Journal of Cleaner Production 243 (2020) 118636

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Alkali-activated mortars blended with glass bottle waste nano

powder: Environmental benefit and sustainability
Ghasan Fahim Huseien a, c, Hussein K. Hamzah b, Abdul Rahman Mohd Sam a,
Nur Hafizah A. Khalid a, Kwok Wei Shah c, Dan Paul Deogrescu b, Jahangir Mirza d, *
a
UTM Construction Research Centre, Institute for Smart Infrastructure and Innovative Construction, School of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
b
Technical University of Civil Engineering, Bulevardul Lacul Tei 124, sect.2, Bucharest, 020396, Romania
c
Department of Building, School of Design and Environment, National University of Singapore, 117566, Singapore
d
School of Engineering, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t :

Article history: In the urban regions worldwide, saving energy, lowering carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, and disposing
Received 18 April 2019 waste arising from the manufacturing of diverse consumer products remain major challenges. Annually,
Received in revised form million tons of glass bottle wastes are generated and only a few percent are recycled. In this study, glass
14 September 2019
bottles waste Nano powder (BGWNP) was prepared by replacing ground blast furnace slag (GBFS) in fly
Accepted 27 September 2019
ash-based alkali-activated mortars (AAMs). The main aim was to evaluate the energy consumption, cost
Available online 30 September 2019
effectiveness, mechanical and chemical properties of the achieved BGWNP blended AAMs. Reuse of such
Handling editor: Lei Shi wastes was found to enhance the mechanical and durability properties of the resultant AAMs as well as
reduced CO2 emissions. For AAM incorporating 5% of BGWNP as GBFS replacement, the CO2 emission
Keywords: reduced (over 6%), compressive strength enhanced (above 16%) and the durability improved with
Nanotechnology reduced water absorption. Additionally, it lowered the binder cost and energy consumption by 3.4 and
BGWNP 1.3%, respectively. Furthermore, AAM composed of 10% BGWNP revealed reduced strength performance.
GBFS It was concluded that the proposed AAMs obtained using BGWNP offer definitive environmental benefits
AAMs
by minimizing global warming. Given that concrete still is the most used man-made material universally,
Sustainability
such proposition would significantly reduce the landfill requirements for glass waste that is unsuitable
for recycled glass production.
© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction climate change (Zhang et al., 2019). Due to industrial and urban
development universally, the standards of living have undoubtedly
Continued growth in the urban development projects world- improved. On the other hand, both industrial and domestic waste
wide has made ordinary Portland cement (OPC) increasingly in management has increasingly become a serious concern worldwide
demand. As of now, OPC remains the principal binding agent in the (Zhang et al., 2019; Sa
nchez-Escobar et al., 2018). Global collabo-
concrete industry (Awal and Mohammadhosseini, 2016; Nayaka ration for achieving greater efficiency in waste management,
et al., 2018). However, OPC is environmentally hostile because its especially to recycle and repurpose the waste resources (Esmeray
manufacturing process releases high levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) and Atıs, 2019; Abdel-Gawwad et al., 2018; Mohammadhosseini
emission. For every ton of OPC production, one ton of CO2 is pro- et al., 2017; Mohammadhosseini and Yatim, 2017) has been
duced (a typical ratio of 1:1). Thus OPC is classified as environ- noted. Such concerns have enforced the exploration of alternative
mentally harmful binding material (Deraemaeker and Dumoulin, options in terms of developing new environment friendly con-
2019; Huseien et al., 2015, 2017) as CO2 is considered to be a sig- struction materials such as ‘green’ concrete as well as other prod-
nificant factor in the production of greenhouse gases affecting ucts remanufactured from recycled wastes dumped in landfill
(Huseien et al., 2018a, 2018b; Mohammadhosseini et al., 2018).
Lately the alkali-activated mortars (AAMs) and concretes have
been introduced as cement-free materials. Generally, such mortars
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mirza7861@gmail.com, mirzaj@uoguelph.ca (J. Mirza). and concretes are prepared involving starting source materials rich

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118636
0959-6526/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 G.F. Huseien et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 243 (2020) 118636

Notation Ca Calcium
CeSeH Calcium silicate hydrate
AAMs Alkali-activated mortars ASTM American society for testing and materials
GBFS Ground blast furnace slag B Binder
FA Fly ash A Fine aggregate
BGWNP Glass bottles waste Nano powder S Alkaline activator solution
CO2 Carbon dioxide Ws Saturated weight
OPC Ordinary Portland cement Wd Dry mass
NaOH Sodium hydroxide Wa Water absorption
Na2SiO3 Sodium silicate LOI Loss on ignition
Si Silicate LCA Life cycle assessment
Al Aluminium

