Brain / Nervous

System
Ms. Timothy
Biology
Learning Objectives
Students will be able to

State the four lobes of the brain.

Identify the function of the four lobes of the brain.

State and learn the 3 parts that make up the Nervous System

Understand how the 3 parts work together

Understand what a neuron is and how they function

The Brain
• The brain is an approximately
three-pound organ that controls
all functions of the body,
interprets information and stimuli
from the outside world.
• The largest part of the brain is
the cerebrum, made of two
cerebral hemispheres. The
cerebrum is the source of all our
conscious thoughts.
• It is the outer layer called the
cerebral cortex, with many folds
all over its surface.
The cerebrum has three
main functions:
• It contains sensory areas that receive and
process information from all our sense
organs.
• It has motor areas which are where all our
voluntary actions originate.
• It is the origin of ‘higher’ activities, such as
memory, reasoning, emotions and
personality.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_aCCsRC
w78g
Cerebrum and
Cerebellum

Cerebrum: is Cerebellum: is
the largest part located under the
of the brain and cerebrum. Deals
is composed of with coordination
right and left and motor
hemispheres that control and
organizes motor memory.
information.
What is the Brain’s function?
• The brain controls our thoughts, memory and speech,
actions and emotions movement of the arms and legs,
and the function of many organs within our body.
• The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the
brain and spinal cord.
• The two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex are part of the
forebrain which is the largest part of the brain.
• The forebrain contains the cerebral cortex and several
other structures that lie beneath this cortex called the
subcortical structures.
The Brain

• Subcortical structures: thalamus,

hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and the
limbic system.

• The cerebral cortex, which is the outer

surface of the brain, is associated with
higher level processes such as
consciousness, thought, emotion,
reasoning, language, and memory.

• Each cerebral hemisphere can be

subdivided into four lobes, each associated
with different functions.
What are the four lobes
The frontal lobe

The parietal lobe

The temporal lobe

The occipital lobe

The Four Lobes Location
What are the functions of the
four lobes
The Frontal Lobe The Parietal Lobe The Temporal Lobe

The Frontal lobe is processes processes

important for information memories,
cognitive functions about integrating them
and of voluntary temperature, with sensations
movement or taste, touch and of taste, sound,
activity. movement. sight and touch.

The Occipital Lobe

is primarily
responsible for
vision.
The cerebrum
The motor and sensory areas
 • The motor cortex is the region of the
cerebral cortex involved in the planning,
control, and execution of voluntary
movements e.g. ( contraction of
muscles ) utilizes motor nerves
Motor and • The sensory cortex is a section of the
Sensory cerebral cortex which is responsible for
receiving and
cortex interpreting sensory information from
different parts of the body. Stimuli. E.g. (
sight, hearing , smell, taste and
feeling (pressure or pain) utilizes
sensory nerves
Behind the cerebrum is the
cerebellum.
This region is concerned with
coordinating the contractions of
set muscles and maintain
balance.
Its important when carrying out
complicated muscular activities
such as running or riding a
bike.
• Under the cerebellum connecting the spinal
cord with the rest of the brain is the brain stem
or medulla oblongata. This controls body
activities such as heartbeat and breathing
rate.
• The medulla oblongata or simply medulla is a
long stem-like structure which makes up part of
the brainstem.
• It is anterior and partially inferior to the
cerebellum. It is a cone-shaped neuronal
mass responsible for autonomic
(involuntary) functions ranging from vomiting
to sneezing digestion etc.)
Activity
List the four lobes ( you should indicate them
by colour) – Print
Sensitivity and
Coordination in
Animals
 Stimulus and response
• You are walking along the sidewalk when you see a
football coming at high speed towards your head. If
your nerves are working properly, you will probably
duck.
• A stimulus is a change in an animal’s surroundings, and
response is a reaction to that change. E.g. The change
in your environment was detected by your eyes, which
are an example of a receptor organ.
• The response was brought about by contraction of
muscles, which are an effector organ (they produce and
effect)
• Linking the two is the nervous system.
Receptors
• The information in the nerve cell is
transmitted in the form of tiny electrical
signals called nerve impulses.
• The role of the receptor is to detect the
stimulus by changing its energy into the
electrical energy of the nerve impulses.
For example, the eye converts light energy
into nerve impulses, and the ear converts
sound energy into nerve impulses.
• When energy is changed from one form into
another it is called Transduction.
• All receptors are transducers of energy.
Receptors
Receptor Type of energy transduced
Eye (retina) Light
Ear ( organ of hearing ) Sound
Ear (organ of balance) Movement (kinetic)
Tongue (taste buds) Chemical
Nose (organ of smell) Chemical
Skin ( touch and pressure/ pain receptors) Movement (kinetic)
Skin (temperature receptors ) Heat or Cold
Muscle ( stretch receptors) Movement (kinetic)
Notice how a sense like touch is made up of several components. When we touch a
warm surface, we will be stimulating several types of receptors, including touch and
temperature receptors as well as stretch receptors in the muscles.

