International Journal of Scientific Research and Innovative Technology Vol. 5 No.

10; December 2018

A Comparative Study on Structural Analysis of High-Rise Buildings

Şule Yılmaz Erten1, Semiha Kartal2

1, 2
Trakya University, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture,
Macedonia Campus, 22100 Edirne, Turkey
suleyilmaz@trakya.edu.tr

Abstract. With the developing technology, the high-level structures provide innovative solutions
that enable many functions to coexist together. In addition, high-rise buildings are an advertising
tool for countries, cities and large companies to show their power and prestige. From their design
to operation, these structures take place in the city skyline with their advanced technology.
Formerly human’s life was near to nature, which human beings have been accustomed for
centuries. However today, they have been tried to rise their structures with the help of
developments in technology, construction techniques and with the limitations brought by
urbanization day by day. These structures, which are defined as multi storey buildings in the
literature, have taken the name of skyscraper together with the desire to reach higher and higher.
As technology has advanced, the desire to build higher has brought different structure system
solutions and proposals. In this context, the investigation of the positive/negative effects of these
structures to the function of the structure, which are the new living spaces of people, constitutes the
main point of the study. It has been found that the functions are limited and the spaces cannot be
used efficiently in the structure system solutions of the prestige buildings in this study. With the
development of the construction materials, it will be provided that hybrid or steel construction
system buildings formed by taking advantage of the steel structure with slender columns and
beams. Thus, creating a more flexible and efficient use of interior spaces of extraordinary forms
can be designed.

1. Introduction
With the industrial revolution and industrialization, the rural population migrates to cities, and as a
result, the need for work and housing increases, leading to the emergence of high buildings.
Besides this, with the development of the industry, the elevator has been invented, and people have
been thinking that higher structures can be made. Reducing the number of settlements in the city
centers due to intensive construction, being valuable and efficient use of the land, has led the
designers to produce some solutions. Therefore, it has become a solution to increase the number of
housing and study areas in the existing areas and this problem could be solved by ascending
vertically. Developments in material technology after the industrial revolution have also increased
the choice of materials in the construction of today's high structures. Hybrid systems have been
developed to combine the positive features of reinforced concrete and steel materials. The buildings
that do not have sufficient stability or unusual appearance when built with reinforced concrete
could be constructed steel materials or reinforced concrete and steel hybrid systems. This has
allowed for the production of prestige structures of today's mega-height structures as well as
extraordinary structures that consist of amorphous forms. In addition to all these improvements,

15
ISSN: 2313-3759 www.ijsrit.com

when considering “the form follow ws function” idea, some problems arise in mosst of the prestige
structures in terms of both in the sttructure and the reflection of the structure to intterior space. The
investigation of such problems andd the investigation of the reflection of these systtems on the plan
and the interior spaces are the basicc problem of this study.

2. Historical Development of High

h-Structural Structure Systems

While the high buildings were cconstructed for religious and amphibious purpooses in the early
periods of their application, todayy they are used as office, hotel and housing sstructures due to
changing socio-economic conditionns. After 19th century, the high buildings which stood for a long
time after the construction of the 115th century, re-emerged in the face of the rapid growth of the
cities and increasing population dennsity in the 19th century [1]. In the Roman citiees, all the vertical
loads are carried by the masonry w walls while the horizontal loads are countered by b the weights of
these walls. The 17-story Monadcoock Building in Chicago, built in 1891, is the best example of a
supporting stone wall system [2] (Fi
Figure 3.1). Towards the end of the 19th century,, the height of 64
m reached by the Monadnock buildding is the highest point reached by this constru uction technique.
This structure, with 1.83 m thick mmasonry walls on the ground floor, was the last building built in
the city using this technique. After the building was completed, it was settled to a height of 30 cm
due to its weight. Therefore, the suupporting system of the additional building buiilt next to it is a
steel frame and stone over it [1].

Figure 2.1, 2.2, 2.3.MonadnockBuildding, Chicago, Home Insurance Building, Chicaago, Empire State
Building, New York.

