PARVATHAREDDY BABUL REDDY

VISVODAYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

(Affiliated to J.N.T.U.A, Approved by AICTE and Accredited by NAAC)
KAVALI – 524201, S.P.S.R Nellore Dist., A.P. India.Ph: 08626-243930

Regulation-R23
ECE & ALLIED BRANCHES
COURSE CODE :23A04401A
 I Year B.Tech. ECE–II Semester

NETWORK ANALYSIS SYLLABUS

Course Objectives:

 To introduce basic laws, mesh & nodal analysis techniques for solving electrical
circuits
 To impart knowledge on applying appropriate theorem for electrical circuit analysis
 To explain transient behavior of circuits in time and frequency domains
 To teach concepts of resonance
 To introduce open circuit, short circuit, transmission, hybrid parameters and their inter
relationship
Course Outcomes:
At the end of this course students will demonstrate the ability to
CO1: Understand basic electrical circuits with nodal and mesh analysis.
CO2: Analyze the circuit using network simplification theorems.
CO3: Find Transient response and Steady state response of a network
CO4: Analyze electrical networks in the Laplace domain.
CO5: Compute the parameters of a two-port network.

UNIT- I
Types of circuit components, Types of Sources and Source Transformations, Mesh analysis
and Nodal analysis, problem solving with resistances only including dependent sources also.
Principal of Duality with examples.
Network Theorems: Thevenin’s, Norton’s, Milliman’s, Reciprocity, Compensation,
Substitution, Superposition, Max Power Transfer, Tellegens - problem solving using
dependent sources also.

UNIT- II
Transients: First order differential equations, Definition of time constants, R-L circuit, R-C
circuit with DC excitation, evaluating initial conditions procedure, second order differential
equations, homogeneous, non-homogenous, problem-solving using R-L-C elements with DC
excitation and AC excitation, Response as related to s-plane rotation of roots.
Laplace transform: Introduction, Laplace transformation, basic theorems, problem solving
using Laplace transform, partial fraction expansion, Heaviside’s expansions, problem solving
using Laplace transform.
UNIT -III
Steady State Analysis of A.C Circuits: Impedance concept, phase angle, series R-L, R-C, R-
L-C circuits problem solving. Complex impedance and phasor notation for R-L, R-C, R-L-C
problem solving using mesh and nodal analysis, Star-Delta conversion, problem solving using
Laplace transforms also.

UNIT-IV
Resonance: Introduction, Definition of Q, Series resonance, Bandwidth of series resonance,
Parallel resonance, general case-resistance present in both branches, anti-resonance at all
frequencies.
Coupled Circuits: Coupled Circuits: Self-inductance, Mutual inductance, Coefficient of
coupling, analysis of coupled circuits, Natural current, Dot rule of coupled circuits,
conductively coupled equivalent circuits- problem solving.

UNIT-V

Two-port Networks: Relationship of two port networks, Z-parameters, Y-parameters,

Transmission line parameters, h-parameters, Relationships Between parameter Sets, Parallel
& series connection of two port networks, cascading of two port networks, problem solving
using dependent sources also.
Image and iterative impedances. Image and iterative transfer constants. Insertion loss.
Attenuators and pads. Lattice network and its parameters. Impedance matching networks.
Text books:

1. Network Analysis– ME Van Valkenburg, PrenticeHall of India, revised 3rd Edition,

2019.
2. Engineering Circuit Analysis by William H. Hayt, Jack Kemmerly, Jamie Phillips,
Steven M. Durbin, 9th Edition 2020.
3. NetworklinesandFieldsbyJohn.D.Ryder2 ndEdition, PHI

Reference Books:

1. D.Roy Choudhury,Networks and Systems, New Age International Publications, 2013.

2. Joseph Edminister and Mahmood Nahvi, Electric Circuits, Schaum’s Outline Series,
7th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company, New Delhi, 2017
3. Fundamentals of Electric Circuits by Charles K.Alexander and Matthew N.O. Sadiku,
McGraw-Hill Education.
 NETWORK ANALYSIS
UNIT:1
Network Element

A network element is the basic building block of an electrical network. The network element is
sometimes also called a circuit element or circuit component.

A network element can be defined as a mathematical model of an electrical device and is characterized
by its voltage and current relationship. Also, a network element or circuit element cannot be further
divided into a device. Thus, the network element is the most fundamental component of an electrical
system.

Classification of Network Elements

Based on the behavior of a network element in the circuit, the network elements are classified into the
following types:

 Active Elements
 Passive Elements
 Bilateral Elements
 Unilateral Elements
 Linear Elements
 Non-Linear Elements
 Lumped Elements
 Distributed Elements
(1). Active Elements

When a network element or circuit element has the ability to deliver electrical energy or to
produce power gain in the circuit, then the element is called an active element.

In other words, a circuit element for which the slope of its characteristics curve at any point is negative
then the element is called an active element.

Common examples of active elements are generators, batteries, other independent sources, transistors,
Op-Amps, etc.

The active elements are able to provide power or power gain to the electric circuit for an infinite
duration of time.

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Note – The transistor (BJT) can provide power amplification or power gain in the circuit so it is an
active element, while the transformer has the same power at input terminals and output terminals,
hence the transformer is not an active element.

(2). Passive Elements

A circuit element that can only absorb electric power is called a passive element. The passive elements
are not able to deliver the electric power or power gain to the circuit.

In other words, if the slope of the characteristics curve of an electric circuit element is positive at all the
points, then the element is a passive element.

Examples of passive elements are resistors, inductors, capacitors, transformers, etc.

Note – The charged inductor and capacitor provide power to the circuit but for a very small time, i.e.
they cannot provide power or power gain for an infinite duration of time which is why they are passive
circuit elements.

(3). Bilateral Elements

The elements for which the relationship between voltage and current remains the same for current
flowing in either direction are known as bilateral elements.

Therefore, for the bilateral elements, the characteristics curve is similar in the opposite quadrants.

Examples of bilateral elements

are resistors, inductors, and
capacitors.

(4). Unilateral Elements

The circuit elements that exhibit the different relationship between current and voltage for two directions
(forward and reverse) of the current are called unilateral elements.

Hence, for the unilateral elements,

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the characteristics curve is different in opposite quadrants.

A PN junction diode is the most common example of a unilateral circuit element.

(5). Linear Elements

An electric circuit element that follows linearity property (i.e. homogeneity and superposition
properties) for the relationship between excitation (input) and response (output), is called a linear
element.

For a linear element, the characteristics curve is always a straight line that passes through the origin.

The most common example of a linear element is an ohmic resistor.

Linearity Property:

The property of a circuit element that describes a linear relationship between excitation (input) and
response (output) is known as the linearity property. The linearity property is a combination of two
sub-properties namely the homogeneity (scaling) property and superposition (additivity) property.

Homogeneity Property – According to the homogeneity property, if the input is scaled (or multiplied)
by a constant (say α), then the output also gets scaled (or multiplied) by the same constant (α), i.e.

For excitation E(t) and response R(t), we have,

E(t)→R(t)

∴αE(t)→αR(t)

Superposition Principle – According to the superposition principle or additivity property, the output
corresponding to a sum of inputs is equal to the sum of the outputs to each input applied separately, i.e.

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If E1(t)→R1(t) and E2(t)→R2(t)

Then, according to the superposition principle,

E1(t)+E2(t)→R1(t)+R2(t)

(6). Non-Linear Elements

The circuit elements that do not follow the linearity property (i.e. homogeneity and superposition) for
the relationship between input and output are called non-linear elements.

In simple words, those elements which are not linear are called non-linear elements.

For the non-linear elements, the characteristics curve may not be a straight line or it may not pass
through the origin.

Examples of non-linear elements include diodes, transistors, vacuum tubes, etc.

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(7). Lumped Elements

A circuit element is considered a lumped element is its physical size is very small with respect to the
wavelength of the signal. Therefore, the separate elements that are very small in size are called lumped
elements.

Examples of lumped elements are resistors, capacitors, and inductors.

(8). Distributed Elements

A distributed element is one that is distributed over the entire length of the circuit and is not
electrically separable. One practical example of a distributed element is transmission lines.

In the case of transmission lines, the resistance, capacitance, and inductance are distributed over the
entire length of the line and it is not possible to consider it at a single point.

Note – At the steady state, we can consider a distributed element as a lumped element.

Therefore, this is all about the network or circuit elements and the classification of circuit elements.

TYPES OF SOURCES:

We can classify the sources into two categories −

 Independent Sources
 Dependent Sources

Independent Sources

As the name suggests, independent sources produce fixed values of voltage or current and these are not
dependent on any other parameter. Independent sources can be further divided into the following two
categories −

 Independent Voltage Sources

 Independent Current Sources

Independent Voltage Sources

An independent voltage source produces a constant voltage across its two terminals. This voltage is
independent of the amount of current that is flowing through the two terminals of voltage source.

Independent ideal voltage source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the following figure.

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The V-I characteristics of an independent ideal voltage source is a constant line, which is always equal
to the source voltage (VS) irrespective of the current value (I). So, the internal resistance of an
independent ideal voltage source is zero Ohms.

Hence, the independent ideal voltage sources do not exist practically, because there will be some
internal resistance.

Independent practical voltage source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the following figure.

There is a deviation in the V-I characteristics of an independent practical voltage source from the V-I
characteristics of an independent ideal voltage source. This is due to the voltage drop across the internal
resistance (RS) of an independent practical voltage source.

Independent Current Sources

An independent current source produces a constant current. This current is independent of the voltage
across its two terminals. Independent ideal current source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the
following figure.

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The V-I characteristics of an independent ideal current source is a constant line, which is always equal
to the source current (IS) irrespective of the voltage value (V). So, the internal resistance of an
independent ideal current source is infinite ohms.
Hence, the independent ideal current sources do not exist practically, because there will be some
internal resistance.

Independent practical current source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the following figure.

There is a deviation in the V-I characteristics of an independent practical current source from the V-I
characteristics of an independent ideal current source. This is due to the amount of current flows through
the internal shunt resistance (RS) of an independent practical current source.

Dependent Sources:

The other class of electrical sources is exemplified by dependent source or controlled source. However the
source voltage or current depends on a voltage across or a current via some other element somewhere else in
the circuit. Sources, that exhibit this dependency, are termed as dependent sources. Both voltage and current
kinds of sources might be dependent, and either might be controlled by a voltage or a current. In common,
dependent source is symbolized by a diamond (◊ )-shaped symbol as not to puzzle it with an independent

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source. One can categorize dependent voltage and current sources into four kinds of sources as shown in
figure below. These are listed below as follows:

(a) Voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)

(b) Current-controlled voltage source (ICVS)

(c) Voltage-controlled current source (VCIS)

(d) Current-controlled current source (ICIS)

Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS)

In voltage-controlled voltage source, the voltage source is dependent on any element of the circuit.

In the above figure, the voltage across the source terminal Vab is dependent on the voltage across the
terminal Vcd,

Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS)

In the voltage controlled current source, the current of the source iab depends on the voltage across the
terminal cd (Vcd) as shown in the figure below:

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Thus,

Where ƞ is a constant known as transconductance and its unit is mho.

Current Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS)

In the current controlled voltage source voltage source of the network depends upon the current of the
network as shown in the figure below

Here the voltage of source Vab depends on the current of the branch cd

Where r is a constant.

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Current Controlled Current Source (CCCS)

In the Current Controlled Current Source, the current source is dependent on the current of the
branch another branch as shown in the figure below

So,

Where β is a constant

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SOURCE TRANSFORMATION

The voltage and current source are mutually transferable or in other words the source transformation i.e.
voltage to the current source and current to a voltage source can be done. Let us understand this by
considering a circuit given below:

Figure A represents a practical voltage source in series with the internal resistance rv, while figure B
represents a practical current source with parallel internal resistance ri

For the practical voltage source the load current will be given by the equation:

Where,

iLv is the load current for the practical voltage source

V is the voltage
rv is the internal resistance of the voltage source
rL is the load resistance

It is assumed that the load resistance rL is connected at the terminal x-y. Similarly for the practical
current source, the load current is given as:

Where,

iLi is the load current for the practical current source

I is the current

ri is the internal resistance of the current source

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rL is the load resistance connected across the terminal x-y in the figure B

Two sources become identical, when we will equate equation (1) and equation (2)

However, for the current source, the terminal voltage at x-y would be Iri, x-y terminal are open. i.e.