Each sense detects different aspects of the energy it receives. For example, the ears
don’t just detect sound, but different noise levels of loudness and frequencies of
sound.

While the eyes not only detects an image but different intensities of light, humans
can also detect the different light wavelengths (colours)
The nervous
system
The central nervous
system
• The biological name for a nerve cell is a
NEURONE. The impulses that travel along a
neuron are not an electric current, as in a
wire. They are caused by movement of
charged particles (ions) in and out of the
neuron.
• Impulses travel at speeds between about
10 and 100m/s, which is much slower than
an electric current but fast enough to
produce rapid response.
• Impulses from receptors pass along nerves
containing sensory neurons, until they
reach the BRAIN and SPINAL CORD.
What is the nervous system
• The nervous system is a complex collection of nerves and
specialized cells known as neurons that transmit signals
between different parts of the body. It is essentially the
body's electrical wiring.
• Divided into two parts the Central Nervous System(CNS)
and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
 The central nervous system and
the peripheral nervous system
The central nervous system (CNS) is composed of the brain and spinal
cord.

The (CNS) controls most functions of the body and mind. The brain is the
center of our thoughts, the interpreter of our external environment, and the
origin of control over body movement.

The CNS tells the peripheral nervous system to send messages to the
rest of the body.

The Peripheral consist of all the nerves that branch off from the brain and
spine sending messages to the rest of the body. The PNS works in both
directions through the sensory and motor divisions or cortex.
The sensory and motor divisions
The sensory detects any stimuli while the motor reacts to
stimuli

Watch video below :

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qPix_X-9t7E
Neurons

• Other nerves contain motor neurons,

transmitting impulses to the muscles and glands.
Some nerves contain only sensory or motor
cells. While other nerves contain both- they
are mixed. A typical nerve contains thousands of
individual neurons.
• Both sensory and motor neurons can be long. For
instance, a motor neuron leading from the CNS to
the muscles in the finger has a fiber about 1m in
length, which is 100 000 times the length
of a cell body.
Diagram of a motor neuron and sensory
neuron
The autonomic nervous system
• The medulla controls the heart rate and breathing through nerves which
are part of the autonomic nervous system . It consist of a series of nerves
outside the CNS also know as the PNS. Leading to many organs.
• They control activities which are normally involuntary. As well as heart
rate and breathing, these include activities such as:
1. Constriction and dilatation of the pupil in the iris –pupil reflex
2. Relaxation of involuntary sphincter muscle of the bladder
3. Contraction of the muscle layers in the wall of the intestine during
peristalsis
4. Secretion of sweat glands in the skin
5. Dilatation of the bronchioles in the lungs
Recap lesson
Neurons
 How do neurons work ?
The cell body of a motor neuron is at one end of the fiber, in the
CNS. The cell body has fine cytoplasmic extensions, called
DENDRONS.

Theses in turn form finer extensions, called DENDRITES.

The junctions can be called SYNAPSES.

• One of the extensions in the motor neuron cell
body is much longer than the other DENDRONS.
This is the fiber that carries impulses to the
effector organ and is called the AXON.
• At the end of the axon furthest from the cell
body, it divided into many special sort of
synapses called a NERVE MUSCLE JUNCTION.
• In this way impulses are carried from the CNS
out to the muscle. The signals from the nerve
impulses are transmitted across the nerve –
muscle junction, causing the muscle fibers to
contract.
• The axon is covered in a sheath made of fatty
materials called MYELIN.
Activity
 Investigate
The function of the
Myelin .
 • Insulates the axon, preventing
‘short circuits’ with other axons,
and speeds up the conduction of
the impulses. The sheath is formed
Myelin – by the membranes of special cells
Function that wrap themselves around the
axon as it develops.
 Has a similar structure to the motor
neuron, but the cell body is located on a
side branch of the fiber, just outside the
CNS. The fiber from the sensory receptor

Sensory to the cell body is actually a DENDRON.

