ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC AND PROFESSIONAL

PURPOSES

PARAGRAPH • Objective way of writing that is comprised of

• Defined as a group of related sentences in pieces of information from factual observations.
which one single, main idea is developed. • Examples are news and feature writings in a
• In a typical paragraph, the first sentence newspaper or even those which are published
declares the main topic of the paragraph and in the internet, and television broadcasts.
the rest of the sentences develop or support 3. TECHNICAL WRITING
the main idea, and the last sentence is known • Explains the slips or procedures in
as concluding sentence. accomplishing a task.
• It is mainly used in business and industry.
TWO (2) THINGS TO CONSIDER WHEN • Example: instructional manual, travel guide,
WRITING A PARAGRAPH questionnaire, lesson plan, job application,
1. GRAMMAR resume, and menus.
• Way in which words are put together to form 4. ACADEMIC WRITING
proper sentences. • Focuses on a specific discipline.
•Examples are subject-verb agreement, •Tied to specialized knowledge and
pronoun antecedent, tenses, punctuation terminologies or jargons.
marks, and spelling. • Examples are reviews, conference papers,
2. DICTION blog article, essays, and research papers such
• Choice and use of words. as theses and dissertations.
• Examples are beside or besides, lose or
loose, further or farther, and their or there. THREE (3) CRITICAL READING
STRATEGIES
FOUR (4) MAIN FORMS OF WRITING 1. BEFORE READING
1. CREATIVE WRITING A. Establish your purpose for reading.
• Way of writing that expresses the writer’s B. Determine which type of academic text you
thoughts and feelings in an imaginative, often are reading.
unique, and poetic way. C. Identify the author’s purpose for writing.
• Subjective in nature. D. Predict the main idea or argument.
• Examples are fictional writings such as short E. Check the publication date for relevance.
stories, personal journals or diaries, movie and The book should have been published at most
television scripts, plays, and the like. five years earlier than the current year.
2. JOURNALISTIC WRITING F. Check the reference list.

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2. DURING READING - Consider pronouns that fall under the third

Annotate important parts of the text. person point of view, such as he, she, it, hers,
A. Write key words or phrases on the margins him, her, them, they, their, theirs, and its
in bullet form. - Organized and coherent; such texts have
B. Write something on the page margin where well-structured introduction, body, and
important information is found. conclusion
C. Write concise notes on the margin. - Written in formal way, well-structured manner.
D. Write questions on information that you find Thus, they are well thought out and coherently
confusing. prepared, and where all the pieces of
E. Comment on the author’s biases. information come from credible sources
F. Underline important words, phrases, and - Examples are reviews, conference papers,
sentences. essays, and research papers, and the like
G. Underline or circle meanings or definitions.
H. Create a bank of technical or unfamiliar SIX (6) MEAT OF ACADEMIC TEXTS
words to be defined later. 1. State critical questions and issues.
I. Determine the main idea of the text. 2. Provide facts and evidence from credible
J. Identify the supporting arguments presented sources.
by the author and check their validity and 3. Use precise and accurate words.
relevance. 4. Take an objective point of view and avoid
K. Identify the findings. being personal and subjective.
5. List down references.
3. AFTER READING 6. Use hedging or cautious language to tone
A. Reflect on what you have learned or read. down their claims.
B. React on some parts of the texts through - Hedging is a linguistic device that is used to
writing. express hesitation or to tone down claims.
C. Discuss some pieces of information I got in - Examples of hedging words, seem, tend, look,
this following activity. like, appear to be, think, believe, doubt, be
D. Link the main idea of the text to what you sure, indicate, suggest, possibly, perhaps, and
have learned. sort of.
- Example of sentence, The implementation of
I. ACADEMIC TEXTS the policies on curfew appear to be beneficial
- Use formal and impersonal language to the whole community.
- Written by professionals
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II. NON-ACADEMIC TEXTS information on the place of the lesson in the

