SRI SHANMUGHA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(Approved By AICTE, Accredited by NAAC, Affiliated to Anna University)

Tiruchengode – Sankari Mani Rd, Pullipalayam, Morur (PO), Sankari (Tk), Salem 637304.

AI83302 – UNIT OPERATIONS IN AGRICULTURAL PROCESSING LABORATORY

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ENGINEERING

Anna University - Regulation: 2021

B.Tech. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING –III SEMESTER

AI3302 – UNIT OPERATIONS IN AGRICULTURAL PROCESSING

LABORATORY
 SRI SHANMUGHA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
(Approved By AICTE, Accredited by NAAC, & Affiliated to Anna University)
Tiruchengode – Sankari Mani Rd, Pullipalayam, Morur (PO), Sankari (Tk), Salem 637304.

RECORD NOTE BOOK

REGNO.

Certified that this is a bonafide observation of Practical work done by

Mr/Ms/Mrs……………………………………of the……………………………………
Semester………………………………………………. Branch during the Academic
year……………in the… ............................................………………………….laboratory.

Staff–in–Charge Head of the Department

Internal Examiner External Examiner

 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
❖ All the students are instructed to wear protective uniform and shoes before

entering into the laboratory.

❖ Before starting the exercise, students should have a clear idea about the

principles of that exercise

❖ All the students are advised to come with completed recorded and corrected

observation book of previous experiments, defaulters will not allowed to do their

experiment.

❖ Don’t operate any instrument without getting concerned staff member’s prior

permission.

❖ All the instruments are costly. Hence handle them carefully, to avoid fine for

any breakage.

❖ Almost care must be taken to avert any possible injury while on laboratory work.

In case, anything occurs immediately report to the staff members.

❖ One student from each batch should put his/her signature during receiving the

instrument in instrument issue register.

 INDEX

SI. DATE NAME OF THE EXPERIMENTS MARKS Signature Of

NO. the Faculty
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

4
DETERMINATION OF THERMAL EFFICIENCY AND ECONOMY OF EVAPORATOR

Ex. No: 1 Date:

AIM:

To determine the thermal efficiency and economy of the given rotary flash evaporator.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Rotary flash evaporator, vacuum pump, condenser, thermometer, balance, stop watch and raw
material to be concentrated.

PRINCIPLE:

Evaporators are used to concentrate any solution by removing the volatile solvent present in it.
Normally the superheated steam is used as the heating source for evaporation. The water present in
the solution get vaporized due to heating and the vapor is condensed by the supplied cold water.
This condensed vapor is called condensate and the remaining solution becomes concentrated and
called as concentrate.
Thermal efficiency of an evaporator is the ratio of heat supplied to the heat utilized or the ratio of
theoretical heat required to the actual heat supplied. Economy is the amount of water evaporated per
unit heat input.
DESCRIPTION:

The functional components of a rotary flash evaporator are, rotary assembly, condenser, water bath,
vacuum pump and control unit. In the rotary assembly a stainless-steel tube is rotated by a fractional
HP motor through a reduction gear box. At one end of the tube, a round bottom flask is fixed, which
has provision for easy removal and mounting and fixing on the other end of the stainless-steel tube.

5
 A Teflon bush is provided to connect the condenser to the rotary assembly. A cold type
condenser is provided in the evaporator with inlet and outlet for the cooling water. At the bottom
there is provision for collecting the condensate in a flask. The rotary flask mouth is connected to a
vacuumpump to create vacuum in the concentrating zone through the condenser.

A water bath of 3.5 litre capacity made of stainless steel, provided with a thermostatically
controlledkettle element electric heater (1000 W) is used for supplying heat. This water bath is
placed such that the flask holding the solution is immersed partly by keeping it on the platform and
revolving it.Because of the vacuum created in the concentrating zone for the evaporation of water,
the boiling point is lowered. As the flask holding the solution for concentration is rotated slowly,
the solution is made in thin film on the inner surface of the flask for effective contact with the heat
source. Thermostat and speed regulator switches are mounted on the control panel which acts as
platform for the water bath.