V = I x ri

Therefore, we will get,

Therefore, for any practical voltage source, if the ideal voltage is V and internal resistance be rv, the
voltage source can be replaced by a current source I with the internal resistance in parallel with the
current source.

Source Transformation: Conversion of Voltage Source into Current Source

When the voltage source is

connected with the resistance in series and it has to be converted into the current source than the
resistance is connected in parallel with the current source as shown in the above figure.

Where Is = Vs /R

Conversion of Current Source into Voltage Source

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In the above circuit diagram a current source which is connected in parallel with the resistance is
transformed into a voltage source by placing the resistance in series with the voltage source.

Where, Vs = Is *R

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Introduction to Mesh Analysis and Nodal Analysis:
Mesh Analysis and Nodal Analysis are two important techniques used in network analysis to find out
different branch currents and Node voltages. The suitability of each analysis depends mainly on the
number of voltage/current sources in the given network. If the voltage sources are more Mesh
analysis is suitable and if current sources are more Nodal analysis is more suitable.

Mesh Analysis:
Mesh analysis provides general procedure for analyzing circuits using mesh currents as the circuit
variables. Mesh Analysis is applicable only for planar networks. It is preferably useful for the circuits
that have many loops .This analysis is done by using KVL and Ohm's law.

Planar circuit: A planar circuit is one that can be drawn in a plane with no branches crossing one
another. In the figure below (a) is a planar circuit.
Non-Planar circuit: A planar circuit is one that cannot be drawn in a plane without the branches
crossing one another. In the figure below (b) is a n.on-planar circuit and (c) is a planar circuit but
appears like a non-planar circuit

Loop: It is a closed path along the circuit elements.

Mesh: Mesh is a loop which does not contains any loop within it.

Mesh analysis with example:

Determination of mesh currents:

Solution:

Step (1): Identify the no. of meshes in the given circuit.

There are two meshes..Mesh (1) ..... abef
and ….Mesh (2).............................. bcde
Step (2): Apply the KVL to the all meshes.
For mesh (1) by applying KVL… Vs -I1 .R1 + ( I1- I2). R2 =0.............. (1)
For mesh (2) by applying KVL.... I2 .(R3 )+ I2 (R4)+ ( I2- I1). R2=0. .......... (2)

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 NETWORK ANALYSIS
Step (3): solve the above equations for mesh currents.

Problem: Write down the mesh current equations for the circuit shown in the figure
below anddetermine the currents I1 and I2.

Solution:

By applying KVL to the two

meshes, we get
5 I1 + 2(I1-I2)=10
10 I2 + 2( I2- I1)=-50.

Solving the above equations gives ............. I1 = 0.25 A and I2 = -4.25 A. The negative sign for the
Current I2 indicates that it flows in the opposite direction to that assumed in the loop two.

Problem:
Use mesh-current analysis to determine the current flowing in (a the 1Ω resistance of the d.c. circuit
shown in

The mesh currents I1, I2 and I3 are shown in Figure

Using Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
For loop 1, (3 + 5) I1 −I2 = 4 ……………………………………………… (1)
For loop 2, (4 + 1 + 6 + 5) I2 −(5) I1 −(1) I3 = 0………………………………(2)
For l oop3,(1+8)I3 −(1)I2 = 5− ……………………………………(3)
Thus

8I1 −5I2 −4 =0
−5I1 + 16I2 −I3 =0
−I2 + 9I3 + 5 =0

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(a) Current in the 5 Ω resistance = I1 −I2

= 0.595 −0.152
= 0.44A
(b) Current in the 1 Ω resistance = I2 −I3
= 0.152 −(−0.539)
= 0.69A

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Problem:
For the a.c. network shown in Figure determine, using mesh-current analysis, (a) the mesh currents I1
and I2 (b) the current flowing in the capacitor, and (c) the active power delivered by the 100∠0◦V
voltage source.

(a) For the first loop

(5−j4) I1 −(−j4I2) =100∠0◦……………………………………………………(1) For the second
loop
(4+j3−j4)I2 −(−j4I1) =0 ……………………………………………………… (2)

Rewriting equations (1) and (2) gives:

(5 −j4)I1 + j4I2 −100 =0

j4I1 + (4 −j) I2 + 0 =0 Thus, using determinants,

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Thus total power dissipated = 579.97 + 436.81 = 1016.8W = 1020W

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Problem :
Calculate current through -6Ω resistance u

Case(1): Consider loop

ABGH ; Apply KVL .

D3 = 6(220) +4(-80) +10(-

24)
D3 = 760

I1 = D1/D = 260/284 =
0.915A
I2 = D2/D = -320/284 = -1.1267A I3 = D3/D = 760/284 = 2.676A
Current through 6Ω 2 +Iresistance3 = I

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= -1.1267+2.676 = 1.55A

Problem : Find the current through branch a-b using mesh analysis.

Solution:

Consider loops
Loop HADE - > 5I1+2I2+6(I2-I3) = 60
5I1+8I2-6I3 = 60 ------------ (1)
Loop ABCDA - > 3I3+6(I3-I2) = -50
3I3+6I3-6I2 = -50
9I3-6I2 = -50---------- (2)
I2-I1 = 5A ------------------------- (3)
From (1), (2) & (3).

= -1(-400+360)-(-250) +5(-30)
= 40+250-150

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D3 = 140.
I3 = D3/D = 140/-81 = -1.7283
The current through branch ab is 1.7283A which is flowing from b to a.

Super Mesh Analysis: If there is only current source between two meshes in the given network then
it is difficult to apply the mesh analysis. Because the current source has to be converted into a voltage
source in terms of the current source, write down the mesh equations and relate the mesh currents to
the current source. But this is a difficult approach .This difficulty can be avoided by creating super
mesh which encloses the two meshes that have common current source
Super Mesh: A super mesh is constituted by two adjacent meshes that have a common
current source.
Let us illustrate this method with the following simple generalized circuit.

Solution:

Step (1):Identify the position of current source.

Here the current source is common to the two meshes 1 and 2. so, super mesh isnothing but the
combination of meshes 1 and 2 .
Step (2):Apply KVL to super mesh and to other meshes
Applying KVL to this super mesh (combination of meshes 1 and 2 )
we get R1.I1 + R3 ( I2 – I3) = V ...................(1)
Applying KVL to Mesh 3,
we get
R3 ( I3 – I2) + R4.I= 0…………..(2)
Step (3): Make the relation between mesh currents with current source to get third equation.Third equation
is nothing but he relation between I , I1 and I2 which is
I1 - I2 = I .......................... (3)

Step(4): Solve the above equations to get the mesh currents.

Example(1): Determine the current in the 5 Ω resistor shown in the figure below.

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Solution:

Step(1): Here the current source exists between mesh(2) and mesh(3).Hence, super
mesh is the combination of mesh(2) and mesh(3) .Applying KVL to the super mesh (
combination of mesh 2and mesh 3 after removing the branch with the current source of
2 A and resistance of 3 Ω ) we get :
10( I2– I1) + 2.I2 + I3 + 5( I3 – I1) = 0
-15.I1 +12 I2 + 6.I3 = 0 .................... (1)
Step (2): Applying KVL first to the normal mesh 1 we get :

10( I1 – I2) + 5( I1 – I3) = 50

15.I1 –10. I2 – 5.I3 = 50..................... (2)

Step (3): We can get the third equation from the relation between the current source of 2
A , andcurrents I2 & I3 as :

I2 - I3 = 2 A ................... (3)

Step (4): Solving the above three equations for I1, I2 and I3 we get I1 = 19.99 A I2 =
17.33 Aand I3 = 15.33 A

The current in the 5 Ω resistance = I1 - I3 = 19.99 - 15.33 = 4.66 A

Example: Write down the mesh equations for the circuit shown in the figure below and
findout the values of the currents I1, I2 and I3

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Solution: In this circuit the current source is in the perimeter of the circuit and
hence the firstmesh is ignored. So, here no need to create the super mesh.

Applying KVL to mesh 1 we get :

3( I2 – I1) + 2( I2 – I3) = -10

-3.I1 +5.I2 – 2.I3 = -10 ............... (1)

Next applying KVL to mesh 2 we get :

I3 + 2( I3– I2) = 10

-2.I2 +3.I3 = -10 ............... (2)

And from the first mesh we observe that....... I1 = 10 A .............. (3)

And solving these three equations we get : I1 = 10 A, I2 = 7.27 A, I3 = 8.18 A

Nodal analysis:

Nodal analysis provides another general procedure for analyzing circuits nodal voltages as the circuit
variables. It is preferably useful for the circuits that have many no. of nodes. It is applicable for the both
planar and non planar circuits. This analysis is done by using KCL and Ohm's law.

Node: It is a junction at which two or more branches are interconnected.

Simple Node: Node at which only two branches are interconnected.

Principal Node: Node at which more than two branches are interconnected.
Nodal analysis with example:

Determination of node voltages:

Procedure:

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Step (1): Identify the no. nodes, simple nodes and principal nodes in the given circuit. Among all the
nodes one node is taken as reference node. Generally bottom is taken as reference node. The potential
at the reference node is 0v.

In the given circuit there are 3 principal nodes in which node (3) is the reference node.

Step (2): Assign node voltages to the all the principal nodes except reference node and assignbranch
currents to all branches.

Step (3): Apply KCL to those principal nodes for nodal equations and by using ohm's lawexpress the node
voltages in terms of branch current.

Applying KCL to node (1)--------------- I1=I2+I3

Using ohm's law, we get (V-V1)/R1 = (V2-0)/R2 +(V1-V2)/R3. ......................... (1)

Applying KCL to node (2)--------------- I3=I4 +I5

Using ohm's law, we get ----------------- (V1-V2)/R3 =(V4-0)/R4 +(V5-0)/R5 (2)

Step(4): Solve the above nodal equations to get the node voltages.

Example: Write the node voltage equations and find out the currents in each
branch of thecircuit shown in the figure below.

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Solution:

The node voltages and the directions of the branch currents are assigned as shown in
given figure.Applying KCL to node 1, we get: 5 = I10+ I3
5= (V1-0)/10 +(V1-V2)/3

V1(13/30) -V2(1/3) = 5 ............................................................ (1)

Applying KCL to node 2, we get: I3= I5 + I1

(V1-V2)/3 = (V2 -0)/5 + (V2-10) /1

V1(1/3)-V2(23/15) = -10 ......................................................... (2)

Solving the these two equations for V1 and V2 we get :

V1 = 19.85 V and V2 = 10.9 V and the currents are :
I10= V1/10 = 1.985A

I3 = (V1-V2)/3 = (19.85-10.9)/3 = 2.98A

I5 = V2/5 = 10.9/5=2.18A
I1 = (V2-10) = (10.9-10)/1 = 0.9A

Problem Find the current through each resistor of the circuit shown in fig, using nodal analysis

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Solution:

At node1,

-I1-I2-I3 = 0 -[V1-15/1]-[V1/1][V1-V2/0.5] = 0
-V1+15-V1-2V1+2V2 = 0
4V1-2V2 = 15 --------------------- (1)
At node2,
I3-I4-I5 = 0
V1-V2/0.5 –V2/2 –V2-20/1 = 0
2V1-2V2-0.5V2-V2 + 20 = 0
2V1-3.5V2 = -20 ------------------ (2)
Multiplying (2) by 2 & subtracting from (1)
5V2 = 55 V2 = 11V V = 9.25V
I1 = V1-5/1 = 9.25-15 = -5.75A = 5.75 I2 = V1/1 = 9.25A

I3 = V1-V2/0.5 = -3.5A = 3.5A I4 = V2/2 = 5.5A

I5 = V2-20/I = 11-20/1 = -9A=9A.
Problem :
In the network of Figure use nodal analysis to determine (a) the voltage at nodes 1 and 2, (b) the current
in the j4 Ω inductance, (c) of the active power dissipated-10) in the 2.5 Ω

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Super Node Analysis: If there is only voltage source between two nodes in the given network then it
is difficult to apply the nodal analysis. Because the voltage source has to be converted into a current
source in terms of the voltage source, write down the nodal equations and relate the node voltages to
the voltage source. But this is a difficult approach .This difficulty can be avoided by creating super
node which encloses the two nodes that have common voltage source.
Super Node: A super node is constituted by two adjacent nodes that have a common voltagesource.

Example: Write the nodal equations by using super node analysis.

Procedure:

Step(1):Identify the position of voltage source.Here the voltage source is common to the
twonodes 2 and 3.so, super node is nothing but the combination of nodes 2 and 3 .