- Use casual, informal, and personal language book as well as the main topic discussed in a
- Written by anyone because these texts are to section.
be produced for the mass public B. Brief explanation of the contents of the
- May use any point of view chapter may also be presented in order to set
- Uses slangs the expectations of the readers.
- Organized as well C. Sidebar enumerates the specific questions
- Examples are memoirs, autobiographies, and to be answered in the section as well as their
diaries. sequence.
D. Picture serves as visual representation of
BOOK ANALYSIS the principles and applications tackled in the
Description, critical analysis, and an evaluation chapter.
on the quality, meaning, and significance of a 4. CONTENT
book, not a retelling. • Includes the book’s format such as the layout,
binding, and typography.
EIGHT (8) PARTS OF A BOOK ANALYSIS - How is the book organized?
1. INTRODUCTORY PART - How are the main ideas developed?
• Contains the book’s title, author, first Chronologically or topically arranged?
copyright, publication date, type of book, - Are there illustrations, pictures, or graphs?
general subject matter, special features, and Do they aid understanding?
price. 5. ASSESSMENT
2. UNIT OPENER • The content and the activities should be
• Introduction of the unit which allows you to congruent. They should be in harmony.
collect relevant information about its scope. - Do the activities measure all the things that
• Gives insight about the topics to be have been discussed?
discussed in each lesson. - Do the assessment tests correspond to the
3. CHAPTER OPENER objectives?
• Gives idea on what is to be discussed in the 6. SUMMARY
chapter. • Summarize briefly, analyze, and comment on
the book’s content.
FOUR (4) PARTS OF CHAPTER OPENER • State your general conclusions.
A. Heading is comprised of the chapter number • Pay particular attention to the author's
and chapter title. By looking at them, we gain concluding chapter.
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• List the principal topics, and briefly as clearly and impartially as possible. Its
summarize the author’s ideas about these primary purpose is to explain.
topics, main points, and conclusions. D. ARGUMENT
- Is the summary convincing? • Uses the techniques of persuasion to
7. LANGUAGE establish the truth of a statement or to
- List and explain at least five jargons from the convince the reader of its falsity. The purpose
book you will analyze. is to persuade the reader to believe something
- What are the specialized terminologies used? and perhaps to act on that belief.
- Did the author use jargons?
8. STYLE THESIS STATEMENT
- Is the book well-written? • Claim or stand that you will develop in your
- Does the author clearly articulate and answer paper.
questions raised in the book? • Tells you what the whole paper is about. The
- Is the book accessible to an intelligent reader topic sentence however, shows only what the
or only to a specialist? paragraph it is attached to is about.
• Acts as a road map for your readers,
FOUR (4) METHODS THAT SOME summarizes your position, and helps you to
AUTHORS TEND TO USE, EXCLUSIVELY organize your paper.
OR IN COMBINATION • Usually 1 to 2 sentences long and should be
A. DESCRIPTION the last sentence of your introduction.
• Presents word-pictures of scenes and events - There is only 1 thesis statement. There is one
by giving specific details that appeal to the 5 topic sentence for each body paragraph you
senses or to the reader’s imagination. write
B. NARRATION - You are not necessarily proving that your
• Tells the story of a series of events, usually thesis statement is right, hence you are
presented in chronological order. The proving that it is valid and believable- There is
emphasis in narration, in both fiction and non- only 1 thesis statement. There is one topic
fiction, is on the events. sentence for each body paragraph you write
C. EXPOSITION - Must be supportable, original, arguable, and
• Uses explanation and analysis to present a precise.
subject or to clarify an idea. Exposition - We write thesis statement to test your ideas
presents the facts about a subject or an issue by narrowing them into a sentence, to better
organize and develop your argument, and to
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provide your reader with a guide to your 3. A THESIS STATEMENT IS A MAIN IDEA,
argument NOT A TITLE.
- Must avoid the first person like I believe, in
my opinion, etc., attempting two topics at once TITLE:
even if they seem related, and by just stating a The effect of the internet on society.
fact THESIS STATEMENT:
Continuing advances on the internet are
FIVE (5) GENERAL RULES OF THESIS having a great impact upon communication in
STATEMENT modern society.
1. A THESIS STATEMENT MAKES AN
ASSERTION; IT IS NOT A SIMPLE 4. A THESIS STATEMENT NARROWS THE
STATEMENT OR OBSERVATION. TOPIC.

