TEMPERATURE

Temperature Scales
 To know that a person has a fever, his or her There are different temperature scales. The most
temperature should be measured since common and widely used are the Celsius scale
temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of an (Centigrade), the Fahrenheit scale. However, the most
object. significant is the Kelvin scale. Another temperature scale
Thermometer is the Rankine.
 The instrument used to measure temperature is the
thermometer. THE KELVIN TEMPERATURE SCALE
 Materials used in a thermometer have properties  introduced by the Scottish Physicist William
that change with temperature. These properties Thompson (Lord Kelvin, 1824 – 1907)
are called thermometric properties.  SI Unit for temperature
 Some physical properties that change with  From the constant-volume gas thermometer
temperature are measurement that in every case, the pressure is
o the volume of a liquid, zero when the temperature is −273.15 ℃. This is
o the dimensions of a solid, used as the basis for the absolute temperature
o the pressure of a gas at constant volume, scale, which sets −273.15 ℃, as its zero point.
o the volume of a gas at constant pressure, This temperature is often referred to as absolute
o the electric resistance of a conductor, and zero.
o the color of an object.  Because the ice and steam points are
 There are different kinds of thermometers, but experimentally difficult to duplicate, an absolute
the most common consists of mercury or alcohol dyed temperature scale based on two new fixed points
red enclosed with glass tube. As temperature was adopted in 1954 by the International
increases, the volume of mercury or alcohol Committee on Weights and Measures.
increases. Nowadays, a digital thermometer is o The first point is absolute zero.
already used. o The second reference temperature for
 Thermocouple this new scale was chosen as the triple
o a thermometer used extensively in point of water, which is the
scientific laboratories single combination of temperature and
o consists of thin wires of different metals, pressure at which liquid water, gaseous
welded together at the ends to form two water, and ice (solid water) coexist in
junctions equilibrium. This triple point occurs at a
o generates voltage that depends on the temperature of
difference in temperature between two 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 ℃ and a pressure of 𝟒. 𝟓𝟖 𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈.
junctions The temperature of water at the triple
o The voltage is the thermometric property point was set at 273.16 kelvins,
and is measured by a voltmeter. abbreviated
o used to measure temperatures as high as 273.16 K.
2300 ℃ or as low as −270℃
 Electrical resistance thermometers Temperature Freezing (ice) Boiling (steam)
o often made from platinum wire because Scale point of water point of water
platinum has an excellent mechanical Celsius (℃) 0.0℃ 100.0℃
and electrical properties in the Fahrenheit (℉) 32 ℉ 212 ℉
temperature range from −270 ℃ to Kelvin (K) 273.15 𝐾 373.15 𝐾
+ 700 ℃ Rankine (°𝑅) 491.67 °𝑅 671.67°𝑅
o electrical resistance of platinum wire is
known as a function of temperature
Converting on Temperature Scale into another
 constant-volume gas thermometer
 Celsius scale to Fahrenheit scale
o the gas volume is kept constant, and 9
change in gas pressure is used to o 𝑇𝐹 = 5 𝑇𝐶 + 32 ℉
measure a change in temperature  Fahrenheit scale to Celsius scale
5
o the measured temperatures agree closely o 𝑇𝐶 = 9 (𝑇𝐹 − 32)
even far from the calibration points,  Celsius scale to Kelvin scale
above 100 ℃ and below 0 ℃ o 𝑇𝐾 = 𝑇𝐶 + 273.15
o in every case, the pressure is zero when  Celsius to Rankine
the temperature is −273.15 ℃. 9
o 𝑇𝑅 = 5 (𝑇𝐶 + 273.15)