Step (2):Apply KCL to super node and to other nodes.

Applying KCL to this super node (combination of meshes 2 and 3 ),

we get(V2-V1)/R2 + V2/R3 + (V3-Vy)/R4 + V3/R5 = 0 .......... (1)

Applying KVL to node 1 ,we get

I = V1/R1 + (V1-V2)/R2 ................... (2)

Step (3): Make the relation between node voltages with voltage source to get third

equation.Third equation is nothing but the relation between VX , V2 and V3 which

is
V2 - V3 = Vx .............. (3)
Step (4): Solve the above nodal equations to get the node voltages.

Example: Determine the current in the 5 Ω resistor shown in the circuit below

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 NETWORK ANALYSIS

Solution:

Applying KCL to node 1: 10 = V1/3 + (V1-V2)/2

V1 [ 1/3 + 1/2 ] - V2 /2 = 10
0.83 V1 - 0.5 V2 = 10..........(1)

Next applying KCL to the super

node 2&3 :
(V2-V1)/2 + V2/1 + (V3-10)/5 + V3/2 = 0
-V1/2 + V2(1/2 + 1) V3(1/5 + 1/2) = 2
0.5 V1 + 1.5V2 + 0.7 V3 = 2 .........................(2)
and the third and final equation is:
V2 - V3 = 20 ......................(3)

Solving the above three equations we get V3 = -8.42 V

The current through the 5 Ω resistor
I5 = [-8.42 -10 ] /5 = -3.68 A
The negative sign indicates that the current flows towards the node 3.
Duality of Networks

Identical behavior patterns observed between voltages and currents in two circuits, illustrate the
principal of duality.
Series RLC Circuit

Mesh equation –

dI 1
−V + IR + L + ∫ I dt = 0

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 NETWORK ANALYSIS
dt C

dI 1
V = IR + L + ∫ I dt → (1)
dt C

Parallel GCL Circuit

Node equation

The role of current and voltage in the two networks have been interchanged. The solution of one
equation is also the solution of the other. This similarity is termed the principle of duality.

An inspection of the terms of equations (1) and (2) shows that the following are the analogues
quantities.

By looking into above two equations we can say that the resistance, inductances and capacitances in the
original network appear in dual network as conductance, capacitances and inductances respectively with
the same numerical values.

Evidently, the following pairs are dual quantities.

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 NETWORK ANALYSIS

The following procedure may be followed in constructing the dual of a given network.
1. Inside each loop place a node and give it a number for all loops for convenience, place an
extra node, the reference node, external to the network say ‘O’ node. Place an extra the same
numbered nodes on a separate space on the paper for the construction of the dual.

2. Draw a line between two nodes of the original network traversing only one element at a time.
Thus draw Lines from node to node through the elements in the original network. For each
element traversed in the original network, connect the dual elements from the Listing just given
on dual network being constructed.
3. Continue this process unit the number of possible paths through single elements is exhausted.
If we go through a connecting leads assumed to be a short, the dual elements is an open circuit.
4. The network so constructed is a dual network.

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 NETWORK ANALYSIS
Example 1:

The dual network is

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 NETWORK ANALYSIS

The voltage source in the original network are replace by the current sources in the dual network and
vice – versa

The most important task is to decide the orientation of these sources in the dual network, it is
determined as follows.

1. First of all, we assume a clock wise direction for all mesh currents in original network N1. Each
mesh current enclosing a dot (node) of the dual network say N2.

1. It is important to note that the orientation of the voltage source is identified with the direction of the
mesh current whereas the orientation of the current source is identified with the node which is
enclosed by mesh current.

2. If the direction of the voltage source and clockwise mesh current is same in the network
N1, then the orientation of the current source in the dual network N2 is towards the node
which is enclosed by the said mesh current in N1.

3. Conversely if the directions of the voltage source and the clock wise mesh current are opposite
then the current of the current source in N2 is directed away from the node which is enclosed by the
said mesh current in N1.

PBRVITS, KAVALI
 NETWORK ANALYSIS
Example 2:

The dual network is

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 NETWORK ANALYSIS

NETWORK THEOREMS

INTRODUCTION:

Any complicated network i.e. several sources, multiple resistors are present if the
single element response is desired then use the network theorems. Network theorems are also can
be termed as network reduction techniques. Each and every theorem got its importance of
solving network. Let us see some important theorems with DC and AC excitation with detailed
procedures.

Thevenin’s Theorem and Norton’s theorem (Introduction) :

Thevenin’s Theorem and Norton’s theorem are two important theorems in solving
Network problems having many active and passive elements. Using these theorems the networks
can be reduced to simple equivalent circuits with one active source and one element. In circuit
analysis many a times the current through a branch is required to be found when it’s value is
changed with all other element values remaining same. In such cases finding out every time the
branch current using the conventional mesh and node analysis methods is quite awkward and
time consuming. But with the simple equivalent circuits (with one active source and one
element) obtained using these two theorems the calculations become very simple. Thevenin’s
and Norton’s theorems are dual theorems.

Thevenin’s Theorem Statement :

Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of sources and

resistors(Impedance),can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in
series with a resistance (Impedance).The equivalent voltage source VTh is the open circuit
voltage looking into the terminals(with concerned branch element removed) and the equivalent
resistance RTh while all sources are replaced by their internal resistors at ideal condition i.e.
voltage source is short circuit and current source is open circuit.

(a) (b)

Figure (a) shows a simple block representation of a network with several active / passive
elements with the load resistance RL connected across the terminals ‘a & b’ and figure (b)
showsthe Thevenin equivalent circuit with VTh connected across RTh & RL .

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 NETWORK ANALYSIS

Main steps to find out VTh and RTh :

1. The terminals of the branch/element through which the current is to be found out are
marked as say a & b after removing the concerned branch/element.
2. Open circuit voltage VOC across these two terminals is found out using the
conventionalnetwork mesh/node analysis methods and this would be VTh .

3. Thevenin resistance RTh is found out by the method depending upon whether the
network contains dependent sources or not.
a. With dependent sources: RTh = Voc / Isc

b. Without dependent sources : RTh = Equivalent resistance looking into the

concerned terminals with all voltage & current sources replaced by their internal
impedances (i.e. ideal voltage sources short circuited and ideal current sources
open circuited)

4. Replace the network with VTh in series with RTh and the concerned branch resistance
(or)
load resistance across the load terminals(A&B) as shown in below fig.

Example: Find VTH, RTH and the load current and load voltage flowing through RL
resistoras shown in fig. by using Thevenin’s Theorem?

Fig.(a)
Solution:

The resistance RL is removed and the terminals of the resistance RL are marked as A & B as
shown in the fig. (1)

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 NETWORK ANALYSIS

Fig.(1)

Calculate / measure the Open Circuit Voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH). We have already
removed the load resistor from fig.(a), so the circuit became an open circuit as shown in fig (1). Now
we have to calculate the Thevenin’s Voltage. Since 3mA Current flows in both 12kΩ and 4kΩ
resistors as this is a series circuit because current will not flow in the 8kΩ resistoras it is open. So
12V (3mA x 4kΩ) will appear across the 4kΩ resistor. We also know that current is not flowing
through the 8kΩ resistor as it is open circuit, but the 8kΩ resistor is in parallel with 4k resistor. So
the same voltage (i.e. 12V) will appear across the 8kΩ resistor as

4kΩ resistor. Therefore 12V will appear across the AB terminals. So,VTH = 12V

Fig(2)
All voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal voltage sources
short circuited and ideal current sources open circuited) as shown in fig.(3)

Fig(3)
Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Thevenin Resistance (R TH)We have
Reduced the 48V DC source to zero is equivalent to replace it with a short circuit as shown in
figure (3) We can see that 8kΩ resistor is in series with a parallel connection of 4kΩ resistor and
12k Ω resistor. i.e.:

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 NETWORK ANALYSIS

8kΩ + (4k Ω || 12kΩ) ….. (|| = in parallel with)

RTH = 8kΩ + [(4kΩ x 12kΩ) / (4kΩ + 12kΩ)]
RTH = 8kΩ + 3kΩ
RTH = 11kΩ

Fig(4)

Connect the RTH in series with Voltage Source VTH and re-connect the load resistor across the load
terminals(A&B) as shown in fig (5) i.e. Thevenin circuit with load resistor. This is the Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit

RTH

VTH

Fig(5)
Now apply Ohm’s law and calculate the total load current from fig 5.
IL = VTH/ (RTH + RL)= 12V / (11kΩ + 5kΩ) = 12/16kΩ
IL= 0.75mA

And VL = ILx RL= 0.75mA x 5kΩ

VL= 3.75V

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 NETWORK ANALYSIS

Norton’s Theorem Statement :

Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of sources and
resistors(Impedance),can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in
parallel with a resistance (Impedance),the current source being the short circuited current across
the load terminals and the resistance being the internal resistance of the source network looking
through the open circuited load terminals.

(a) (b)
Figure (a) shows a simple block representation of a network with several active / passive
elements with the load resistance RL connected across the terminals ‘a & b’ and figure (b)
showsthe Norton equivalent circuit with IN connected across RN & RL .

Main steps to find out IN and RN:

1. The terminals of the branch/element through which the current is to be found out are
marked as say a & b after removing the concerned branch/element.
2. Open circuit voltage VOC across these two terminals and ISC through these two
terminals are found out using the conventional network mesh/node analysis methods and
they are same as what we obtained in Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

3. Next Norton resistance RN is found out depending upon whether the network contains
dependent sources or not.

a) With dependent sources: RN = Voc / Isc

b) Without dependent sources : RN = Equivalent resistance looking into the

concerned terminals with all voltage & current sources replaced by their internal
impedances (i.e. ideal voltage sources short circuited and ideal current sources
open circuited)

4. Replace the network with IN in parallel with RN and the concerned branch resistance
across the load terminals(A&B) as shown in below fig

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 NETWORK ANALYSIS

Example: Find the current through the resistance RL (1.5 Ω) of the circuit shown in the
figure (a) below using Norton’s equivalent circuit.?

Fig(a)
Solution: To find out the Norton’s equivalent ckt we have to find out IN = Isc ,RN=Voc/
Isc.

Short the 1.5Ω load resistor as shown in (Fig 2), and Calculate / measure the Short Circuit
Current. This is the Norton Current (IN).

We have shorted the AB terminals to determine the Norton current, IN. The 6Ω and 3Ω are then in
parallel and this parallel combination of 6Ω and 3Ω are then in series with 2Ω.So the Total
Resistance of the circuit to the Source is:- Fig(2)
2Ω + (6Ω || 3Ω) ….. (|| = in parallel with)
RT = 2Ω + [(3Ω x 6Ω) / (3Ω + 6Ω)]
RT = 2Ω + 2Ω
RT = 4Ω
IT = V /RT

IT = 12V / 4Ω= 3A..

Now we have to find ISC = IN… Apply CDR… (Current Divider
Rule)…ISC = IN = 3A x [(6Ω / (3Ω + 6Ω)] = 2A.
ISC= IN = 2A.

Fig(3)

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 NETWORK ANALYSIS

All voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal voltage sources
short circuited and ideal current sources open circuited) and Open Load Resistor. as shown in
fig.(4)

Fig(4)

Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Norton Resistance (RN) We have
Reduced the 12V DC source to zero is equivalent to replace it with a short circuit as shown in
fig(4), We can see that 3Ω resistor is in series with a parallel combination of 6Ω resistor and 2Ω
resistor. i.e.:
3Ω + (6Ω || 2Ω) ….. (|| = in parallel with)
RN = 3Ω + [(6Ω x 2Ω) / (6Ω + 2Ω)]
RN = 3Ω + 1.5Ω
RN = 4.5Ω

Fig(5)

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 NETWORK ANALYSIS

Connect the RN in Parallel with Current Source IN and re-connect the load resistor. This is
shown in fig (6) i.e. Norton Equivalent circuit with load resistor.

Fig(6)

Now apply the Ohm’s Law and calculate the load current through Load resistance across the
terminals A&B. Load Current through Load Resistor is
IL = IN x [RN / (RN+ RL)]

IL= 2A x (4.5Ω/4.5Ω+1.5kΩ)
IL = 1.5A IL = 1.5A

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to provide power to a load.

While for electric utilities, minimizing power losses in the process of transmission and
distribution is critical for Efficiency and economic reasons, there are other applications in areas
such as communications where it is desirable to maximize the power delivered to a load.
electrical applications with electrical loads such as Loud speakers, antennas, motors etc. it would
be required to find out the condition under which maximum power would be transferred from the
circuit to the load.