In today's sense, the development of frame loadbearing structure systems beginss with a balloon-
framing developed by George Snnow in 1832. In this construction technique,, wooden frame
elements are connected to each otheer by studs rather than interlocking joints, and bricks
b are used as
frame materials. In this regard, ballloon frame systems can be completed in a shortter time than the
plug-in system [3]. By the late 18thh century, the development of cast iron and later steel production
provided to cover larger openings w with the framed system and increase the numberr of floors [1, 2].
Heavy-loadbearing masonry walls and a balloon frame systems have left their placess in the cast-iron,
steel frames and glass facades. Verttical transport systems have been developed so tthat the facilities
provided by steel frames in high structures can be used. In this context, the first electrically
operated elevator was built by E. OOtis Graves in 1853 and then developed in 1880 0 by Werner Von
Siemens at a higher speed [1]. Highh-rise elevator facilities were first used in 18700 at the Equitable
Life Insurance Company Buildingg in New York (Figure 3.3). Later on, thee need for high
construction and the need to buildd a large number of light buildings in a shortt period of time,
increased the tendency to steel frammed systems. Such systems are seen in Chicagoo in the late 19th
century [1]. The first building consttructed using all-steel frames is the Home Insuraance Building in
16
International Journal of Scientific Reseearch and Innovative Technology Vol. 5 No. 10
0; December 2018

Chicago (Figure 4). Built in 18884 by architect William Le Baron Jenney, thhis building was
recognized as the world's first skysccraper. The building, which was destroyed in 19931, has 12 floors
and 42 m high [4]. Towards the ennd of the 19th century, the use of concrete in combination
c with
steel, and the technological developpments of the early 20th century, have removeed the barriers to
ascension of buildings, and increassingly make it possible to construct. In 1903, th he 64-m-high 16-
story Ingalls Building in America was the first high-rise building in the world with w a reinforced
concrete framework [1, 2]. The Em mpire State Building, which was built in the beginning
b of the
1930s, maintained its title as the woorld's highest building for 38 years, up to 381 m in height until
the World Trade Center Twin Toweers built in 1972 (Figure 3.5). There is a materiaal loss problem in
the structure system consisting off a steel frame covered with concrete suppoorted by vertical
crossovers. This loss is caused by the tendency of the column and beams to beend in the frame
system, which resists the large sheaar forces that wind loads have caused in the loower stories. The
building was completed in 1.5 yearrs, the highest building of the period and the faastest constructed
building at the same time [1, 2]. At the end of the 1950s, engineers such as Fazlur Rahman
R Khan in
Chicago, William Le Messurier in Boston
B and Leslie E. Robertson in New York designed
d the new
structures to enhance the structuree system effectiveness so that new concepts such as tubular
systems has come to exist.The first development of tubular systems was related to the development
of reinforced concrete construction after World War II. It was developed to removve problems such
as the large element dimensions off the concrete and the division of the interior sppaces by vertical
elements [5]. The most typical exam mples of the first type of reinforced concrete tub
be structure is the
De Witt Chestnut apartment block ddesigned by Khan in 1965 in Chicago (Figure 33.6) [2] . Tubular
systems not only improve the strucctural efficiency compared to the framed system ms, but also save
the structural material [6].

Figure 2.4, 2.5, 2.6.De Witt Chestnut Apartment,

A Chicago, John Hancock Center, World Trade
T Center Twin
Towers
The use of steel in the tubular syystems, where the first application examples were reinforced
concrete, was made possible by thee development of production methods at the ennd of 1960s. The
100-story John Hancock Center (F Figure 3.7), built in 1969 in Chicago, and the 110-story Wills
Tower (Figure 3.8), built in 1974, w were constructed with the tube system and had m maximum height
steel structures at that time [1, 2, 77, 8]. When the structural materials used from past
p to present in
high-rise structures are examined, tthey have developed as hybrid systems in whicch masonry, iron,
steel, reinforced concrete and finaally reinforced concrete and steel are used toggether. In recent
years, the use of high strength cooncrete and steel has reduced the weight of the structure by
reducing the cross section of the strructure system elements’, and the transportationn costs have been
reduced.

17
ISSN: 2313-3759 www.ijsrit.com

3. Structural Systems in High-Risse Buildings

In high-rise buildings, the structuraal systems vary according to the material used, the height of the
building, the floor plan and the ffunction of the building. Used for transferringg horizontal and
vertical loads acting on high buildinngs can be classified as frame system, curtain waall system, frame
and curtain wall system, core system m, and tubular system [6]. Higher structures cann be divided into
two classes according to the positiion of the vertical lateral resistance systems: looadbearing inner
systems and loadbearing outer systeems.

3.1. Loadbearing Inner Systems

These are resistant systems that resiist lateral loads by lateral force-resisting elemen
nts located within
the structure (Figure 3.11). Such lateral force resistance elements may be steell and reinforced
concrete rigid frames, or may be a cross
c frame and a loadbearing system formed byy moment frames
or curtain walls [9]. Curtain walls or steel cages that form the cores play a rigidizzing role against
horizontal loads [6].

