UNIT 12 PRE-ISLAMIC ARAB WORLD AND

ITS CULTURE*
Structure
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Tribal Confederations in Arabia
12.2.1 The Dominant Tribes of The Arabian Peninsula
12.2.2 Religious Diversity in The Arabian Peninsula

12.3 Tribal and Religious Practices

12.3.1 Religious and Ritual Practices of The Meccans
12.3.2 Religious and Ritual Practices at Medina

12.4 The Arab Trading Network before the 6th Century

12.5 Political Structure in Pre-Islamic Arabia
12.6 Social Structures in Pre-Islamic Arabia
12.6.1 Tribal Structure and Leadership
12.6.2 Inequality and Slavery
12.6.3 The Elite Camel Nomads
12.6.4 Intra-Tribal Warfare

12.7 Economic Conditions

12.7.1 Camel Nomadism
12.7.2 Agriculture in Arabia
12.7.3 Industry and Mining in Arabia

12.8 Literature of the Pre-Islamic Period

12.9 Summary
12.10 Keywords
12.11 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
12.12 Suggested Readings
12.13 Instructional Video Recommendations

12.0 OBJECTIVES
The study of pre-Islamic Arabia is an important area of study in order to understand the
history of the region in which Islam developed. After going through this unit, you will:
z be able to understand the geographical context of Arabia, and the manner in which
the geographical factors impacted the political, social, economic, and cultural life
of the region,
z know about various tribes and religious groups of pre-Islamic Arabia, and their
religious rituals and practices, and
z understand the socio-political and economic structures of pre-Islamic Arabia.
* Dr. Chandni Sengupta, Amity University, Gurugram, Haryana 235
Societies
Roman Republic
in Central
Islamic Lands 12.1 INTRODUCTION
Arabia is a large peninsula1. In Arabic it is known as jazirat al-arab (the island of the
Arabs). Arabia is surrounded by the Red Sea in the west, the Arabian Sea in the south,
and the Persian Gulf in the east. The peninsula is comprised of the modern states of
Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Oman, Yemen and Saudi Arabia. There
is very little regular rainfall in the area. Brief spells of rainfall occur in winters and in the
spring season. There are no permanent rivers in Arabia, but there are a number of
oases2 formed by springs and wells.
The region was inhabited by nomadic pastoralists who called themselves Arabs. For
centuries, the inhabitants of the central, northern and western Arabia had led a nomadic
existence. The domestication and introduction of the camel had facilitated the evolution
of a specific kind of pastoral nomadism based on camel rearing. There were a number
of tribes, and no state formation had taken place prior to the advent of Islam in the
region. The Arabs were divided into tribes which were made up of various clans. They
were heavily dependent on the camel for mobility as well as for conducting trade,
cultivation of some food grains, and on the date palm as a source of food as well as a
means of livelihood.
In this Unit, we propose to introduce you to various facets of pre-Islamic Arabia, with
special focus on tribal settlements and patterns, religious practices, trade networks,
social structures, economic conditions, and political formations. In order to comprehend
the complex nature of Arab society in pre-Islamic times, all factors which contributed
to the development of the Arabian Peninsula as a composite whole have been dealt
with in this Unit.

Map 12.1: Arabian Peninsula

Credit: Pharos; October, 2007
based on PD Image:BlankMap-World.png by User:Vardion
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/
Arabian_peninsula_definition.PNG

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1
A peninsula is a piece of land which is bordered by water bodies on three sides.
2
Oasis is a water body in the midst of a desert.
 Pre-Islamic
Roman
Arab Empire:
World
12.2 TRIBAL CONFEDERATIONS IN ARABIA Political
and Its Culture
System
The people residing in Arabian Peninsula were known in Greek as Sarakenoi, in Latin
they were called Saraceni and they had previously been called Scenite Arabs or the
Arabs who dwell in tents. The camel nomads of Arabia, however, liked to call themselves
simplyArabs. However, the pre-Islamic Arabian Peninsula was full of tribal and religious
diversities.

12.2.1 The Dominant Tribes of the Arabian Peninsula

In Mecca, during the fifth century, the Quraysh, an alliance of various tribal groups,
became the dominant tribal confederacy. The Quraysh were a united religious cult.
They governed Mecca through a council of clans called mala. The Quraysh further
defined their identity by codes of diet, dress, domestic taboos, and endogamous
marriages within the Quraysh confederation. The Quraysh were active in local fairs and
regional trade. There was a high degree of internal cohesion within the Quraysh. In
addition to trade and business, the Quraysh invested in agriculture. Evidence of Quraysh
involvement in agriculture comes from the town of Taif — the town where fruits were
grown and supplied to the rest of Arabia. Quraysh entrepreneurs developed large estates
in the valleys of Taif before the advent of Islam.