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem Statement:

Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of a resistance load, being
connected to a dc network, receives maximum power when the load resistance is equal to the
internal resistance (Thevenin’s equivalent resistance) of the source network as seen from the load
terminals.

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 NETWORK ANALYSIS

According to Maximum Power Transfer Theorem, for maximum power transfer from the
network to the load resistance , RL must be equal to the source resistance i.e. Network’s
Thevenin equivalent resistance RTh . i.e. RL = RTh
The load current I in the circuit shown above is given by,

𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝐼=
𝑅𝑇𝐻+𝑅𝐿
The power delivered by the circuit to the load:

The condition for maximum power transfer can be obtained by differentiating the above
expression for power delivered with respect to the load resistance (Since we want to find out the
value of RL for maximum power transfer) and equating it to zero as :

PBRVITS, KAVALI
Superposition Theorem:

The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear circuit with more than
one current or voltage sources sometimes it is easier to find out the voltage across or current in a
branch of the circuit by considering the effect of one source at a time by replacing the other
sources with their ideal internal resistances.

Superposition Theorem Statement:

Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of more than one sources,
The total current or voltage in any part of a network is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents
or voltages in the required branch with each source acting individually while other sources are
replaced by their ideal internal resistances. (i.e. Voltage sources by a short circuit and current
sources by open circuit)
Steps to Apply Super position Principle:

1. Replace all independent sources with their internal resistances except one source. Find the
output (voltage or current) due to that active source using nodal or mesh analysis.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the
independent sources.
Example: By Using the superposition theorem find I in the circuit shown in figure?

Fig.(a)
Solution: Applying the superposition theorem, the current I2 in the resistance of 3 Ω due to the
voltage source of 20V alone, with current source of 5A open circuited [ as shown in the figure.1
below ] is given by :

Fig1
I2 = 20/(5+3) = 2.5A

Similarly the current I5 in the resistance of 3 Ω due to the current source of 5A alone with
voltage source of 20V short circuited [ as shown in the figure.2 below ] is given by :

Fig.2
I5= 5 x 5/(3+5) = 3.125 A

The total current passing through the resistance of 3Ω is then = I2 + I5= 2.5 + 3.125 = 5.625 A

Let us verify the solution using the basic nodal analysis referring to the node marked with V in
fig.(a).Then we get :

𝑉 − 20 𝑉
+ =5
5 3
 3V-60+5V=15× 5
8V-60=75
8V=135
V=16.875

The current I passing through the resistance of 3Ω =V/3 = 16.875/3 = 5.625 A .

Reciprocity theorem:

Under Basic Electrical Engineering In many electrical networks it is found that if

the positions of voltage source and ammeter are interchanged, the reading of ammeter remains
the same. Suppose a voltage source is connected to a passive network and an ammeter is
connected to other part of the network to indicate the response. Now any one interchanges the
positions of ammeter and voltage source that means he or she connects the voltage source at the
part of the network where the ammeter was connected and connects ammeter to that part of the
network where the voltage source was connected. The response of the ammeter means current
through the ammeter would be the same in both the cases. This is where the property of
reciprocity comes in the circuit. The particular circuit that has this reciprocal property, is called
reciprocal circuit.

Reciprocity theorem Statement:

Any linear, bilateral two terminal network the ratio of excitation to response is
constant even though the source is interchanged from input terminals to the output terminals.

𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝐼2 𝐼1
Steps For Solution Of a Network Utilizing Reciprocity Theorem:

1. The branches between which reciprocity is to be established to be selected first.

2. The current in the branch is obtained using conventional network analysis.

3. The voltage source is interchanged between the branches concerned.

4. The current in the branch where the voltage source was existing earlier is calculated.
It may observe that the currents obtained in 2 & 4 are identical to each other.

Example: Verify the reciprocity theorem for the network shown in the figure (1).?

Fig.(1)
Solution: Total resistance in the circuit across the applied voltage of 20 V is
RTH=2 + [3||(2 +( 2||2))]

=2 +[3||3]
=3.5 Ω
𝑽
The total current drawn by the circuit IT =𝑹𝑻𝑯= 20/3.5 = 5.71 A
The current I in the branch ‘cd’ with 2 Ω resistance is find by using current division rule. For
that first find I1 current.
3
I1=5.71× =2.855A
3+3
The current I in the ‘cd’ branch is

2
I=2.855× =1.427A
2+2
Now the source voltage and the response are interchanged between branches ‘ab’ and ‘cd’ as
shown in the figure (2) below

.
Fig.(2)
Total resistance in the circuit across the applied voltage of 20 V is
RTH=2 + [2||(2 +( 2||3))]

=2 +[2||3.2]
=3.23Ω
The total current drawn by the circuit IT = =20/3.23=6.19A
The current I in the branch ‘ab’ with 2 Ω resistance is find by using current division rule. For
that first find I1 current.

2
I1=6.19× =2.38A
3.2+2
The current I in the ‘ab’ branch is

3
I=2.38× =1.427A
3+2
The current in the branch ‘ab’ = 1.427 A which is same as the current we got in branch ‘cd’
when the voltage was given from branch ‘ab’ . Thus the reciprocity theorem is verified.
Tellegen’s Theorem:

This theorem is the one of the most general theorems in network analysis
regardless to the type and nature, Tellegen’s theorem is applicable to any network made up of
lumped two terminal elements.
Tellegen’s Theorem Statement:

In any linear, non-linear, passive, active, time variant or time invariant network the
algebraic sum of power at any given instant is zero. Thus for Kth branch, this theorem states that

∑𝑛𝐾=1 𝑉𝐾 ×𝐼𝐾 =0

Where, n=Being the number of branches,VK=Voltage drop in the branch, IK=Current drop in the
branch.
It also evident that the sum of power delivered to the network is equal to the sum
of power absorbed by the network elements.

Steps For Solution Of a Network Utilizing Tellegen’s Theorem:

1. Find the branch voltage drops and corresponding branch currents using conventional analysis.
2. Summing all products of branch voltage and current.

Example: Verify the Tellegen’s theorem for the given circuit.?

Solution: If current flows from + to – then treat it as power absorption.

If current flow from – to + then treat it as power delivering.

∴ P10V = V. I = 10 × 1 = 10 watt (Pabsorbed).

 P2A = V. I = 10 × 2 = 20 watt (Pdelivered)
P10Ω = I2. R = 12 × 10 = 10 watt (Pabsorbed)

Pdelivered = Pabsorbed = 20 watt

Hence Tellegen’s theorem is verified.

Substitution Theorem Statement:

The voltage across and the current through a Branch in a bilateral network is
known, the branch can be replaced by any combination of elements in such a way that the same
voltage will appear across and same current will pass through the chosen terminals. In other
words for branch equivalence the terminal voltage and the current must be same.

This is illustrated with a simple circuit shown in the figure below.

Figure: (a) A simple DC circuit to explain the substitution theorem.

In this circuit the load resistance RL is the branch being considered for equivalence. The current
I through the load resistance RL = 24/(3+5) = 3 A.

Figure: (b) Equivalent branches across terminals ‘xy’

In figure (b) above several equivalents of branch ‘xy’ are shown. It may be noted
that in all the cases the terminal voltage across and the current through the equivalent branch are
the same as that of the original branch RL. It may also be observed that a known
potential
difference and a current in a branch can be replaced by an ideal voltage source or an ideal current
source respectively.
The limitation of this theorem is that it cannot be used to solve a network
containing two or more sources that are not in series or parallel.

Example: Using substitution theorem, draw equivalent branches for the branch ‘a-b’ of the
network of Fig.(a)?

Fig.(a)

Solution: As per voltage division rule voltage across 3Ω and 2Ω resistance are
10 × 3
𝑉3Ω = 6𝑉
2+3
=
10 × 2
= 4𝑉
2+3
𝑉2Ω = 10

Current through the circuit is, I= =2A

2+3

If we replace the 3Ω resistance with a voltage source of 6 V as shown in fig (1), then

Fig.(1)
Then according to Ohm’s Law the voltage across 2Ω resistance and current through the circuit is,
𝑉2Ω = 10 − 6 = 4𝑉
10 − 6
𝑉= = 2𝑉
2
Alternately if we replace 3Ω resistance with a current source of 2A as shown in Fig(2),then

Fig.(2)
Voltage across 2Ω is V2Ω = 10 – (3× 2) = 4 V and
Voltage across 2A current source is V2A = 10 - 4 = 6
V.
The voltage across 2Ω resistance and current through the circuit is unaltered i.e.
all initial condition of the circuit is intact.

Compensation Theorem:

It is one of the important theorems in Network Analysis , which finds its

application mostly in calculating the sensitivity of electrical networks & bridges and solving
electrical networks. In many circuits, after the circuit is analyzed, it is realized that only a small
change need to be made to a component to get a desired result. In such a case we would normally
have to recalculate. The compensation theorem allows us to compensate properly for such
changes without sacrificing accuracy.

Compensation Theorem Statement:

In a linear, bilateral, time invariant network when the resistance (R) of an
uncoupled branch, carrying a current (I), is changed by (ΔR). The currents in all the branches
would change and can be obtained by assuming that an ideal voltage source of (VC) has been
connected such that VC = I (ΔR) in series with (R + ΔR) when all other sources in the network
are replaced by their internal resistances.

In Compensation Theorem, the source voltage (VC) opposes the original current.
In simple words compensation theorem can be stated as – the resistance of any network can be
replaced by a voltage source, having the same voltage as the voltage drop across the resistance
which is replaced.
Let us assume a load RL be connected to a DC source network whose Thevenin’s equivalent
gives V0 as the Thevenin’s voltage and RTH as the Thevenin’s resistance as shown in the figure
below.

Here,
V0 … … … … … . . (1)
I=
RTH+R
L

Let the load resistance RL be changed to (RL + ΔRL). Since the rest of the circuit remains
unchanged, the Thevenin’s equivalent network remains the same as shown in the circuit diagram
below

Here,
V0
I′ =
RTH + (RL + ΔRL) … … … … … … … . . (2)

The change of current being termed as ΔI Therefore,

ΔI = I′ − I ..................................................... (3)
Putting the value of I’ and I from the equation (1) and (2) in the equation (3) we will get the
following equation.

V0
ΔI = V0

−
RTH + (RL + ΔRL) RTH + R L

V0{(RTH+RL)−(RTH+(RL+ΔRL)}
ΔI =
(RTH+(RL+ΔRL))×(RTH+RL)
V0 RTH ...........
ΔI = − [ ] (4)

RTH+RL RTH+(RL+ΔRL)

Now, putting the value of I from the equation (1) in the equation (4), we will get the following
equation.

IRTH .....................
I=− (5)
RTH+(RL+ΔRL)

As we know, VC = I Δ RL and is known as compensating voltage. Therefore, the equation (5)

becomes.

−VC
ΔI =
RTH + (RL + ΔRL)

Hence, Compensation Theorem tells that with the change of branch resistance, branch currents
changes and the change is equivalent to an ideal compensating voltage source in series with the
branch opposing the original current, all other sources in the network being replaced by their
internal resistances.
Example: Determine the current flowing through the ammeter having an internal resistance of 1
Ω connected in series with a 3 Ω resistor as shown in the fig (a).?

Fig.(a)
Solution:

The current flowing through the 3 Ω branch i,

i=It [6/(6+3)]
10
It =
(4+(6∥ 3))

10
It =
(4+2)

It =1.67A

i=1.67[6/(6+3)]
i=1.11A

Now when we connect the ammeter with an internal resistance of 1 Ω in the 3 Ω branch ,there is
a change in resistance . This change in resistance causes currents in other branches as if a voltage
source of voltage v is
V= i. R = 1.11x1 = 1.11v

1.11v is inserted in the 3 Ω branch as shown in the fig (1) below.

Fig.(1)
Current due to this additional source of 1.11 V in the 3 Ω branch ia is,

1.11
i=
a
(1+3+(6∥ 4))

1.11
i=
a
(1+3+2.4)

ia=0.17A

This current flows in the opposite direction to that of the original current i through the 3 Ω
branch(i.e. ia is opposite to i)

Hence Ammeter reading = ia-i=(1.11 – 0.17) = 0.94 A

Millman’s Theorem:

Millman’s Theorem is a theorem which helps in simplifying electrical networks

with a bunch of parallel branches. The utility of this theorem that, any number of parallel voltage
sources can be reduced to one equivalent one.