PROCEDURE:

Prepare a solution of known concentration and quantity as raw material for the experiment.
Transfer the solution to the flask and weigh. Fill the water bath with water and know the quantity
filled, start heating after recording the initial temperatures of water bath and the solution. Set the
thermostat for a temperature of around 90°C. Note the time of starting the experiment. Start the
vacuum pump to create vacuum in the evaporating zone. Rotate the flask at very less speed without
any vibration. Circulate the cooling water for the condenser. After a considerable amount of the
solution is concentrated stop the experiment. Note the final temperature of the water bath and time.
Now weigh the water bath and the concentrate for further calculations.

6
CALCULATIONS:

7
RESULT:

The thermal efficiency and economy of the given evaporator with the given solution were studied.

8
DETERMINATION OF SEPARATION EFFICIENCY OF CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATOR

Ex. No: 2 Date:

AIM:

To determine of separation efficiency of centrifugal separator.

PRINCIPLE:
Centrifugal separation is similar to sedimentation, but some forces are added in order to get a better
separation. In a centrifugal device, the centrifugal force is generated to increase the force acting on
the particles. Utilization of centrifugal action for the separation of materials of different densities
and phases, might be built in stationary and rotary types of equipment. In centrifugal separators,
centrifugal forces act on particles is several times greater than gravity as it enters a cylindrical
separator. This results in a much shorter separation time than could be accomplished solely by
gravity. It has mainly been used to separate fluids in static state, i.e. specific volumes, which needed
to be separated.

FORMULAE USED:
The centrifugal force acting on a particle is: Cf = mw2/ rWhere,
m = m a ss of particle;

w = velocity of the particle;

r= radial distance from axis of rotation

The influence of centrifugal force on the particle varies as the particle moves in the separation
vessel. The relative centrifugal force can be defined as the force acting upon a particle in a
centrifugal field in terms of multiple of its own weight in the gravitational field.

9
 PROCEDURE:
The operating procedure for a centrifugal separator will vary depending on the specific type of separator
and the substances being separated. However, there are some general steps that are common to most
separators:

1. Prepare the separator: This may include assembling the separator, attaching any necessary pipes or
hoses, and making sure that all safety measures are in place.
2. Load the mixture: The mixture to be separated is fed into the separator through the feed pipe.
3. Start the separator: The separator is started by activating the drive mechanism, which powers the rotor
and begins the separation process.
4. Monitor the separator: The operator should monitor the separator during the separation process to
ensure that it is functioning properly and to make any necessary adjustments.
5. Discharge the separated substances: Once the separation is complete, the separated substances are
discharged through the outlet pipes.
6. Clean and maintain the separator: After use, the separator should be cleaned and maintained to ensure
that it continues to operate efficiently. This may involve cleaning the bowl or separation chamber,
replacing any worn parts, and checking the condition of the rotor and drive mechanism.

10
CALCULATIONS:

11
RESULT:

Separation efficiency of centrifugal separator =

12
DETERMINATION OF COLLECTION EFFICIENCY IN CYCLONE SEPARATOR

Ex. No: 3 Date:

AIM:

To determine of collection efficiency in cyclone separator

PRINCIPLE:
In the cyclone separator, the centrifugal force is used to separate solids from the fluids (liquid or gas/air).
The separation depends on the particle size as well as on the density of the particles. Hence depending on
the fluid velocity, the cyclone separator can be used to separate all types of particles. Especially it is used
to remove only coarse particles and allows fine particles to be carried through with the fluid. It simply
transforms the inertia force of a gas particle to a centrifugal force using a vortex generated in the cyclone
body.

In a cyclone, the air containing particulate material is forced along the tangential axis. A helical flow pattern is
set up within the chamber. The centrifugal force causes the particles to migrate to the outside of the chamber.
Here they fall to the bottom of the cyclone by gravity. The collected particulates are allowed to exit out an
underflow pipe while the gas phase reverses its axial direction of flow and exits out through the vortex finder
(gas outlet tube). The air moves up the centre of the cyclone and reaches the top.