Figure 3.1. Rigi

gid Frame, Crossed Frame, Curtain Wall Frame.

Rigid Framed Systems are loaddbearing systems predominantly used in steell and reinforced
concrete high structures until 19600. The loadbearing frame acts as a vertical cantiilever with fixed
base on its floor. Due to the weigght loads coming from the upper floors and multiplying, the
column sizes increase towards the bbase of the structure. In addition, when a struccture increases in
height and the amount of oscillatioon due to lateral forces increases, the columns aand beams of the
rigid frame system carrying the lateeral forces are loaded with more load. The coluumns that placed
near the ground, size should be exteend to withstand the accumulated lateral loads (F
Fig. X) [9].

Crossed Framed and Curtain W Walled Cores; elevators and emergency exit laddders are usually
made from reinforced concrete or crossed steel frames and are used as the mainn element of the
weight and lateral force resistance sstrategy in multi-story structures. It is important that the position
of the shear-resistant core in terms oof minimizing the torsional stiffness resulting froom lateral forces
(Fig. 3.13, Fig. 3.14). It’s placed as symmetrical as possible.

Figure 3.2, 3.3, 3.4. Rigid Fram

med Systems, Crossed Framed Systems, Curtain Waall Systems
18
International Journal of Scientific Reseearch and Innovative Technology Vol. 5 No. 10
0; December 2018

3.2. Loadbearing Outer Systems

Loadbearing Outer Systems, high-rrise building loadbearing systems that resist laateral loads with
lateral force resisting elements loccated along the surrounding peripherals. Thesee systems can be
classified as crossed frames, tube systems, diagrid systems, space cage systems and mega-frame
systems.

ure 3.5.Loadbearing Outer Systems

Figu

Crossed Frames; use vertical lattiice girders to resist lateral loads in high-rise buildings.
b These
vertical beams remove the bends that
th may occur in the columns under lateral looading. Columns,
beams and diagonal belts can be siimply connected by articulated joints that makee production and
installation more economical thann moment-resistant connections of rigid fram me systems. The
diagonal embankment increases riggidity of the system, reduces drift and allows th he system to rise
even further.

Tube Systems; the frame tube systeem uses the entire circumference of the system m to resist lateral
loads. It can be thought of as a conssole and a hollow box beam, with outer frames made m of frequent
spaced columns connected to the deeep façade beams of the tube system, connected d to the floor. [1,
9, 10, 11]. It is classified under 3 headings. Internal Bore Tube Systems; is a system that allows
flooring diaphragms to connect thhe outer and inner tubes together and allow the t two tubes to
counter lateral loads as a single whhole. This system is mainly used in high office buildings due to
the possibility of office space withoout columns [12]. Crossed Tube Systems; the fframed tubes can
be stiffened by attaching large diagoonals to the outer wall frame. When the diagonaal is added to the
framed tube system, the system takees the name of the cross-tube system (Figure 3.1 17). Bundle Tube
Systems; are a group of individual tubes
t connected together to work as a whole (F Figure 3.18). The
height of the singular tubular framee is limited due to its slenderness (height / widthh ratio). Coupling
together several tubes to ensure theeir full operation increases their stiffness and redduces oscillation
on the upper floors [1, 9, 10, 11].

Figure 3.6, 3.7, 3.8. Inner Bore Tubbe Systems, Cross Tube Systems, Bundle Tube Systeems

19
ISSN: 2313-3759 www.ijsrit.com

In addition, these systems allow the tubes to be ended at different heights, thus allowing different
designs to be drawn back on the building mass. At the same time, it provides freedom in
architectural design, allowing them to withdraw their floor plans in different shapes and sizes. It
can also be accessed with more building heights, wider column spacings, and slimness (height /
width) ratio than with framed tube systems. Bundle tube systems are seen as economical solutions
for 70 to 80 floors of reinforced concrete high-rise buildings. However, due to the frame elements
on the common wall of the tubes, they cause unwanted columns in the field of use; which in turn
leads to a negative impact [5].