Millman’s Theorem Statement:

The Millman’s Theorem states that – when a number of voltage sources (V1, V2,
V3……… Vn) are in parallel having internal resistance (R1, R2, R3 ............. Rn) respectively,
the
arrangement can replace by a single equivalent voltage source V in series with an equivalent
series resistance R.
As per Millman’s Theorem,

The resulting current source is converted to an equivalent voltage source as shown in the fig.
 UNIT-II
Definition of Time Constant:
The time constant τ (the Greek letter tau) has units of seconds , and it governs the “speed” of the
transient response. Circuits with higher τ take longer to get close to the new steady state. Circuits with
short τ settle on their new steady state very quickly. More precisely, every time constant τ , the circuit
gets 1 − e −1 ≈ 63% of its way closer to its new steady state. Memorizing this fact can help you draw
graphs involving exponential decays quickly. After 3τ , the circuit will have gotten 1 − e −3 ≈ 95% of
the way, and after 5τ , more than 99%. So, after a few time constants, for practical purposes, the
circuit has reached steady state. Thus, the time constant is itself a good rough guide to “how long” the
transient response will take.

The time constant in a capacitor circuit is the product of the resistance and capacitance. T = RC.
The time constant of an inductor circuit is the inductance divided by the resistance. T = L/R.

Time constants allow for the examination of transient responses in series RC and RL circuits.
A transient response is a temporary condition involving a changing voltage or current that exists only
until a steady-state value of either voltage or current is reached.

Transient Analysis

Introduction to Transients
Transient analysis (or just transients) of electrical circuits is as important
as steady-state analysis. When transients occur, the currents and voltages in some
parts of the circuit may many times exceed those that exist in normal behavior and
may destroy the circuit equipment in its proper operation. We may distinguish the
transient behavior of an electrical circuit from its steady-state, in that during the
transients all the quantities, such as currents, voltages, power and energy, are
changed in time, while in steady-state they remain invariant, i.e. constant (in d.c
operation) or periodical (in a.c operation) having constant amplitudes and phase
angles.
The cause of transients
 change in circuit parameters and/or in circuit configurations, which
usually occurs as a result of switching (commutation),
 short, and/or open circuiting,
 Change in the operation of sources etc.
 The transient processes are attained by the interchange of energy, which is
usually stored in the magnetic field of inductances or/and the electrical field of
capacitances. Any change in energy cannot be abrupt otherwise it will result in
infinite power (as the power is a derivative of energy, p=dw/dt), which is in contrast
to physical reality. All transient changes, which are also called transient responses
(or just responses), vanish and, after their disappearance, a new steady-state
operation is established. In this respect, we may say that the transient describes
the circuit behavior between two steady states: an old one, which was prior to
changes, and a new one, which arises after the changes.
A few methods of transient analysis are known: the classical method, The
Cauchy-Heaviside (C-H) operational method, the Fourier transformation method
and the Laplace transformation method.
Comparing the classical method and the laplace transformation method it
should be noted that the latter requires more knowledge of mathematics and is less
related to the physical matter of transient behavior of electric circuits than the
former.
Classical method of transient analysis is based on the determination of
differential equations and splitting the solution into two components: natural and
forced responses. The classical method is fairly complicated mathematically, but is
simple in engineering practice.
Natural and Forced Responses:
Solving differential equations by the classical method, complete solution of
any linear differential equation as composed of two parts: the complementary solution
(or natural response) and the particular solution (or forced response). To understand
these principles, let us consider a first order differential equation,
dv + P(t)v = Q(t) (4.1)
dt

Here Q(t) is identified as a forcing function, which is generally a function of

time (or constant, if a d.c. source is applied) and P(t), is also generally a function of
time, represents the circuit parameters. In our study, however, it will be a constant
quantity, since the value of circuit elements does not change during the transients
(indeed, the circuit parameters do change during the transients, but we may neglect
this change as in many cases it is not significant).
v = e−Pt ∫ QePtdt + 𝐴e−Pt (4.2)
General solution can be written as
v = vPI + vCF

vPI = Particular integral = e−Pt ∫ QePtdt

vCF = Complementary Function = 𝐴e−Pt

In general vPI may be written as a Steady state value, designated asVss.
Remaining part is called Transient portion of solution Vt.
V = Vss + Vt
VPI = Vss = Source response = Steady state response = Forced response
VCF = Vt = Source free response = Transient response = Natural response
Complete solution is composed of two parts. The first one, which is
dependent on the forcing function Q, is the forced response (it is also called the
steady state response or the particular solution or the particular integral). The second
one, which does not depend on the forcing function, but only on the circuit
parameters P (the types of elements, their values, interconnections, etc)
 and on the initial conditions A, i.e., on the ‘‘nature’’ of the circuit, is the natural
response. It is also called the solution of the homogeneous equation, which does not
include the source function and has anything but zero on its right side. Following
this rule, we will solve differential equations by finding natural and forced responses
separately and combining them for a complete solution.

Transient response of series RL, RC, RLC circuits for DC excitation

 Transient Response of series RL circuit for DC excitation
Consider series RL circuit shown in Fig.2.1. Consider that switch closed at
t=0 and before that switch is open for a long time.

Initial condition
At t = 0−, Switch is open
i(0−) = I0 = 0
And also we know that inductor does not allow sudden change in current through it.
i.e i(0+) = i(0−) = I0 = 0

For 𝒕 > 𝟎 the switch is closed

−𝑅𝑡
𝑉
The solution to above equation is 𝑖(𝑡) = +C𝑒 𝐿
𝑅

To find c
𝐼0 = 0
find the arbitrary constant ‘c’ use the initial condition 𝑖(0+) = 𝑖(0−) =
V
i(0) = 0 = +c
R
V
c=−
R
Substituting c in equation 4.3 we get
V V R
i(t) = − e − Lt
R R

V R
i(t) = (1 − e−Lt)
R
 The point P shown in
Fig.2.2 denotes that current rise
in the circuit rises to 0.632 times
maximum value in steady state.
The time required for current to
rise to 0.632 of its final value is
known as time constant of given
RL circuit. It is denoted by 𝑟

L
𝑟= sec
R

Significance of Time constant

To study significance of Time constant substitute different values of t in i(t)

V V
At t = τ, i(t) = (1 − e−1) = 0.632
R R
V V
At t = 2τ, i(t) = (1 − e−2) = 0.8646
R R
V V
At t = 4τ, i(t) = (1 − e−4) = 0.9816
R R
V V
At t = 6τ, i(t) = (1 − e−6) = 0.9975
R R
 From above values up to first time constant period, the initial rate of raise in
current is high. But after one time constant period, this rate slows down for
further period of time. Ideally the current reaches steady state value at infinite time,
but practically the current reaches steady state value after t = 6τ or 8τ.
The voltage across the Inductor
di(t)
VL = L dt

R
VL(t) = Ve−Lt

The voltage across the Resistance

VR = Ri(t)

R
VR(t) = V(1 − e−Lt)

Transient Response of series RC circuit for DC excitation

Consider series RC circuit shown in
Fig.2.4. Consider that switch is closed at t=0
and before that switch is open for a long time.
 To find transient response of driven series RC circuit means to find
expression for voltage across capacitor VC(t)
Initial condition

At t = 0−, Switch is open

Before closing the switch active source is not presented in the circuit, so the
initial voltage across capacitor is zero.
VC(0−) = V0 = 0
And also we know that Capacitor does not allow sudden change in voltage
across it.
i.e VC(0+) = VC(0−) = V0 = 0
For 𝐭 > 𝟎 the switch is closed

Now the voltage source is introduced in the circuit.

Apply KVL to the circuit
1
Ri(t) + ∫ i(t)dt = V (4.4)
C

Here i(t) is the current in the circuit also flows through the capacitor.
Differentiating the equation w.r.t time
𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 1
𝑅 + i(t) = 0 (4.5)
𝑑𝑡 C

t
i(t) = Ke− ⁄RC (4.6)
K= Arbitrary Constant
To find K
To find K use the initial condition at t = 0, VC(0+) = VC(0−) = V0 = 0
Substitute t=0 VC(t) = 0 in equation 2.4
V
Ri(0) = V ⇒ i(0) =
R
Substituting t=0 in equation 4.6
V
=K
R
Substitute K value in equation 4.6

Above expression is combination of steady state response 0 and transient response

V −t⁄
e RC
R
 In the above equation RC is time constant of the series RC circuit.

τ = RC sec
Significance of Time constant

To study significance of Time constant substitute different values of t in i(t)

V V
At t = τ, i(t) = e−1 = 0.3679
R R

V V
At t = 2τ, i(t) = e−2 = 0.1353
R R

V V
At t = 4τ, i(t) = e−4 = 0.0183
R R

V V
At t = 6τ, i(t) = e−6 = 0.0025
R R

From above values we can observe that, the current through capacitor
drops from V to 0.3679 in one time constant. But after one time constant

period, this rate slows down for further period of time. Ideally the
current reaches zero value at infinite time.
Transient Response of series RLC circuit for DC excitation
Consider a series RLC circuit shown in fig. 2.6, such
that switch is closed at t=0 and before that switch is
open for a long time.
Initial condition

At t = 0−, Switch is open

i(0−) = I0 = 0

And also we know that inductor does not allow sudden change in current through it.
i.e i(0+) = i(0−) = I0 = 0
Before switch is closed at t = 0−, there is no current through the circuit and
capacitor is also uncharged.
Current through inductor and voltage across capacitor does not change
instantaneously.

VC(0+) = VC(0−) = V0 = 0

For 𝐭 > 𝟎 the switch is closed

Apply KVL to the circuit

This is an integro differential equation, differentiating on both sides to get the total
equation in differential form.

d2i(t) di(t) i(t)

L + R dt + =0
dt2 C

d2i(t) R di(t) i(t)

+ + =0
dt2 L dt LC
Above equation is of quadratic expression form.

Let m1and m2 be two roots for the above equation given by

 Depending on the values of R,L and C three different cases arise
Case (i)

𝟒𝐋
𝐑𝟐 > (Discriminant is positive) (Over damped)
𝐂

The roots m1, m2 are real and different The

solution of this equation of the form

Case (ii)
 LAPLACE TRANSFORM

Introduction
Laplace transform is an alternate approach to solve transients which is easier for
complex circuits.So, the transform method in general can be represented by the
expression
f(t) → F(s)
Which shows the one-to-one correspondence between the time-domain function
f(t) and its frequency domain transform F(s), where s = σ + jω is the complex
frequency.
Definition of the Laplace Transform
The so called two-sided or bilateral Laplace transform of F(t) is defined as
∞

F(s) = ∫ e−stf(t)dt
−∞

In circuit analysis problems the forcing and response functions do not usually
exist endlessly in time, but rather they are initiated at some specific instant of time
selected as t=0. Thus, such functions that do not exist for t<0 can be described
with the help of unit step functions as f (t)u(t). For these functions the Laplace
transform defining integral is taken with the lower limit at t = 0−.
∞ ∞

F(s) = ∫ e−stf(t)dt = ∫ e−stf(t)dt

−∞ 0−

The latter integral defines the one-sided or unilateral Laplace transform, or

simply the Laplace transform of f (t). The lower limit t = 0−(as distinguished from
t= 0 or t=0+) in a one-sided Laplace transform is taken in order to include the effect
of any discontinuity at t=0, such as an impulse function and independent initial
conditions such as currents in inductances iL(0−) and voltages across capacitances
𝑣𝐶(0−).
Key Points

1. The terms ‘‘two-sided’’ or bilateral are used to emphasize the fact that
both positive and negative times are included in the range of integration.
2. In transient analysis of electric circuits t = 0 −is denoted as the time just
before the switching action, and t = 0 +as the time just after the switching
 action, representing radically different states of the circuit.
Mathematically, f(0−) is the limit of f (t) as t approaches zero through
negative values (t<0), or the limit from the right, and f(0 +) is the limit as
tapproaches zero through positive values (t>0), or the limit from the left.

