the footholds either side

to ensure the cone is planted firmly on the ground

• Fill the cone in three layers, using the steel tamping rod to compact — or tamp — the

concrete after each layer in an even, uniform manner (this should be done 25 times per

layer).

• Once the cone is filled, remove any overflowing concrete from the top, making sure the

concrete fills the cone exactly to the top level. Remove any spilled concrete from the base

of the cone, too.

• Lift the cone vertically, using a slow and steady motion until the cone is clear of the

concrete. Place the cone upside down on the surface next to the concrete.

• The concrete will subside — or slump. To measure the slump, place the steel rod across

the top of the upturned cone so it overhangs the concrete.

• Now, measure from the rod down to the top of the slump. The level of slump is measured

to the nearest 5mm.

35
Plate 4.2: Slump Test

Table 4.2 Slump Test Result

Height of concrete cone (mm) Height of concrete (mm) Slump value (mm) Form
of slump
300.00 286.00 14.00 True
300.00 275.00 25.00 Shear
300.00 270.00 30.00 Shear
300.00 269.00 31.00 Shear
300.00 267.00 33.00 Shear

4.3 COLUMN

Column formwork is a type of concrete formwork. Concrete formwork is a mold made of steel,

aluminum, timber, plastic, or other materials in which wet concrete is poured to achieve a desired

shape and size for construction. Once the concrete sets, formwork is often removed, although

permanent formwork that remains a part of construction exists as well. Column formwork is a

vertical mold in the shape of a column, as its name implies. Column formwork may either be box-

shaped or round. Column formwork is shaped and sized to the needs of a project. In order to help

facilitate quality control during the pouring stage of using column formwork, clamps, which are

horizontal and made of either steel or timber are often used in conjunction with column molds.

36
Column formwork’s head is frequently employed to support beam formwork, or column formwork

is cast to the bottom side of beams. The use of column formwork in conjunction with beam

formwork allows for quick and precise construction. Two of the major benefits of using column

formwork include that it is quick and simple to assemble and that it reduces the amount of labor

and equipment needed to successfully produce uniform and strong vertical concrete shapes of

desired dimensions.

A column is a structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of

the structure above to other structural elements below. We have different column

sizes such as: 1000 x 400mm, 1200 x 300mm, 1250 x 400mm, 850 x 400mm, 800

x 300mm.etc.

Forwork for column

It comprises of the following :-

i. Side & End Planks

ii. Yoke

iii. Nut and Bolts

Two end & two side planks are attached with the yokes and bolts.

Construction sequence for a column

Before placing column formwork, verify that steel for the column is checked and cleared for

casting.

i. Place formwork for the column from prearranged grids.

ii. Plumb formwork both ways and safely support with modifiable steel props.

iii. The propping angle should have been 45 degree to the floor.

37
 iv. Make sure that the steel props are securely attached to the column formwork and the

floor. Modification for pushing & pulling is going on.

v. Arrange the placements of column clamps from a storey rod.

vi. Move the column damp positions from the storey rod onto column formwork.

vii. Apply nails to provide support to the arms of column clamps at the time of wedging.

viii. Place and wedge the bottom, middle and top clamps sets.

ix. Examine the formwork at the top for square.

x. Place and wedge the rest of the column clamps.

xi. Plumb the column with a plump bob that is hanging from a gauge block.

When, all the column formworks are safely propped, final examination should be done for plumb

& column alignment prior and promptly after the concrete is poured and vibrated.

38
PLATE 4.3: COLUMN KICKER, COLUMN FORMWORK, REINFORCEMENT AND

CASTING OF CIVILNNO HALL.

4.3 Lintel

Lintel is referred to as the beam above an opening in a building, which supports the

weight above it and transmits such weight of the imposed materials to the vertical

sides of the wall opening. The lintels used on the site were cast in-situ Reinforced

Concrete Lintels that were constructed on site by using a wooden formwork around

the lintel areas. The concrete used were mixed, transported and placed manually

with use of labor.

39
PLATE: 4.2 CASTING OF LINTEL FOR CIVILNNO HALL

4.2 Pouring of Concrete

Key factors to be considered in the concrete pouring. There are basic steps and procedure needs

to be followed in pouring concrete.

We start pouring of concrete after going through the following procedure.

1. Preparation

2. Forming

3. Setting out and Leveling

4. Concrete Pouring

40
 5. Finishing

6. Curing

Preparation

We need to prepare before starting formwork as the final stage. However, part of the work of stage

one should be done in the preparation stage. In this state, we can list the following items of work

that we need to follow essentially before concreting pouring.