Neurons While the fibers from the cell body to the

CNS is a short axon. As with motor
neurons, fibers of the sensory neurons are
often myelinated.
Activity
Activity
• Explain the difference between a
sensory neuron and a motor
neuron.
• What is the function of axon?
• What is the myelin sheath and what
does it do?
The eye
 The Function and Importance of
the Eye

Relate the structure of the human

Learning eye to it functions as a sense organ

objectives Understanding Rods and Cones

Refraction and the brains

interpretation of images
The eye
• Many animals have eyes, but few show the
complexity of the human eye.
• Simpler animals such as snails use their eyes to detect
light but cannot form a proper image.
• Other animals, such as dogs can form images but
cannot distinguish colours.
• The human eye does all three. Of course, it is not
really the eye that ‘sees’ anything at all but the brain
that interprets the impulses from the eye.
• To find out how light from an object is converted into
impulses representing an image, we need to look at
the structure of this complex organ.
The
structure of
the eye
 Functions of each part
Parts Function
Sclera or white part of the eye protects the eyeball
Cornea a clear window at the front of the eye, covers the iris and the pupil.
Lens By changing its shape, the lens changes the focal distance of the eye. In other words, it
focuses the light rays that pass through it (and onto the retina) in order to create clear
images of objects that are positioned at various distances.
The iris or coloured part of the eye, surrounds the pupil. It controls how much light enters the
eye by changing the size of the pupil.
The pupil or black dot at the center of the eye is an opening through which light can enter the
eye.
The Choroid It is dark because it contains many pigment cells, as well as blood vessels. The pigment
stops light from being reflected around inside the eye. This prevents fogging of the
image
Retina the light sensitive layer , the place where light energy is transduced into the electrical
energy of nerve impulses. The retina contains RODS and CONES
Parts Function
The Ciliary muscle is a ring of smooth muscle in the eye's middle layer (vascular layer) that controls
accommodation for viewing objects at varying distances and regulates the flow of
aqueous humor
Suspensory ligaments of lens - a series of fibers that connect the ciliary body of the eye with the lens,
holding it in place. Upper eyelid - top, movable, superior fold of skin that covers
the front of the eyeball when closed, including the cornea.
Fovea a tiny pit located in the macula of the retina that provides the clearest vision of
all. Only in the fovea are the layers of the retina spread aside to let light fall
directly on the cones.
Optic nerve located in the back of the eye it transfers visual information from the retina to the
vision centers of the brain via electrical impulses
Blind spot There are no photoreceptors (i.e., rods or cones) in the optic disk, and, therefore,
there is no image detection in this area.
Rods and Cones
The retina
• Special cells called cones and rods are located in the retina. These cells are known as
photoreceptors and help absorb light.

Cones
• The majority of the cones are located in the macula, or central area, of the retina. Cone
cells help us see colour and detail. Similarly, the macula allows us to read and clearly
recognize people's facial details, such as eye colour and whether they have freckles.

Rods
• The majority of the rods are located in the peripheral, or outer area, of the retina. Rod
cells allow us to see in poor lighting and give us our night vision.
 How are images interpreted by the
brain
• To form an image on the retina, light needs
to be bent or refracted. Refraction takes
place when light passes from one medium
to another of a different density.
• In the eye, this happens in the cornea first
and again at the lens. In fact the cornea
acts as the first lens of the eye.
• As a result of refraction at the cornea and
lens, the image on the retina is
INVERTED. The brain interprets the image
the right way up.
 Using the example sent in your group chat
draw the following items to show how they
are refracted and interpreted by the brain

Apple

Drawing
Tree

Lock
Recap
 Accommodation
Next lesson
Sight defects and
their correction
Accommodation and
sight defects
Learning objectives

• Students should be able to :

• Understanding the role of the iris
• explain accommodation
• Identify the different sight defects
The role of the iris
The role of the iris is to control the amount of light
entering the eye, by changing the size of the pupil.
The iris contains two types of muscles.

Circular muscles from a ring shape in the iris.

Radial muscles lie like the spokes of a wheel.

In bright light the pupil is made smaller or

constricted.
• Bright lights
• Circular muscles contract
• Radial muscles relax
• Pupil constricts

• Dim light
• Circular muscles relax
• Radial muscles contract
• Pupil dilates
 • Whenever our eyes look from a dim light to
a bright light the iris rapidly and
automatically adjust the pupil size. This is
an example of a reflex action.
• The purpose of the iris reflex is to allow
the right intensity of light to fall on the
retina.
• Light that is too bright can damage the
very sensitive RODS and CONES.
How does light • Light that is too dim would not form an
affect the iris image.
• The intensity of light hitting the retina is
the stimulus for this reflex. Impulses
pass to the brain through the optic
nerve and straight back to the iris
muscle adjusting the diameter of the
pupil.
• It all happens without conscious
thought. in fact we are not even
aware of its happening
Accommodation
Accommodation
You have probably seen the results
The changes that take place in the
of a camera we can focus light from
eye which allow us to see objects at
objects that are different distances
different distances are called
by moving the lens back ward or
ACCOMMODATION.
forward until the picture is sharp.