Diagrid (Diagonal) Systems; It is a cage-like frame system formed on the outer surface of the
structure to carry lateral loads and weight loads. The diagrid systems differ from the crossed frames
in that the vertical columns can be lifted off due to the diagrid systems’ high resistance to weight
loads. The diagonal elements of the Diagrid system carry both weight loads and lateral loads thanks
to triangles, which allows the load to be spread evenly (Figure 3.19). Space Frame Systems; which
is a modified cross-tube system based on the idea that the triangular prisms connecting the
diagonals to the inner and outer frame should be placed on top of each other. It is resistant to both
lateral and vertical loads. Unlike most typical cross-tube systems, which are located on the planes
of the cartridges, the space cage system forms a visible part of the interior of the diagonals (Figure
3.20). Mega Framed Systems; The application of mega or super frame systems is a viable option
when buildings are over than 60 stories in height. In mega frame systems, mega-columns are used
that cover the headers of the cross frames bigger than normal at the corner of the structure. Mega
columns are connected by horizontal cage beams that each exceed 15 to 20 stories several times in
height. By connecting these very large beams or space frames to mega-columns, a rigid mega-
frame is obtained that can accommodate a lighter secondary frame, which is the standard design
(Figure 3.21) [5, 9, 10, 11].

Figure 3.9, 3.10, 3.11. Diagonal Systems, Space Lattice Systems, Mega Framed Systems

4. Analysis of Bearing System in High Structure Examples

In high building technology, as developments in the countries progress at different stages, there
are structural and fictive differences in the design of the buildings and the structure system.
National and International selected examples are examined and the reflection of the structure
system to the architectural plan and the possible effects of horizontal and vertical loads on these
systems are examined.

20
International Journal of Scientific Research and Innovative Technology Vol. 5 No. 10; December 2018

I. Sears Tower (Willis Tower)

It is the second highest structure in the world. The name was changed to "Willis Tower" [13]. It is
the steel structure used first for the beam tube system. This structure consists of 9 tubes each
connected by four rigid frames parallel to each other.
Table 4.1. Sears Tower Building Informations
FinishDate 1973
Location Chicago, ABD
Architectural Skidmore,Owings&
Design Merrill LLP
Structural Design FazlurKhan
Function Hybrid
FloorNumber 110
Height 442 m-527 m

StructureMaterial Steel
StructureType Bundle TubeSystem

The core of the structure is single and central. There are 104 elevators in total in the building. As
the elevation increases, the number of tubes decreases (Fig. 4.1). Since the structure has risen
linearly, there has not been any slippage in the direction of vertical conveyance. However, due to
the frame elements on the common wall of the tubes as a condition brought by the bundle tube
system, it causes unwanted columns in the field of use; which in turn has a negative impact on
space design.

21
ISSN: 2313-3759 www.ijsrit.com

II. Absolute World Towers

Absolute World Towers, built in 2006 and located in Toronto, Canada, is also known as Marilyn
Monroe Skyscrapers. Two of the towers, one consisting of 50 and the other 56 stories and are used
as residence [14].

Table 4.1. Absolute World Towers Building Information

FinishDate 2011
Location Mississauga,
Toronto, Canada
Architectural MAD
Design
Structural Design Sigmund
Soudack&Associates
Function Konut
FloorNumber 56-50
Height 170 m-150m
StructureMaterial ReinforcedConcrete
StructureType Curtain Wall Frame

The structure of the building is a rigid frame system, the core is single and centered and consists of
reinforced concrete curtain wall. The floors are rotating 209 degrees from the ground to the finish
point in architectural planning. Accordingly, variable column types were formed on each floor
(Figure 4.3). The vertical curvature of the structure is provided by the prolongation and shortening
of the curtain walls (Figure 4.4). Curtain walls, which vary according to the floors to provide the
form, have prevented some spaces from being the ideal proportion. Therefore, sufficient efficiency
has not been achieved in terms of the use of the space. Circular design of the architectural plan also
limits the use of efficient space in the rooms (Figure 4.4).

22
International Journal of Scientific Research and Innovative Technology Vol. 5 No. 10; December 2018

III. TurningTorsoTower
It is the world's first auger skyscraper and has launched a movement of skyscraper architecture. The
floors were rotated 90 degrees from the floor to the peak to allow the view to be twisted (Fig. 4.9)
[15].

Table 4.1. Turning Torso Tower Construction Information

FinishDate
Location Malmo, Sweden
Architectural Santiago Calatrava
Design
Structural Design Santiago Calatrava
Function Hybrid
FloorNumber 54
Height 190m
StructureMaterial Hibrid
(çelik+betonarme)
StructureType

The structure consists of pentagons revolving around the vertical core supported by an outer steel
frame on each floor. This pentagonal form caused the space to form some irregular and unqualified
space (Figure 4.9). The steel structure located on the exterior has a detrimental effect on the cross-
positioned elements, benefiting from the sunlight on some floors.