PROCEDURE:

Cyclone separators provide a method of removing particulate matter from air or other gas streams at
lowcost and low maintenance. Cyclones are somewhat more complicated in design than simple
gravity settling systems, and their removal efficiency is much better than that of settling chamber.
Cyclones are basically centrifugal separators, consists of an upper cylindrical part referred to as the
barreland a lower conical part referred to as cone (figure). They simply transform the inertia force
of gas particle flows to a centrifugal force by means of a vortex generated in the cyclone body. The
particle laden air stream enters tangentially at the top of the barrel and travels downward into the
13
cone forming an outer vortex. The increasing air velocity in the outer vortex results in a centrifugal
force on the particles separating them from the air stream. When the air reaches the bottom of the
cone, it begins to flow radially inwards and out the top as clean air/gas while the particulates fall
into the dust collection chamber attached to the bottom of the cyclone.

FORMULAE USED:

p = particle density, (kg/m3)

dp = particle diameter, inches
(µm) vp = particle tangential
velocity (m/s)r = radius of
the circular path, (m)
pc + dp)2).

The diameter of particle collected with 50% efficiency dpc in m & diameter of particle interest
dp in m arethe key elements of this calculation. η is defined as the separation ration of fraction of
particles of a given size due to the force caused by the spinning gas stream in a cyclone.

14
CALCULATIONS:

15
RESULT:

Thus the separation efficiency of cyclone separator …………………

16
 DETERMINATION OF EFFICIENCY OF LIQUID SOLID SEPARATION BY
FILTRATION

Ex. No: 4 Date:

AIM:

To determine the efficiency of liquid solid separation by filtration.

PRINCIPLE:

Liquid-solid separation involves the separation of two phases, solid and liquid, from a
suspension. It isused in many processes for the:
1. recovery of valuable solid component (the liquid being discarded);

2. liquid recovery (the solids being discarded);

3. recovery of both solid and liquid; or

4. recovery of neither phase (e.g., when a liquid is being cleaned prior to discharge, as in
the prevention of water pollution)

PROCEDURE:

Compressibility of particulate structures is a key factor in the behavior of all solid/liquid separation
equipment. Particulate aggregation in suspensions determines the degree of compressibility, which is
controlled by suitable pre-treatment processes. As increasing thicknesses of deposits cover the separation
surfaces, developing stresses continually compress the particulate bed. The principal sources of stress are (1)
the unbuoyed weight in gravity thickeners, (2) centrifugal forces, (3) pump pressure converted into Darcian
drag at the particle surfaces, and (4) surface forces developed by pressure-actuated impermeable membranes.
When stress is applied to a bed of flocculated particles, the bed is compressed by particle movement into
open pores until no further movement into the interstices can occur. Any further deformation of the bed
17
results in particle deformation or breakage. The porosity of the compressed floc is a function of the initial
structure and particle shape — spherical particles generally have a compressed packing density (solidity) of
about 0.65. The difference between the initial solidity resulting from flocculation and 0.65 represents the
measure of compressibility that is used for correlation, design and scale-up purposes.
In sedimentation processes the solids are subjected to low compressive pressures of the order of 0.1 to 0.2
bar. At the other extreme involving high pressure expression the effective pressure can be up to hundreds of
atmospheres. At low pressures, compression arises from squeezing of particles into unoccupied voids whilst
at high pressures, particle deformation and crushing (where the coefficients of elasticity and ultimate strength
are important) determine cake compaction. Separations equipment can be categorized according to the typical
effective pressure involved in the process, as shown by Figure 2.

Figure 2. Separation operations in relation to pressure.

Figure 3. Relations between null stress volume fraction of solid and particle size, shape and degree of
flocculation.
18
Particle size, size distribution, shape and degree of flocculation determine the solids packing density
in solid/liquid mixtures, and hence the compressibility of the mixture. This is shown schematically
in Figure 3. Particles larger than about 20 μm form beds which are essentially incompressible, the
solidity of which depends primarily on particle shape. Irregular particles form beds with larger
porosities than those associated with spheres. Filter aids such as diatomaceous earths and expanded
perlite are so irregular that they form beds whose solidarities range from 0.1 to 0.2, even though the
primary particle sizes may be below 10 μm.
Stresses developed in the matrix of large particles during separation processes do not generally reach
sufficient magnitude to disturb the structure.
As the characteristic dimension of the particle decreases, the effects of interparticle forces increase
relative to gravitational force. When attractive London-van der Waals forces predominate in
comparison with electrostatic and gravitational forces, the particles tend to form aggregates. As the
number of particles grows in an aggregate (or in a polymer-flocculated system) in suspension, internal
porosity of the overall suspension increases. Although a highly-porous floc is distorted upon
deposition, the unstressed solidity of the cake or sediment may be as low as 0.1. On the right-hand side
of Figure 3, beds formed from large particles are incompressible and have a packing density dependent
on particle shape. On the left of the diagram, the solids volume fraction depends mainly on the degree
on aggregation (or the state of dispersion) of the suspension.

