Reservoir Engineering-Single Phase Flow

MSc Petroleum Engineering
School of Engineering
Reservoir Engineering
Single phase flow in porous media
Yingfang Zhou, PhD Page 1 www.abdn.ac.uk

Table of contents:
• Primary Reservoir Characteristics
• Darcy’s law
• Steady state
• Linear system
• Radius system
• Productivity index
• Skin factor and effective well radius
• Unsteady state
• EI Solution
• The Principle of Superposition
• Determine flow regimes
• Gas flow (calculate bottom hole pressure)

Primary Reservoir Characteristics
The main objective of this lecture is to present the

mathematical relationships that are designed to describe the
flow behavior of the reservoir fluids. The mathematical forms of
these relationships will vary depending upon the characteristics
of the reservoir. These primary reservoir characteristics that
must be considered include:
• types of fluids in the reservoir;
• flow regimes;
• reservoir geometry;
• number of flowing fluids in the reservoir.

Primary Reservoir Characteristics (Types of fluids)
The isothermal compressibility coefficient is essentially the controlling factor in

identifying the type of the reservoir fluid. In general, reservoir fluids are classified
into three groups:
1. incompressible fluids;
2. slightly compressible fluids;
3. compressible fluids.
Figure 1. Fluid density versus pressure for different fluid types (Ahmed, 2009)
Primary Reservoir Characteristics (Flow regimes)
There are basically three types of flow regimes that must be recognized in order
to describe the fluid flow behavior and reservoir pressure distribution as a
function of time. These three flow regimes are:
1. steady-state flow;
2. unsteady-state flow;
3. pseudo-steady-state flow.
Figure 2. Flow Regimes (Ahmed, 2009)

Primary Reservoir Characteristics (Reservoir geometry)
The shape of a reservoir has a significant effect on its flow behavior. Most reservoirs have
irregular boundaries and a rigorous mathematical description of their geometry is often
possible only with the use of numerical simulators. However, for many engineering purposes,
the actual flow geometry may be represented by one of the following flow geometries:
• Radial flow;
• linear flow;
• Spherical and Hemispherical flow.
Figure 3. Hemispherical flow in a partially Figure 4. Spherical flow due to limited entry
penetrating well

Primary Reservoir Characteristics (Number of flowing fluids in the reservoir)
The mathematical expressions that are used to predict the volumetric performance and
pressure behavior of a reservoir vary in form and complexity depending upon the number of
mobile fluids in the reservoir. There are generally three cases of flowing system:
1. single-phase flow (oil, water, or gas);

2. two-phase flow (oil–water, oil–gas, or gas–water);
3. three-phase flow (oil, water, and gas).
The description of fluid flow and subsequent analysis of pressure data becomes more difficult as
the number of mobile fluids increases.
The fluid flow equations that are used to describe the flow behavior in a reservoir can take many
forms depending upon the combination of variables presented previously (i.e., types of flow,
types of fluids, etc.). By combining the conservation of mass equation with the transport
equation (Darcy’s equation) and various equations of state (EOS), the necessary flow equations
can be developed. Since all flow equations to be considered depend on Darcy’s law, it is
important to consider this transport relationship first.

Primary Reservoir Characteristics (Number of flowing fluids)
The mathematical expressions that are used to predict the

volumetric performance and pressure behavior of a reservoir vary in
form and complexity depending upon the number of mobile fluids in
the reservoir. There are generally three cases of flowing system:
1. single-phase flow (oil, water, or gas);

2. two-phase flow (oil–water, oil–gas, or gas–water);
3. three-phase flow (oil, water, and gas).
The description of fluid flow and subsequent analysis of pressure

data becomes more difficult as the number of mobile fluids
increases.

Darcy’s law
Darcy’s Experiment (1856):

• Henry Darcy established empirically that the flux of water through a
permeable formation is proportional to the distance between top and bottom
of the soil column (1856).
Dh
Q = KA (3- 1)
L
Flow rate determined by Head loss dh = h1 - h2

Darcy’s law in Cartesian coordinate system (field unit)
Flow laws -- Darcy's law

k x p q x
ux = −0.001127 =
 x A
(3- 2)
k y p q y
uy = −0.001127 =
 y A
k z p
uz = −0.001127 ( + 0.00694  ) Figure 5. Pressure vs. distance in a linear flow
 z
RB RB
where u [ =] q [ =] k [=]md
day  ft 2
day
[=]cp p [=] psi x , y , z [ =]ft

Darcy’s law in Cylindrical Polar system (Field unit)
In radial flow
k p bbl
vr = −0.001127 [ =] (3- 3)
 r D  ft 2
bbl 5.61458 ft 3
[ =]
D  ft 2 1bbl
k p ft
[=] − 6.328 10 −3 ( )
 r D
k p
−3 ft 1Day
vr = −6.328  10
 r D 24hr
k p  ft 
vr = −2.634  10−4  
 r  hr 

Darcy and practical units
Field unit or practical units
Parameters or Practical oil Field Practical gas Field

Darcy Units SI
Variables or Oil field units or Gas field units
c (compressibility) vol/vol/atm vol/vol/psi vol/vol/psi vol/vol/pa

fraction fraction fraction fraction
h (thickness) cm ft ft m
k (permeability) Darcies mD mD
cp cp cp pa.s
p (pressure) atm psi psi pa
B/D (stock-tank B/D (stock-tank
q (flow rate) Mcf/D (mscf/D)
conditions) conditions)
r (radius) cm ft ft m
t (time) s hr hr hr (day)
Table 1. Darcy units