1|TEMPERATURE, HEAT, AND INTERNAL ENERGY

 EXAMPLES:
THERMAL EXPANSION 1. A pan of water is heated from 25°C to 90°C. What
 Thermal expansion is a consequence of the is the change in its temperature on the Kelvin
change in the average separation between the scale, on the Fahrenheit scale, and on the Rankine
atoms in an object. scale?
 Most materials expand when heated and contract 2. Inside aluminum block is a hollow spherical
when cooled. cavity of radius 4.50 cm. The block is placed in a
furnace and is heated from 25℃ 𝑡𝑜 285 ℃. A)
 Linear Thermal Expansion of solid
What is the change in volume of the cavity? B)
o increase in any one dimension of a solid
when it is subject to change in Does the cavity become larger of smaller? Why?
temperature 𝛽𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑚 = 69 𝑋 10−6 /𝐶°
o The length 𝐿0 of an object changes by an 3. A cable wire made of copper has essentially no
amount ∆𝐿 when its temperature sag between poles 40 𝑚 apart on a winter day
changes by an amount ∆𝑇: when the temperature is − 20.0 °𝐶. How much
∆𝐋 = 𝛂 𝐋𝟎 𝚫𝑻
longer is the wire on a summer day
where 𝜶 is the coefficient of linear
𝟏 when the temperature is 35.0 °𝐶?
expansion which has a common unit 𝑪°.
o When solids cannot freely expand, they Thermal Equilibrium
experience thermal stress.
𝐹 Δ𝐿  Two objects are in thermal equilibrium with each
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = 𝑌
𝐴 𝐿0 other if they do not exchange energy when in
where 𝑌 is the Young’s modulus.
thermal contact.
 Do holes expand or contract when temperature HEAT AND INTERNAL ENERGY
increases? HEAT
 Holes in a piece of solid materials expand  an energy that flows from an object with a higher
when heated and contracts when cooled, temperature to an object with a lower one
just as if it were filled with the material  SI Unit : joule (J)
that surrounds it.  Other unit: calorie (cal) ; 1 cal = 4.186 joules
 Area Thermal Expansion of solid INTERNAL ENERGY
o The area 𝐴0 of an object changes by an  sum of all the molecular kinetic energy, molecular
amount ∆𝐴 when its temperature potential energy and other molecular energies of a
changes by an amount ∆𝑇: substance
∆𝐀 = 𝛄𝐀𝟎 𝚫𝑻 Note: It is not right to say that an object or substance has
o where 𝜸 is the coefficient of area
𝟏 heat, instead it has internal energy.
expansion which has a common unit and is
𝑪°
equal to 𝜸 = 𝟐𝜶. HEAT AND TEMPERATURE CHANGE
 To raise the temperature of solids or liquids to a
 Volume Thermal Expansion higher value requires greater amounts of heat.
o The volume of a normal materials  HEAT SUPPLIED OR REMOVED IN CHANGING
increases when heated and decreases THE TEMPERATURE OF A SUBSTANCE
when cooled. Most solids and liquids  The heat Q that must be supplied or removed to
behave this way. change the temperature of a substance of mass m
o The area 𝑉0 of an object changes by an by an amount of ΔT is
amount ∆𝑉 when its temperature 𝑸 = 𝒎𝒄∆𝑻
changes by an amount ∆𝑇: where 𝑐 is the specific heat capacity of a
∆𝐕 = 𝛃𝐕𝟎 𝚫𝑻 substance.
o where 𝜷 is the coefficient of volume  Common Unit for specific heat capacity: 𝑱/𝒌𝒈 ∙ 𝑪°
𝟏
expansion which has a common unit and is  The specific heat capacity depends on the nature
𝑪°
of a material
equal to 𝜷 = 𝟑𝜶.
 Example:
1. In a half hour, a 65 – kg jogger can generate a
 What is the anomalous expansion of water?
heat of 8.0 𝑋 105 𝐽 of heat. This heat is
removed from the jogger’s body by a variety

2|TEMPERATURE, HEAT, AND INTERNAL ENERGY

 of means, including the body’s own  SI Unit of Latent Heat: J/kg
temperature regulating mechanisms. If the  The latent heat of fusion Lf refers to the change between
heat were not removed, how much would the solid and liquid phases, the latent heat of vaporization
temperature increase? 𝑐ℎ𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 3500 𝐽/ Lvapplies to the change between liquid and gas
𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐶° phases, and the latent heat of sublimation Ls refers to the
2. Cold water at a temperature of 17 ℃ enters a change between solid and gas phases.
heater, and the resulting hot water has a  Example:
temperature of 65 ℃. A person uses 120 kg of 1. Ice at 0℃ is placed in the Styrofoam cup
hot water in taking a shower. a) Find the containing 0.30 kg of lemonade at 27 ℃. The
energy needed to heat the water. b) specific heat capacity of lemonade is virtually the
Assuming that the utility company charges same as that of water. After the ice and the
P3.70 per kilowatt hour for electrical energy, lemonade reach an equilibrium temperature,
determine the cost of heating the water. some ice still remains. Assume that the mass of
the cup is so small that it absorbs a negligible
 For gases, the value of the specific heat capacity amount of heat, and ignore any heat lost to the
depends whether the pressure of volume is held surroundings. Determine the mass of the ice that
4186 𝐽 333 𝑘𝐽
constant while energy in the form of heat added has melted. 𝑐𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑘𝑔∙𝐶° ; 𝐿𝑓 = 𝑘𝑔
to or removed from a substance.
2. A 45.0-g copper calorimeter contains 250 g of
water at 20.0°C. How much steam must be
CALORIMETRY
condensed into the water if the final temperature
 When materials are placed in thermal contact within
of the system is to reach 50.0°C?𝑐𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 =
a perfectly insulated container, the principle of 4186 𝐽 387 𝐽 22.6 𝑋 105 𝐽
energy conservation requires that the heat lost by ; 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 𝑘𝑔∙𝐶° ; 𝐿𝑣 =
𝑘𝑔∙𝐶° 𝑘𝑔
warmer materials equals heat gained by cooler materials.
The exchange of energy is the basis for a technique HEAT TRANSFER
known as calorimetry, which is the quantitative  When heat is transferred to or from a substance, the
measurement of heat exchange. To make such internal energy of the substance can change and this
measurements, a calorimeter is used. change is accompanied by a change in temperature or
𝑸𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 = 𝑸𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 a change in phase.
 Example:  Heat is transferred in three different ways: by
1. A calorimeter cup is made from 0.25 kg of conduction, convection, radiation.
aluminum and contains 0.15 kg of water. Initially,  CONDUCTION
the water and the cup have a common  Conduction is the process whereby heat is
temperature of 20.0 ℃. A 0.050-kg mass of transferred directly through a material, any bulk
unknown material is heated to a temperature of motion of the material playing no role in the
95.0 ℃ and then added to the water. After transfer.
thermal equilibrium is re-established, the  Heat conduction from one point to another takes
temperature of the system is 25.0 ℃. Find the place only if there is a difference in temperature
specific heat capacity of the unknown material. between two points.
4186 𝐽 900 𝐽
𝑐𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = ; 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑚 =  One mechanism for conduction occurs when the
𝑘𝑔∙𝐶° 𝑘𝑔∙𝐶°
atoms or molecules in a hotter part of a material
2. At a fabrication plant, a hot metal forging has a
430 𝐽 vibrate or move with the greater energy than
mass of 65 kg and a specific heat capacity of 𝑘𝑔∙𝐶° those in cooler part. By means collisions, the
. To harden it, the forging is quenched by more energetic molecules pass on some of their
immersion in 700 kg oil that has a temperature of energy to their less energetic neighbors.
2700 𝐽
30 ℃ and a specific heat capacity of 𝑘𝑔∙𝐶° . The  A similar mechanism for the conduction of heat
final temperature of the oil and the forging at occurs in metals. Metals have free electrons that
thermal equilibrium is 47 ℃. Determine the initial can transport energy and allow metals to transfer
temperature of the forging. heat very well.
o Thermal conductors
HEAT AND PHASE CHANGE: LATENT  materials that conduct heat well
HEAT o thermal insulators
 The heat Q that must be supplied or removed to  materials that conduct heat
change the phase of a mass m of a substance is poorly
Q = mL  CONDUCTION OF HEAT THROUGH A
where L is the latent heat of the substance. MATERIAL