FACT OR OBSERVATION: BROAD:

More people are attending community colleges. The American automobile industry has many
THESIS STATEMENT: problems.
Community colleges are attracting more NARROW:
students because they offer job training The primary problem facing the American
programs as well as academic course of study. automobile industry is competition from foreign
automakers.
2. A THESIS TAKES A STAND; IT DOES NOT
MAKE AN ANNOUNCEMENT. 5. A THESIS STATEMENT IS SPECIFIC.

ANNOUNCEMENT: VAGUE:
The thesis of this paper is the difficulty of John D. MacDonald’s stories are very good.
solving the environmental problems of the SPECIFIC:
Pampanga river. John D. MacDonald’s stories advanced the
THESIS STATEMENT: thriller genre by employing intelligent dialog,
Solving the environmental problems of the introducing environmental and economic
Pampanga river will prove more difficult than concerns, and delving into moral issues.
many people believe.

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FORMULA IN WRITING THESIS • Short account of the central ideas of a text.

STATEMENT • Summarized text is longer to shorter text.
CLAIM (your position) + REASON (evidence) • Not a place for opinions, background
= THESIS STATEMENT knowledge, and personal information.
• Must only include major ideas and necessary
1. CHOOSE A TOPIC information.
- Whether people should study foreign
languages MAIN IDEA AND KEY POINTS
2. CHOOSE YOUR POSITION OR CLAIM 1. MAIN IDEA
AND YOUR EVIDENCE OR POSITION • Tells what the text is about.
- People should study foreign languages 2. KEY POINTS
(CLAIM). • Arguments or pieces of information that are
- Studying foreign language is proven to make used to support the main idea.
you smarter (REASON).
ELEVEN (11) GUIDELINES IN
CLAIM (People should study foreign SUMMARIZING A TEXT
languages) + REASON (because it makes 1. Read the text and understand its learning.
you smarter) = T.S. 2. Locate the main idea of the text.
3. All of the points that may be deemed
3. MAKE YOUR THESIS STATEMENT unfamiliar by the readers should be explained
STRONGER USING THREE-POINT THESIS in your summary.
STATEMENT 4. Ensure a smooth flow of ideas by using
- People should study foreign languages appropriate transitional devices.
because learning strengthens the memory, 5. Limit your summary to only few sentences.
widens the vocabulary, and builds appreciation Refrain from adding comments about the text.
for foreign cultures. Stick to the ideas if presents.
6. Draft your output. Edit it by eliminating
SUMMARIZING redundant ideas.
• Deepens your understanding, identify 7. Avoid looking at the source while
relevant information, and put together the key summarizing.
points of a text clearly and concisely. 8. Write summary using your own words.
9. Summarize in at least 8 to 10 sentences.
SUMMARY
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10. Do not express your opinion about the 4. TO SHOW EXCEPTION