Single phase flow in
• Linear liquid flow system
kA P
Q = −0.001127
 x
• Pressure distribution: L
pe − pwf
p( x ) = pe + x (3- 4)
L
• Flow rate,
k pe − pwf
qB = Wh (3- 5)
 L

Liquid flow in porous media
• Assumptions used
(1) Slightly compressible liquid (constant)
(2) Single phase flow
• Physical laws used
(1) Continuity equations (mass balances)
(2) Flow laws (Darcy’s law)
• Diffusivity equation
1   p  c p
r  = (3- 6)
r r  r  2.634 10 −4 k t

Steady state (Darcy’s unit)
• Radial flow equation and BC: p

=0
t
1   p   p  qB
r  = 0 , lim  r  = , p( rw ) = pwf
r r  r  r → rw
 r  2kh
• And integrates give the solution:

qB r
p( r ) = pwf + ln (3-7)
2kh rw
• Flow rate:
Darcy’s unit Field unit
2kh ( pe − pwf ) 0.00708kh ( pe − pwf )
q= q=
B ln( re / rw ) B ln( re / rw )
Exercise
An oil well in the Nameless Field is producing at a stabilized rate of 600

STB/day at a stabilized bottom-hole flowing pressure of 1800 psi. Analysis of
the pressure buildup test data indicates that the pay zone is characterized by
a permeability of 120 md and a uniform thickness of 25 ft. The well drains an
area of approximately 40 acres. The following additional data is available:
rw = 0. 25 ft, A = 40 acres
Bo = 1. 25 bbl/STB, μo = 2. 5 cp
Calculate the pressure profile (distribution) and list the pressure drop across 1
ft intervals from rw to 1.25 ft, 4 to 5 ft, 19 to 20 ft, 99 to 100 ft, and 744 to 745
ft.

Solution
Step 1. Rearrange Equation (11) and solve for the pressure p at radius r:
q B r
p (r ) = pwf + ln
0.00708kh rw
(2.5)(1.25)(600) r
= 1800 + ln
0.00708(120)(25) 0.25
= 1800 + 88.28ln(4 r)
Step 2. Calculate the pressure at the designated radii
r (ft) p (psi) Radius interval pressure drop
0.25 1800
0.25–1.25 1942−1800=142 psi
1.25 1942
4 2045
4–5 2064−2045=19 psi
5 2064
19 2182
19–20 2186−2182=4 psi
20 2186
99 2328
99-100 2329−2328=1 psi
100 2329
744 2506.1
744-745 2506.2−2506.1=0.1 psi
745 2506.2
Single phase flow in porous media - Steady state, average pressure
(Darcy’s unit)
• Pressure distribution from well:
qB r
p( r ) = pwf + ln
2kh rw
• Average pressure:
re re
 2 rp (r )dr  2rp (r )dr re

 re2 rw2 re2 − rw2 
p avg =
rw
=
rw
 2r ln rdr = 2  ln re − ln rw −
 2 2 4 

 (re2 − rw2 ) (re2 − rw2 ) rw
q B e r
r  1
(
  ln re −  re2 − rw2 )
2 kh (re2 − rw2 ) rw
= pwf + 2 r ln dr  2
rw
• Average pressure:
pavg = pwf +
qB 

2kh ( re − rw ) 
ln re −
1
− ln rw (
 2 2
 re − rw )

2 2
2
qB  re 1 
= pwf +  ln −  (3- 8)
2kh  rw 2 
2kh ( pavg − pwf )
q=
B ln( re / rw − 0.5)
Productivity index (Darcy’s unit)
• Flow rate,
2kh( pe − pwf )
q=
B ln( re / rw )
• The productivity index is a measure of the well potential
or ability to produce and is a commonly measured well
property, it is the ratio of the total liquid surface flow rate
to the pressure drawdown at the midpoint of the
producing interval.
2kh
J= (3- 9)
B ln( re / rw )

Skin factor and effective well radius
• Assumption of a simple
2-zone radial composite
reservoir.
• Steady-state flow is
assumed in the "inner-
zone" and any other
relevant flow regime can
exist in the "outer zone".
Figure 8. Near-wellbore skin effect
ps = Pwfnormal − Pwfdamage
Figure 9. Representation of positive and negative skin

effects
• Recall the pressure drop in the skin zone is given as,

qB rs qB rs qB  k   rs 
ps = ln − ln =  − 1 ln 
2k s h rw 2kh rw 2kh  k s   rw 
• And then skin factor is given as,

2kh 2kh qB  rs  k 
s= ps = ln  − 1
qB qB 2kh  rw  k s 
 rs  k 
= ln  − 1 (3- 10)
 rw  k s 

• Recall the pressure distribution away from the well bore,
qB r
p( r ) = pwf + ln
2kh rw
−s
• And the definition of skin factor, re = rwe
2kh
s= ps
qB
• Then the pressure drop away from the well bore:
qB r qB  r 
p( r ) = pwf + ln − pwf + ps =  ln + s 
2kh rw 2kh  rw 
qB  r  qB  r 
=  ln − s  =  ln 
2kh  rwe  2kh  re 

Diffusivity Equation – Unsteady state flow
1   p  c p
r  =
r r  r  2.634  10−4 k t
p = f (q, r , rw ,  , c,  , k , t , h )
Boundary conditions and initial conditions:

(1) p = pi at t = 0 for all r
 p  − qB
( 2)  r  = for t = 0
 r  r =0 2  0.001127kh
(3) p → pi as r →  for all t
Note : q[=]STB / D ; B[=]RB / STB ;
qB[=]RB / D ; qB = const. rate
Exponential - Integrals solution
• Define:
kh( pi − p ) 2.634 10 −4 kt r
pD = , tD = , rD =
141.2qB crw
2
rw
• Solution −
rD2
' rD2
1  r  dp D
2
1 e  r  1
4 tD 2 −
p D (rD , t D ) = − Ei  −
D
 , = − t D   = e
D 4 tD
(3- 11)
2  4 t D  d ln t D 2 rD2  4 t D  2
−u
e 4 tD x3 x2 ( −1) n x n
Ei (− x ) = −  du = ln( x ) + 0.5772 − x + − ++
x u 2  2! 3  3! n  n!
Equation above approximates the Ei function with less than 0.25% error. Another expression that can be
used to approximate the Ei function for the range of 0.01 < x < 3.0 is given by:
E i (−x ) = a1 + a2 ln(x ) + a3  ln x  + a4  ln x  + a5 x + a6 x 2 + a7 x 3 + a8 / x
2 3
𝑎1 = −0. 33153973 𝑎2 = −0. 81512322, 𝑎3 = 5. 22123384 × 10−4

𝑎4 = 5. 9849819 × 10−3 𝑎5 = 0. 662318450 𝑎6 = −0. 12333524
𝑎7 = 1. 0832566 × 10−2 𝑎8 = 8. 6709776 ×10−4

Exponential - Integrals solution – Approximation
Ei ( − x )  ln( x ) + 0.5772 for x  0.01

for x  0.01
1  r  1  r 
2 2

pD = − Ei  −  = − ln
D
 + 0.5772
D
2  4t D  2   4t D  tD
  2  25
1   tD   rD
pD = ln 2  + 0.80907
2   rD   (3- 12)
• This happens in relatively later time or near well position.

Calculate pressure distribution step
• Step 1: calculate tD and rD for a given time and location
2.634 10 −4 kt r
tD = , r =
crw2
D
rw
• Step 2: Calculate PD using EI solution

1   tD   tD
pD = ln 2  + 0.80907  if 2  25
2   rD   rD
• Step 3: Calculate pressure difference using PD definition.

kh( pi − p ) p 141.2qB
pD =  ( pi − p ) = D
141.2qB kh

Example
Calculation of pressures beyond the wellbore u sin g

the Ei − function solution
Given : The well is poducting only oil
q = 20 STB / D
 = 0.72 cp rw = 0.5 ft
k = 0.10 md Bo = 1.475 RB / STB
ct = 1.5  10−5 psi −1 h = 150 ft
pi = 3000 psi  = 0.23
re = 3000 ft s=0
Calculate : p = ? at r = 1 ft and t = 3hrs

Solution
2.637 10−4 kt 2.637 10−4  0.1 3

tD = = = 127
  ct    rw 2 −5
0.72  1.5  10  0.23  (0.5) 2
1 rD 2
p D (t D , rD ) = − E i (− )
2 4t D
1  tD 
 ln( 2 ) + 0.80907 
2  rD 

Solution
r 1  tD 127 
(1) At r = 1 ft  rD = = =2  2 = = 31 . 75
rw 0.5  D
r 4 
1 22 1 1
a ) pD (127,2) = − Ei ( − ) = − Ei ( −7.874  10−3 )  − Ei ( −0.008)
2 4  127 2 2
1
= ( 4.259)
2
kh ( pi − p ) 1
 =  4.259 = 2.1295
141.2qB 2
141.2qB 141.2  20  1.475  0.72
pi − p = 2.1295 = 2.1295 = 425.75
kh 0.1  150
 p = pi − 425 = 3000 − 425 = 2575 psi
1  tD  1  127  4.266
b) pD (127,2) = ln( 2 ) + 0.80907 = ln( 2 ) + 0.80907 = = 2.133
2  rD  2 2  2
 pi − p = 2.133  199.93 = 426.47
p = 3000 − 426.47 = 2573 psi

Pseudo-steady state solution
• Solution of bounded circular reservoir,

 2t D 3
pD (tD , reD ) = −  2 + ln reD −  (3- 13)
 reD 4
qB  0.000527kt  re  3 
or pwf = pi − 141.2  + ln  − 
kh    ct    re2
 rw  4 
• Differential respect of time gives

pwf qB  0.000527k  0.0744qB Vp
= −141.2   = − =  2
 2
 =
ct  (  h  re2 )
, Since V r h or r h
t kh    ct    re2  
p e e
pwf
0.0744qB 0.0744qB 0.234qB pwf 0.234qB
 =− = − = − = −
ct  (re2  h   )
or
t  Vp  ct  V p t ct  V p
ct   
 

Boundary effect time analyzed from type curves
Closed circular reservoir with reD = 3000 case
11.0
10.5
10.0
9.5
9.0
pD
8.5
8.0
infinite reservoir
7.5 reD=3000 (re=1050 ft)
7.0
The visually deviated point from
6.5 type curve analysis
6.0 *=1.96*106
1.0E+05 1.0E+06
t D 1.0E+07 1.0E+08
tD

Pseudo-steady state
pwf 0.234qB 1
=− − (3- 14)
t ct  V p Vp
• The result leads to a form of well testing sometimes, called

reservoir limits testing, which seeks to determine reservoir size
form the rate of pressure decline in a wellbore with time.
• Another form of it is useful for some applicants, it involves

replacing original pressure, pi, with average pressure, with the
drainage volume of the well.