in silicon (Si), aluminium (Al) and calcium (Ca) with alkali activa- temperatures requirement (40e85
C), slow setting time and low
tion (Sun et al., 2018; Huseien et al., 2016; Huseiena et al., 2016). compressive strength. To overcome these drawbacks, one of the
The starting resource materials include meta-kaolin (MK), fly ash waste materials called ground blast furnace slag (GBFS) has been
(FA), palm oil fuel ash (POFA), GBFS and ceramic wastes (WCP), etc., introduced for enhancing the FA based AAMs properties (Nath and
(Huseien et al., 2018c; Kubba et al., 2018; Huseiena et al., 2018a). Sarker, 2014). The major reaction products of alkali-activated ce-
Literature study on AAMs showed excellent properties such as fast ments for GBFS and FA are calcium silicate hydrate (CeSeH) and
setting time, curing at ambient temperatures (Huseiena et al., amorphous hydrated alkali alumina-silicate (Huseien et al., 2018d),
2018b), high early strength (Huseien et al., 2018d), high resis- respectively. Alkali activated GBFS has high strength but issues
tance to elevated temperatures, good durability in aggressive en- related to rapid setting and insufficient workability along with high
vironments (Huseien et al., 2018a), low CO2 emission and energy values of dry shrinkage, limits its applicability (Huseien et al.,
consumption (Assi et al., 2018; Turner and Collins, 2013). The 2018a). Incorporation of GBFS in FA-based AAMs could enhance
alkaline activators solutions normally include sodium hydroxide the workability, setting time and strength together with the
(NaOH) and sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) for the production of AAMs reduction of solution demand. Otherwise, GBFS has negative effects
(Huseien et al., 2018e, 2018f). Most of the research studies (Huseien on mortar’s durability exposed to sulphuric acid and sulphate at-
et al., 2018d; Salih et al., 2015; Nath and Sarker, 2014) revealed that tacks. On top, the high content of CaO in GBFS is the main setback
the elevated concentration of NaOH (10e16 M) and high ratio of for the reduced resistance of mortar to aggressive environments.
Na2SiO3 to NaOH (2.5) are preferred for the production of high However, increasing the GBFS content in alkali-activated matrix can
performance AAMs. Na2SiO3 is known to impact negatively on the increase the cost, energy consumption and CO2 emissions of AAMs
environment. Besides additional cost, the high concentration of mixtures.
NaOH also effect negatively on the environment and remains Glasses are significant waste products that can potentially be
hazardous to the workers (McLellan et al., 2011). High molarity of used in concrete production a strategy which could be considered
NaOH and enriched Na2SiO3 in the alkaline solution content are the environment-friendly. Several million tons of glass bottles are
major problems for the usage of AAMs as new construction mate- discarded annually worldwide (Lin et al., 2012; Rashad, 2014).
rials. This is a serious concern for the environmental safety because Some of these wastes have already been recycled by glass manu-
AAM is a mineral based material that demands great amount of facturers. Nevertheless, it is impossible to recycle all glass wastes
Na2SiO3 during synthesis. These deficiencies caused by alkaline due to the variation in colour, imperfections in glass, and process-
solution limits the diversified applications of AAMs in the con- ing costs. The potential for using glass in the production of concrete
struction industry. The inclusion of CaO from waste materials such was first investigated some time ago (Rashad, 2014; Shi and Zheng,
as GBFS in alkali-activated mix led to enhance the strength even 2007). It has been established that pulverised glass wastes derived
using low molarity (4 M) of NaOH (Huseien et al., 2019a, 2019b). from bottles could contain significant amount of Al and Si appar-
The compatible nature of C-(A)-S-H and N-A-S-H gels has signifi- ently in non-crystalline form. These properties make glass waste a
cant influence on the AAMs and alkaline solution activated prospective pozzolanic or cement-like substance. Hence its usage
alumina-silicate systems, wherein both products may be obtained as aggregates in cement production offers a suitable alternative for
(Yip et al., 2005). cement itself. However, it is worth noting that such use could
Despite the use of different source materials to prepare AAMs as change the characteristics of the finished products (Zhang and Yue,
binders, FA as industrial waste in particular, is immensely attractive 2018).
for the synthesis of AAMs (Duan et al., 2016; Abdollahnejad et al., Contemporary concrete production techniques place more
_
2015; Ilkentapar et al., 2017). FA is a by-product of coal burning emphasis on the inclusion of nanomaterials which offer enhanced
in thermal power plants to produce electricity which contains an features irrespective of whether it is fresh or cured. Most
ample quantity of amorphous alumina and silica (Huseien et al., commonly used nanomaterials for performance enhancement of
2017). Therefore, FA’s chemical composition renders it a suitable concretes and cement include nanoparticles, such as TiO2, SiO2,
resource material for producing alkali-activated binder. The prop- Al2O3, Fe2O3, carbon nanotubes/fibres and Nano silica owing to
erties of FA-based AAMs have been examined by several re- their pore-filling ability and favourable pozzolanic reaction (Kaur
searchers. Due to their excellent durability properties, these AAMs et al., 2018; Sedaghatdoost and Behfarnia, 2018; Adak et al.,
are used as potential cementitious material. Many reports have 2014). Meanwhile, steady increase in the demand of hybrid
acknowledged (Huseien et al., 2018a; Bagheri et al., 2017; Al-Majidi cement-like materials (extremely strong, durable, eco-friendly and
et al., 2016) similar engineering properties of AAMs making them sustainable) has been driven by the rapid development of infra-
favourable for various construction applications. Yet, several structure worldwide. The performance characteristics of even high-
problems exist in using FA based AAMs for high curing grade concrete can appreciably be enhanced by the addition of
 G.F. Huseien et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 243 (2020) 118636 3