source of you disagree nor praise it. Example: - Yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of,
“To me, the most interesting...”, and “I was despite, of course, once in a while, sometimes
surprised to learn that...” 5. TO SHOW TIME
11. Do not open the summary with “In this - Immediately, thereafter, soon, after a few
article, it says...,” “This video is about...,” “This hours, finally, then, later, previously, formerly,
chapter discussed...,” and “I am going to tell first (second, etc.), next, then
you about...” 6. TO REPEAT
- In brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as
TRANSITIONAL DEVICES has been noted
Words or phrases that help carry a thought 7. TO EMPHASIZE
from 1 sentence to another, from 1 idea to - Definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact,
another, or from 1 paragraph to another indeed, in any case, absolutely, positively,
naturally, surprisingly, always, forever,
TEN (10) EXAMPLES OF TRANSITIONAL perennially, eternally, never, emphatically,
DEVICES unquestionably, without a doubt, certainly,
1. TO ADD undeniably, without reservation
- And, again, and then, besides, equally 8. TO SHOW SEQUENCE
important, finally, further, furthermore, nor, too, - First (second, third, etc.), a (b, c, etc.), next,
next, lastly, what’s more, moreover, in addition, then, following this, at this time, now, at this
first (second, etc.) point, after, afterward, subsequently, finally,
2. TO COMPARE consequently, previously, before this,
- Whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, simultaneously, concurrently, thus, therefore,
however, nevertheless, on the contrary, by hence, next, and then, soon
comparison, where, compared to, up against, 9. TO GIVE AN EXAMPLE
balanced against, vis a vis, but, although, - For example, for instance, in this case, in
conversely, meanwhile, after all, in contrast, another case, on this occasion, in this situation,
although this may be true take the case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate,
3. TO PROVE as an illustration, to illustrate
- Because, for, since, for the same reason, 10. TO SUMMARIZE OR CONCLUDE
obviously, evidently, furthermore, moreover, - In brief, on the whole, summing up, to
besides, indeed, in fact, in addition, in any conclude, in conclusion, as I have shown, as I
case, that is have said, hence,
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therefore, accordingly, thus, as a result, 3. Write in your own words that you understood
consequently about the ideas in the text
4. Check the meaning, remember, your
PARAPHRASING paraphrase should have the same meaning as
• Not a word-for-word repetition of what the the original text
speaker has said, nor do you need to 5. Check your sentence structure, it should be
summarize the content of each phrase or different from the original text
minor detail because it involves putting a 6. Compare your output to the original text to
passage from source material into your own ensure its accuracy and remove redundant
words. ideas
• Verbal summary of the ideas of your partner’s 7. Record the details of the original source,
message that helps you check the accuracy of which are the author’s name, date of
your understanding. publication, title, publisher, place of publishing,
• To paraphrase is to rewrite something using and URL, if online
different words without changing the original 8. Format your paraphrase properly
meaning.
• The paraphrase should be clearer and more ASSESS YOUR PARAPHRASE
easily understood than the original and is often - The meaning is the same
about the same length. - Most of the words have been changed
• Demonstrates to the reader that you - The sentence has been significantly restricted
understand what you’ve read, exhibits control - This is about the same length as the original
over the content, and preferred approach to writing
using sources in American - The information is correctly referenced

Psychological Association (APA) papers FACT, OPINION, AND INCORRECT

• Paraphrased text can be longer to shorter, INFORMATION
shorter to longer, or same length. 1. FACT
• Specific detail that can be proven as true
EIGHT (8) GUIDELINES IN PARAPHRASING based on objective evidence.
A TEXT • Example is San Fernando, Pampanga,
1. Read the text and understand its meaning Philippines is known as the Christmas Capital
2. Highlight the key words or main ideas of the of the Philippines.
text 2. OPINION
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• Feeling, judgment, belief, or conclusion that Exercise is the only sure way to lose weight.
cannot be proven true by objective evidence. Explanation: The word “only” is a qualifier and
• Example is San Fernando, Pampanga, makes this statement an opinion.
Philippines is the most colorful place during
December. NOTE 3: THINK CAREFULLY ABOUT
3. OBJECTIVE PROOF SUPPOSED FACTS
• Can be 1 or more of the following, physical
evidence, an eyewitness account, or the result - Beware of opinions stated to sounds like facts.
of an accepted scientific method. - Phrases like “in truth,” “the truth of the matter,”
or “in fact” are examples.
NOTE 1: BIASED WORDS TO IDENTIFY EXAMPLE:
OPINIONS In truth, the earliest humans lived at the same
- Look for biased words. They express time as dinosaurs.
opinions, value judgments and interpretations Explanation: Fossil records and scientific
and are often loaded with emotion. research have proved this to be a false fact.
- Sentence can include both facts and opinions.
EVALUATE THE CONTEXT OF THE
BIASED WORDS AUTHOR
• Words and phrases that are considered 1. INFORMED OPINION
prejudiced, offensive, and hurtful. Developed by gathering and analyzing
• Examples are awful, amazing, better, best, evidence.
bad, beautiful, believe, disgusting, exciting, EXAMPLES:
favorite, frightful, fun, horrible, miserable, A. Shopping around for a car
never, probably, think, smart B. Researching an essay for a college class
2. EXPERT OPINION
NOTE 2: QUALIFIERS TO IDENTIFY Developed through much training and
OPINIONS extensive knowledge in a given field.
- Beware of false facts, or statements EXAMPLES:
presented as facts that are actually untrue. A. Doctor’s diagnosis of an illness
- Qualifier may express an absolute, B. Economics professor’s lecture on the
unwavering opinion using words like always or economy
never.
EXAMPLE:
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THREE (3) GOOD FACTUAL SOURCES FALLACY

