NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION

Kepler’s Laws
Kepler(1571-1630) had studied many observations on the motion of planets and had discovered three laws.
Law 1. The planets describe ellipses about the sun as one focus
Law 2 The line joining the sun and the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time intervals

Law 3 The square of the periods of revolution of the planets are proportional to the cubes of their
average distance from the sun.
T 2 α r3
Newton’s explanation of Kepler’s laws
◼ All the planets, with the exception of one or two, revolve round the sun with uniform angular velocity
in circular orbits.

◼ There is a force of attraction between the planet and the sun with magnitude inversely proportional
to the square of the distance.
1
F=k
r2
Since the planet is in circular motion, this force F is also the centripetal force.
k 4 2
mrω2 = 2 or mr3 T 2 = k
r
hence T2 α r3

Newton’s universal law of gravitation states that a force of attraction exists between two point
masses with magnitude directly proportional to the product of the masses and inversely
proportional to the square of their distance apart.
Mm Mm
Fα 2
or F = G 2 where G is called the universal gravitation constant.
r r
G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2 kg-2

Application of Newton’s law

(i) Estimation of mass of the sun

Consider the Earth revolving round the sun in circular orbit
Gravitational force = centripetal force
M sm mr4 2
G = mr =
2
taking then period of the Earth , T = 365 days
r2 T2
or 365x 24 x 3600 seconds and r = 1.5 x1011 m

Mass of the Sun, Ms = 2 x1030 kg.

(ii) Estimation of the mass and density of the Earth

For an object on the Earth’s surface, the gravitational attraction is also the weight, mg, of the
mM
object. G 2 E = mg
r
gr 2
Therefore ME = taking g = 9.8ms-2, G = 6.67x10-11Nm2kg-2,
G
r = 6.4 x106m
Therefore, mass of the Earth M = 6.0 x 1024 kg

Assuming that the Earth is a perfect sphere with density 

M 3g r2 3g
= = =
V 4 r G 4 r G
3
By substituting the known values of g, G and r the mean density of the Earth is about 5500kgm-3.
Actually the density of the Earth is not uniform and may have a density of 10000 kg m-3 towards the
centre of the Earth.

(iii) Variation of the acceleration due to gravity, g

Below the surface of the Earth Above the surface of the Earth
Assuming that the earth is a perfect Mm
sphere with uniform density  F = mg = G
r2
M 1m M
mg= G where M1 is the effective g= G 2
r2 r
4 1
mass of the earth, M1 =   r 3 or g  2
3 r
4
Therefore g = G   r
3
Or g α r
g g

0 r 0 r

The overall variation of g with distance from the centre of the earth is as shown below.

g
9.81

rE r
0

Apart from variation with distance from the earth, the value of g also varies as one moves from the pole of
the Earth to its equator( due to the fact that the Earth spin about its own axis)

Example :

1. Two masses M and m are separated by a distance d. If M = 20 m, calculate the distance from the
centre of M where the resultant gravitational force is zero. Draw a sketch graph showing roughly
how the gravitational force varies with distance between M and m.
2. A man can jump vertically through a height of 1.5m on Earth. Calculate the height he might be able
to jump on a planet whose density is ¼ that of the Earth and whose radius is 1/3 that of the Earth.

(iv) Artificial satellite

Satellite can be launched from the Earth’s surface to circle round the earth. They are kept in their
orbit by the gravitational attraction of the earth. Consider a satellite of mass m circling the Erath at an
orbit of radius r.
Earth

sattelite

Assuming that no other force act on the satellite except the gravitational force from the Earth,
Gravitational force = centripetal force
Mm v2
G 2 = mr = m
2

r r

Example
Find the speed of a satellite which revolves round the Earth at an altitude equals to three times the
radius of the earth.

Geostationary satellite or parking orbit

For a satellite revolving round the Earth with a period exactly equal to the period of the spin of the Earth
of the Earth about its own axis, then the satellite will appear to be stationary over a certain place on the
surface of the earth while the earth rotates. The satellite is called a geostationary or synchronous
satellite and its orbit called the parking orbit.
Note : a geostationary must
…. have the same angular velocity as the spin of the earth
….. rotate in the same sense as the spin as the spin of the earth, ie from east to west
…. be in an orbit containing the equatorial plane of the earth.

For a satellite revolving round the Earth in an orbit with radius r,

Mm
m r 2 = G and substituting GM = g RE2 where R E is the radius of the Earth
r2
r 4  2 g R E2 g R E2 T 2
= 2 therefore r = 3
T2 r 4 2
For geostationary satellite T = 24 hours = 24 x 60 x60 s, g = 9.8 ms-2 and RE = 6.4 x 106 m
Hence radius of parking orbit r = 4.2 x107 m
Altitude, h of geostationary satellite = 3.56x107 m
velocity , v of geostationary satellite = 3.1x103 ms-1

Binary stars

Binary stars is a system of two stars revolving about an axis passing through the centre of mass of the
system.
If the two stars are of equal mass the centre If the stars are of unequal mass, the
of mass is at a point of equal distance from centre of mass is at a point at distance
each star. according to the ratio of the mass of the stars

r
r2
d r1
d

For each star The gravitational force experienced by each

m1 m2
The gravitational force = centripetal force star is G where d = separation between
d2
mm
G 2
= mr 2 the stars but their centripetal forces are
d
m1r1ω2 and m2r2 ω2 respectively.