Pseudo-steady state, initial pressure and average pressure
Form material balance
V =  pi − p ctV p
 −
 
 t 
qB    5.615 =  pi − p ctV p
−
 24   
5.615qB   =  pi − p ct (  re2  h )

 t   −
 24   
 t 
−
5 . 615 qB  
pi − p =  24  0.0744qBt
=
ct (  re  h )   ct  h  re2
2
−0.0744qBt
or pi = p + (3- 15)
  ct  h  re2

Sometimes, the permeability of a well can be estimated from
productivity−index (PI) measurements.
q kJh
J  −
=
p − pwf 141.2B  ln  re  − 3 
   
  w 
r 4 
J = Pr oductivity − Index (PI ), STB / D / psi
This method does not necessarily provide a good estimate

of formation permeability, k

Example
Analysis of well form PI test

Given : q = 100 STB/D (oil)
p wf (BHP) = 1,500 psi (measured)
p = 2,000 psi (pressure survey)
h = 10 ft (log analysis) re = 1,000 ft rw = 0.25 ft
μ = 0.5 cp (at current reservoir pressure ) B = 1.5 RB/STB
Estimate : (1) PI = ?
(2) kJ = ?
(3) For k = 50md (form core data), does this imply that
the well is either damaged or stimulated ? What is
the apparent skin factor ?
2/28/2021
Solution
Solution :
q 100 (STB / D )
(1) J ( PI ) = −
= = 0.2 STB / D / psi
p − pwf 2000 psi − 1500 psi
q kJ h
( 2)  J = −
=
p − pwf   re  3 
141.2 B ln  − 
  rw  4 
  re  3 
141.2qB ln  − 
  rw  4 
 kJ =
− 
h p − pwf 
 
  1000  3 
141.2  (100 )  (1.5)  (0.5)ln − 
  0 . 25  4
= = 16md
10(2,000 − 1,500 )
(3) a) k core (= 50md) ﹥k J (= 16md) damaged (badly)

Flow Equation for Generalized Reservoir Geometry
• Pseudo-steady state solution for a well centered in a

circular drainage are is:
qB   re  3 
p − pwf = 141.2 ln  − + s 
kh   rw  4 
• A similar equation models pseudo-steady state flow in
more general reservoir shapes:
qB   10.6 A  3 
p − pwf = 141.2 ln  − + s
2  (3- 16)
kh   C Arw  4 
Where A = drainage area, ft 2

C A = shape factor for specific drainage area shape and well
location, dimensionless. (Table 1.2)

Use Infinite System
In Bounded 1 2.2458 Less Than 1% error Solution With Less
𝐶𝐴 ln𝐶𝐴 𝑙𝑛 Exact for 𝑡𝐷𝐴 >
reservoirs 2 𝐶𝐴 for 𝑡𝐷𝐴 > Than 1% Error for
𝑡𝐷𝐴 <
31.62 3.4538 −1.3224 0.1 0.06 0.1
31.6 3.4532 −1.3220 0.1 0.06 0.1
27.6 3.3178 −1.2544 0.2 0.07 0.09
27.1 3.2995 −1.2452 0.2 0.07 0.09
21.9 3.0865 −1.1387 0.4 0.12 0.08
0.098 −2.3227 1.5659 0.9 0.6 0.015
30.8828 3.4302 −1.3106 0.1 0.05 0.09
12.9851 2.5638 −0.8774 0.7 0.25 0.03
10.132 1.507 −0.3490 0.6 0.3 0.025
3.3351 1.2045 −0.1977 0.7 0.25 0.01
21.8369 3.0836 −1.1373 0.3 0.15 0.025
10.8374 2.383 −0.7870 0.4 0.15 0.025
10.141 1.5072 −0.3491 1.5 0.5 0.06
2.0769 0.7309 −0.0391 1.7 0.5 0.02
3.1573 1.1497 −0.1703 0.4 0.15 0.005
0.5813 −0.5425 0.6758 2 0.6 0.02
0.1109 −2.1991 1.5041 3 0.6 0.005
5.379 1.6825 −0.4367 0.8 0.3 0.01
2.6896 0.9894 −0.0902 0.8 0.3 0.01
0.2318 −1.4619 1.1355 4 2 0.03
0.1155 −2.1585 1.4838 4 2 0.01
2.3606 0.8589 −0.0249 1 0.4 0.025
Table 2. Shape factors for various single-well drainage areas

Boundary effect time analyzed from type curves
closed circular reservoir with reD = 3000 case
11.0
10.5
10.0
9.5 (I)
9.0
( II )
pD
8.5
8.0
( III )
infinite reservoir
7.5 reD=3000 (re=1050 ft)
7.0
The visually deviated point from
6.5 type curve analysis
6.0
1.0E+05 1.0E+06 1.0E+07 1.0E+08
tD

Late-Transient Region
This region is small ( or, for practical purposes nonexistent ) for a well
centered in a circular, sequence, or hexagonal drainage area, as Table 1
indicates. For a well off-center in its drainage area, the late-transient
region can spane a significant time region, as Table 1.2 also indicates.
Principle flow regimes in constant rate drawdown

Determine flow regime
Pseudo - steady state flow equation for generalized reservoir geometry

