Chapter 3
Chapter 3
Chapter 3
Academic Accommodation) by
QUIZ #3 email your answers
John BROWN, st. #391245 to: athul066@uottawa.ca
cc: stadnik@uottawa.ca
1. D
2. C
3. E
4. A
We associate the concept of temperature Two objects are in thermal contact with
with how hot or cold an objects feels each other if energy can be exchanged
Our senses provide us with a qualitative between them
indication of temperature The exchanges we will focus on will be in the
Our senses are unreliable for this purpose form of heat or electromagnetic radiation
We need a reliable and reproducible The energy is exchanged due to a temperature
method for measuring the relative hotness difference
or coldness of objects
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Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Thermal Equilibrium
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Thermometers
A thermometer is a device that is used These properties include:
to measure the temperature of a system The volume of a liquid
The dimensions of a solid
Thermometers are based on the principle
The pressure of a gas at a constant volume
that some physical property of a system The volume of a gas at a constant pressure
changes as the system’s temperature The electric resistance of a conductor
changes The color of an object
A temperature scale can be established on
the basis of any of these physical properties
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The triple point of water occurs at
0.01°C and 4.58 mm of mercury (610 Pa, 0.006 atm)
This temperature was set to be 273.16 on the
The absolute scale is also called the Kelvin scale
absolute temperature scale: Ttriple = 273.16 K
Named for William Thomson, Lord Kelvin
This made the old absolute scale (based on the ice
and steam points) agree closely with the new one The triple point temperature is 273.16 K
The units of the absolute scale are kelvins No degree symbol is used with kelvins
The kelvin is defined as 1/273.16 of the difference
between absolute zero and the temperature of the
triple point of water
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Fahrenheit Scale
The figure at right gives some
absolute temperatures at A common scale in everyday use in the US
which various physical Named for Daniel Fahrenheit
processes occur
The scale is logarithmic Temperature of the ice point is 32oF
The temperature of absolute Temperature of the steam point is 212oF
zero cannot be achieved There are 180 divisions (degrees)
Experiments have come close
between the two reference points
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Comparison of Scales
Celsius and Kelvin have the same size To compare changes in temperature
degrees, but different starting points
TC = T – 273.15
Celsius and Fahrenheit have different Ice point temperatures
sized degrees and different starting points 0oC = 273.15 K = 32oF
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Thermal Expansion
Thermal Expansion
Demo: the metal ring and metal sphere
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Thermal Expansion
Thermal expansion is the increase in the size of As the washer shown at right is
an object with an increase in its temperature heated, all the dimensions will
Thermal expansion is a consequence of the increase
change in the average separation between the A cavity in a piece of material
atoms in an object
expands in the same way as if the
If the expansion is small relative to the original cavity were filled with the material
dimensions of the object, the change in any
dimension is, to a good approximation, The expansion is exaggerated in
proportional to the first power of the change in this figure
temperature
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Assume an object has an initial length L This equation can also be written in
That length increases by ∆L as the terms of the initial and final conditions
temperature changes by ∆T of the object:
We define the coefficient of linear Lf – Li = α Li (Tf – Ti)
expansion as The coefficient of linear expansion, α,
∆L / Li has units of (oC)-1
α=
∆T
A convenient form is ∆L = αLi ∆T
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Some materials expand along one
dimension, but contract along another as the
temperature increases
Since the linear dimensions change, it
follows that the surface area and volume
also change with a change in temperature
A hole in a piece of material expands in the
same way as if the cavity were filled with
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the material 34
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Area Expansion
The change in area is proportional to the
original area and to the change in
temperature:
∆A = 2αAi ∆T
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Above 4°C, water expands When the atmospheric temperature drops from, e.g., 7°C to 6°C, the surface
water also cools and consequently decreases in volume → the surface water is
with increasing temperature denser than the water below it, which has not cooled and decreased in volume →
Its density decreases the surface water sinks, and warmer water from below is forced to the surface to
be cooled.
The maximum density of water
When the atmospheric temperature is between 4°C to 0°C, however, the surface
(1.000 g/cm3) occurs at 4°C
water expands as it cools, becoming less dense than the water below it → the
mixing process stops, and eventually the surface water freezes.