In the eyes the rather than altering

the position the shape of the lens The lens in the eye can change
can be changed. A lens is fatter in shape because it is made of cells
the middle (more convex) will containing an elastic crystalline
refract light rays more than a proteins.
thinner (less convex) lens.
A) focusing
on distant
objects

B) Focusing
on near
objects
Front view of
lens. Ciliary
muscles and
suspensory
ligaments
Focusing on distant
objects
• When the eye is focused on a distant object,
rays of light from the object are almost parallel
when they reach the cornea. The cornea
refracts the light.
• The cornea refracts the rays, but the lens does
not need to be very convex. The ciliary muscles
relax and the pressure in the eye pushes
outwards on the lens, flattening and stretching
the suspensory ligaments.
• This is the condition when our eyes are at rest
–our eyes are focused for long distances.
Focusing on nearby objects

• When we focus on nearby objects, for example when reading a book,

the light rays from the object are spreading out (DIVERGING) when
they enter the eye.
• In this situation, the lens must be more convex in order to refract the
rays enough to focus on the retina.
• The ciliary muscles now contract, and the suspensory ligaments
become slack or relaxed, the elastic lens bulges outwards into a more
convex shape.
Activity
 Activity -15mins
• Explain the role of the iris is detail
• What happens if the eyes are exposed
to extremely bright light ?
• What is the purpose of the iris reflex ?
• In your own words discuss
accommodation
• Looking at the images below state
which lens is convex and which is
diverging
Sight Defects
 Defects of vision
• Normal vision is known as 20/ 20
vision
• Long and short sight
• In the case of long sight , either the
lens is not convex enough (i.e. too
flat) or the eyeball is too short
from front to back, so that light
rays from a nearby object are
focused behind the retina.
• This means the image will fall
behind the retina and will be out
of focus.
• A long-sighted person has difficult
focusing on near objects.
 Defects of vision
• In the case if short sight, either the
lens is too convex, or the eyeball
is too long so that the light rays'
distant objects are focused in front of
the retina again producing and out of
focus image.
• A short-sighted persons a has peoples
focusing on distant objects
Correction of sight
defects
• Long sight can be corrected
by using convex lenses or
glasses which converge the
light rays before they enter
the eye.
Correction of sight
defects
• Short sight is corrected
using concave lenses,
which diverge (spread
out) the light rays before
they enter the eye.
 Correction of vision defects

Long sight Short sight

Cause Lens not convex Lens too convex, or
enough, or eyeball too eyeball too long
short
Result Light focused beyond Light focused short of
retina the retina
Corrected by using Convex lenses to Concave lenses that
converge light before it diverge light before it
enters the eye enters the eye
 Problems with vision in old
age
• Both long and short sightedness tends to occur more
frequently in the elderly. However several serious
defects of vision may also develop, including
Cataracts and Glaucoma.
• A cataract is a condition where the lens of the
eye becomes cloudy and opaque so that the
person is unable to see.
• This can be treated with surgery. The surgeon opens
the front of the eye and removes the affected lens.
The patient will be able to see again although they will
need to use glasses.
 Glaucoma
• Is caused by the build up fluid in the
eye, producing excessive pressure.
The pressure can damage the optic
nerve, leading to poor vision and
blindness.
• Medicines. Prescription eye drops are
the most common treatment.
• Laser treatment to lower pressure in
your eye, doctors can use lasers to
help the fluid drain out of your eye.
• Surgery. If medicines and laser
treatment don't work, your doctor
might suggest surgery.
• Both cataracts and glaucoma are
common in persons with diabetes.
Activity What is the difference
between short sighted A person with normal
vision and long-sighted vison has?
vision .

State how to correct State how to correct

short-sightedness long- sightedness

Discuss problems with

vison faced by the elderly
Next lesson

• Plant nutrition and transportation.

• Distinguish between autotrophic and
heterotrophic nutrition
• Describe how plants make food by
the process of photosynthesis
• Discuss the importance of minerals in
plant nutrition
The end