23
ISSN: 2313-3759 www.ijsrit.com

IV. Soyak Kristal Tower

The first 35 stories of the building are reinforced concrete; the last 6 floors are designed as steel
system and used as viewing terrace. The vertical loadbearing elements of the structure, which are
made of asymmetric curved surfaces, are positioned on a different combination so that the crystal
form of the structure can be supplied.

Table 4.1. Soyak Kristal Tower Construction Information

FinishDate 2014
Location Levent, İstanbul
Architectural PeiCobbFreed&Partners
Design
Structural Design MEP Engineering
Function Office
FloorNumber 41
Height 170 m
StructureMaterial Hibrid (steel-
reinforcedconcrete)
StructureType RigidFramedSystem

In addition to the vertical columns, numerous curved columns are supported in the form of a
building. The reinforced concrete part of the concrete structure is C50 class and the foundation
depth is 32 m [16]. The structure is constructed with curtain wall core and rigid frame system.
Curved columns were formed to give the crystal form of the facade, and some corner columns at
the torsion points changed their direction and transferred their loads to other columns (Figure 4.13).
The reinforced concrete curtainwall core system has assumed the primary task of making the
structure rigid, and the task of the columns is reduced in this respect compared to the conventional
system.

24
International Journal of Scientific Research and Innovative Technology Vol. 5 No. 10; December 2018

V. Burgukule
The building is 22 floors with 19 floors over ground and 3 floors above ground. The structure
constructed with curtain wall core and rigid frame system, has a single, central and circular core.

FinishDate 2014
Location Maltepe, İstanbul
Architectural Barbaros Sağdıç
Design
Structural Design Barbaros Sağdıç
Function Residence
FloorNumber 22
Height 65 m
StructureMaterial ReinforcedConcrete
StructureType RigidFramedSystem

Floors rotated by 18 degrees on every 6th floor in order to be able to give the building auger form
have caused some unused space in the interior [17]. (Figure 4.16.). The provision of the structural
auger form is achieved by extending or shortening the vertical conveyors in the front. However, the
vertical structures between the base floor and the final floor have not fallen below the minimum
dimensions. This ensures that the vertical loads are properly transferred to the floor. There is no
problem originating from the structure system since the curved loadbearing element is not used at
the spatial point of view which will affect the architectural plan. However, the interorof the external
form has created some disadvantages in terms of spatial dimensions.

VI. Trump Towers

The building, which was completed in 2010, consists of 2building with one of the 39 floors and the
other 37 floors. The 37 storeys one is used as residence and 39 storeys one is used as office
building. On the ground floor of the office tower there are shopping malls, cinemas, bazaars and
entertainment places [18].
Table 4.1. Trump Towers Building Information
Finish Date 2010
Location Şişli, İstanbul
Architectural BrigitteWeber
Design
Structural Design BrigitteWeber
Function Hybrid(Residenceand
Office
FloorNumber 37-39
Height 155 m
StructureMaterial Hybrid(steel-
reinforcedconcrete)
StructureType RigidFramedSystem

25
ISSN: 2313-3759 www.ijsrit.com

There is a single, central core formed by reinforced concrete curtain wall core and reinforced
concrete rigid frame system. Cantilever slabs running towards the curved facade have been
resolved by anchoring the steel beams to the reinforced concrete system due to the excess of long
span (Figure 4.21). Except for the columns on the front axles, the other axes of the building
continue from the floor to the final floor. The facade columns giving a curved form are designed as
reinforced concrete and inclined in the first 4 stories. On the continuing floors, the upholstery to the
front was unfolded as a console and anchored to these upholstered cantilevers. The curved facade
surfaces of the building's limit the use of the interior space. In addition, the fact that the inclination
is right into the space can create a negative effect by inducing a closed space sensation on the users
in the building.