1. Medical dictionary • Derived from the Latin word “FALLERE”
2. English handbook meaning “to deceive, to trip, to lead into error
3. World atlas or to trick” and Greek word “PHELOS”
meaning “deceitful.”
FALLACIES IN REASONING • Error of reasoning.
SOUND REASONING • Flawed statements that often sound true.
Used every day. In fact, we make decisions
and judgments based on sound reasoning FOURTEEN (14) FALLACIES IN
even in the most insignificant thing we do REASONING
every day. 1. BANDWAGON
• Urged to do or believe something because
TWO (2) KNOWN TYPES OF REASONING everyone else does it.
1. DEDUCTIVE REASONING EXAMPLE:
• Top- down logic. Everyone’s ousting Alvarez for that position,
• Begins with a premise that is valid to why not join us?
reinforce or develop a right and official 2. HASTY GENERALIZATION
conclusion. • Reaching a conclusion without enough
EXAMPLE: pieces of evidence or further studies.
All living things need water to survive. Man is a EXAMPLE:
living organism. Therefore, he needs water. The last two mass murderers were from Tondo.
2. INDUCTIVE REASONING Obviously, people from Tondo are dangerous.
• Bottom- up logic. 3. RED HERRING
• Begins with specifics and ends with • Distracting opponent to the real issue and
generalizations. leading them to an irrelevant issue.
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
You are a basketball player and you are tall; The issue is Binay’s running for presidency,
therefore, all basketball players are tall. there comes out the issue on Makati.
4. EITHER-OR REASONING
LOGICAL FALLACY • Presenting two alternatives and act as if there
• Often used to strengthen an argument, but if is no choice.
the reader detects them the argument can EXAMPLE:
backfire and damage the writer’s credibility.
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You are either part of the solution or part of the 10. CIRCULAR ARGUMENTS OR PETITIO
problem. PRINCIPII
5. ATTACK ON PERSON OR AD HOMINEM • This fallacy is a kind of presumptuous
• Attack the person instead of the issue. argument where it only appears to be an
EXAMPLE: argument.
Barron Geisler is really a mess. He never did EXAMPLE:
anything right. Abstract art isn’t even art. Those pictures and
6. APPEAL TO IGNORANCE OR sculptures don’t represent anything, and that’s
ARGUMENTUM AD IGNORANTIAM how you know it’s not even art.
• Ignorance isn’t proof of anything except that 11. TU QUOQUE OR APPEAL TO
one doesn’t know something. HYPOCRISY
EXAMPLE: • Latin for “you too.”
Since there is no proof that aliens do really • Also called the appeal to hypocrisy because it
exist, maybe they don’t really exist. distracts from the argument by pointing out
7. STRAW MAN hypocrisy in the opponent.
• Fallacy of distraction, an irrelevant conclusion. EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE: Maybe I committed a little adultery, but so did
How could he possibly cheat on his taxes? you Jason!
He’s such a great father! 12. CAUSAL FALLACY
8. APPEALS TO PITY OR ARGUMENTUM • Any logical breakdown when identifying a
AD MISERICORDIAM cause.
• Appealing to someone’s emotions in order to
distract them from the truth. THREE (3) TYPES OF CASUAL FALLACY
EXAMPLE: A. FALSE CAUSE OR NON-CAUSA PRO
I think it is not right to send away the Badjaos. I CAUSA
just feel bad about sending poor people away. • Not the cause for a cause.
9. NON SEQUITUR • When you conclude about a cause without
• Conclusion doesn’t logically follow the enough evidence to do so.
premise. EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE: Your name is Athena. Maybe your mother is a
Men are human. Mary is human. Therefore, mythology teacher.
Mary is a man. B. POST HOC ERGO PROPTER HOC OR
POST HOC
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• After this, therefore because of this. CRITICAL APPROACHES TO LITERATURE