Example.
1. Two binary stars, masses 1020kg and 2 x 1020 kg respectively, rotate about their common centre of
mass with angular speed ω. Assuming that the only force on a star is the mutual force between them,
calculate ω. The distance between the stars is 106 km.
2. A binary star consists of two stars of masses M1 and M2 that orbit about a fixed point C as shown.
(a) State the formula, in terms of G, M1, M2, R1, R2 and ω the angular
speed of the stars , for
(i) the gravitational force between the stars,
(ii) the centripetal force on the star of mass M1
(b) the stars orbit each other in as time of 1.26 x108s. Calculate the value of ω
(c) If M1= 3 M2 and their separation is 3.2 x 1011m, calculate the radii R1and R2
(d) Using your answers in (a) ,(b) and (c) determine the mass of one of the stars.
State whether your answer is for the more massive or for the less massive star.
Nov 2003 P4
1 (a) (i) On Fig. 1.1, draw lines to represent the gravitational field outside an isolated uniform sphere.

Fig. 1.1
(ii) A second sphere has the same mass but a smaller radius. Suggest what difference, if any, there is between
the patterns of field lines for the two spheres.
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(b) The Earth may be considered to be a uniform sphere of radius 6380 km with its mass of 5.98 × 1024 kg
concentrated at its centre, as illustrated in Fig. 1.2.

A mass of 1.00 kg on the Equator rotates about the axis of the Earth with a period of day (8.64 × 104 s).
Calculate, to three significant figures,
(i) the gravitational force FG of attraction between the mass and the Earth,

FG = ………….…………………………. N
(ii) the centripetal force FC on the 1.00 kg mass,

FC = …………………….………………. N
(iii) the difference in magnitude of the forces.

difference = …………………………………….. N[6]

 (c) By reference to your answers in (b), suggest, with a reason, a value for the acceleration of free fall at the
Equator.
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June 2004 P4
3 A binary star consists of two stars that orbit about a fixed point C, as shown in Fig. 3.1.

Fig. 3.1
The star of mass M1 has a circular orbit of radius R1 and the star of mass M2 has a circular orbit of radius R2. Both
stars have the same angular speed ω, about C.
(a) State the formula, in terms of G, M1, M2, R1, R2 and ω for
(i) the gravitational force between the two stars,
...................................................................................................................................

(ii) the centripetal force on the star of mass M1.

................................................................................................................................... [2]
(b) The stars orbit each other in a time of 1.26 × 108 s (4.0 years). Calculate the angular speed ω for each star.

angular speed = ................................... rad s–1 [2]

(c) (i) Show that the ratio of the masses of the stars is given by the expression
=. [2]
(ii) The ratio is equal to 3.0 and the separation of the stars is 3.2 × 1011 m.
Calculate the radii R1 and R.

R1 = ........................................ m
R2 = ........................................ m[2]
(d) (i) By equating the expressions you have given in (a) and using the data calculated in (b) and (c),
determine the mass of one of the stars.
 mass of star = ........................... kg
(ii) State whether the answer in (i) is for the more massive or for the less massive star.
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Nov 2003
1 (a) (i) On Fig. 1.1, draw lines to represent the gravitational field outside an isolated uniform sphere.

(ii) A second sphere has the same mass but a smaller radius. Suggest what difference, if any, there is between
the patterns of field lines for the two spheres.
..................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................. [3]
(b) The Earth may be considered to be a uniform sphere of radius 6380 km with its mass of 5.98 × 10 24 kg
concentrated at its centre, as illustrated in Fig. 1.2.

A mass of 1.00 kg on the Equator rotates about the axis of the Earth with a period of 1.00 day (8.64 × 104 s).
Calculate, to three significant figures,
(i) the gravitational force FG of attraction between the mass and the Earth,

FG = ………….…………………………. N
(ii) the centripetal force FC on the 1.00 kg mass,

FC = …………………….………………. N
(i) the difference in magnitude of the forces.

difference = …………………………………….. N [6]

(c) By reference to your answers in (b), suggest, with a reason, a value for the acceleration of free fall at the Equator.
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.................................................................................................................................... [2]

Nov 2009 P41

1 (a) State Newton’s law of gravitation.
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(b) The Earth may be considered to be a uniform sphere of radius R equal to 6.4 × 106 m.
A satellite is in a geostationary orbit.
(i) Describe what is meant by a geostationary orbit.
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(ii) Show that the radius x of the geostationary orbit is given by the expression
gR2 = x3  2
where g is the acceleration of free fall at the Earth’s surface and  is the angular
speed of the satellite about the centre of the Earth. [3]

(iii) Determine the radius x of the geostationary orbit.

radius = ...................... m [3]

P42
1 (a) The Earth may be considered to be a uniform sphere of radius 6.38x103 km, with its
mass concentrated at its centre.
(i) Define gravitational field strength.
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(ii) By considering the gravitational field strength at the surface of the Earth, show that
the mass of the Earth is 5.99x1024 kg. [2]
(b) The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a navigation system that can be used anywhere on
Earth. It uses a number of satellites that orbit the Earth in circular orbits at a distance of
2.22x104 km above its surface.
(i) Use data from (a) to calculate the angular speed of a GPS satellite in its orbit.

angular speed = ..................................... rad s–1 [3]

(ii) Use your answer in (i) to show that the satellites are not in geostationary orbits. [3]

(c) The planes of the orbits of the GPS satellites in (b) are inclined at an angle of 55° to the Equator.
Suggest why the satellites are not in equatorial orbits.
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