C A rw2 1  10.06 A  3
pD = t D + ln −
2 
5.03 A 2  C A rw  4
re
(1) A = re2 C A = 31.60
31.60rw2 1  10.06re2  3
pD = t + ln 2 
−
5.03re2 D
2  31.60rw  4
 rw2  1  re2  3
p D = 2t D  2  + ln 2  −
 re  2  rw  4
2
r  r  3  rw2 
p D = 2t D  w  + ln e  − tDA = tD    0.1
 re   rw  4  A

xe
(2) A = xe  xe C A = 30.8828
30.8828rw2 1  10.06 xe2  3 xe
pD = 2
t D + ln −
2 
5.03 xe 2  30.8828rw  4
 rw2  1  xe2  3
p D = 6.1397 2 t D + ln 0.32574 2  −
 xe  2  rw  4
 rw2  x  1 3
p D = 6.1397t D  2  + ln e  + ln(0.32574) −
 xe   rw  2 4
 rw2   xe 
p D = 6.1397t D  2  + ln  − 0.5608 − 0.75
 xe   rw 
 rw2   xe   rw2 
p D = 6.1397t D  2  + ln  − 1.3108 tDA = tD    0.1
 xe   rw   A

Use Infinite System
In Bounded 1 2.2458 Less Than 1% error Solution With Less
𝐶𝐴 ln𝐶𝐴 𝑙𝑛 Exact for 𝑡𝐷𝐴 >
reservoirs 2 𝐶𝐴 for 𝑡𝐷𝐴 > Than 1% Error for
𝑡𝐷𝐴 <
31.62 3.4538 −1.3224 0.1 0.06 0.1
31.6 3.4532 −1.3220 0.1 0.06 0.1
27.6 3.3178 −1.2544 0.2 0.07 0.09
27.1 3.2995 −1.2452 0.2 0.07 0.09
21.9 3.0865 −1.1387 0.4 0.12 0.08
0.098 −2.3227 1.5659 0.9 0.6 0.015
30.8828 3.4302 −1.3106 0.1 0.05 0.09
12.9851 2.5638 −0.8774 0.7 0.25 0.03
10.132 1.507 −0.3490 0.6 0.3 0.025
3.3351 1.2045 −0.1977 0.7 0.25 0.01
21.8369 3.0836 −1.1373 0.3 0.15 0.025
10.8374 2.383 −0.7870 0.4 0.15 0.025
10141 1.5072 −0.3491 1.5 0.5 0.06
2.0769 0.7309 −0.0391 1.7 0.5 0.02
3.1573 1.1497 −0.1703 0.4 0.15 0.005
0.5813 −0.5425 0.6758 2 0.6 0.02
0.1109 −2.1991 1.5041 3 0.6 0.005
5.379 1.6825 −0.4367 0.8 0.3 0.01
2.6896 0.9894 −0.0902 0.8 0.3 0.01
0.2318 −1.4619 1.1355 4 2 0.03
0.1155 −2.1585 1.4838 4 2 0.01
2.3606 0.8589 −0.0249 1 0.4 0.025
Table 1. Shape factors for various single-well drainage areas

Example
flow analysis Generalize d Reservoir Geometry Given :

A = 17.42  106 ft 2 ( 400acres )  = 0.2 = 20%
 = 1cp ct = 1  10−5 psi −1 k = 100md
Case 1: Well centered in circular drainage area
Case 2: Well centered in square drainage area
Case 3: Well centered in one quadrant of square drainage area

Example
Calculate :
(1) The time in hours for which
(a) the reservoir is infinite acting
(b) the pseudosteady - state is exact; and
(c) the pseudosteady - state is accurate to within 1%
(2) PI and stabilized production rate with p - p wf = 500 psi ,
for each of the well in part 1, if
h = 10 ft , s = 3 .0 , rw = 0.3 ft , and B = 1.2 RB
STB
(3) For the well centered in one of the quadrants of a square,
write equations relating constant flow rate and wellbore pressure
drops at elapsed time of 30, 200, and 400 hrs.

Solution
 rw2  2.64 10−4 kt  rw2  2.64 10−4 kt 2.64 10−4 100t

t DA = tD   = 2  = =
 
A   c t    rw  A    c t    A 1  1  10 −5
 0.2  17.42  10 6
= 7.577 10−4 t
 t = 1320t DA

Solution
(1) t = 1320 𝑡𝐷𝐴 and using table 1

Pseudosteady-state Pseudosteady-state
Infinite solution
(Exact) (Less than 1% error)
Geometry 𝑡𝐷𝐴 t (hrs) 𝑡𝐷𝐴 t (hrs) 𝑡𝐷𝐴 t (hrs)
<0.1 <132 >0.1 >132 >0.06 >79
<0.09 <119 >0.1 >132 >0.05 >66
<0.0025 <33 >0.6 >792 >0.3 >396
(2) Productivity index
q 0.00708kh
J= =
p − pwf  1  10.6 A  3 
B  ln 2 
 − + s
 2  C Arw  4 
0.00708  100  10 7.08
J = =
 1 10.6  17.42  106  3   1  2.051  109  
1.2  1   ln   − 4 + 3 1.2  2 ln  + 2.25
 2  C A  (0 . 3)2
    C A  
7.08 7.08
= =
0.6 ln (2.051  109 ) − 0.6 ln C A + 2.7 15.565 − 0.6 ln C A
Solution
STB
Geometry C𝐴 𝑙𝑛C𝐴 J (D∗psi) q (STB/D)
31.62 3.4538 0.526 263
30.8828 3.4302 0.526 263
4.5132 1.5070 0.484 242
q
J=
p − pwf
( )
q = p − pwf J = 500 J

Solution
(3) From the results of (1)