Steps in Applying the Laplace Transform:

1. Transform the circuit from the time domain to the s-domain.

2. Solve the circuit using nodal analysis, mesh analysis, source
transformation, superposition, or any circuit analysis technique with
which we are familiar.
3. Take the inverse transform of the solution and thus obtain the solution
in the time domain.
 Application of Laplace Transforms to series RL, RC, RLC circuits withDC
Excitation

Transient Response of series RL circuit for DC excitation

Consider series RL circuit shown in Fig.. Consider that switch closed at
t=0 and before that switch is open for a long time.
Initial condition

At t = 0−, Switch is open

i(0−) = I0 = 0
And also we know that
inductor does not allow sudden
change in current through it.
i.e i(0+) = i(0−) = I0 = 0

For 𝐭 > 𝟎 the switch is closed

ApplyKVL to the circuit

di(t)
Ri(t) + L =V
dt

Apply Laplace transform to the above

equation
−
R
The voltage across the Resistance
VR = Ri(t)

R
𝑉𝑅(𝑡) = 𝑉(1 − e−Lt)

VL(t) = V − VR(t)

R
𝑉𝐿(𝑡) = 𝑉e−Lt

We can see that the current starts at zero

and increases up to V/R with a time constant (τ = )
and with the behavior of an inverse
exponential decay function. It is
common to consider the current in steady-state after
approximately 5τ.

It is important to keep in mind that the

current cannot change instantaneously due to the conservation of the
movement in the magnetic flux associated to the inductor. In other words, the
magnetic flux has to be continuous, i.e., an instant change in the current would
require an infinite voltage which is obviously impossible in a real system.

Transient Response of series RC circuit for DC excitation

Consider series RC circuit shown in Fig2.17. Consider that switch closed at
t=0 and before that switch is open for a long time.
To find transient response of driven series RC circuit means to find
expression for voltage across capacitor VC(t)
Initial condition

At t = 0−, Switch is open

Before closing the switch active
source is not presented in the
circuit, so the initial voltage
across capacitor is
zero.
VC(0−) = V0 = 0
And also we know that
Capacitor does not allow sudden change in voltage across it. i.e
VC(0+) = VC(0−) = V0 = 0

For 𝐭 > 𝟎 the switch is closed Now

the voltage source is
introduced in the circuit.

Apply KVL to the circuit

Applying Inverse Laplace transform for the above equation we get

 Transient Response of series RLC circuit for DC excitation
Consider series RLC circuit shown in Fig.. Consider that switch closed at
t=0 and before that switch is open or a long time.

Initial condition

At t = 0−, Switch is open!

i(0−) = I0 = 0
And also we know that inductor does not allow sudden change in current through it.
i.e i(0+) = i(0−) = I0 = 0
Before switch is closed at t = 0−, there is no current through the circuit and
capacitor is also uncharged.
Current through inductor and voltage across capacitor does not change
instantaneously.
VC(0+) = VC(0−) = V0 = 0

For 𝐭 > 𝟎 the switch is closed

Apply KVL to the circuit

t
 Transient Analysis for A.C Excitation

Introduction to Transients
Transient analysis (or just transients) of electrical circuits is as important as
steady-state analysis. When transients occur, the currents and voltages in some parts
of the circuit may many times exceed those that exist in normal behavior and may
destroy the circuit equipment in its proper operation. We may distinguish the transient
behavior of an electrical circuit from its steady-state, in that during the transients all
the quantities, such as currents, voltages, power and energy, are changed in time,
while in steady-state they remain invariant, i.e. constant (in d.c operation) or periodical
(in a.c operation) having constant amplitudes and phase angles.
The cause of transients
 change in circuit parameters and/or in circuit configurations, which
usually occurs as a result of switching (commutation),
 short, and/or open circuiting,

 Change in the operation of sources etc.

The transient processes are attained by the interchange of energy, which is
usually stored in the magnetic field of inductances or/and the electrical field of
capacitances. Any change in energy cannot be abrupt otherwise it will result in infinite
power (as the power is a derivative of energy, p=dw/dt), which is in contrast to physical
reality. All transient changes, which are also called transient responses (or just
responses), vanish and, after their disappearance, a new steady-state operation is
established. In this respect, we may say that the transient describes the circuit behavior
between two steady states: an old one, which was prior to changes, and a new one,
which arises after the changes.
A few methods of transient analysis are known: the classical method, The Cauchy-
Heaviside (C-H) operational method, the Fourier transformation method and the Laplace
transformation method.
Comparing the classical method and the laplace transformation method it should be
noted that the latter requires more knowledge of mathematics and is less related to the
physical matter of transient behavior of electric circuits than the former.
Classical method of transient analysis is based on the determination of
differential equations and splitting the solution into two components: natural and
forced responses. The classical method is fairly complicated mathematically, but is
simple in engineering practice.

Natural and Forced Responses:

Solving differential equations by the classical method, complete solution of any
linear differential equation as composed of two parts: the complementary solution (or
natural response) and the particular solution (or forced response). To understand these
principles, let us consider a first order differential equation,
dv + P(t)v = Q(t) (4.1)
dt

Here Q(t) is identified as a forcing function, which is generally a function of

time (or constant, if a d.c. source is applied) and P(t), is also generally a function of
time, represents the circuit parameters. In our study, however, it will be a constant
quantity, since the value of circuit elements does not change during the
transients (indeed, the circuit parameters do change during the transients, but we may
neglect this change as in many cases it is not significant).
v = e−Pt ∫ QePtdt + 𝐴e−Pt (4.2)
General solution can be written as
v = vPI + vCF

vPI = Particular integral = e−Pt ∫ QePtdt

vCF = Complementary Function = 𝐴e−Pt

In general vPI may be written as a Steady state value, designated asVss. Remaining part
is called Transient portion of solution Vt.

V = Vss + Vt

VPI = Vss = Source response = Steady state response = Forced response

VCF = Vt = Source free response = Transient response = Natural response
Complete solution is composed of two parts. The first one, which is dependent
on the forcing function Q, is the forced response (it is also called the steady state
response or the particular solution or the particular integral). The second one, which
does not depend on the forcing function, but only on the circuit parameters P (the
types of elements, their values, interconnections, etc) and on the initial conditions A,
i.e., on the ‘‘nature’’ of the circuit, is the natural response. It is also called the solution
of the homogeneous equation, which does not include the source function and has
anything but zero on its right side. Following this rule, we will solve differential
equations by finding natural and forced responses separately and combining them for a
complete solution.
Transient response of series RL, RC, RLC
circuit for AC excitation

Transient Response of series RL circuit for AC excitation

V(t) = Vmsin(ωt + θ)
Consider series RL circuit shown in figure.
Consider that switch closed at t=0 and before that switch is open for a long time.
Initial condition

At t = 0−, Switch is open

i(0−) = I0 = 0
And also we know that inductor does not allow sudden change in current through
it.
i.e i(0+) = i(0−) = I0 = 0
For 𝐭 > 𝟎 the switch is closed

Apply KVL to the circuit

Rearranging
R Vm
[D + ] i = sin(ωt + θ)
L L
The complementary function of the above D.E is
This is the transient part of the solution. The steady state solution of equation 5.1 can
be obtained by assuming particular integral as

𝑖𝑝(𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

Substituting this solution in eq 5.1 at θ = 0

𝑅𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 + 𝑅𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝐿(−𝜔𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝜔𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡) = Vm sin ωt

Comparing similar terms

𝑅𝐴 + 𝜔𝐿𝐵 = 0

𝑅𝐵 − 𝜔𝐿𝐴 = Vm

Solving for A and B

The complete solution is given by

K can be found from initial condition i(0)=0 and finally the complete solution.
 Transient Response of series RC circuit for AC
excitation

V(t) = Vmsin(ωt + θ)
Consider series RC circuit shown in Fig..
Consider that switch closed at t=0 and before that switch is open for a long
time.
To find transient response of driven series RC circuit means to find
expression for voltage across capacitor VC(t).

Initial condition

At t = 0−, Switch is open

Before closing the switch active source is not presented in the circuit, so the initial
voltage across capacitor is zero.
VC(0−) = V0 = 0
And also we know that Capacitor does not allow sudden change in voltage across
it.
i.e VC(0+) = VC(0−) = V0 = 0

For 𝐭 > 𝟎 the switch is closed

Now the voltage source is introduced in the circuit.

Apply KVL to the circuit

Comparing similar terms

𝐵
−𝜔𝑅𝐴 + =0
𝐶
𝐴 𝜔Vm
𝑅𝜔𝐵 + =
𝐶 𝑅

Solving for A and B and finally the complete solution is given b

K can be found from initial condition.

 Transient Response of series RLC circuit for AC excitation

V(t) = Vmsin(ωt + θ)

Consider series RLC circuit shown in Fig.. Consider that switch closed at t=0 and
before that switch is open for a long time.

Initial condition

At t = 0−, Switch is open

i(0−) = I0 = 0
And also we know that inductor does not allow sudden change in current through
it.
Current through inductor and voltage across capacitor does not change
instantaneously.

Before switch is closed at t = 0−, there is no current through the circuit and
capacitor is also uncharged.
i(0+) = i(0−) = I0 = 0
VC(0+) = VC(0−) = V0 = 0
Where, A and B are constants and m1, m2 are roots of the characteristic equation. The
response of the circuit depends upon the nature of the roots of the characteristic
equation.

The roots are

Let
The Steady state solution

The steady state part of solution is given by

Note: The steady state current in the network lags by an voltage by an angle if
XL > XC and leads the voltage XC > XL.

The total solution i(t) = is + it

Vm
i(t) = [sin(ωt ± ϕ)] + Ae−m1t + Be−m2t (5.6)
Z

Calculation of constants A and B

Constants A and B are calculated using initial conditions (i)
(i) At t=0, i(0+) = i(0−) = I0 = 0
UNIT-III
STEADY STATE ANALYSIS OF AC CIRCUITS
Steady State Analysis of Series, Parallel and Series Parallel combinations of R, L,C with
Sinusoidal excitation:

R-L Series Circuit:

Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R and an inductance L connected in series as shown

in the figure. The alternating voltage v is given by

The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the resistor is VR and that across the
inductor is VL

VR=IR is in phase with I

VL=IXL leads current by 90 degrees
With the above information, the phasor diagram can be drawn as shown.

The current I is taken as the reference phasor. The voltage VR is in phase with I and the
voltage VL leads the current by 90⁰. The resultant voltage V can be drawn as shown in the
figure. From the phasor diagram we observe that the voltage leads the current by an angle Φ or
in other words the current lags behind the voltage by an angle Φ.
The waveform and equations for an RL series circuit can be drawn as below.

From the phasor diagram, the expressions for the resultant voltage V and the angle Φ can be
derived as follows.

𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅

𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼X𝐿

𝑉 = √(𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝐼X𝐿)2
𝑉 = 𝐼√𝑅2 + X𝐿2
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑍
wℎe𝑟e 𝑍 = √𝑅2 + X𝐿2
The impedance in an AC circuit is similar to a resistance in a DC circuit. The unit for
impedance is ohms(Ω)

Phase angle:

Power Factor:
The power factor in an AC circuit is defined as the cosine of the angle between voltage and
current ie., cosΦ
Impedance Triangle:
We can derive a triangle called the impedance triangle from the phasor diagram of an RL
series circuit as shown
The impedance triangle is right angled triangle with R and XL as two sides and impedance as
the hypotenuse. The angle between the base and hypotenuse is Φ. The impedance triangle
enables us to calculate the following things.

1. Impedance 𝑍 = √𝑅2 + X𝐿2

2. Power Factor 𝑐o𝑠Ф = 𝑅/𝑍
𝑋
𝐿
3. Phase ∅ = 𝑡 𝑎n−1 ( )
angle 𝑅

4. Whether current is leading or lagging.

Explain the behavior of AC through RC Series Circuit:

Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R and a capacitance C connected in series as shown

in the figure. The alternating voltage v is given by

The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the resistor is VR and that across the
capacitor is 𝑉𝐶

𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 is in phase with I
𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼X𝐶 lags current by 90 degrees
With the above information, the phasor diagram can be drawn as shown.
The current I is taken as the reference phasor. The voltage VR is in phase with I and the
voltage VC lags behind the current by 90⁰. The resultant voltage V can be drawn as shown in
the figure. From the phasor diagram we observe that the voltage lags behind the current by an
angle Φ or in other words the current leads the voltage by an angle Φ.

The waveform and equations for an RC series circuit can be drawn as below.

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 s i n(𝜔𝑡 )
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 s i n(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)

From the phasor diagram, the expressions for the resultant voltage V and the angle Φ can be
derived as follows.
𝑉 = √𝑉2 + 𝑉2
𝑅 𝐶

𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅

𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼X𝐶

𝑉 = √(𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝐼X𝐶)2
𝑉 = 𝐼 √𝑅 2 + X𝐶 2
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑍
wℎe𝑟e i 𝑚𝑝e𝑑𝑎𝑘𝑐e𝑍 = √𝑅2 + X𝐶2
The impedance in an AC circuit is similar to a resistance in a DC circuit. The unit for
impedance is ohms(Ω).