Map 12.2: Tribes of Arabia, c. 600 CE

Credit: murraythebãæÑí; May 2009
Source: Adapted from File:Tribes_english.png;https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/3/30/Map_of_Arabia_600_AD.svg

In Medina, the most prominent tribes were Aws and Khazraj. The Jewish tribes were
dominant in Medina, and Aws and Kharaj came to settle in Medina at a later stage.
When they came to settle in Medina, their position in comparison to the Jewish tribes
was weak. Gradually, they gained strength, built fortresses and planted date orchards.
These two tribes later came to be known under Islam as al-ansar or the helpers.
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Societies
Roman Republic
in Central 12.2.2 Religious Diversity in the Arabian Peninsula
Islamic Lands
The Arabian Peninsula was not only a land of the Bedouin Arabs. Many other religious
groups were settled there, and played an important role in the political, economic and
social life of the region.
In northern Arabia, the major Jewish settlements were Khaybar and Medina. Jewish
tribes in Medina were rich in land, fortresses and weapons. Christianity was established
in northern Arabia in the fifth century. In southern Arabia, Judaism was established in
the fourth and fifth centuries, and Christianity was established in the 6th century by
intensive Byzantine missionary activity. The Abyssinians had invaded southern Arabia
and left Christian settlements in the small oases of Yemen.
Christian churches were also active in eastern Arabia in the Sasanian sphere of influence,
especially at al-Hira. Christianity was also represented by merchants who travelled in
Arabian caravans from Najran in southern Arabia to Busra in Syria. Even in the Hejaz/
Hijaz, there were Christian and Jewish settlers. Judaism was widespread in the oases
of the Hejaz/Hijaz, where the Jews had greatly increased the area of land under cultivation
and made numerous palm plantations. Some important Arab families had converted to
Judaism.
Medina had a large Jewish population. Christianity and to a lesser extent Judaism had
penetrated several nomadic tribes. The Jewish population of Medina was spread in
both the region of Lower Medina or Safila in the north as well as Upper Medina or
Aliya in the south. The Jewish tribes of Qurayza and Nadir are said to have inhabited
the Upper Medina, while a third large tribe, the Qaynuqa lived in the Safila. But the
Nadir tribe owned estates outside Aliya and on its fringes as well.
Many names, religious terms and historical references also indicate Iraqi Aramaic
influences in pre-Islamic Arabia. In the border regions of northern Arabia, Syrian and
Iraqi holy saints and ascetics were worshipped.
Check Your Progress-1
1) Analyze the nature of the Quraysh tribe.
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2) Write a note on the dominant tribes in Medina.
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3) Tick mark (9/ ×) against the true and false statements:
i) Christianity was also represented by merchants who travelled in Arabian
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 caravans from Najran in southern Arabia to Busra in Syria. ( ) Pre-Islamic
Roman
Arab Empire:
World
Political
and Its Culture
System
ii) Medina had a large Jewish population. ( )
iii) The Jewish tribes of Qurayza and Nadir are said to have inhabited the
Lower Medina. ( )

12.3 TRIBAL AND RELIGIOUS PRACTICES

Pre-Islamic tribals of Mecca and Medina were largely idol worshippers. However, in
broader details there were differences in the religious traditions of the Meccans to that
of the Medina.

12.3.1 Religious and Ritual Practices of the Meccans

The pre-Islamic Arabs were idol worshippers. They were polytheists, i.e. they believed
in the existence of many gods, but they also believed in one supreme God called Allah
whose house was in the Kaaba. Allah was considered to be the supreme God or the
God Creator who is supposed to have exercised his power over all other tribal deities.
Since the people of Mecca were idol worshippers, they created idols of every shape
and size. The most common deity was the household idol. The great God of Mecca
was Hubal, an idol made of red carnelian.
The early pilgrimage (Hajj) to the House of Allah or Ka’aba (Arabic for cube), a
rectangular building, was the most predominant ritual which helped in maintaining solidarity
among the tribes of Mecca. In the Kaaba were gathered the sacred tokens of all the
clans of Mecca. It thus merged their several cults into one. A number of more active
divinities seem to have received special honour at Mecca, notably three goddesses —
al-Lat, al-Uzza and al-Manat. Al-Lat meant ‘goddess’, al-Uzza meant ‘all-powerful’
and considered to be goddess of might and protection and al-Manat meant the ‘goddess
of fate.’ Their idols were kept inside the Kaaba. Worshippers honoured the Kaaba by
circling it a fixed number of times on foot and touching the sacred stones built into it,
particularly the Black Stone in one corner. Near the Kaaba was a sacred well called
Zamzam.