19
CALCULATIONS:

20
RESULT:

Thus the efficiency of liquid solid separations ……………

21
DETERMINATION OF ABSORPTION EFFICIENCY IN A PACKING TOWER

Ex. No: 5 Date:

AIM:
To determine the absorption efficiency in a packing tower

PRINCIPLE:
Liquid enters from tower top and is evenly distributed onto tower packings through liquid distributors and
then flow down along the packing surface. The gas enters from tower bottom and distributed evenly
through gas distributor device. The gas raises up against the liquid path through void of tower packing.
The gas and liquid will contact on the packing surface for mass transfer.

The packed tower is a continuous contact type gas-liquid mass transfer equipment, which makes the two-
phase composition change continuously along the tower height. In the normal condition, the gas phase
presents continuous phase while the liquid phase presents dispersed phase.

When the liquid flow down along the packings, it has a tend to flow to the tower wall, which make the
tower wall liquid quantity increase rapidly. This phenomenon is called wall flow, which may cause the
non uniform distribution of gas and liquid. To avoid it, liquid redistributors are placed in the middle of
tower body when the packing layer is too high.

PROCEDURE:

Packed towers are used increasingly in small fractionating towers and absorbers where access is
restricted. Their use is also advantageous where corrosion control is essential. Because of liquid-
distribution concerns, packing still is usually not recommended for large-diameter columns, or where
a high turndown ratio is required. All packings tend to spread liquid as it flows downwards. This
characteristic is adequate for dispersing the liquid between distribution points, but not to correct poor
distribution across a tower without considerable loss of efficiency.

22
 FORMULAE USED:

1. L = L(l+X)

where L = Lo (1 -xo) (14-25)

The column diameter ds can be expressed in terms of the free cross-sectional area AsThus the
column diameter can be calculated from the operating parameters V [kmol/h],uv [m/s], T [K],
and p [bar]
2. NTU is defined as:
NTU=UA/C min
where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient (kW/m2K),A is the heat transfer area of the heat
exchanger (m2)
C min is the smallest thermal capacity of the two fluids (kW/K).

23
CALCULATIONS:

24
RESULT:

Thus the absorption efficiency in a packing tower is (NTU)

25
 PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF A SIEVE AND DETERMINATION OF
PARTICLE SIZE OF GRANULAR FOODS BY SIEVE ANALYSIS

Ex. No: 6 Date:

AIM:

To determine the particle size of granular foods by sieve analysis.

PROCEDURE:
Sieve Analysis:

(1) Write down the weight of each sieve as well as the bottom pan to be used in the analysis.
(2) Record the weight of the given dry soil sample.
(3) Make sure that all the sieves are clean, and assemble them in the ascending order of sieve
numbers(#4 sieve at top and #200 sieve at bottom). Place the pan below #200 sieve. Carefully
pour the soil sample into the top sieve and place the cap over it.
(4) Place the sieve stack in the mechanical shaker and shake for 10 minutes.
(5) Remove the stack from the shaker and carefully weigh and record the weight of each sieve
with itsretained soil. In addition, remember to weigh and record the weight of the bottom pan
with its retainedfine soil.

26
DATA ANALYSIS:

Sieve Analysis:
(1) Obtain the mass of soil retained on each sieve by subtracting the weight of the empty sieve
from themass of the sieve + retained soil, and record this mass as the weight retained on the data
sheet.
The sum of these retained masses should be approximately equals the initial mass of the soil
sample. A lossof more than two percent is unsatisfactory.
(2) Calculate the percent retained on each sieve by dividing the weight retained on each sieve
by theoriginal sample mass.
(3) Calculate the percent passing (or percent finer) by starting with 100 percent and subtracting
thepercent retained on each sieve as a cumulative procedure.