We consider the construction of a concrete slab for this article.

i. Firstly it is required to do some formwork to proceed with the work.

ii. At the initial stage beam bottom (beam bottom formwork) is placed to start with the

reinforcement work.

iii. Beam setting out is done and then beams are located as per their alignments.

iv. Levels are marked in the columns to fix the beam bottom formwork.

v. Next, we start fixing the beam reinforcements. This can be done in two ways.

vi. The first method, fixing the reinforcement at the same location in the beam.

vii. Another method is to fix the beam reinforcement above the beam as it is very easy to work

and after completing the fixing of reinforcements, beam reinforcements are lowered to the

correct position.

viii. Similarly, the slab reinforcement fixing can be done after laying slab reinforcements.

ix. Placing cover blocks are also done with the fixing of reinforcements to maintain the cover

to reinforcements.

x. During these stages, necessary inspections are done to make sure the reinforcements

fixing are correct as per the construction drawing.

41
 xi. The consultant or the Project Management team will also do the inspection work to check

the reinforcements.

Forming

We do fixing formwork in this stage. However, it is required to fix the part of the formwork to

proceed with the reinforcements work.

Firstly, we do the setting out work before fixing any formwork. Necessary levels are setting out

work are done before starting the formwork.

i. The spacing of the form supports is as per the approved method statement or the as per

the approved formwork drawings. Once the vertical props are fixed, necessary joists are

placed before laying the formwork sheets.

ii. Leveling of the formwork is also done before proceeding with the fixing of

reinforcements. Further, we need to do several checking before proceeding with the

concrete pouring.

iii. Setting out and Leveling

iv. Checking the setting out and leveling are unavoidable steps that shall be followed before

proceed with concrete pouring. The accuracy of the work that appeared to the outside will

be governed by these steps.

v. The first stage of the checking is making sure the slab formwork is leveled. The leveling

machine is used to check the slab levels. Usually, slab levels are checked from the soft of

the formwork.

Concrete Pouring

There are two things we need to discuss under concrete pouring

42
Basic techniques need to consider and methods of concrete pouring should be considered. Out of

those, firstly we discuss key aspects that shall be kept in mind when concrete is poured.

▪ Concrete Setting Time: It is required to pay attention to the initial and final setting times

during the concrete pouring. In general, the initial setting time of concrete is around 45-60

minutes. However, it can be modified by adding admixtures. Setting time can be tested as

mention in the article 6 different cement tests. Setting time can be extended as required by the

project and as tested during the trial mixtures.

▪ Formation of Cold Joints: Cold joints are formed when the concrete is poured into the concrete

that has started hardening. Therefore, concrete shall be poured before stating the setting. When

a large pour is concreting, a new concrete layer will be poured before starting the setting of

the existing layer. It avoids the formation of Cold Joints.

▪ Pouring Pattern : When there is a large concrete pour to be concreted, a pouring pattern is

prepared to plan the sequence of concrete pouring. Based on the planned sequence, concrete

will be poured to avoid the formation any cold joints.

▪ Concrete Compaction: It is required to compact the concrete adequately to achive the required

quality and strength. Porker vibrator is used to compact the concrete. The period of vibration

shall be as per the thickness and type of the mix. Compaction shall be done unitll the entrapped

aired is removed and concrete is compacted adequately.

43
PLATE 4.3 COMPACTION OF CONCRETE

▪ Self-Compacting Concrete: In special occasions where it is difficult to do the compaction of

concrete manually, the self-compacting concrete is used. Self-compaction of the concrete is

achieved through the mix design. Deep and large foundations, concreting of piling, etc are

done with the self-compacting concrete.

44
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The stiffness contribution of lintel beams when considered lead to significantly lower

lateral deflection of the building all along the height. Lintel effect is more prominent

for seismic activity as compared to that of wind load. This effect is also influenced

by site conditions. Continuous lintels cause significant reductions in ultimate base

moments of the structure. A reduction of up to 15 percent is observed. The design

forces in foundation level get significantly lesser in case of buildings with lintel

beams considered to act as a structural beam. Continuous lintels can be recommended

in earthquake zones IV and V, continuous lintel beams connecting all columns should

be provided and their stiffness contribution should be considered in assessing the

structural response of the building. Tip deflections are reduced by 20-25 % with

inclusion of continuous lintel beam which in turn leads to reduction of P-

structure increases on provision of

continuous lintel beams which enhances the seismic performance of the building.

Displacement- time response of the building gets improved on using continuous lintel

beams with a major reduction in the ultimate displacement of the building. Velocity

– time and Acceleration – time response also show a positive trend with the increase

in peak values in case of building with continuous lintel beams due to high stiffness

value of the building. Hence continuous lintel beams are highly recommended for

enhancing the performance of the buildings. Also, the standard or formwork can

determine how column and lintel will look at the end of casting. The type of materials

is very important when constructing formwork and it must be put into consideration.

45
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