Figure 12.1: The Arabian Goddess Al-Lat standing on a lion flanked by Al-Manat and Al-Uzza
2nd Century Relief from Hatra.
Credit: Unknown
Source: http://artyx.ru/books/item/f00/s00/z0000023/st004.shtml; https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/c/c8/AllatHatra.jpg 239
Societies
Roman Republic
in Central The Meccans also believed in the existence of minor spirits or jinns that were often
Islamic Lands considered to be protectors of particular tribes. Each of these spirits was associated
with a shrine in some given locality, a tree or a grove or even a rock formation. Stars
were also considered to be divine.

12.3.2 Religious and Ritual Practices at Medina

Like in Mecca, in Medina too idols were associated with various levels of tribal
organization. Here also, the household idols were the most common form of idol worship.
Above the household idols were the idols that belonged to the noblemen. Every nobleman
in Medina owned an idol that had a name of its own. In addition to this, smaller tribal
groups, had idols which also had names.
The idols belonging to smaller tribal groups were called batns. These idols were kept in
sanctuaries called bayt. Sacrifices were offered to them. Above the batns in the tribal
system of Medina was an idol called Huzam. Sacrifices were also offered to Huzam.
The Khazraj tribe worshipped the idol of al-Khamis. The Azd, Aws and Khazraj
worshipped the idol of al-Saida which was located on Mount Uhud, north of Medina.
Magical practices and superstitions were common in Medina. People feared the evil
eye and protected themselves with amulets.
Check Your Progress-2
1) Critically analyze the religious practices of the people of Mecca.
.....................................................................................................................
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2) Write five lines on the religious and ritual practices of tribes of Medina.
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3) Match the following:
i) Hubal a) Goddess of Fate
ii) Huzam b) God of Mecca
iii) Al-Mannat c) Medina

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 Pre-Islamic
Roman
Arab Empire:
World
12.4 THE ARAB TRADING NETWORK BEFORE Political
and Its Culture
System
THE 6TH CENTURY
The most important trading centre of western and central Arabia was Mecca in the
Hejaz/Hijaz. Mecca was a strategic point because it was at the centre of two trade
routes: the route running from north to south, linking Palestine to Yemen, and the route
connecting Ethiopia and the Red Sea in the west with the Persian Gulf in the east. The
Quraysh tribe of Mecca in the mid-sixth century came to dominate the trade linking
north-eastern Arabia with Yemen or with Abyssinia by sea. They came to dominate not
only long distance trade but also internal trade.
Trade also linked Arabia with the wider world. Merchants brought textiles, jewellery,
weapons, grain, and wine into Arabia. Arabia exported hides, leather and animals.
Arabian markets intersected with Indian Ocean commerce on the east and south coasts.
The caravans provided a link between the civilized parts of southern Arabia and the
Fertile Crescent. Apart from their own produce, the caravans carried goods in transit
from India, East Africa and the Far East on the one hand, and on the other from all over
the Mediterranean world. The Bedouins had complete control over all that passed
through their territories.
During the 6th century, there was a gradual change taking place in Arabia as far as the
main occupation of the Arabs is concerned. Some of the tribes began to opt for trade
as their main occupation. These tribes gradually gave up nomadic pastoralism and became
full-time trading communities. The shift to trade was most prominent in the province of
Hijaz of which Mecca was a part. Due to the dislocation of the international trade route
passing through the Persian Gulf and Iraq, caused by the Sassanid-Byzantine conflict,
some of the trade began to be diverted through the Red Sea or overland from Yemen to
Syria. As a result of this, many caravans began to travel through Hijaz, and over a
period of time, the Hijaz route acquired greater significance. It was due to the prominent
position acquired by Hijaz on account of the restructuring of the trade links that Mecca,
which was a settlement of traders in Hijaz, rose to prominence in the sixth century.