For t = 30 hrs, the reservoir is in infinite acting period
For t = 200 hrs, the reservoir is in late - transient period
(i.e. the pseudosteady - state equation is not yet accurate)
For t = 400 hrs, the pseudosteady - state equation is accurate
within 1% error
Equations, For t = 30hrs

qB  1688    ct  rw2  
pi − pwf = −70.6 ln  − 2s

kh  kt  
For t = 200hrs , no simple equation can be written
For 400hrs
qB  1  10.06 A  3 
p − pwf = 141.2  ln 2 
 − + s
kh  2  C Arw  4 

Solution
Table 1
(a) last column: the max time a reservoir is infinite acting
 rw2      ct  A  x
t DA = tD    x or t
A  2.64 10−4 k
2.64 10−4 kt
where t DA =
    ct  A
for a circular reservoir
(b ) next to last column:
Time required for the pseudosteady-state equation to be
accurate within 1%
    ct  A
t −4
x
2.64 10 k
(c ) The third column from the last column:
Time required for the pseudosteady-state equation to be exact.
 c   A
t −4
x
2.64 10 k
The Principle of Superposition
At this point, the Ei - function solution of the most useful solution

to the flow equation appears to be applicable only for describing
the pressure distribution
(1) in an infinite reservoir, casued by the production of a single well
in the reservoir,
(2) for a production well at constant rate beginning at time zero.
The application of the superposition can remove some of these

restrictions.
The principle of superposition
The total pressure drop at any point in a reservoir is the sum
of the pressure drops at that point caused by flow in each of
the wells in the reservoir.

Ei - function solution
1  rD2 
p D (t D , rD ) = − Ei  − 
2  4t D 
q  − 948ct r 2 
p = pi − p = −70.6 Ei  
kh  kt 
Log - approximation solution

rD2 rD2
 0.0025 or  100
4t D tD
1   tD  
p D (t D , rD ) = ln 2  + 0.80907 
2   rD  
q  1688  c    rw2 
p = pi − p = −70.6 ln 
kh  kt 
Interference Test
• Consider three wells, well A, B, and C that start to produce at
the same time from infinite reservoir (Fig. 1.8). Application of
the principle of superposition shows that
(p − p )
i wf total at well A Figure 13. multiple well system in infinite reservoir
= pdue to well A + pdue to well B + pdue to well C
In terms of Ei functions and log arithmic approximations,

qB  − 948ct r 2 
p = pi + 70.6 Ei  
kh  kt 
(3- 17)
qB  − 948ct r 2

or pi − p = −70.6 Ei  
kh  kt 
Interference Test
(p − p )
i wf total at well A
q A B   − 948ctrw2   qB B  − 948ctrAB
2

= −70.6  
Ei  
 − 2 s A − 70 . 6 Ei  
kh   kt   kh  kt 
qC B  − 948ctrAC
2

− 70.6 Ei 
kh  kt 
q A B   1688ctrw A   qB B  − 948ctrAB 
2 2
 −70.6 ln − 2 s A  − 70.6 Ei  
kh    
kt  kh  kt 
qc B  − 948ctrAC
2

− 70.6 Ei  
kh  kt  (3- 17)

Bounded reservoir
• Consider the well a distance,

L, from a single no-flow
boundary. Mathematically,
this problem is identical to
the problem of a two-well
system; actual well and
image well.
(p − p )
i wf total at well A
well near no-flow boundary
= ( pi − p ) due to well A + ( pi − p ) due to well I
qB   − 948ct  rw2   qB  − 948  ct (2 L ) 

2
= −70.6  Ei   − 2 s A  − 70.6 Ei  
kh   kt   kh  kt 
qB   1688ct  rw2   qB  − 948  ct (2 L ) 
2
 −70.6 ln  − 2 s  − 70.6 Ei   (3- 18)
kh   kt   kh  kt 

• Extensions of the imaging technique also can be used, for
example, to model
(1) pressure distribution for a well between two boundaries
intersecting at 90°
;
(2) the pressure behavior of a well between two parallel
boundaries; and
(3) pressure behavior for wells in various locations completely
surrounded by no-flow boundaries in rectangular-shape
reservoirs.
• [ Matthews, C. S., Brons, F., and Hazebroek, P.: “A method for

determination of average pressure in a bounded reservoir,”
Trans, AIME (1954) 201, 182-191
Exercise
Given:
A flowing well is completed in a reservoir that have the following properties:
pi = 2500 psi B = 1.32 RB / STB  = 0.44 cp k = 25 md
h = 43 ft ct = 18  10−6 psi −1  = 0.16
What will the pressure drop be in a shut-in well 500ft from
the flowing well(A) when the flowing well has been shut in for 1 day following
a flow period of 5 days at 300 STB/D?