For example: Total mass = 500 g

Mass retained on No. 4 sieve = 9.7 g Mass retained on No. 10 sieve =
39.5 gFor the No.4 sieve:
Quantity passing = Total mass - Mass retained
= 500 - 9.7 = 490.3 g
The percent retained is calculated as;
% retained = Mass retained/Total mass
= (9.7/500) X 100 = 1.9 %
27
From this, the % passing = 100 - 1.9 = 98.1
%For the No. 10 sieve:

Quantity passing = Mass arriving - Mass retained

= 490.3 - 39.5 = 450.8 g
% Retained = (39.5/500) X 100 = 7.9 %
% Passing = 100 - 1.9 - 7.9 = 90.2 %
(Alternatively, use % passing = % Arriving - %
Retainedfor No. 10 sieve = 98.1 - 7.9 = 90.2 %)
(4) Make a semilogarithmic plot of grain size vs. percent finer.
(5) Compute Cc and Cu for the soil.

GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS:

Sieve Analysis
Visual Classification of Soil: Brown Clayey to silty sand, trace fine gravel
Weight of Container: 198.5 gm
Wt. Container + Dry Soil: 722.3
Wt. of Dry Sample: 523.gm

28
CALCULATIONS:

29
RESULT:

The particle size of granular foods by sieve analysis

30
 DETERMINATION OF ENERGY REQUIREMENT IN SIZE
REDUCTION THE USING BURR MILL

Ex. No: 7 Date:

AIM:

To determine co-efficient in the laws of size reduction and reduction ratio.

APPARATUS:

Burr mill, watt meter, sieves, sieve shaker, weight box, balance, stop watch, etc.
THEORY:
Size reduction is the process of breaking solid particles into smaller fractions. Size
reduction is achieved by (i) compression (ii) impact (iii) rubbing and (iv) cutting. In the process of
size reduction crushing efficiency and power required are the most important factors. Crushing
efficiency is the ratio of the surface energy created by crushing to the energy absorbed by the solid.
The energy absorbed by a unit mass of the material is given by the following equation,
e( Ap − Af )
Ea =
Ec
Where,
e = Surface energy per unit area
Ap = Area per unit mass of the product
Af = Area per unit mass of feed
Ec = Crushing efficiency

The input energy (E) requirement for size reducing machine is greater than the energy
absorbed by the solid (Ea). Some part of the input energy is used to over come friction in the
moving parts and bearings of machine, rest is used for crushing. The ratio energy absorbed to the
input energy is known as the mechanical efficiency (Em).
Ea e( Ap − Af )
E= =
Em Em Ec 31
The power required by the machine can be calculated by the following equation

𝑇 ( 𝐴𝑝 − 𝐴𝑓 )
𝑃=𝐸𝑋𝑇=
𝐸𝑚𝐸𝑐

Where T- feed rate

As these relations are involving many variables, modified and simplified relations areproposed.
i. Ritttenger’s law
𝑃 1 1
= ⌊𝐾𝑟⌋ −
𝑇 𝑝 𝑟
ii. Kick’s law
𝑃 𝐷𝑓
= 𝐾𝑐 1𝑛 ⌊ ⌋
𝑇 𝐷𝑝
iii. Bond’s law
𝑃 1 1
= 𝐾𝑏 ( − )
𝑇 √𝐷𝑝 √𝐷𝑓

Where,
P = Power required in watts
T = Feed rate in kg/h
Dp = Mean diameter of product in mm
Df = Mean diameter of feed in mm
Kr = Rittenger’s coefficient
Kc = Kick’s coefficient
Kb = Bond’s coefficient

Df
Reduction Ratio(RR) =
Dp

DESCRIPTION
The Burr mill is working on the principles of attrition in size reduction. The body of the mainunit is
made of cast iron and mounted on a steel frame. Two attrition discs are provided for achieving size
32
 reduction in this unit. One of the disc is stationary and other one is rotating.
The unit consists of a hopper to hold the pulse and an auger to feed the pulse to the chamber.In the
chamber pulses are sent in between a cast iron discs for pulverizing the dry grains intoflour. Depending
upon the size of the pulse, the clearance between the rotating disc and the stationary disc can be
adjusted with the help of a hand wheel provided outside the chamber

PROCEDURE
The burr mill is connected to the mains through a wattmeter. The power required (without load) is
noted by running the machine without load. Few grains of raw material are taken and the average size (Df)
is determined by screw gauge.
250 gram of given raw material is fed in the feed hopper and time required for pulverizing, power
required for pulverizing are simultaneously noted. The products are collected and the average size (Dp) is
determined by sieve analysis.