12.5 POLITICAL STRUCTURE IN PRE-ISLAMIC

ARABIA
In practice, the Arabs were not bound by any written code of law, and there was no
state structure which could enforce its statutes. There were no authoritarian political
forms. Individual prestige and close lineage loyalties mattered the most.
The tribal chief provided leadership in fighting, served as an arbitrator of disputes, and
in many cases was also the custodian of the groups’ sacred symbols. However, the
chief had no authority to force the acceptance of his position upon any family or clan.
Every man was free to break his ties with the clan, and depart at any given time with his
family.
There was no common court of justice. In the absence of any legal authority, inter-
group restraint was maintained by the principle of the retaliatory blood-feud, i.e. an
injury by an outsider to any member of a group was regarded as crime committed
against the entire group and the enmity was considered against the whole group to
which the outsider belonged. The injured group’s honour required that it must avenge
the dishonor. The norm was normally an eye for an eye, a life for a life.

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Societies
Roman Republic
in Central
Islamic Lands 12.6 SOCIAL STRUCTURES IN PRE-ISLAMIC
ARABIA
The pre-Islamic Arabia was pre-dominantly a pastoral-nomadic tribal society. Let us
learn the internal workings of these clan based tribal groups.

12.6.1 Tribal Structure and Leadership

Arabic society was tribal and included nomadic, semi-nomadic and settled populations.
The Bedouins developed their distinctive type of social organization. They were constantly
on the move. The Bedouin lifestyle became a typical feature of Arabia. There were very
few communities which led a settled life.
The basic units were small groups, which might be called clans or extended families. A
tribe called qabila was made up of few clans which acknowledged some kind of kinship.
Marshall Hodgson calls the larger groups as tribes and the smaller groups as clans.
Each tribe had its ancestor, either real or imaginary. Due to arid climatic conditions,
large concentrations of population could not be supported. As clans grew larger, they
moved away to form independent units of their own. This helped in maintaining a
proportionate size of each tribe. The equality among the Bedouins was reinforced by
their tribal organization. Each member of a tribe was equal to any other.
There was a system of hereditary economic and social solidarity among smaller or
larger groups of families. Families were associated in larger groups for general economic
purposes, and these in turn in still larger ones for political strength. Groups at every
levels possessed internal autonomy. At every level, these groups defined themselves in
terms of a real or fictive common descent. Each larger group possessed its own pasturing
grounds and defended its grazing rights in their own areas, and attempted to better its
position at the expense of others.
Each tribal group elected a leader or chief. He was chosen partly due to his family
descent and partly due to his personal wisdom, but his authority depended strictly on
his personal prestige, and he had to be constantly on an alert to maintain this.
Consequently, he had to show many qualities — to retain his followers by his kindness
and generosity, to display moderation in all circumstances, generally to fall in line with
the unspoken will of those he governed and yet assert his own valour and authority.

12.6.2 Inequality and Slavery

All clans were not equal. Some had grown rich by plunder, trade or by preying on the
settled tribes or even on other nomads. From time to time, individuals belonging to
different clans even built up private fortunes. Their society was, therefore, divided
between the rich and the poor. A number of tribes or clans, such as the tribes of smiths,
were looked down upon by the rest as inferior.
Members of some of the wealthy clans even used their wealth to purchase and keep
slaves. However, the conditions of a nomadic life were not suitable for the institution of
slavery, therefore, slaves were often freed. The freed slaves or mawla remained the
dependents of their previous masters.

12.6.3 The Elite Camel Nomads

In the more arid parts of Arabia, the Bedouins or camel nomads were considered to be
among the elites. In addition to their camels, they often had horses which they used for
raiding purposes. Sheep and goat herders also inhabited the area, however, they had to
242
stay near agricultural lands and therefore they were at the mercy of those who were Pre-Islamic
Roman
Arab Empire:
World
more mobile than them. The pure camel herders were more mobile and resourceful Political
and Its Culture
System
than either the agriculturists or the other pastoralists. They boasted of superior status
than the other tribals of the area. The Bedouin nomads used to demand a form of
tribute called khuwwa from the agriculturalists in return for protection and assurance
against plunder.