Nano-silica. In many cases, replacing concrete with as little as 6% were adopted to prepare the alkaline activator solution and fixed
nano-silica may achieve significant performance improvements for all solution dosages. NaOH solution was prepared by dissolve
(Adak et al., 2014). It is the hydration process that is primarily the pellets in normal water then left at room temperature for 24 h
modified by the introduction of nano-silica, which becomes effec- to cool. Na2SiO3 solution was made from SiO2 (29.5 wt%), Na2O
tively accelerated. This in turn leads to the generation of a greater (14.70 wt%) and H2O (55.80 wt%). Next, the NaOH solution was
quantity of calcium silicate hydrates through the reaction of nano- mixed with Na2SiO3 to prepare final alkaline solution. In this study,
silica with calcium hydroxide within the concrete and hence the the total Na2O, SiO2 and H2O were 10.53, 12.64 and 76.8 (by weight,
enhanced mechanical characteristics of the end product. %) respectively, compared to 20.75, 21.07 and 58.2 of solution
The nano-silica impregnated concrete contains fewer calcium prepared for 14 M of NaOH and 2.5 of Na2SiO3 to NaOH ratio which
hydroxide crystals, which cause the formation of more compacted are recommended in previous studies as the optimum ratios (Salih
microstructures (Liu et al., 2018; Bjo€ rnstro
€ m et al., 2004). Approx- et al., 2015; Yusuf et al., 2014). Regarding the content of Na2O, SiO2
imately 3% increase in the degree of pozzolanic reaction rate has and H2O, the prepared alkaline solution is friendlier to environment
been registered due to the addition of nanosiica in concrete (Said and is low in cost, energy consumption as well as the carbon di-
et al., 2012). Besides, a significant increase in the denseness, oxide emission. The final modulus (Ms) of solution was 1.2 for
durability, tensile strength, compressive strength, bending strength SiO2:Na2O. Naturally occurring siliceous river sand was used as fine
and abrasive resistance has also been recorded in concrete aggregate to make all mortar specimens. Firstly, the sand was
impregnated with nano-silica (Said et al., 2012; Nazari et al., 2010). washed with water following ASTM C117 standard to reduce silts
The permeability of concrete is also affected by the inclusion of and impurity contents. Then, the sand was dried in the oven at
nano-silica, with reduced permeability and capillary absorption 60
C for 24 h to control the moisture content. Finally, the sand was
(Adak et al., 2014). Also, concrete containing nano-silica and ground graded to conform to ASTM C33-33M specification.
GBFS disclosed enhanced splitting tensile strength and hydration
speed (Said et al., 2012). 2.2. Mix design, casting and curing
With such development and immense benefit of waste nano-
materials incorporated mortars, this study attempted to achieve Following the ASTM C109-109M standard, different mix pro-
high performance, durable and eco-friendly AAMs wherein a tiny portions of GBFS: BGWNP were prepared in various ratios. In the
amount of GBFS was replaced by BGWNP. The nano powder was first category, the blend was prepared by mixing FA and GBFS with
prepared from glass bottles waste and characterized for its chem- the ratio of 70:30 as control sample. Next, the FA content was fixed
ical and physical properties. The influence of BGWNP inclusion in to 70% by weight for all mixtures. The GBFS content was replaced by
AAMs matrix as GBFS replacement was examined in terms of BGWNP with 5, 10, 15 and 20% by weight. Furthermore, at each level
mortars workability, setting time, strength and microstructure. Life of replacement, the binder to fine aggregate (B:A), alkaline solution
cycle of AAMs as a function of varied BGWNP content was also to binder (S:B), NH molarity, NS:NH ratio and modulus of solution
determined. The energy consumption, binder cost, mechanical and (Ms) were fixed to 1.0, 0.40, 2, 0.75 and 1.2 by mass weight,
chemical properties and CO2 emission from the synthesized respectively (Table 1). Testing was conducted in line with ASTM
BGWNP blended AAMs were evaluated. Results were discussed in C579 standards. The tests consisted of (1) a 50-mm cube mould to
terms of environmental benefits and sustainability of such AAMs. test for compressive strength, (2) a prism (40  40  160) mm to
test for flexural strength, and (3) a cylinder (length 150 mm,
2. Experimental details diameter 75 mm) to test for tensile strength. Prior to the moulds
being cast, each one was coated internally with motor oil in order to
2.1. Materials facilitate easier demoulding. NS and NH solutions were mixed
followed by cooling to ambient temperature before being used to
In this work, source materials such as FA, GBFS and BGWNP avoid issues with heat produced during the mixing process.
were used to prepare ternary AAMs blend. FA, as a main resource of The preparation of the Alkali-activated mortars (AAMs) involved
aluminium-silicate, was collected from Tanjung Bin power station the mixing of GNP, GBFS and FA for the duration of 3 min resulting
of Johor (Malaysia) and directly used without any treatment. GBFS in a uniform dry substance, which was then further mixed with fine
(acted as pure cement-free binder) was collected from Ipoh aggregate for a period of 4 min. The resultant product was then
(Malaysia), which was ground by the supplier to achieve the activated by adding alkaline solution, and then blended in a ma-
required particles size before being transported and used for ex- chine for further 5 min at medium velocity. The final step in the
periments. GBFS used in this study was a main resource of calcium process was the introduction of the resulting mortar into the
and silicate. Glass bottles waste was collected from Skudai moulds which was achieved by using two-layers pouring method.
(Malaysia). First, these bottles were cleaned using normal tap water In this process, each layer being subject to vibration for a period of
to remove contaminants and then crushed by crusher machine. 15 s in order to eliminate any air pockets within the mixture. Once
Crushed glass was sieved through 600 mm to separate large glass the casting process was completed, the AAMs were cured for 24 h in
particles. Subsequently, Los Angeles Abrasion Machine with 25 kg an ambient atmosphere (temperature 24 ± 1.5
C, relative humidity
capacity was utilized to grind the sieved glass for 3 h in order to get 75%) before demoulding process.
medium particle size of 25 mm using 16 ⱷ 40 mm stainless balls.
Later, the resultant powder was heated in an oven at 110
C (±5) for 2.3. Testing procedures
60 min and again ground for 7 h using ball mill machine to achieve
optimum distribution of nanoparticles. Fig. 1 shows the procedure It is well known that the AAMs properties are influenced
for the preparation of Nano powder from glass bottles. directly by chemical composition and physical and mineral prop-
Alkaline activator solution was prepared by mixing sodium erties of raw materials. For additional understanding, the chemical
hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) to activate the composition of BGWNP, GBFS and FA was determined using XRF
aluminium silicate. High purity NaOH (98%) and Na2SiO3 were test. The percentage weight of chemical compounds, such as SiO2,
purchased from quality reagent chemical (QREC) - Asia, Malaysia. Al2O3, CaO, MgO, K2O and Na2O were calculated and presented in
To reduce the environmental effects of NaOH and Na2SiO3, low this study. Physical properties such as particles size diameter using
molarity (2 M) of NaOH solution and Na2SiO3 to NaOH ratio of 0.75 PSA and TEM tests as well as the colour of raw materials were also
4 G.F. Huseien et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 243 (2020) 118636

Fig. 1. Preparation stages of BGWNP.

Table 1
Mix design of AAMs prepared with various ratios of BGWNP replacing GBFS.

Materials (mass,%) Mix design formulation of alkali activated mortars

AAMs1 AAMs2 AAMs3 AAMs4 AAMs5

Binder (B) FA 70 70 70 70 70
GBFS 30 25 20 15 10
BGWNP 0 5 10 15 20
Binder:Fine aggregate (B:A) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Solution:Binder (S:B) 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40
Na2SiO3:NaOH 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) Molarity, M 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
H2O 92.6 92.6 92.6 92.6 92.6
Na2O 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4
Sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) H2O 55.8 55.8 55.8 55.8 55.8
Na2O 14.7 14.7 14.7 14.7 14.7
SiO2 29.5 29.5 29.5 29.5 29.5
Total H2O in alkaline solution 76.8 76.8 76.8 76.8 76.8
Modulus of solution (Ms) SiO2:Na2O 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2

assessed using visual test. The XRD pattern of raw materials FTIR, SEM and XRD were also conducted which could provide
showing crystalline or amorphous phases also play an important additional understanding on the strength properties.
role on the formulation of C,N-(A)-S-H gels and reactivity of raw The workability of the AAMs as-prepared was tested to deter-
materials. It is for this purpose, XRD test was carried out on raw mine the effect of replacement of GBFS by BGWNP in line with
materials (BGWNP, GBFS and FA). ASTM C230. All AAMs were also tested for fresh performance,
To study the effects of Nano particles from glass bottles waste on where the flow diameter was determined. A Vicat needle test was
fresh and hardened properties of AAMs, several tests were conducted to determine the time required for AAMs to set. In this
considered for this purpose. Flow test was adopted to measure the test, a 1.13 mm metal needle was dropped into each fresh sample
flowability of AAMs affected by BGWNP as GBFS replacement. The (at ambient temperature of 24
C) and the generated depth of
setting time was also evaluated. The results obtained from flow and penetration was recorded. Besides, the setting time was established
setting time tests provide clear understanding about the effect of as the time elapsed from the completion of mould filling to the time
BGWNP on fresh properties of AAMs. It’s very important in concrete when penetration of 0.5 mm in each sample was achieved using the
industry to study the effect of additional materials on strength needle test. Setting time is the mean value obtained for all three
performance as it is one of the indicators of sustainable products. AAMs. The studied AAMs were subjected to the test according to
Serval tests were considered to assess the strength performance the standards of flexural strength (ASTM C78), tensile strength
(compressive, flexural and tensile strength) of AAMs containing (ASTM C496/C496M-11) and compressive strength (ASTM C109/
BGWNP as GBFS replacement. Microstructure tests such as TGA, 109M). Final results were obtained following a 28-day curing
 G.F. Huseien et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 243 (2020) 118636 5