Phase angle:
Impedance triangle:

Phasor algebra for RC series circuit.

𝑉̅= 𝑉 + j0 = 𝑉∠0o

𝑍̅ = 𝑅 − j X𝐶 = 𝑍∠ − ∅

Behavior AC with R-L-C Series circuit:

Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R, an inductance L and a capacitance C connected in

series as shown in the figure. The alternating voltage v is given by
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 s i n(𝜔𝑡 )
The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the resistor is VR, the voltage
across the inductor is VL and that across the capacitor is VC.

VR=IR is in phase with I

VL=IXL leads the current by 90 degrees
VC=IXC lags behind the current by 90 degrees

With the above information, the phasor diagram can be drawn as shown. The current I is taken
as the reference phasor. The voltage VR is in phase with I, the voltage VL leads the current by
90⁰ and the voltage VC lags behind the current by 90⁰. There are two cases that can occur
VL>VC and VL<VC depending on the values of XL and XC. And hence there are two possible
phasor diagrams.
 The phasor VL-VC or VC-VL is drawn and then the resultant voltage V is
drawn.

From the phasor diagram we observe that when VL>VC , the voltage leads the current by an
angle Φ or in other words the current lags behind the voltage by an angle Φ. When VL<VC ,the
voltage lags behind the current by an angle Φ or in other words the current leads the voltage by
an angle Φ.
From the phasor diagram, the expressions for the resultant voltage V and the angle Φ can be
derived
as follows.
𝑉 = √𝑉𝑅2 + (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶)2
𝑉 = √(𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝐼X𝐿 − 𝐼X𝐶)2
𝑉 = 𝐼√(𝑅)2 + (X𝐿 − X𝐶)2
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑍
Wℎe𝑟e i𝑚𝑝e𝑑𝑎n𝑐e i𝑠𝑍 = √𝑅2 + (X𝐿 − X𝐶)2

𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 𝐼X𝐿 − 𝐼X𝐶 X𝐿 − X𝐶
𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠e 𝑎𝑘𝑔𝑙e ∅ = 𝑇𝑎n−1 ( ) = 𝑇𝑎n−1 ( ) = 𝑇𝑎n−1 ( )
𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 𝑅
From the expression for phase angle, we can derive the following three cases
Case (i): When XL>XC
The phase angle Ф is positive and the circuit is inductive. The circuit behaves like a series RL
circuit.

Case (ii): When X𝐿 < X𝐶

The phase angle Ф is negative and the circuit is capacitive. The circuit behaves like a
series RC circuit.

Case (iii): When X𝐿 = X𝐶

The phase angle Ф = 0 and the circuit is purely resistive. The circuit behaves like a pure
resistive circuit.
The voltage and the current can be represented by the following equations. The angle Φ is
positive or negative depending on the circuit elements.
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 s i n(𝜔𝑡 )
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 s i n(𝜔𝑡 ± ∅)

Phasor algebra for RLC series circuit.

𝑉 = 𝑉 + j0 = 𝑉∠0o

𝑍̅ = 𝑅 + j (X𝐿 − X𝐶) = 𝑍∠∅

 Star Delta Conversion
We know the basic of series, parallel or combo of series and parallel
connection but Y-Δ is another little bit complex configuration of components. The 3-phase
networks have three wires and usually, the networks are connected in star & delta
configuration. The 3 phase supply or the load connected in either formation can be converted
into its equivalent counterpart. We use such conversion to simplify the mathematical
calculations required for circuit analysis of a complex electrical network.

Delta Connected Network

The delta connected network is formed when three network branches or impedances are
connected to form a loop in such a way that their heads are connected to the tails of the adjacent
branch. The resultant network forms a triangle shape that resembles a Greek letter Delta “Δ”
which is why it’s named after it. It is also known as π (pi) network because it resembles the letter
after rearranging the branches. Know more about Delta Connection in the previous post.
 Star Connected Network
The Star connected network is formed when three branches or impedances are connected
together at a common point. The other ends of the branch networks are free. The resultant
shape resembles the letter “Y” which is why it is also called “Y” or “Wye” connected
network. It is also known as “T” connected network due to its shape after rearranging the
network branches. Know more about Star Connection in the previous post.

The circuits given above can be converted using the following transformation.
During the transformation, the terminals A, B, C must remain in the same position,
only the impedance & their arrangement changes. The following figure illustrates
the statement given above.

Delta to Star Conversion

The delta connected network can be transformed into star configuration using a set
of electrical formula. Let’s derive the equation for each impedance.

The given figure shows a delta network having A, B, C terminals with the
impedances R1, R2, R3. The equivalent star connected network with RA, RB & RC where they
are connected to their corresponding terminals as shown in the figure.

As mentioned earlier, the terminals A, B, C remains the same, as well as the impedance
between them, must remain the same.
 The total impedance between A-B in the delta network; Similarly the impedance between
terminals B-CSimilarly the impedance between A-C

According to star network;

RAB = RA + RB
RBC = RB + RC
RAC = RA + RC
Now adding equation (i), (ii) & (iii) together
 Now subtract equation (i), (ii), & (iii) one by one from equation (iv)

First, Subtract (ii) from (iv)

Similarly subtracting (i) & (iii) from (iv) results in

From the derived equations for star-equivalent impedances RA, RB, & RC we can
conclude the relation between delta-to-star conversions as; the equivalent star impedance is
equal to the product of the adjacent delta impedances with a terminal divide by the sum of all
three delta impedances.

In case all three Impedances are same in a delta network, the equivalent star impedance
would become

Since all the impedances throughout the delta network are equal, each three
equivalent star resistance would be 1/3 times the delta impedance.
 Star to Delta Conversion
Now we are going to convert the star connected impedance into delta connected
impedance. Let’s derive the equations used for a star to delta conversion.

The given figure shows star connected impedance RA, RB & RC. While the required
delta equivalent impedance is R1, R2 & R3 as shown in the figure.

In order to find the equivalent delta resistance, multiply the previous equation (v) & (vi), as
well as (vi) & (vii) & (v) & (vii) together.
Multiplying (v) & (vi)

Similarly multiplying (vi) with (vii) & (v) with (vii)

Now add equation (viii), (ix) & (x) together

 In order to get the individual equivalent delta impedance, we divide equation (xi) with (v), (vi)
& (vii) separately such as.
Dividing (xi) with (v)

Similarly dividing equation (xi) with (vi) & (vii) separately results in

The relation between star to delta equivalent impedance is clear from the given equation. The
sum of the two-product of all star-impedances divide by the star impedance of the corresponding
terminal is equal to the delta impedance connected with the opposite terminal.
 Simplifying the equations will lead to

In case all the star impedances are equal, the equivalent delta impedance would be;

Using the previous equation,

This equation suggests that each equivalent delta impedance is equal to 3 times the star
impedance.
 UNIT-IV
Resonance:
Resonance is a particular type of phenomenon inherently
found normally in every kind of system, Electrical, Mechanical,
Optical, Acoustical and even Atomic. Usually resonance occurs in any
of these systems, when energy storage elements interchange exactly
equal amounts of energy. Resonance cannot take place when only one
type of energy storing element is present such as an inductance or a
mass. There must exist two types of independent energy storing
elements capable of interchanging energy between one another, i.e.,
inductance and capacitance in electrical systems and mass and a spring
in mechanical systems.
There are several definitions of resonance. But, the most
frequently used definition of resonance in electrical systems is the
steady state operation of a circuit or system at that frequency for which
the resultant response is in time with the exciting function, despite the
presence of energy storing elements. Resonance is a phenomenon
which enables us to discriminate between different frequencies.
Using resonant circuits, it is possible to select a particular
frequency from a band of frequencies.
Series Resonance
A circuit is said to be under resonance, when the applied
voltage V and the resulting current I are in phase. Thus a series
RLC circuit, under resonance behaves like a pure resistance network
and the net reactance of the circuit should be zero. Since V and I are in
phase, the p.f. is unity at resonance.
 Figure 1.2

1. Resistance R is independent of frequency.

2. Inductive reactance 𝐗 𝐋 directly proportional to frequency and is
positive.
3. Capacitive reactance 𝐗 𝐂 Inversely proportional to frequency and is
negative.
4. Net reactance 𝐗 = 𝐗 𝐋 − 𝐗 𝐂 It will be initially negative and becomes zero
and then it is positive.

i.e. for f < f0 , it is capacitive

for f = f0 , it is zero

for f > f0 , it is inductive.

When, XL = XC the circuit is said to be under resonance.

5. Impedance (Z)
|Z| = √R2 + (XL − XC )2
At resonance, XL − XC = 0 , hence Z = R . At any other frequency, (XL −
XC ) ≠ 0 and hence |Z| > 𝑅.
Hence, impedance at resonance is minimum and it is equal to R. The
circuit behaves as capacitive circuit below f0 and inductive circuit f0 .

Current at Resonance
Voltage V
The current= Impedance = since the impedance is minimum and equal
√R2 +(XL −XC )2
V
to R at resonance, the current is maximum and equal to (R) and in phase with
V (power factor is unity). It varies inversely as impedance Z. The variation of
current with frequency is shown in fig 1.3.
V
Imax =
R
 Figure 1.3

With all parameters being same, if R is varied the current at resonance will
change but resonance frequency is independent of R. The shape of current
variation becomes flat as resistance is increased.
Since current is maximum at resonance, voltage across resistance, VR = IR will
also be maximum and equal to applied voltage.
Voltage across Elements R, L and C
Voltage across resistance R=IR is maximum at resonance and equal to voltage
applied to the series circuit.
Voltage across inductive reactance = IXL .
Both I and XL are increasing before resonance and the product must be
increasing. At resonance, I is not changing but XL is increasing and hence the
product should be increasing, the voltage across inductor continues to increase
until the reduction in current offsets the increase in XL .
IXL is maximum after f0 .
In the case of voltage across capacitor VC = IXC . At resonance, I is
constant and X C is decreasing. Therefore, the product should be decreasing.
Hence IXC should have been maximum before resonance frequency f0 . The
variation of voltage VR , VL and VC are shown in figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4
Frequency at which 𝐕𝐋 is maximum
We know that
VωL
VL = IXL =
2
√R2 + (ωL − 1 )
ωC
V 2 ω2 L2 V 2 ω4 L2 C 2
VL 2 = =
1 2 ω2 C 2 R2 + (ωL2C − 1)2
R2 + (ωL − ωC)
d(VL 2 )
To determine frequency at which VL is maximum, we will equate =0
dω
4ω3 V 2 L2 C 2 [ω2 C 2 R2 + (ω2 LC − 1)2 ] − V 2 ω4 L2 C 2 [2ωC 2 R2 + 2(ω2 LC − 1)2ωLC]
=0
[ω2 C 2 R2 + (ω2 LC − 1)2 ]2
4ω3 V 2 L2 C 2 [ω2 C 2 R2 + (ω2 LC − 1)2 ] − V 2 ω4 L2 C 2 [2ωC 2 R2 + 2(ω2 LC − 1)2ωLC] = 0
2[ω2 C 2 R2 + (ω2 LC − 1)2 ] − ω[ωC 2 R2 + 2ωLC(ω2 LC − 1)] = 0
2ω2 C 2 R2 + 2(ω2 LC − 1)2 − ω2 C 2 R2 − 2ω2 LC(ω2 LC − 1) = 0
ω2 C 2 R2 + (ω2 LC − 1)[2(ω2 LC − 1) − 2ω2 LC] = 0
ω2 C 2 R2 − 2ω2 LC + 2 = 0
ω2 [2LC − C 2 R2 ] = 2
1
ω=
2 2
√LC − C R
2
1
f=
C 2 R2
2π√LC − 2
Frequency at which 𝐕𝐂 is maximum
We know that
V 1
VC = IXC =
2 ωC
√(ωL − 1 )
ωC
2
V
VC 2 = 2 2 2
ω C R + (ω2 LC − 1)2
d(VC 2 )
To determine the frequency at which VC is maximum we will equate =0
dω
−V 2 [2ωC 2 R2 + 2(ω2 LC − 1)2ωLC]
=0
[ω2 C 2 R2 + (ω2 LC − 1)2 ]2
[2ωC 2 R2 + 2(ω2 LC − 1)2ωLC] = 0
[2ωC 2 R2 + 4ωLC(ω2 LC − 1)] = 0
2ωC[CR2 + 2L(ω2 LC − 1)] = 0
 CR2 + 2L2 ω2 C − 2L = 0
2L2 ω2 C = 2L − CR2
2L − CR2 1 R2
ω =
2
= −
2L2 C LC 2L2
1 R2 1 1 R2
ω = √LC − 2L2 or f = 2π √LC − 2L2