As the water freezes, the ice remains on the surface because ice is less dense
than water → the ice continues to build up at the surface, while water near the
bottom remains at 4°C. If this were not the case, then fish and other forms of
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marine life would not survive.
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Mechanical Equivalent of Heat
Units of Heat
Historically, the calorie was the unit used for heat Joule established the equivalence
between mechanical energy and
One calorie is the amount of energy transfer necessary to
internal energy
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Q
c≡
m ∆T
Specific Heat
Specific heat, c, is the heat capacity The specific heat is essentially a measure of
how insensitive a substance is to the addition of
per unit mass energy
If energy Q transfers to a sample of a The greater the substance’s specific heat, the more
substance of mass m and the energy that must be added to cause a particular
temperature change
temperature changes by ∆T, then the
From the definition of c, one can relate the
specific heat is energy Q transferred between a sample of
Q mass m of a material and its surroundings to a
c≡ temperature change ∆T as
m ∆T
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Q = m c ∆T 54
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Film: 14-17 (Specific Heat) Sign Conventions
If the temperature increases:
Q and ∆T are positive
Energy transfers into the system
If the temperature decreases:
Q and ∆T are negative
Energy transfers out of the system
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water
There is only about a 1% variation between
Global wind systems
0° and 100°C
Phase Changes
Latent Heat
A phase change is when a substance changes Different substances react differently to the
from one form to another energy added or removed during a phase
Two common phase changes are change
Solid to liquid (melting) Due to their different molecular arrangements
Liquid to gas (boiling) The amount of energy also depends on the
Solid to gas (sublimation) mass of the sample
During a phase change, there is no change in If an amount of energy Q is required to change
temperature of the substance the phase of a sample of mass m, L ≡ Q /m
For example, in boiling the increase in internal energy is
represented by the breaking of the bonds between
molecules, giving the molecules of the gas a higher
intermolecular potential energy 63 64
Latent Heat Latent Heat
The latent heat of fusion (Lf ) is used when the
The quantity L is called the latent heat phase change is from solid to liquid
of the material The latent heat of vaporization (Lv ) is used when
Latent means “hidden” the phase change is from liquid to gas
The value of L depends on the substance The latent heat of sublimation (Ls ) is used when
as well as the actual phase change the phase change is from solid to gas
The positive sign of Q is used when the energy is
The energy required to change the transferred into the system
phase is Q = ± mL This will result in melting or boiling
The negative sign of Q is used when energy is
transferred out of the system
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This will result in freezing or condensation 66
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A plot of temperature versus energy added when a
system initially consisting of 1.00 g of ice at Warming Ice, Graph Part A
−30.0°C is converted to steam at 120.0°C
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Boiling Water, Graph Part D Heating Steam
Supercooling Superheating
If liquid water is held perfectly still in a very clean Water can rise to a temperature greater than 100oC without
container, it is possible for the temperature to drop below boiling
0oC without freezing This phenomena is called superheating
This phenomenon is called supercooling The formation of a bubble of steam in the water requires
It arises because the water requires a disturbance of some nucleation site (this could be a scratch in the container or an
sort for the molecules to move apart and start forming the impurity in the water)
open ice crystal structures (this structure makes the density When disturbed, the superheated water can become
of ice less than that of water) explosive (the bubbles will immediately form and hot water
If the supercooled water is disturbed, it immediately freezes is forced upward and out of the container)
and the energy released returns the temperature to 0oC
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Molar Specific Heat
Molar specific heats:
Q = nCV ∆T for constant-volume processes
n – number of moles in mass m Q = nCP ∆T for constant-pressure processes
M – molecular weight Q (constant pressure) must account for
both the increase in internal energy and
C – molar specific heat
the transfer of energy out of the system
c – specific heat by work
Qconstant P > Qconstant V for given values of n
and ∆T
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DuLong-Petit Law
At high temperatures, the molar specific M1-6, 7, 14
heats approach the value of 3R
This occurs above 300 K
The molar specific heat of a solid at high
temperature can be explained by the
equipartition theorem
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