period (average of 3 specimens). A comparison was made between production has been built according to life cycle of raw materials
the results obtained from the strength tests and the control sample. used as binder in the production process which included collection,
At age of 28-day curing, the central section of each AAM was transportation, crushing, grinding and other treatments in the
extracted and pulverised. The microstructure of the prepared laboratory. The life cycle of raw materials presented in Fig. 2
powder was tested using TGA, FTIR, SEM and XRD analyses. In X-ray adopted as boundary in life cycle assessment. The data for fine
diffraction (XRD) test, the MDI Jade software version 6.5 was used aggregate, sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate were not included
to confirm the disordered phase of alkali-activated mortar samples. in calculation as the content of these three materials are fixed for all
The analysis was carried out on results of scanned specimens over AAMs mixtures.
the 2Ɵ range of 5-90
, 0.02 steps and 0.5 s/step scan speed. Pre- The total CO2 emission, cost effectiveness and energy con-
pared AAMs were positioned on sample holders (brass stub type) sumption of different alkali-activated binders were calculated to
and subjected to a 5-min of drying by infrared radiation before assess the mortar sustainability. Energy and cost requirements as
using a Blazer sputter coater to apply a covering of gold on each well as the CO2 emission of each material (FA, GBFS and WBGNP)
sample. The resultant patterns were monitored using 20 kV with were estimated depending on material life cycle including collec-
1000  magnification. Following the immersion in water (24
C) for tion, transport and lab treatments (such as crushing, sieving, oven
24 h, the AAMs were subjected to ASTM C140-07 tests. Saturated drying and grinding) as shown in Fig. 2. As mentioned earlier, the
weight (Ws) of each AAM was measured by removing them from FA was used in the lab as received, so the life cycle was included
water. All AAMs were oven-dried (24 h, 105
C) before recording the only for the collection and transport stages. GBFS was collected and
dry mass (Wd) and water absorption (Wa) using total immersion ground before being transported from Ipoh to Johor (500 km dis-
technique. The water absorption percentage was calculated using tance). For BGWNP, the life cycle included collection, transport and
the expression: lab treatment such as cleaning, crushing, sieving and grinding. In
transportation stage and for all the raw materials, the truck engine
Ws  Wd capacity, volume and speed were fixed to 0.09 L/km, 12 m3 and
Wað%Þ ¼  100 (1)
Wd 80 km/h respectively. The local price of electricity, diesel and
transportation was considered; the calculation process is presented
in Table 2. Meanwhile, the total CO2 emission, cost and energy
consumption of each mixture depending on binder ratio
2.4. Life cycle assessment
(FA:GBFS:BGWNP) was calculated using respective equations
(2)e(5). The transport distance of raw materials including FA, GBFS
Nowadays, worldwide energy consumption has reached to such
and BGWNP are depicted in Fig. 3.where mi ¼ mass of component i
a level which was never observed before (Chowdhury et al., 2019a,
(ton per m3), di ¼ transport distance (km), Di ¼ diesel consumption
2019b). With the increase in population, the demand for con-
(liter/km), k1i ¼ CO2 emission for 1 L diesel, ton, Ei ¼ total electricity
struction materials has increased affecting energy consumption
consumption (kwh), and k2i ¼ CO2 emission for 1 kwh electricity,
and carbon dioxide emission. In order to reduce energy demand
ton.
and CO2 emission, there is a dire need to produce not only sus-
tainable construction materials but also develop other resources. In X
n
this study, the environmental data of various mortar components Total energy consumption ¼ mi ½ðdi  Di  k3iÞ þ ðEi  k4iÞ
(FA, GBFS and BGWNP) used to prepare 1 m3 of AAMs are calculated i¼1
and presented in Table 2. The life cycle inventory of AAMs (3)

where k3i ¼ Energy consumption for 1 L diesel, GJ, Ei ¼ total elec-

Table 2 tricity consumption (kwh) and k4i ¼ Energy consumption for 1 kwh
Materials and machines information to prepare 1 m3 of AAMs. electricity, GJ.
X
n
Total CO2 emission ¼ mi ½ðdi  Di  k1iÞ þ ðEi  k2iÞ (2) X
n
i¼1 Total cost ¼ mi ½ðdi  Di  DPiÞ þ Ti þ ðEi  EPiÞ (4)
i¼1

Item, units Amount where DPi ¼ diesel cost (RM/liter), Ti ¼ Transport charge of 1 m3
(RM/km) and EPi ¼ electricity cost (RM per kwh).
Truck speed, km/hr 80
Diesel consumption, liter/km 0.09
Diesel price, RM/liter (RM: Malaysian Ringgit) 2.18
X
n
Electricity consumption of component iðEiÞ ¼ ðMEi  MPiÞ
Truck volume, m3 12
i¼1
Transport charge of 1 m3, RM/km 0.75
Glass density, kg/m3 1280 (5)
GBFS density, kg/m3 1860
FA density, kg/m3 1350 where MEi ¼ machine capacity (tone per hrs) and MPi ¼ Machine
Crushing machine power, watt 435
power (kwh).
sieving machine power, watt 250
Oven power, watt 1200
Grinding machine power, watt 750
Crushing machine capacity, m3 0.08 3. Results and discussion
sieving machine capacity, m3 0.05
Oven capacity, m3 0.18
3.1. Chemical composition and physical properties of constituent
Grinding machine capacity, m3 0.45
CO2 emission for 1 L diesel, ton 0.0027 specimens
Energy consumption for 1 L diesel, GJ 0.0384
Electricity tariff, RM/kwh 0.516 Table 3 depicts the chemical composition and physical proper-
CO2 emission for 1 kwh electricity, ton 0.00013 ties of BGWNP, GBFS and FA obtained using X-ray fluorescence
Energy consumption for 1 kwh electricity, GJ 0.0036
spectroscopy. The primary oxide elements were found to be
6 G.F. Huseien et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 243 (2020) 118636

Fig. 2. Life cycle of raw materials: FA, GBFS and BGWNP.

aluminium and silica, which are 83% in BGWNP, 41.7% in GBFS and
86% in FA. A significantly higher level (51.8%) of calcium oxide was
found in GBFS compared to the BGWNP and FA. Especially, the
quantity of aluminium, silicate and calcium oxide influenced the
synthesis of specimens considerably, through the formation of N, C-
(A)-S-H gels as part of geopolymerisation process. Potassium oxide
(K2O) levels were lower than 1% for all three tested specimens. The
sodium oxide (Na2O) level in GBFS was appreciably higher (0.45%),
whereas in BGWNP and FA it was 0.01% and 0.08%, respectively.
Previous studies established that the activation of both the geo-
polymerisation and alkaline processes can be greatly influenced by
K2O and Na2O. Besides, BGWNP, GBFS and FA exhibited reduced loss
on ignition (LOI) values, which are in line with the standards set
forth in ASTM C618. The calculated median particle size for FA, GBFS
and BGWNP were 10000, 12800 and 80 nm, respectively (Table 3).
Furthermore, 100% of particles in FA and GBFS were below 45 mm
size and 100% of BGWNP was passing 1 mm. The FA presented gray
colour compared to off-white and light-gray appearance of GBFS
and BGWNP, respectively.

Fig. 3. Transportation distance of FA, GBFS and BGWNP.

Table 3
Chemical composition and physical characteristics of FA, GBFS and BGWNP (weight
%).