12.6.4 Intra-Tribal Warfare

The relations between the tribes could have been peaceful but due to conditions of
poverty, there was a strong temptation to acquire the wealth of those who were richer.
Many tribes, therefore, engaged in ghazwa or raids on other tribes. The rules of these
raids were laid down by tradition. An attempt was made to seize goods and cattle
without the loss of life, because man slaughter was not encouraged and carried with it
severe penalties.
Check Your Progress-3
1) Define the following:
i) Qabila
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ii) Mawla
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iii) Ghazwa
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2) Evaluate the role of the tribal chief in the pre-Islamic Arabia.
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12.7 ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

Bedouins were largely camel herders; along the oases sedentary communities lived and
involved in the agricultural activities; while to a limited extent Arabs were also involved
in the mining activities.

12.7.1 Camel Nomadism

Since most of the peninsula was a desert, the natural way of life was nomadic and
pastoral. During the second millennium, before the Christian era, the inhabitants of
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Societies
Roman Republic
in Central these regions domesticated the camel, a creature ideally suited to the desert. Once
Islamic Lands camel nomadism had developed, it carried with it potentialities of a major social force.
Camels allowed their herders greater mobility than other pastoral animals. Camels were
able to endure longer than other animals without food and even water, and so to travel
farther between places without water. Camels could, in fact, travel continuously for
three weeks without any food or water in temperatures as high as 50 degree Celsius.
The camel could, therefore, be used to explore and exploit the resources of the desert.
The camel was also a great beast of burden, and could be used to carrying heavy loads.
The camel also yielded good milk. Therefore, it not only sustained its owners but was
also a commercially viable option. This gave the Bedouin a potential predominance
over not only the desert oases but even the nearby reaches of the settled countries,
allowing them not merely to trade, but in favourable circumstances, also to exact tribute.
The camel nomads became involved in the commerce between the Mediterranean lands
and the southern seas.
Between Roman and Sassanian empires was a vast block of Bedouin Arabia. In this
area camel-nomadism prevailed, mainly in the northern, western and central regions.
These were arid steppe lands dotted with oases which were natural formations where
water was found close to the surface, and this made regular irrigation possible. Due to
prevalent nomadism, the herdsmen could maintain their animals, supplementing their
milk and occasional flesh with the wheat and dates that agriculturists could grow in the
oases. The agriculturists could get animals from the herdsmen and also specialized
products that they needed from a distance.

12.7.2 Agriculture in Arabia

A few cereals were grown by small farming communities in the region. Near the oases,
a small sedentary population came to settle which began to cultivate the date palm. The
date palm was not only a fruit but every single part of it could be utilized in some way or
the other. It was known as the ‘mother and aunt’ of the Arabs. Date and camel milk
was the staple diet of the region.
In the regions of Oman and Bahrain agriculture was the mainstay of the economy.
Bahrain exported grain to Mecca. The farmers who cultivated the date palms and the
scattered fields of fruits and vegetables were the Bedouin camel herders of the desert.
The Bedouins, peasants and townsfolk of the neighbouring regions, all depended upon
each other. Therefore, they had to co-exist.

12.7.3 Industry and Mining in Arabia

Arabia included many economically developed, productive areas. The Sasanians helped
develop silver and copper mining in Yemen. Copper and silver were also mined in
eastern Arabia. Leather and cloth was produced in Yemen. In north-central Arabia, the
town of al-Rabadha, on the Kufa-Medina route, produced metal, glass, ceramics and
soapstone wares.