Solution
70.6q1 B 
  −948ct r
2


( pi − p )well =− Ei  
 
B
kh   kt 
70.6 (q 2 − q1 ) B  
  −948ct r 2  
− Ei   
kh 
  k (t − t 1 ) 
70.6  B 
  −948ct r 2   −948ct r 2  
 pi − p = − q1E i   + (q 2 − q1 ) Ei   
kh 
  kt   k (t − t 1 ) 
−
948ct r 2 948  0.16  0.44  18  10  ( 500 )
−6 2
sin ce = = 12.01
k 25
70.6  B 70.6  0.44 1.32
= = 0.0381
kh 25  43
  − 12.01   − 12.01 
 pi − p = −0.0381300 Ei  + (0 − 300 )Ei 
  6  24   1  24 
= −0.0381 300Ei(− 0.0834 ) − Ei(− 0.500 )
= −11.43− 1.993 + 0.560
= 16.37 psi
Gas flow, compressible fluid
• Diffusivity equation,
1   p   
 r  =
r r  r  2.634  10−4 k t
• EOS of real gas,
Mp M p
pV = nzRT   = =
zRT RT z
• Combine diffusivity equation and EOS of real gas,
 M p
 
1    M p  p    RT z 
 r  =
r r   RT z  r  2.634  10−4 k t
 p
 
1    p  p   z
  r   = (3- 19)
r r   z  r  2.634  10−4 k t

Gas flow, compressible fluid
• Diffusivity equation for real gas become,

 p
 
1    p  p   z
 r  =
r r   z  r  2.634  10−4 k t
p p 2p  2 p p
• Define,  = 2 dp  d = dp  =
po z z r z r
2.64 10 −4 kt kh ( pi ) − ( p ) r

tD = D = rD =
c grw2 1424qT rw
Solution for wellbore:

1   tD   1424qT
 ( pwf ) =  ( pi ) − D
 D= ln 2  + 0.80907  kh
2   rD   1424qT ln(tD ) + 0.80907
=  ( pi ) −
kh 2

Example
• A gas well with a wellbore radius of 0.3 ft is producing at a constant
flow rate of 2000Mscf/day under transient flow condition. The initial
reservoir pressure is 4400 psi at 140˚F. The formation permeability
and thinness is 65mD and 15 ft, receptivity. The porosity is 15%, the
pseudo-pressure and other properties is given as below:
p(psi) ug(cp) z ψ(p)psi^2/cp
0 0.0127 1 0
400 0.01286 0.937 1.32E+07
800 0.0139 0.882 5.20E+07
1200 0.0153 0.832 1.13E+08
1600 0.0168 0.794 1.98E+08
2000 0.0184 0.77 3.04E+08
2400 0.0201 0.763 4.22E+08
2800 0.0217 0.775 5.42E+08
3200 0.0234 0.797 6.78E+08
3600 0.025 0.827 8.16E+08
4000 0.0266 0.86 9.50E+08
4400 0.02831 0.896 1.09E+09
• Assuming that the initial total isothermal compressibility is 3E-4/psi,

calculate the bottom-hole pressure after 15 hours.

Solution
• Calculate the dimensionless time
2.64  10−4 kt 2.64  10−4  65  1.5

tD = = = 2244986
cgrw2 −4
0.15  0.02831  3  10  0.3  0.3
• Solve for the dimensionless pseudo-pressure,

 D= ln (tD ) + 0.80907 = 0.5  (ln(2244986) + 0.8090) = 6.565
1
2
• Calculate ψ(pwf),
1424  2000  600

 ( pwf ) =  ( pi ) −
1424qT
 D = 1.09  109 −  6.56 = 1.0775  1
kh 65  15
• From the PVT table, interpolate using the value of psedo-pressure to

give a corresponding Pwf of 4357 psi.

The pressure squared approximation method (p2-method)
• Solve this equation

1   p p     p
 r  =  
r r  z r  2.64  10−4 k t  z 
• Approximately by,
1424QgT z 1
ln (tD ) + 0.80907
 D=
p =p −
2
wf
2
i D 2
kh
• Effectively limits the applicability to reservoir pressures<2000psi.

Example
• A gas well is producing at a constant rate of 7454.2

Mscf/day under transient flow conditions, the following
data are availed:
– K=50mD, h=10 ft, ϕ=0.2, pi=1600 psi, T=600˚R, rw=0.3ft,
cti=6.25E-4psi-1.
– The gas property are tabulated below,
0 0.0127 1 0
400 0.01286 0.937 1.32E+07
800 0.0139 0.882 5.20E+07
1200 0.0153 0.832 1.13E+08
1600 0.0168 0.794 1.98E+08
• Calculate the botton hole flow pressure after 4 hours by

using: a. the m(p) method; b. the p2 method.

Solution
2.64  10−4 kt 2.64  10−4  50  4

tD = = = 279365.1
cgrw2 −4
0.2  0.0168  3  10  0.3  0.3
 D= ln (tD ) + 0.80907 = 0.5  (ln(79365.1) + 0.80907 ) = 6.6746
1
2
• Calculate ψ(pwf),
1424  2000  600
 ( pwf ) =  ( pi ) −
1424qT
 D = 1.09  109 −  6.6746 = 1.131  108
kh 50  10
• From the PVT table, interpolate using the value of psedo-pressure to

give a corresponding Pwf of 1200 psi.

Solution-b
2.64  10−4 kt 2.64  10−4  50  4

tD = = = 279365.1
cgrw2 0.2  0.0168  3  10−4  0.3  0.3
 D= ln (tD ) + 0.80907 = 0.5  (ln(79365.1) + 0.80907 ) = 6.6746
1
2
• Calculate pwf2,
1424  7454.2  600  0.0168  0.794

2
pwf = 16002 − −  6.6747 = 1427491
50  10
 pwf = 1195psi

The Pressure-Approximation Method
141.2  103 Qg  Bg
pwf = pi − D
kh
2.64  10−4 kt
tD =
i ctirw2
 D= ln (tD ) + 0.80907