Material FA GBFS BGWNP

SiO2 57.20 30.8 69.14

Al2O3 28.8 10.9 13.86
Fe2O3 3.67 0.64 0.24
CaO 5.16 51.8 3.16
MgO 1.48 4.57 0.68
K2O 0.94 0.36 0.01
Na2O 0.08 0.45 0.01
SO3 0.10 0.06 4.08
LOT 0.12 0.22 0.16
Physical characteristics
Average diameter (nm) 10000 12800 80
Colour Gray Off-white Light-gray
Fig. 4. XRD patterns of FA, GBFS and BGWNP.
 G.F. Huseien et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 243 (2020) 118636 7

3.2. XRD patterns of specimens

Fig. 4 displays the XRD patterns of BGWNP, GBFS and FA. FA

revealed sharp peaks at 2q range of 16e30
which are assigned to
the presence of crystalline alumina and silica. Moreover, other
diffraction peaks were resulted from the occurrence of crystalline
mullite and quartz phases. GBFS did not exhibit such peaks, con-
firming its amorphous characteristics. The presence of reactive
calcium and silica substances is among the critical aspects of the
formation of GBFS. In fact, presence of such reactive amorphous
calcium and silica at high level make GBFS potentially ideal for
AAMs production. The XRD pattern of BGWNP also showed its
amorphous nature indicating that waste glass contained significant
amount of reactive aluminium and silica. Furthermore, BGWNP
disclosed weak crystalline quartz peaks at 27
and 29
.

3.3. TEM image of specimens

Fig. 5 illustrates the TEM images of BGWNP which clearly

showed the existence of ellipsoidal nanoparticles. Larger nano- Fig. 6. BGWNP content dependent flow diameter variation in prepared AAMs.
particles were also formed from the clustering of smaller ones,
which was ascribed to the presence of high surface tension and
surface energy of extremely refined nanoparticles. These tiny (Nazari et al., 2010). It was reported (Jalal et al., 2012; Quercia et al.,
nanoparticles could produce a surface area which was extensive, 2012) that the addition of Nano-materials reduces segregation and
thereby improved the nanoparticles’ catalytic action. The mean size bleeding and improves cohesiveness of the mixture.
of the achieved nano-crystallite was 80 nm which agreed with
those observed in nano-silica-based compound (Duan et al., 2016). 3.5. Setting time
Varied super-elasticity has also been observed in BGWNP with
similar constitution reported elsewhere (Abdollahnejad et al., Fig. 7 illustrates the initial and final setting times of prepared
2015). AAMs, which were influenced by BGWNP content. Both initial and
final setting times were extended with increasing content of
BGWNP in AAMs matrix. The initial setting time was elongated
3.4. Workability
from 34 min to 51 min with the rise in BGWNP content from 0% to
20% as GBFS replacement, respectively. Similar trend was also
The effect of GBFS replacement by BGWNP on the workability of
observed for final setting time which was extended from 52 min to
ternary blended AAMs is presented in Fig. 6. The workability of
76 min with the increase in BGWNP content from 0 to 20%,
AAMs dropped as the BGWNP content increased. The flow diameter
respectively. The difference between initial and final setting times
decreased from 15.5 cm to 15.3, 14.7, 14.2 and 13.5 cm with
was also extended with the increase in BGWNP content in the
increasing Nano powder content from 0 to 5, 10, 15 and 20%,
AAMs matrix. This observation suggested that the lower the GBFS
respectively. The specific surface area of ternary binder was
content in the matrix, the lower is the setting rate (Nath and Sarker,
widened with the increase in Nano powder content in AAMs matrix
2014). Similar trends were reported by others (Huseien et al., 2016;
as GBFS replacement. It was concluded that the high specific area
Phoo-ngernkham et al., 2015; Huseien et al., 2018g), where a
could enhance the water demand and thus led to reduced work-
decrease in CaO/SiO2 ratio was found to generate high workability
ability. This observation is in agreement with the previous findings

Fig. 5. TEM image of BGWNP. Fig. 7. Setting times of prepared AAMs.

8 G.F. Huseien et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 243 (2020) 118636

and short setting times. However, the slow rate could enhance the
AAMs workability even when the GBFS content was reduced from
30 to 10%. This clearly disclosed the significant impact of BGWNP on
the AAMs properties. It is reported that nanomaterials such as silica
can accelerate the rate of hydration and reduce the setting time
(Chithra et al., 2016; Huseien et al., 2019c).

3.6. Density

The density of the hardened AAMs was measured using the

average weight ratio of three specimens after being surface dried to
the volume of the specimen. The dry density values of such spec-
imens were obtained at various levels of BGWNP replacing GBFS
contents in the ternary blend (Fig. 8). The density of AAMs
increased from 2.04 to 2.12 ton/m3 when the content of BGWNP
was raised from 0 to 5% to replace GBFS in the matrix. However, the
density reduced from 2.12 to 2.04 ton/m3 when the BGWNP content
increased from 5 to 20%, respectively. The effect of Nano powder on
hydration rate produced dense gel which led to the increase in
Fig. 9. Effect of varying BGWNP content on compressive strength development of
density of specimens containing BGWNP compared to control
AAMs.
sample which didn’t contain BGWNP (0% BGWNP). Kirgiz (Kırgız,
2019) reported that the increase of nano-materials in binder may
also decrease the density of the mortar. However, since nano- pore size distribution. The increase in the compressive strength of
material (BGWNP) is increased by 10% of mass of binder, density mortar was noted up to 10% addition of nano-silica and reduced
of mortars decreased over 1.4% higher than that of 5% BGWNP €rnstro
thereafter (Bjo €m et al., 2004; Chithra et al., 2016). Some of the
content. studies (Kaur et al., 2018; Adak et al., 2014) reported that the
addition of 4.0e6.0% of nano-silica by weight of FA could diminish
3.7. Compressive strength the water absorption and result in denser structure, thereby
improving compressive strength of mortar.
Fig. 9 displays the compressive strength of AAMs at age of 28
days as a function of BGWNP content replacing GBFS. The 3.8. Flexural strength, splitting tensile strength and modulus of
compressive strength increased monotonically with the increase in elasticity
BGWNP content from 0 to 5%. The compressive strength enhanced
from 56.2 MPa to 65.5 MPa with increase in BGWNP content in Fig. 10 shows the results obtained from replacing GBFS with
AAMs matrix from 0 to 5%, respectively. However, the strength BGWNP upon flexural strength (FS) of AAM samples. Following the
reduced to 42.1 MPa when the BGWNP content increased beyond 28-day curing period, the AAM samples underwent testing for
5% and reached to 20%. With more benefits reported about the changes in strength characteristics. An inverse relationship in FS
effects of nano-silica in cement-based materials, it is worthwhile was noted in the BGWNP when its content was up to a maximum of
that there are some contradicting results re: optimum percentage 10%. Moreover, there was notable improvement (14%) in FS as
of nano-silica replacement. It is fair to say that the gain in strength BGWNP content increased from 0 to 5%. This increase in FS could be
was mainly attributed to the method of nano-silica production and attributed to the microstructure possessing superior hydration
dispersion of BGWNP in cement-based materials. The main role of characteristics due to the presence of Nano powder. Decrease in FS
pozzolanic reaction was strength development and reduction in