OBSERVATIONS
Time taken for 250 gms of feed = h
Feed rate (T) = kg/h
Power required without load (P1) = watts
Power required with load (P2) = watts
Power required for size reduction (p) = (P2-P1) watts
Particle size of feed material (Df) = mm

Average size of product (Dp) from sieve analysis.

33
CALCULATIONS:

34
RESULT:

1. The co-efficient of different laws of size reduction are :

Rittinger’s Coefficient (Kr)
Kick’s Coefficient (Kc)
Bond’s Coefficient (Kb)

35
 DETERMINATION OF ENERGY REQUIREMENT IN SIZE REDUCTION
USING THE BALL MILL AND HAMMER MILL

Ex. No: 8 Date:

AIM:

To determine the energy requirement in size reduction using the ball mill and hammer mill.

PROCEDURE:

Grinders: Ball Mill

A cylindrical shell slowly turning about its horizontal axis and filled about half of its volumewith
grinding medium.
The shell is usually steel line with carbon steel plate, porcelain, silica rock or rubber.
The grinding medium Is metal rods in rod mill. Lengths of chain or balls of metal, rubber or wood
in ballmill. Flint pebbles or porcelain or zircon spheres in a pebble mill.

36
Grinders: Hammer Mill
Contains high speed rotor.
Feed dropped into the top of casing is broken and fall out through the bottom opening.Particles
are broken by sets of swing hammer pinned to a rotor disk.
Particle enter into the casing cannot escape being struck by the hammers.
It shatters into pieces, which fly against stationary anvil plate and break into small pieces.
These in turn rubbed into powder by hammers and pushed through the grate or screen that
covers thedischarge opening.

PERFORMANCE EVALUATION:

1. POWER REQUIRED:

Dpa, Dpb-Initial and Final size of

ParticlesWi- Work Index

37
2. CAPACITY OF MILL:

4
CALCULATIONS:

4
4
RESULT:

Thus the energy required in size reduction using hammer mill and ball mill for wheat and rice given
below
Hammer mill
Rittinger’s Coefficient (Kr) =
Kick’s Coefficient (Kc) =
Bond’s Coefficient (Kb) =
Ball mill

Rittinger’s Coefficient (Kr) =

Kick’s Coefficient (Kc) =
Bond’s Coefficient (Kb) =

4
 DETERMINATION OF MIXING INDEX FOR SOLIDS

Ex.No: 09 Date:

Introduction
Assessing the extent of mixing is of great interest for both equipment manufacturers and food
powder processors. Mixing indices have been proposed to assess the extent of mixing. Mixing
indices intend to provide a measure of the performance of a piece of equipment (a blender) or a
process as related to ideal desired conditions. Considering some previously discussed aspects of the
mixing process, it can be gathered that food mixing is a complicated task not easily described by
mathematical modelling. Mixture quality results from several complex mechanisms operating in
parallel, which are hard to follow or to fit to a particular model. The scale and intensity of
segregation is defined as the quantities necessary to characterize a mixture. The scale of segregation
is a description of unmixed components, while the intensity of segregation is a measure of the
standard deviation of composition from the mean, taken over all points in the mixture. In practice,
it is difficult to determine these parameters, since they require concentration data from a large
number of points within the system. However, they provide a sound theoretical basis for assessing
mixture quality. Taking into account the complexity of components and interactions in food solids
mixing, it would be difficult to define a unique criterion to assess mixture quality. In fact, there over
30 criteria have been developed to express the degree of mixedness. A mixing endpoint or optimum
mixing time can also be considered as a very relative definition due to the segregating tendency of
food powder mixing.
The degree of uniformity of a mixed product may be measured by analysis of a number of
spot samples. Food powder mixers act on two or more separate materials to intermingle them. Once
a material is randomly distributed through another, mixing may be considered to be complete. Based
on that, the well-known statistical parameters of mean and standard deviation of component
concentration can be used to characterize the state of a mixture. If spot samples are taken at random
from a mixture and analyzed, the standard deviation of the analyses s about the average value of the
fraction of a specific powder is estimated by the following relation:
\[s =\sqrt{{{\sum\limits_{i=1}^N{\left({x_i -\bar x}\right)^2}}\over{N
1}}}\]..................................................................................................................(18.1)
4
 Where, xi is every measured value of fraction of one powder and N is the number of samples.
The standard deviation value on its own may be meaningless, unless it can be checked against
limiting values of either complete segregation s0 or complete randomization sr. The minimum
standard deviation attainable with any mixture is sr, which represents the best possible mixture.
Furthermore, if a mixture is stochastically ordered, sr would equal zero. Based on these limiting
values of standard deviations, Lacey (1954) defined a mixing index M1 as follows:
\[M_1={{s_0^2-s^2}\over{s_0^2-
s_r^2}}\]...............................................................................................................................................
...........................(18.2)
The numerator in Eq. (18.2) would be an indicator of how much mixing has occurred, while
the denominator would show how much mixing can occur. A Lancey mixing index M1 of zero
would represent complete segregation, and a value of unity would represent a completely random
mixture.Practical values of this mixing index, however, are found to lie in the range 0.75–1. Thus,
the Lancey mixing index does not provide sufficient discrimination between mixtures. In practice,
however, the values of s, even for a very poor mixture, lie much closer to sr than to s0. Poole et al.
(1964) suggested an alternative mixing index:
\[M_2={s\over{s_r}}\].........................................................................................................................
............................................................................(18.3)
Equation (18.3) clearly indicates that for efficient mixing or increasing randomization M2
would approach unity. The values of s0 and s can be determined theoretically. These values would
be dependent on the number of components and their size distributions. This index gives better
discrimination for practical mixtures and approaches unity for completely random mixtures.
Equations (18.2) and (18.3) can be used to calculate mixing indices defined by Eq. (18.1).
Inference:

4
DETERMINATION OF THERMAL EFFICIENCY AND ECONOMY OF ROTARY
FLASH EVAPORATOR FOR CONCENTRATION OF JUICE

Ex.No: 10 Date:

AIM:

To determine the thermal efficiency and economy of the given rotary flash evaporator for
concentration of juice.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Rotary flash evaporator, vacuum pump, condenser, thermometer, balance, stop watch and raw
material to be concentrated.

PRINCIPLE:

Evaporators are used to concentrate any solution by removing the volatile solvent present in it.
Normally the superheated steam is used as the heating source for evaporation. The water present in
the solution get vaporized due to heating and the vapor is condensed by the supplied cold water.
This condensed vapor is called condensate and the remaining solution becomes concentrated and
called as concentrate.
Thermal efficiency of an evaporator is the ratio of heat supplied to the heat utilized or the ratioof
theoretical heat required to the actual heat supplied. Economy is the amount of water evaporated per
unit heat input.

DESCRIPTION:

The functional components of a rotary flash evaporator are, rotary assembly, condenser, waterbath,
vacuum pump and control unit. In the rotary assembly a stainless-steel tube is rotated by a fractional
HP motor through a reduction gear box. At one end of the tube, a round bottomflask is fixed, which
has provision for easy removal and mounting and fixing on the other endof the stainless-steel tube.
A Teflon bush is provided to connect the condenser to the rotary assembly. A cold type condenser
4
is provided in the evaporator with inlet and outlet for the cooling water. At the bottom there is
provision for collecting the condensate in a flask. The rotary flask mouth is connected to a vacuum
pump to create vacuum in the concentrating zonethrough the condenser.

A water bath of 3.5 litre capacity made of stainless steel, provided with a thermostatically controlled
kettle element electric heater (1000 W) is used for supplying heat. This water bathis placed such
that the flask holding the solution is immersed partly by keeping it on the platform and revolving it.
Because of the vacuum created in the concentrating zone for the evaporation of water, the boiling
point is lowered. As the flask holding the solution for concentration is rotated slowly, the solution
is made in thin film on the inner surface of the flask for effective contact with the heat source.
Thermostat and speed regulator switches aremounted on the control panel which acts as platform
for the water bath.