3|TEMPERATURE, HEAT, AND INTERNAL ENERGY

 o The heat Q conducted during a time t  Example:
through a bar length L and cross 1. How long does it take the Sun to melt a block
sectional area A is of ice at 0 ℃ with a flat horizontal area 1.0 m2
(𝒌𝑨∆𝑻)𝒕 and thickness 1.0 cm? Assume that the Sun’s
𝑸=
𝑳 rays make an angle of 35 ℃ with the vertical
where∆𝑇 is the temperature difference and the emissivity if ice is 0.050.
between the ends of the bar, 𝑘 is the 2. A supergiant star Betelgeuse has a surface
thermal conductivity of the material. temperature of about 2900 K and emits a
o SI Unit of thermal conductivity: 𝑱/(𝒔 ∙ 𝒎 ∙ radiant power of approximately 4 𝑋 1030 𝑊.
𝑪°) The temperature is about 10, 000 greater than
that of our sun. Assuming that Betelgeuse is
 Example: a perfect emitter (e = 1) and spherical, find its
1. One end of a 45-cm long copper rod with a radius.
diameter of 2.0 cm is kept at 460℃, and the
other is immersed in water at 22 ℃. Calculate
the heat conduction rate along the References:
rod.𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 390 𝐽/(𝑠 ∙ 𝑚 ∙ 𝐶°) [1] J.D. Cutnell and K.W. Johnson. Physics. 5th Edition.
2. When excessive heat is produced within the John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, 2001
body, it must be transferred to the skin and [2] Serway and Jewett. Physics for Scientista and Engineers.
dispersed if the temperature at the body 6th Edition
interior is to be maintained at the normal [3] D.G. Giancoli. Physics for Scientists and Engineers with
value of 37.0 ℃. Suppose that heat travels Modern Physics. 4th Edition. Pearson Prentice Hall, New
through 0.030 m of fat in reaching the skin, Jersey, 2009.
which has a total surface area of 1.7 m2 and a
temperature of 34.0 ℃. Find the amount of
heat that reaches the skin in half an hour.
𝑘𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑡 = 0.20 𝐽/(𝑠 ∙ 𝑚 ∙ 𝐶°)

 CONVECTION
 Convection is the process in which heat is carried
from a place to place by the bulk movement of
fluid.
 During natural convection, the warmer, less
dense part of a fluid is pushed upward by the
buoyant force provided by the surrounding
cooler and denser part. Forced convection occurs
when the external device, such as a fan or a
pump, causes the fluid to move.

 RADIATION
 Radiation is the process in which energy is
transferred by electromagnetic waves.
 All objects, regardless of their temperatures,
simultaneously absorb and emit EM waves.
 STEFAN – BOLTZMANN LAW OF
RADIATION
o The radiation energy Q, emitted in time t
by an object that has a Kelvin
temperature T, a surface area A, and an
emissivity e, is given by
𝑸 = 𝒆𝝈𝑻𝟒 𝒕𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
where 𝜎 is the Stefan – Boltzmann
constant and has a value of
𝟓. 𝟔𝟕 𝑿 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝑱/(𝒔 ∙ 𝒎𝟐 ∙ 𝑲𝟒 ) .

4|TEMPERATURE, HEAT, AND INTERNAL ENERGY