Fig. 8. Effects of BGWNP contents on AAMs density. Fig. 10. Influence of AAMs flexural strength by BGWNP content.
 G.F. Huseien et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 243 (2020) 118636 9

was observed beyond 10% of BGWNP content. First, FS gradually

increased (5e10%, 10e15%, and 15e20%) and then decreased
(7.2e6.4 MPa, 6.4e5.7 MPa, and 5.7e5.4 MPa). A comparison with
the control sample was made at 15% level, where the loss in FS was
found to be 9.5%. As mentioned in the literature (Yu et al., 2014;
Thomas et al., 2009), a reduction in strength was found in samples
containing BGWNP greater than 10%. That could be attributed to
high water demand. Consequently, it produced an adverse effect on
the hydration process.
Fig. 11 shows the results on splitting tensile strength (STS) of
AAMs when GBFS was replaced by BGWNP following 28-day curing
period. Control samples consisting of GBFS to BGWNP ratio ¼ 30:0
could produce a STS of 3.6 MPa. With greater content (0e5%,
5e10%), the STS of AAMs improved (3.6e4.4 MPa, 4.4e4.8 MPa).
Moreover, strength loss of 2.9 and 2.8 MPa was observed for sam-
ples containing 15 and 20% of BGWP, respectively in AAMs.
Fig. 12 shows the effect of BGWNP replacing GBFS on modulus of
elasticity (MoE) of AAMs following 28-day curing period. The MoE
of AAMs increased with increase in BGWNP levels for GBFS from
0 to 5% and then decreased from 15.4 to 14.4 GPa compared to the Fig. 12. Influence of BGWNP content on MoE of AAMs.
control sample (14.1 GPA) containing 0% BGWNP content. Notably,
the increased BGWNP content of AAM samples at 15 and 20%
3.9. Statistical data analysis
resulted in a respective decrease in the MoE, from 13.8 to 13.6 GPa.
The explanation for this was established in (Huseien et al., 2018a)
The statistical results derived from experimental data are pre-
where the resulting decrease of FS, STS, and MoE in the AAM
sented in Fig. 14. These results indicated that an increase in BGWNP
samples containing BGWNP levels to a maximum of 10% can be
content increased the interval difference between the minimum
attributed to the mortar’s network with reduced level of calcium.
and maximum values of compressive, tensile and flexural strengths
Fig. 13 displays the relationship between FS, STS and MoE and
as well as the modulus of elasticity of AAMs. Fig. 14a shows the
compressive strength of AAMs. Exponential regression method was
frequency histogram of compressive strength of AAMs specimens.
applied to correlate the experimental data as shown in Equations
These results depicted that the compressive strength of specimens
(6)e(8), with R2 values between 0.87 and 0.99, which signified
were normally distributed and fit well with the superimposed
good confidence for the relationships.
normal distribution curve. Similar trends were also observed for
the tensile, flexural and modulus of elasticity specimens and the
FS ¼ 3:2225e0:0122cs (6) frequency histogram displayed a normal distribution as shown in
Figs. 14b, 14c and 14d, respectively.

STS ¼ e0:0228cs (7) 3.10. Water absorption

Fig. 15 depicts the water absorption of AAMs containing BGWNP

MoE ¼ 10:878e0:005cs (8) at 28-day age. The water absorption decreased with increasing
BGWNP to just less than 10%. Water absorption property of AAMs
was greatly influenced by the ratio of BGWNP replacing GBFS. The
respective values obtained were 8.9, 9.6, 10.4 and 10.6 for 5, 10, 15
and 20% BGWNP content. It can be observed that the specimens
containing 5 and 10% of BGWNP showed a packed pore structure
which reduced water absorption compared to control sample
(10.2%). However, with the increase in BGWNP level replacing more
than 10% GBFS, it could augment the water absorption from 10.4 to
10.6% for BGWNP levels of 15 and 20%, respectively. The reasons for
such findings can be attributed as follows: as the BGWNP content
increased from 0 to 5%, denser C-A-S-H gel was formed which
enhanced the homogeneous strength with low water absorption.
Also, the porosity of sample containing 5% BGWNP was reduced to
about 12.7% compared to the control sample. This phenomenon can
be attributed to the positive effect of BGWNP on binder hydration.
Generally, the nucleation effect of BGWNP allows the formation of
CeSeH phase which is no longer restricted to grain surface alone,
thereby enhancing the degree of hydration of binder; also filling
more pores by the newly generated CeSeH (Thomas et al., 2009).
For this reason, the porosity of AAMs was found to decrease at first
with the addition of BGWNP (5 and 10%). However, since the air
content of AAMs increases with the addition of BGWNP, the
porosity of BGWNP will increase again when the newly generated
Fig. 11. Influence of AAMs tensile strength by BGWNP content. CeSeH is insufficient to compensate for the pores that are
10 G.F. Huseien et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 243 (2020) 118636

of more C, N-(A)-S-H gels which contributed in the enhancement of

hydration and geopolymerization processes. Compared to control
sample, the highest intensity of albite and gismondine peaks was
observed with 5% and 10% of BGWNP replacing GBFS. On the other
hand, the increase in replacement level to 15% and 20% affected the
geopolymerization process and restricted the production of C, N-
(A)-S-H gels in AAMs, thus leading to lower strength.

3.12. FESEM and EDX analyses

Impact of BGWNP replacing GBFS in AAMs is examined using

microstructural image analyses. Figs. 17 and 18 show the FESEM
images and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectra of prepared
AAMs, respectively. Specimens prepared with 5% and 10% of
BGWNP exhibited high performance structure with less pores and
non-reacted particles (Fig. 17a and b). FESEM images manifested
the partial reaction of FA particles. The proportion of unreacted FA
spheres remaining in the matrix of AAM mixtures cannot be
ignored. Apart from the amorphous reaction products, a partial
crystalline structure with diameters between 150 and 300 nm was
evident. Some needle-shaped crystals on the surface and sur-
roundings FA particles were seen where some of these crystals are
almost covered with a dense layer of amorphous gel. The presence
of such crystals was also reported by Jang et al. (Jang and Lee, 2016).
In general, the FESEM images depicted that the AAMs were the real
mixture of unreacted fly ash particles, some crystals, and a reacted
gel phase. With increased level of BGWNP (15% and 20%), more
non-reacted particles appeared with low dense structure as shown
in Fig. 17c and d.
The EDX spectra (Fig. 18) showed that 1.15 ratio of calcium oxide
to silica (CaO:SiO2) was high in specimens prepared with 5% of
BGWNP, albeit, the addition of BGWNP contributed to a further
decrease of CaO in the matrix. However, the specimens of AAMs
prepared with 15% of BGWNP presented lower ratio of CaO to SiO2
(0.64). Furthermore, the ratio of SiO2 to Al2O3 increased from 1.74 to
2.55 with rising level of BGWNP from 5% to 15% as GBFS replace-
ment. The main difference in samples with 5% BGWNP was that
EDX spectrums showed relatively low SiO2/Al2O3 which may indi-
cate that higher Al ions were substituted in the C, N-A-S-H chain. In
the case where BGWNP content increased from 5% to 15%, the
reduction in compressive strength could be attributed to reduce the
Al2O3 and CaO content with increasing amount of SiO2. This led to
the formulation of less gels compared to addition with 5% BGWNP.