2. Conclusions
The position of the core, the continuity of the plan and the section, the material used and the height
in the structural system design can be shown as attention point generally. The position of the core is
one of the most important points to be considered in design against horizontal loads in high-rise
structures. In order to provide torsional stiffness in the structure, it is necessary that the distance
between the mass and the center of rigidity is overlapped or reduced to the minimum. It is seen that
in the case of the high-rise structure samples examined in this study, the core is positioned centrally
or symmetrically to provide this rule. When considered from the point of view of continuity in the
structure system, it has been seen that in the prestige constructions where the form is foreground,
there are restrictions in the use of the space in some cases. According to this; it may be necessary to
increase the dimensions of the structure system elements as the structure rises or even to use
additional elements to compensate the horizontal loads in some cases. These elements, depending
on the selected high-rise structure system, in some cases cause additional cost to the building, but
can bring some limitations to the spatial utilization areas. When selecting a steel or hybrid system,
it is seen that the structure element sections are more delicate compared to the reinforced concrete
system. In this way, more flexible and efficient use of interior spaces can be achieved. While more
hybrid systems are preferred in the examined International examples, it is seen that in the National
examples, the concrete is preferred completely. It is seen that 67% of all the high buildings in the
world which are completed to day-to-day in line with the information given by CTBUH which is
related to all the high buildings in the world, are constructed with reinforced concrete system and
15% are constructed with hybrid system. In Turkey, it is observed that the high-rise buildings were
built with reinforced concrete frame of the entire system of high buildings until today. With
advancing technology, by taking advantages of steel structure and / or steel hybrid will be formed
from the entirely systematic structure, creating a more flexible and efficient use of interior spaces
of the unordinary form in Turkey and the world will be provided.

26
International Journal of Scientific Research and Innovative Technology Vol. 5 No. 10; December 2018

References
[1] KAYVANI, K., 2014, "Design of high-rise buildings: past, present and future", 23rd
Australasian Conference on Mechanics of Structures and Materials, vol. I, Byron Bay,
NSW, 9-12 December, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW, pp. 15-20. ISBN:
9.780.994.152.008.
[2] CRAIGHEAD G. 2009, "High-Rise Security and Fire Life Safety", Third Edition,
Butterworth-Heinemann, 5 ~ 513 1: 9.780.080.877.853. Access Date: 06.03.2018.
[3] Internet Resource: JOHNSON, R., 2007, "The Advantages of Balloon Frame, American
Building Construction History", March.http: //rbart.com/blog/wp-
content/balloonframing.pdf. Access Date: October, 2012.
[4] Internet Resource: CTBITH, http://www.ctbuh.org/, Access date: 25.05.2015.
[5] CHING., Et al., 2013, "Structural Systems with Drawings", YEM Publishing House, ISBN:
9786054793020, Istanbul.
[6] KOC, Y., et al, 2009, "Investigation of High Context of Structural Design Materials and
Structural Systems", 5th International Symposium on Advanced Technologies (IATS'09),
Istanbul, Turkey.
[7] SEV, A. OZGEN, A. 2009, "Space Efficiency in High-Rise Office Buildings", METU
Journal of The Faculty of Architecture, 26: 2,69-89.
[8] ALI, M. M., MOON, K.S., 2007, "Structural Developments in Tall Buildings: Current Trends
and Future Prospects", University of Sydney, Architectural Science Review, Volume 50.3,
pp 205-223, Sydney.
[9] TÜRKÇÜ, Ç., 2009, "Contemporary Carrier Systems", Birsen Publishing House, 2nd
Edition, ISBN: 9755113487 İstanbul.
[10] HARMANKAYA, Z.Y., et al., 2010, "Highway Structural System and Facade Interaction",
5th National Roof & Facade Symposium, Dokuz Eylül University Faculty of Architecture
Tınaztepe campus, İzmir.
[11] SEV, A., 2001, "Analysis of the Architectural Design and Structural System of High
Buildings in Turkey and the world", Department of Architecture, PhD Thesis Volume 1,
MSGSU FBI, Istanbul.
[12] ENGEL, H., 2004, "Structural Systems", Design Publishing Group, ISBN: 975-8051-60-1,
Istanbul.
[13] Internet Resource: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WillisKulesi, Access Date: 24.05.2015.
[14] Internet Source:
http://www.ctbuh.org/TallBuildings/FeaturedTallBuildings/FeaturedTallBuildingArchive2
012/Absolut eWorldTowersMississauga / tabid / 3840 / language / en-US / Default.aspx,
Access Date: 24.05.2015.
[15] Internet Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turning_Torso, Access Date: 24.05.2015.
[16] Internet Resource: http://www.arup.com/Projects/Soyak_Kristal_Kule.aspx, Access Date:
24.05.2015.
[17] Internet Source: http://www.dapyapi.com.tr/projects/completed-projects/p/dap-burgu-
kule.htm, Access Date: 24.05.2015.
[18] Internet Source: http://www.arkiv.com.tr/project/trump-towers/463, Access Date: 24.05.2015.

27