1
2

Example
• A gas well with a wellbore radius of 0.3 ft is producing at a constant

flow rate of 2000Mscf/day under transient flow condition. The initial
reservoir pressure is 4400 psi at 140˚F. The formation permeability
and thinness is 65mD and 15 ft, receptivity. The porosity is 15%, the
pseudo-pressure and other properties is given as below:
0 0.0127 1 0
400 0.01286 0.937 1.32E+07
800 0.0139 0.882 5.20E+07
1200 0.0153 0.832 1.13E+08
1600 0.0168 0.794 1.98E+08
2000 0.0184 0.77 3.04E+08
2400 0.0201 0.763 4.22E+08
2800 0.0217 0.775 5.42E+08
3200 0.0234 0.797 6.78E+08
3600 0.025 0.827 8.16E+08
4000 0.0266 0.86 9.50E+08
4400 0.02831 0.896 1.09E+09
• Assuming that the initial total isothermal compressibility is 3E-4/psi,

calculate the bottom-hole pressure after 15 hours.
Solution

2.64  10−4 kt 2.64  10−4  65  1.5
tD = = = 2244986
cgrw2 −4
0.15  0.02831 3  10  0.3  0.3
 D= ln (tD ) + 0.80907 = 0.5  (ln( 2244986) + 0.8090) = 6.565

1
2
• Calculate Bg at initial pressure,
znRT
p zT 0.896  600
Bg = = 0.00504 = 0.00504 = 0.0006158bbl/scf
zsc nRTsc p 4400
psc
• Approximate pwf by,
141.2  103 Qg  Bg
pwf = pi −  D = 4367psi
kh

List of References (Harvard format):
• Ahmed, T., 2009. Working guide to reservoir rock properties and
fluid flow. Gulf Professional Publishing.
• Ahmed, T., 2013. Equations of state and PVT analysis. Elsevier.
• Amyx, J.W., Bass, D.M. and Whiting, R.L., 1960. Petroleum
reservoir engineering: physical properties (Vol. 1). McGraw-Hill
College.
• Ahmed, T., 2006. Reservoir engineering handbook. Gulf
Professional Publishing.
• Dake, L.P., 2001. The practice of reservoir engineering (revised
edition) (Vol. 36). Elsevier.
• Craft, B.C., 1962. Well design: drilling and production. Prentice Hall.

Q&A
Thank Information:
Contact You
Email:
Yingfang.zhou@abdn.ac.uk
Room No.264
Fraser Noble Building
University of Aberdeen

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MSc Petroleum Engineering

Yingfang Zhou, PhD Page 1 www.abdn.ac.uk

Yingfang Zhou, PhD Page 2 www.abdn.ac.uk

The main objective of this lecture is to present the

Yingfang Zhou, PhD Page 3 www.abdn.ac.uk

The isothermal compressibility coefficient is essentially the controlling factor in

Figure 2. Flow Regimes (Ahmed, 2009)

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Yingfang Zhou, PhD Page 6 www.abdn.ac.uk

1. single-phase flow (oil, water, or gas);

Yingfang Zhou, PhD Page 7 www.abdn.ac.uk

The mathematical expressions that are used to predict the

1. single-phase flow (oil, water, or gas);

The description of fluid flow and subsequent analysis of pressure

Yingfang Zhou, PhD Page 8 www.abdn.ac.uk

Darcy’s Experiment (1856):

Flow rate determined by Head loss dh = h1 - h2

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Flow laws -- Darcy's law

Yingfang Zhou, PhD Page 10 www.abdn.ac.uk

Yingfang Zhou, PhD Page 11 www.abdn.ac.uk

Parameters or Practical oil Field Practical gas Field

c (compressibility) vol/vol/atm vol/vol/psi vol/vol/psi vol/vol/pa

Table 1. Darcy units

Yingfang Zhou, PhD Page 12 www.abdn.ac.uk

• Linear liquid flow system

Yingfang Zhou, PhD Page 13 www.abdn.ac.uk

Yingfang Zhou, PhD Page 14 www.abdn.ac.uk

• Radial flow equation and BC: p

• And integrates give the solution:

An oil well in the Nameless Field is producing at a stabilized rate of 600

Yingfang Zhou, PhD Page 16 www.abdn.ac.uk

 2 rp (r )dr  2rp (r )dr re

Yingfang Zhou, PhD Page 19 www.abdn.ac.uk

Figure 8. Near-wellbore skin effect

ps = Pwfnormal − Pwfdamage

Figure 9. Representation of positive and negative skin

• Recall the pressure drop in the skin zone is given as,

• And then skin factor is given as,

Yingfang Zhou, PhD Page 21 www.abdn.ac.uk

Yingfang Zhou, PhD Page 22 www.abdn.ac.uk

Boundary conditions and initial conditions:

𝑎1 = −0. 33153973 𝑎2 = −0. 81512322, 𝑎3 = 5. 22123384 × 10−4

Yingfang Zhou, PhD Page 24 www.abdn.ac.uk

Ei ( − x )  ln( x ) + 0.5772 for x  0.01

• This happens in relatively later time or near well position.

Yingfang Zhou, PhD Page 25 www.abdn.ac.uk

• Step 1: calculate tD and rD for a given time and location

• Step 2: Calculate PD using EI solution

• Step 3: Calculate pressure difference using PD definition.

Yingfang Zhou, PhD Page 26 www.abdn.ac.uk

Calculation of pressures beyond the wellbore u sin g

Yingfang Zhou, PhD Page 27 www.abdn.ac.uk

2.637 10−4 kt 2.637 10−4  0.1 3

Yingfang Zhou, PhD Page 28 www.abdn.ac.uk

Yingfang Zhou, PhD Page 29 www.abdn.ac.uk

• Solution of bounded circular reservoir,