3.13. FTIR spectra

Fig. 13. Relationship between CS (a) FS, (b) STS and (c) MoE of AAMs.
FTIR measurements were performed to identify the formation of
reaction products and degree of geopolymerization in various
generated by the entrapped air in fresh mortar. Consequently, AAMs matrices. Through the chemical analysis to find the func-
considering these two opposite processes, there is an optimal value tional groups based on bonding vibrations, FTIR detected the re-
of BGWNP amount at which the lowest porosity of AAMs can be action zones of SieO and AleO in AAMs mixtures (Fig. 19). In such a
obtained. matrix, development of compressive strength occurred with the
dissolution of minerals resulting from the addition of alkaline ac-
tivators to the base materials. It led to the release of Al via the
3.11. XRD patterns of AAMs hydroxylation. This in turn caused the attachment of eOH ions
present in the alkali to form AleOeAl bond by rupturing the weak
Fig. 16 illustrates the XRD patterns and the crystalline structure bonds which liberated a negatively charged Al in IV fold coordi-
of the AAMs at age of 28 days. An amorphous hallow was identified nation. Finally, a balanced charge was achieved by Ca which reacted
between 20
and 35
, indicating the presence of AAM gel. The effect preferentially over Na (García-Lodeiro et al., 2010). GBFS containing
of BGWNP inclusion in AAMs matrix appeared in the XRD pattern higher CaO than FA (Table 3) revealed good potential for Ca solu-
between 24
and 34
with the increase in intensity of albite bility in the mixture. The quantity of soluble Ca depended on the
(Na0.95Ca0.05Al1.05Si2.95O8) and gismondine (CaAl2Si2O8$4(H2O)) volume of GBFS present in the mixture which directly affected the
peaks. However, the intensity of quartz (SiO2) peak at 36
decreased compressive strength. It is established that the unit oligomer of
with the inclusion of BGWNP in AAMs. The increment in albite and (eSieOeAl) Ca could be built up in chains, sheets or 3D-framework
gismondine and reduction in quartz peaks suggested the formation through the polycondensation process to cause product hardening
 G.F. Huseien et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 243 (2020) 118636 11

Fig. 14. Histograms of strength properties of AAMs containing various amounts of BGWNP.

Fig. 15. Water absorption of AAMs containing various ratios of BGWNP at age of 28
day. Fig. 16. Effect of various BGWNP contents on structures of prepared AAMs.
12 G.F. Huseien et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 243 (2020) 118636

Fig. 17. FESEM images of AAMs containing different proportions of BGWNP.

(Yusuf et al., 2014). gels formation and increase in nano-silica amount. These changes
The main aim of this study was to replace GBFS by BGWNP to slowed down the rate of geopolymerization and affected the me-
enhance performance strength, durability and sustainability of chanical strength of AAMs negatively.
AAMs. As the BGWNP content increased from 0 to 5%, the 28 days’
strength enhanced from 56.2 to 65.5 MPa. However, the increase in 3.14. TGA and DTG curves
BGWNP content to 10, 15 and 20% allowed the strength to drop to
56.9, 46.4 and 42.1 MPa, respectively. Fig. 18 depicts such changes. Fig. 20a and b represent the respective TGA and DTG curves of
The band of SieOeAl in 0% BGWNP (989.5 cm 1) then shifted to AAMs containing 5 and 15% of BGWNP as GBFS replacement. The
985.3 and 987.9 cm1 for AAMs with 5 and 10% BGWNP, respec- TGA and DTG analyses were conducted to determine the weight
tively. The SieOeAl band frequency was decreased, indicting an loss percentage of AAMs. The AAMs specimens prepared with 5% of
enhancement in C(N)-A-S-H gel product. This led to high homog- BGWNP as GBFS replacement showed lower weight loss (10.47%)
enous structure of AAMs for 5 and 10% BGWNP content and compared to specimen contained 15% of BGWNP which showed
resulted higher silicate re-organization compared to 0% BGWNP more than 12.12% weight loss and revealed stable behavior.
specimens. With increase in BGWNP level from 15 to 20%, a lower Furthermore, the percentage of CeSeH gel in AAM containing 5%
compressive strength and increase in the band frequency reading BGWNP was higher than (9.63%) the one calculated with 15%
to 990.4 and 995.4 cm1, respectively were observed. The bending BGWNP (7.82%). The percentage of calcium hydroxide was also
modes of SieOeSi at 775.2 cm1 were shifted to 754.2 cm1 with calculated. It showed the highest percentage in specimens con-
increasing BGWNP level from 0 to 5%, respectively. This decrease in taining 15% BGWNP (5.73%) compared to 4.53% in AAMs containing
the SieOeSi bond frequency with BGWNP content increase indi- 5% BGWNP. The high stability of AAMs containing 5% BGWNP was
cated an increment in CeSeH gel product formation. The vibration attributed to the presence of high amount of CeSeH gel and low
frequency was decreased with increase in molecular molar mass of percentage of Ca (OH)2. This clearly suggests the benefit of BGWNP
the attached atoms. Thus, GBFS released soluble Ca thereby dis- in enhancing the microstructure properties and increasing the
placing the Si atoms from SieO bonds, hence reduction in the strength performance of proposed AAMs. Singh et al. (2015) also
vibrational frequency. The addition of BGWNP caused the incre- acknowledged that the hydration products lead to densification of
ment in SiO2/Al2O3 ratio and the vibrational frequency of SieOeSi bulk paste matrix and enhance the mechanical properties and
(Al) (Lee and Van Deventer, 2002). durability of mortars containing Nano powder. The existence of
It was reported that in Ca-based AAMs the condensation results calcium hydroxide and calcium silicate hydrate in AAMs were
from hydroxylation of gehlenite and akermanite phases to form calculated using Eq. (7) and Eq. (8) respectively:
cyclo Ca-ortho-sialate-disiloxo (C3AS3) and Ca-disiloxonate hydrate
(CeSeH), respectively (Davidovits, 2011). Another evidence of CeSeH gel (%) ¼ Total LOI e LOI CH e LOI CC (7a)
structural reorganization is the band shifting of AlO4 vibration from
873.6 cm1 to 872.1 and 874.8 cm1 in samples prepared with of 0, where LOI(CH) is the dehydration of calcium hydroxide in the
5 and 10% FA binder, respectively. Based on these values, increase in 400e550
C range, and LOI(CC) is the carbon dioxide loss in the
BGWNP content was found to cause structural changes in the 600e750
C range.
examined AAMs. Such alterations in AAMs network structures
could be attributed to the enhancement of CeSeH and C(N)-A-S-H CH (%) ¼ WL CH (%) ☓ [MW CH / MW H] (8a)
 G.F. Huseien et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 243 (2020) 118636 13

Fig. 18. EDX spectra and maps of AAMs containing BGWNP (a) 5% (b) 15%.

where WL(CH) is the weight loss ascribed to CH dehydration,

MW(CH) is the molecular weights of CH (74 g mol1), and MW(H) is
the molecular weight of water (18 g mol1).