12.8 LITERATURE OF THE PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

In an unstable tribal society, there was little opportunity for the arts to flourish, however,
literature was an exception. In fact, the political, social, religious, and economic
complexity of the Arabian society created a rich and sophisticated cultural environment.
Arabia was multilingual, although Aramaic was probably the most spoken language in
pre-Islamic Arabia. But by the sixth century, the Arabic language became important
244
and it began to be written and spoken in the region. The Arabic script appeared a Pre-Islamic
Roman
Arab Empire:
World
century before the Islamic era. It was derived from earlier writing in Aramaic, influenced Political
and Its Culture
System
by Nabatean script, and then re-shaped by the Aramean Jews.
Arabic was also a language of religion. As early as the fourth century, Iraqi and Himyarite
Christians translated the Old and New Testament of the Bible in Arabic. Christian
liturgies and prayer books were also produced in Arabic. Arabs in Medina may also
have studied Arabic, Aramaic, and Hebrew in Jewish schools. A common language
was a significant uniting factor for the otherwise dispersed Arab tribes. A distinctive
Arabic linguistic identity had developed by the end of the fifth century. Patricia Crone is
of the view that there was remarkable “cultural homogeneity” among the Arabs in the
sixth century.
Poetry was highly valued by the Arabs. From the sixth century onwards poems began
to be composed in Arabic in a specific form called rajaz. Each tribe had its own poets.
These poets entertained their audience by narrating tales of valour and glory of the
tribe. Apart from the rajaz, a highly developed form of poetry also took shape in
Arabia. This was known as qasida or ode. These poems were long and were supposed
to be sung. A particular form of qasida, called muallaqat or suspended poems, became
very popular across the Arabian peninsula. One of the earliest and most well-known
composers of the muallaqat was Imrul Qays, who is considered to be first poet of
pre-Islamic Arabia. Some other distinguished poets who composed muallaqat were
Tarafa (of the tribe of Bakr), Zuhayr (belonged to Banu Muzaina tribe) and Labid
(associated with the Banu Amir tribe of Hawazin).
Check Your Progress-4
1) Critically analyze the concept of camel nomadism.
.....................................................................................................................
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2) Write a note on literature of the pre-Islamic Arabia.
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3) Fill in the blanks
i) The Sasanians helped develop ........................................ mining in Yemen.
ii) Bahrain exported ........................ to Mecca.
iii) The camel nomads became involved in the commerce between the
............................ and the southern seas.
iv) The date palm came to be known as the ...................................of the Arabs.
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Societies
Roman Republic
in Central
Islamic Lands 12.9 SUMMARY
In this Unit, a general survey of the institutions of pre-Islamic Arabia has been discussed.
The characteristic features of the tribal system as well as the ritual and religious practices
of the tribes have been outlined.The social structure of Arabia and the various constituent
elements of society have also been highlighted. An in-depth analysis of the trade network
as well as the economic conditions has also been made. The Unit has also dealt with the
nature of tribal administration. A brief description of the development of literature during
pre-Islamic times has also been taken into account.

12.10 KEY WORDS

Bedouins : Bedouins were Arab nomads who inhabited the
desert region of Arabian Peninsula, Iraq, Levant
and North Africa. The term is derived from
Arabic badawi (desert dwellers). Largely,
Bedouins were followers of Islam. However, in
the Fertile Crescent region some were Christians
as well. In the Old Testament they are referred
to as Qedarites. Assyrians called them Arabaa.
They themselves address as the Arabs.
Hejaz/Hijaz : Al-Hejaz/Hijaz is the holy land of Islam.
Geographically, it formed the western part of
Saudi Arabia where the two holiest cities of Islam
– Mecca and Medina are located.
Fertile Crescent : The Fertile Crescent is a crescent shaped region
comprised of the modern day Iraq, Israel,
Palestinian territories, Syria, Lebanon, Egypt,
Jordon, southern tip of Turkey and the western
tip of Iran.

12.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress-1
1) See Sub-section 12.2.1
2) See Sub-section12.2.1
3) i) 9 ii) 9 iii) ×
Check Your Progress-2
1) See Sub-section 12.3.1
2) See Sub-section 12.3.2
3) i) b) ii) c) iii) a)
Check Your Progress-3
1) i) See Sub-section 12.6.1 ii) ) See Sub-section 12.6.2 iii) ) See Sub-section
12.6.4
246
2) See Sub-section 12.6.1 Pre-Islamic
Roman
Arab Empire:
World
Political
and Its Culture
System
Check Your Progress-4
1) See Sub-section12.7.1
2) See Section 12.8
3) i) silver and copper; ii) grain; iii) Mediterranean; iv) Mother and Aunt

12.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

Farooqui, Amar, (2002) Early Social Formations (New Delhi: Manak Publications
Pvt. Ltd.), Revised Edition.
Hodgson, Marshall G.S., (2004) The Venture of Islam, Vol.I, The Classical Age of
Islam (Lahore: Vanguard Books Pvt Ltd.).
Holt, P.M., Ann K.S. Lambton and Bernanrd Lewis, (ed.) (1970) The Cambridge
History of Islam, Vol. I, The Central Islamic Lands (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press).
Lapidus, Ira M., (2012) Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global
History (New Delhi: Cambridge University Press).
Robinson, Chase F., (ed.) (2010) The New Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. I, The
Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press).
Rodinson, Maxime (1971) Mohammed (Allen Lane: The Penguin Press).

12.13 INSTRUCTIONAL VIDEO

RECOMMENDATIONS
Arabia Before Islam
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HDjjp4Nf73I
Gods of Arabs Before Islam
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3q7EfeFJ7Jg

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