• When you mistake something for the cause Literary theory acts as different lenses critics
just because it came first. use to write and talk about art, literature, and
EXAMPLE: even culture. These different lenses allow
I had a bad day. Maybe it is because it’s Friday critics to consider works of art based on certain
the 13th today. assumptions. Those assumptions come from
C. CORRELATIONAL FALLACY OR CUM the theories and decide what particular aspects
HOC ERGO PROPTER HOC of a work are important.
• With this therefore because of this.
• When mistakenly interpret two things found LITERARY CRITICISM
together as being causally related. • Study, analysis, and evaluation of imaginative
EXAMPLE: literature.
I always see Michael and Aira together. Maybe • Field of study that provides a deeper
they have a romantic relationship. understanding of a text and looking at a story
from different perspectives often results in
13. APPEAL TO AUTHORITY OR discovering new and intriguing things.
ARGUMENTUM AD VERECUNDIAM
• Argument from respect. TEN (10) CRITICAL APPROACHES
• Happens when we misuse an authority 1. HISTORICAL APPROACH
whether he be reliable or not. • Investigates the social, cultural, and
EXAMPLE: intellectual context that produced it.
Michael Jordan says Nike shoes are good. I’m • Seeks to understand the impact of work in its
going to wear one. day, and it may also explore how meanings
14. ARGUMENT TO PEOPLE OR AD change over time.
POPULUM • Explores how time and place of creation
• Attempt to win popular assent to a conclusion affect meaning in the work.
by arousing the emotions and enthusiasms of 2. BIOGRAPHICAL APPROACH
the multitude rather than by appeal to the facts. • Real life experiences can help shape an
EXAMPLE: author's work.
This country has been run too long by old, out • Understanding an author's life can help us
of date entrenched politicians protecting the better understand the work.
special interest that got them elected. • Facts from the author's life are used to help
the reader better understand the work; the
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focus is always on the literary work under • Use of language is influenced by social class
investigation. and
3. FORMALISTIC APPROACH economics.
• Believes that literature is a form of knowledge • Used to describe the competing
with intrinsic elements - style, structure, socioeconomic interests that advance
imagery, tone, and genre. capitalistic interest over socialist interest,
• Examines plot, characterization, dialogue, content and theme rather than form.
point of view, setting, and style to show how 7. PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH
these elements contribute to the theme or unity • Holds the belief that great literature truthfully
of the literary work. reflects life and is realistic representation of
4. FEMINISM APPROACH human motivation and behavior.
• Tries to correct predominantly male • Takes into account dreams, subconscious
dominated critical perspective with a feminist desires and sexual repression.
consciousness. 8. QUEER THEORY APPROACH OR
• Attempts to understand representation from a GENDER STUDIES
woman's point of view and analyze women's • Recent school of criticism which questions
writing strategies in the context of their social and problematizes the issues of gender identity
conditions. and sexual orientation in literary texts.
5. ARCHETYPAL APPROACH • Gender is not a fixed identity that shapes
• Studies recurrent universal patterns actions and thoughts but rather a role that is
underlying most literary works. performed.
• Assumes that human beings all over the 9. PHILOSOPHICAL APPROACH
world have basic experiences in common and • Acknowledges that literature can have
have developed similar stories, characters, and positive effects on people by increasing their
symbols to express these experiences. compassion and moral sensitivity, but it can
• Based on the theories of psychologist Carl have negative effects on people.
Jung, he states that mankind possesses a 10. READER-RESPONSE APPROACH
collective unconscious that contains these • No text is self-contained, independent of a
archetypes and that is common to all humanity. reader's interpretive design.
6. MARXIST APPROACH • Attempts to describe the internal workings of
• Strongly politically-oriented criticism, deriving the reader's mental processes.
from the theories of the social philosopher Karl
Marx.
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