3.15. Life cycle evaluation

The effect of BGWNP replacing GBFS in AAMs on binder cost,

carbon dioxide emission and energy consumption are depicted in
Figs. 21e23, respectively. The AAM binder cost (Fig. 21) decreased
with the increase in BGWNP level. The cost dropped from RM 104.9
to 101.3, 97.7, 94.2 and RM 90.6 as the replacement level of GBFS by
BGWNP increased from 0% to 5, 10, 15 and 20%, respectively. In
short, reuse of glass bottle waste in the form of Nano powder to
replace GBFS contributed to save cost up to 13%.
Fig. 22 shows the CO2 emission of AAMs depending on the
replacement level of GBFS by BGWNP. The CO2 emissions of all
AAMs binder was influenced by BGWNP content and their values
dropped from 35.6 CO2 kg per ton to 33.2, 30.8, 28.4 and 25.9 CO2 kg
per ton as the BGWNP content replacing GBFS raised from 0 to 5, 10,
15 and 20%, respectively.
Fig. 19. FTIR spectra of AAMs prepared with different amounts of BGWNP. Fig. 23 displays the influence of BGWNP on energy consumption
of AAM binder. The energy consumption was directly proportional
to the BGWNP content, whereby its increasing content from 0 to 5,
14 G.F. Huseien et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 243 (2020) 118636

Fig. 22. GBFS to BGWNP ratio dependent CO2 emission from AAMs.

Fig. 20. TGA and DTG curves of prepared AAMs with BGWNP (a) 5%, and (b) 15%.

Fig. 23. Influence of AAMs binder energy consumption by BGWNP content.

4. Conclusions

This work disclosed the feasibility of reusing glass bottle waste

Nano powder in place of GBFS to produce AAMs. Based on detailed
experimental analyses, the following conclusions emerged:

1. AAMs workability increased with increasing BGWNP content.

The initial and final setting times took longer for mixtures
containing BGWNP as replacement of GBFS.
2. The achieved compressive strength, flexural strength, splitting
tensile strength and modulus of elasticity were optimum for
AAMs containing 5% BGWNP as replacement of GBFS. However,
Fig. 21. AAMs binders cost with various ratios of GBFS to BGWNP. increased replacement levels up to 10% negatively affected the
AAMs strength.
3. Inclusion of BGWNP in AAMs matrix was highly effective to
10, 15 and 20% as GBFS replacement could reduce energy con- enhance the durability and to reduce water absorption capacity.
sumption from 0.551 Gl/t to 0.544, 0.537, 0.527 and 0.523 Gl/t, AAMs prepared with 5% and 10% of BGWNP showed better
respectively. Previous studies (McLellan et al., 2011; Huseien et al., performance than the control sample.
2019a) also reported that a decrease in GBFS content in AAMs 4. XRD, FESEM, EDS, FTIR and TGA analyses showed the
mixtures reduced the carbon dioxide, cost and energy enhancement in microstructures and CeSeH gel formation of
consumption. AAMs containing less than 10% BGWNP.
 G.F. Huseien et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 243 (2020) 118636 15

5. Replacement of GBFS by BGWNP can be regarded as activators on properties of GBFS geopolymer mortars containing fly ash and
palm-oil fuel ash. Constr. Build. Mater. 125, 1229e1240. https://doi.org/10.1016/
environment-friendly where re-used of glass bottle waste could
j.conbuildmat.2016.08.153.
diminish the CO2 emission, save energy and reduce the total Huseien, G.F., et al., 2017. Geopolymer mortars as sustainable repair material: a
electricity and fuel consumption, thus leading to cost reduction comprehensive review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 80, 54e74. https://doi.org/
and enhanced sustainability. 10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.076.
Huseien, G.F., et al., 2018. Effects of POFA replaced with FA on durability properties
6. Recycling the glass bottles waste could reduce the landfill of GBFS included alkali activated mortars. Constr. Build. Mater. 175, 174e186.
problems, energy savings and minimize the demand of natural https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.04.166.
materials in construction industry. Huseien, G.F., et al., 2018. Waste ceramic powder incorporated alkali activated
mortars exposed to elevated Temperatures: performance evaluation. Constr.
Build. Mater. 187, 307e317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.07.226.
Acknowledgement Huseien, G.F., et al., 2018. Compressive strength and microstructure of assorted
wastes incorporated geopolymer mortars: effect of solution molarity. Alexan-
dria Eng. J. 57 (4), 3375e3386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2018.07.011.
This research was supported and funded by UTM’s Centre of Huseien, G.F., et al., 2018. Effect of metakaolin replaced granulated blast furnace
Excellence grant Q.J130000.2409.04G00. Authors would like to take slag on fresh and early strength properties of geopolymer mortar. Ain Shams
the opportunity to thank the grants provider, namely Universiti Eng. J. 9 (4), 1557e1566. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2016.11.011.
Huseien, G.F., Ismail, M., Mirza, J., 2018. Influence of curing methods and sodium
Teknologi Malaysia and Ministry of Higher Education, staff from silicate content on compressive strength and microstructure of multi blend
Materials and Structure Laboratory, School of Civil Engineering, geopolymer mortars. Adv. Sci. Lett. 24 (6), 4218e4222. https://doi.org/10.1166/
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, the EM Malaysia Sdn. Bhd. and EMRO asl.2018.11575.
Huseien, G.F., Mirza, J., Ismail, M., 2018. Effects of high volume ceramic binders on
Japan for their support and cooperation in conducting this research. flexural strength of self-compacting geopolymer concrete. Adv. Sci. Lett. 24 (6),
4097e4101. https://doi.org/10.1166/asl.2018.11549.
Appendix A. Supplementary data Huseien, G.F., et al., 2018. Synergism between palm oil fuel ash and slag: production
of environmental-friendly alkali activated mortars with enhanced properties.
Constr. Build. Mater. 170, 235e244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at 03.031.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118636. Huseien, G.F., et al., 2019. Evaluation of alkali-activated mortars containing high
volume waste ceramic powder and fly ash replacing GBFS. Constr. Build. Mater.
210, 78e92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.03.194.
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