PROCEDURE:

Prepare a solution of known concentration and quantity as raw material for the experiment. Transfer
the solution to the flask and weigh. Fill the water bath with water and know the quantity filled, start
heating after recording the initial temperatures of water bath and the solution. Set the thermostat for
a temperature of around 90°C. Note the time of starting the experiment. Start the vacuum pump to
create vacuum in the evaporating zone. Rotate the flask at very less speed withoutany vibration.
Circulate the cooling water for the condenser. After a considerable amount of the solution is
concentrated stop the experiment. Note the finaltemperature of the water bath and time.Now weigh
the water bath and the concentrate for further calculations.
Juice Extraction

On arrival at the sugar processing plant, sugarcane is loaded onto a conveyor table. It passes through
various sugar equipment including a shredder, which uses a series of knives to chop the cane into
smaller lengths and shred it into finer pieces. This process exposes the inner material of the
sugarcane and prepares it for efficient juice extraction. The shredded cane then proceeds to a crusher,
which uses a set of roller mills to extract the juice. A counter current stream of maceration water is
used to remove the juice from the crusher.

4
An alternative method of juice extraction is by diffusion; however, this typically is only employed
in regions where sugarcane quality is high. Although the efficiency of extraction is higher using
diffusion, the process uses large amounts of water, which adds to the cost of water treatment.

Clarification

Sugarcane juice from the extraction process contains many impurities. The juice is heated and
purified by the addition of flocculation aids and lime. Heat helps to kill natural enzymes in the juice,
which would otherwise break down the sucrose.

Lime is a suspension of calcium hydroxide in solution and increases the pH of the juice from its
natural acidic level to a neutral pH of 7.0. The control of pH is critical throughout sugar processing.
Sucrose hydrolyses to glucose and fructose at a pH less than 7.0 and all of these sugars decompose
substantially at a pH greater than 11.5.

The neutralized juice is pumped to a continuous clarifier where it is inoculated with flocculants.
Clear juice flows off the top part of the vessel, while flocculated impurities, called muds, settle at
the bottom.

Concentration

Clarified juice is processed through multiple-effect evaporators – which are often comprised of three
to five stages of evaporation to concentrate the juice. From a consistency of 10-15 percent sucrose,
the juice is concentrated to a syrup containing 55-59 percent sucrose.

40
Calculations :

40
RESULT:

The thermal efficiency and economy of the given evaporator with the given solution were studied.

40
 PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF A STEAM DISTILLATION PROCESS

Ex. No: 11 Date:

AIM:

To study the characteristics of steam distillation.

To determine the values of vaporization efficiency (hv) and thermal efficiency (ht) for steam distillation
of aniline

APPARATUS:

Distillation flask, steam generator, water cooled condenser, thermometer, separating funnel, specific
gravity bottle, measuring jar.

THEORY:

Steam distillation is the term applied to a batch of continuous distillation process with open steam. The
liquid is distilled by feeding open steam directly into the distillation still, so that the steam carries with
it the vapors of volatile liquid component and is then condensed to separate the liquid from water.
Steam distillation is possible only when,
1. The substance does not react with steam at the given conditions of temperature and pressure.

2. The substance is insoluble in water.

Steam distillation method is used for the separation of high-boiling substances from non-volatile
impurities or for the removal of very high-boiling volatile impurities from still higher-boiling
substances. The process has special value where it is desired to separate substances at temperature
lower

than their normal boiling points because of heat sensitivity or other reasons. The condensed organic
liquid and water do not miscible in each other. Therefore, partial pressure of each component is equal
tovapor by each liquid. If P is total pressure, PA and Pw are vapor pressure of organic liquid and
water respectively. Then P = PA + PW. For ambient distillation, P = 1 atm = 101.3 kpa. Therefore,
40
PA v/s T and (101.3 Pw) v/s T plots intersects and this point corresponds to distillation temperature.
Ms and Mw = Molecular weights of aniline.

40
4
4
4
Calculations:

4
RESULT

Thus, the thermal efficiency of a steam distillation

4
4