At resonance the conditions are

1. Circuit is purely resistive
2. Power factor of the circuit is unity
V
3. Current is maximum and is equal to R
4. Voltage across L= Voltage across C
5. The p.f of the circuit changes from leading to lagging with increase in
frequency.
Series RLC circuit as a frequency selector
Any series RLC circuit passes all waves of finite frequency to some extent
but it will offer lowest impedance at resonant frequency i.e., it allows
frequencies near the resonant frequency more rapidly than other frequencies.
Here, a series RLC circuit posses the frequency selectivity, i.e., the ability to
discriminate among waves of different frequencies. The band of frequencies
which is passes quite readily through the circuit is called Pass band or Band
width of the circuit.
Bandwidth or Pass band It is arbitrarily considered to be the range of
1
frequencies over which the current is equal to the greater than times the
√2
V
current at resonance (= R).
It is customary to specify two frequencies f1 and f2 at which the current
V
is reduced to ( 2R) as shown in figure 1.5.
√

Figure 1.5
 Within this range of frequencies the power dissipation is equal to or
V2 V2
greater than 2R, i.e., half of the maximum power at resonance, R and hence the
frequencies f1 and f2 are called lower and upper half power frequencies. The
frequency range f2 − f1 is called Bandwidth or Pass band.
Bandwidth = f2 − f1
Determination of Bandwidth
V
Current at resonance = R
Impedance at resonance = R
1
Current at half power frequencies f1 and f2 is times the current at resonance
√2
1 V
I = ( 2) (R)
√
Therefore, impedance Z at half power frequencies
= √2R
Z = √R2 + X 2 = √2R
Squaring, R2 + X 2 = 2R2 ⟹ X 2 = R2 ⟹X = R
Hence, at frequencies f1 and f2 the net reactance is equal to the resistance, i.e.,
X = R. The phase angle at these frequencies will be 450 and hence power factor
is 0.707.
At lower half power frequency, f1 , XC > XL , hence, the net reactance
1
X = (ω C) − ω1 L = R
1

1 − ω1 2 LC = ω1 CR
Therefore,
R 1
ω1 2 LC + ω1 CR − 1 = 0 ⟹ ω1 2 + ω1 ( L ) − (LC) = 0

R R 2 1
ω1 = − (2L) ± √(2L) + (LC)
At upper half frequency, f2 , XL > XC , hence
1
X = ω2 L − (ω C) = R
2
R 1
ω2 2 LC − 1 = ω2 CR ⟹ ω2 2 − ω2 ( L ) − (LC) = 0

R R 2 1
ω2 = (2L) ± √(2L) + (LC)
R R
Therefore, bandwidth= ω2 − ω1 = L ⟹ f2 − f1 = 2πL
Quantity Factor (Q-Factor)
The quantity of series resonant circuit depends on the sharpness of the
current variation with frequency (current response). Smaller the value of
resistance R compared to XL and XC , sharper will be the response. To introduce
a quantitative measure for the quality of the resonant circuit, quality factor is
defined as
ω0 L 1
Q − factor = =ω
R 0 CR
XL0 XC0
= =
R R
Inductive or capacitive reactance at resonance
=
Resistance
It can also defined as the ratio of voltage across inductor or capacitor at
resonance to the supply voltage
V V
Q − factor = ( VL ) = ( VC)
Since VL = ω0 LI
and V=IR
VL ω0 LI ω0 L
Q − factor = = =
V RI R
Another form of quality factor in terms of energy is defined as
Maximum energy stored
Q = 2π ( )
Energy dissipated per cycle
The maximum energy stored in inductor at resonance is
1
WL = (2) LIm 2
Power dissipated at resonance
Im 2 R
P0 = 2
P0
Power dissipation per cycle = f0
1
[2π( )LIm 2 ] 1 2f0 2πf0 L ω0 L
Q= 2
Im 2 R
= 2π (2) LIm 2 . I 2 = =
[ ] m R R R
2f0

Selectivity
The ratio of bandwidth to resonance frequency is defined as selectivity of the
circuit
R
BW f2 −f1 R C CR2
Selectivity = = = 2πL
1 = L √LC = R√L = √
f0 f0 L
2π√LC

Parallel Resonance
The general definition of resonance that the circuit containing energy storage
elements (L and C) behaves as a pure resistive network at resonance and the
applied voltage and resulting current are in phase, is also applicable to parallel
resonance. At resonance, in a parallel circuit, the net susceptance must be
zero. In analyzing series circuit we have employed impedance concept and for
parallel circuit admittance concept is more convenient. First we consider a
parallel circuit with ideal elements (R, L and C) in each branch and then extend
the conditions to a general circuit.
Parallel resonance in pure RLC circuits
Let us consider a parallel circuit in which each branch consists of single
ideal element (R, L and C) as shown in figure 1.6 as

Figure 1.6

The admittances of each branch (reciprocal of impedances) are

1
Y1 = R = G
1 1
Y2 = jX = −jBL = −j ωL
L
1
Y3 = = jB = jωC
jXC

The total admittance of the circuit is

Y = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 = G + j(BC − BL )
The condition for resonance is that net susceptance should be zero
BC − BL = 0 ⟹ BC = BL
1
ωC = ωL
The frequency at resonance is
1 1
ωr = ⟹ fr = 2π√LC
√LC

The absolute value of total admittance is |Y| = √G 2 + (BC − BL )2 . At f = fr, total

admittance |Y| = G only. Since net susceptance is zero it is also minimum, the
p.f is unity. At f > 𝑓r the net susceptance is capacitive and hence the p.f of the
circuit is leading. The effect of variation of frequency on conductance,
susceptance and admittance are shown in figure 1.6 b).
Variation of Total current
V
I = Z VY
Since admittance is minimum at resonance, the current is also
minimum. The variation of total current with frequency is same as the
variation of admittance and is shown in figure 1.7. Sometimes a parallel
resonance circuit is called anti resonant circuit since current is minimum.
Current at resonance I0 = VG

Figure 1.7

Conditions at Resonance in parallel circuits

1. The inductive and capacitive susceptance are equal
2. Net susceptance is zero
3. Admittance is minimum and equal to conductance
4. The current is minimum and is equal to VG
5. The V and I are in phase and power factor is unity.
But in practice it is not necessary to have a separate resistance branch,
because the inductive and capacitance are always associated with small
resistances.
Practical two branch resonant circuit
In a practical resonant circuit shown in figure 1.8 a) and inductance and
capacitance elements are connected in parallel and having resistance
associated with them. The phasor diagram showing the applied voltage, branch
currents and total current are shown in figure 4.13 b) at resonance condition.

Figure 1.8
In order that the above circuit is under resonance, the total current should be
in phase with the applied voltage, i.e. it should behave as a pure resistive
circuit. In order that the total current is in phase with applied voltage the net
reactive component of current should be zero.
i.e., 𝐼𝐿 sin ϕ𝐿 = 𝐼𝐶 sin 𝜙𝐶
𝑉 XL 𝑉 XC
=
2
√RL +XL √RL +XL2 2 2 √RC +XC √RC 2 +XC 2
2 2

XL XC
=R
RL 2 +XL 2 C
2
+XC 2
i.e., Inductive susceptance = Capacitive susceptance
Net susceptance is zero. Hence the admittance at resonance is pure
conductance and is equal to
RL RC
𝑌=R 2 +R
L +XL 2 C
2
+XC 2
The condition for resonance is
1
XL XC 𝜔𝑟 𝐿 𝜔𝑟 𝐶
=R ⟹R =
RL 2 +XL 2 C
2
+XC 2 L
2
+ωr2 L2 1
(RC 2 + 2 2)
ωr C

Cross multiplying
1
ωr 2 LC (R C 2 + ) = R L 2 + ωr 2 L2
ωr2 C2
L L
ωr 2 LC [R C 2 − C] = R L 2 − C
1⁄
2
L
1 RL 2−
ωr = [√ C
L ]
√LC RC 2 −
C

Resonance frequency
1⁄
2
L
ω 1 RL 2 −
fr = 2πr = 2π√LC [√ C
L ]
RC 2 −
C

Since the resonance frequency fr must be a real value, it is necessary that both
L L
the quantities (R L 2 − C) and (R C 2 − C) should be of the same sign (either +ve or -
ve). If this is not satisfied resonance will not occur.
Since the circuit behaves as a pure conductance and hence the current at
resonance is
RL RC
𝐼0 = 𝑉𝐺 = 𝑉 [R 2 +R ]
L +XL 2 C
2
+XC 2
Usually the resistance associated with capacitance is small and considering an
ideal capacitor i.e. R C = 0, then
 1⁄
2
L
1 RL 2 −
Resonance frequency, fr = 2π√LC [√ L
C
]
−
C

1 1 R 2
fr = 2π √LC − ( LL2 )
𝑉RL
Current at resonance 𝐼0 = R 2
L +XL 2
RL +XL 2
2
RL 2 +ωr 2L2 L L
Impedance at resonance = = = R L + CR − R L = CR
RL RL L L
L
The impedance at resonance is called dynamic resistance or effective
CRL
resistance of the circuit.
Resonance can also be obtained by varying different parameters in the above
circuit.
Resonance by varying L and keeping all other parameters constant
In the parallel circuit shown in fig 1.8 a), we would like to get resonance at 𝜔 =
𝜔𝑟 by varying only XL . The conditions for resonance is
XL XC
=R
RL 2 +XL 2 C
2
+XC 2
Cross multiplying we will get
XL (R C 2 + XC 2 ) = XC (R L 2 + XL 2 )
The above equation is written as a quadratic equation in the variable XL
XC XL 2 − XL (R C 2 + XC 2 ) + X C R L 2 = 0
Solving for XL
2
[(RC 2 +XC 2 )±√(RC 2 +XC 2 ) −4XC 2 RL 2 ]
XL = ωr L = 2XC

ZC 2 ±√ZC 4−4XC 2 RL 2
ωr L = 2XC

ZC 2 ±√ZC 4−4XC 2 RL 2
ωr L = 2
ωr C

C
L = 2 [ZC 2 ± √ZC 4 − 4XC 2 R L 2 ]

In similar way, resonance can be obtained by varying by varying C (or XC ), R L or

R C in the above circuit. The corresponding values ofXC ,R L or R C can be obtained
from equationX L (R C 2 + XC 2 ) = XC (R L 2 + XL 2 ).

2𝐿
The value of C at resonance 𝐶=
(ZL 2 ±√ZL 4 −4RC 2XL 2 )

Where ZL = √R L 2 + XL 2
 L
The value of RL at resonance R L = √ωr 2 + LCR C 2 − ωr 2 L2 + C

RL2 L 1
The value of RL at resonance R C = √ω 2LC +C−ω 2 C2
r r

Resonance at all Frequencies

Now, we would like to obtain the condition so that the two branch
parallel circuit resonates at all frequencies. The condition for resonance is
XL XC
=R
RL 2 +XL 2 C
2
+XC 2
𝜔𝐿 ωC
= 1+ω2 C2 R
RL 2 +𝜔2 𝐿2 C
2

1 1
R 2
=1
( L )+𝜔2 𝐿 +ω2 CRC 2
C
L

In order that the above equation is independent of ω we must have

RL 2 1 L
= C i. e. , R L 2 = C
L
L
L = CR C 2 R C 2 = C
Hence the condition for resonance at all frequencies is
L
RL2 = RC2 =
C

L
RL = RC = √
C
Q-Factor of Resonant Circuit
The parallel circuit behaves as a pure conductance at resonance and has
minimum admittance maximum impedance. The circuit offers very high
impedance for frequencies near resonance and hence does not allow these
frequencies readily than other frequencies, i.e., the circuit will reject the
frequencies near the resonant frequency and hence this resonance is called
Rejector resonance.
In this circuit, at resonance total current I is minimum and the branch
current 𝐼𝐿 and 𝐼𝐶 will equal and much greater than the total current.
𝐼𝐿 or 𝐼𝐶
The ratio of at resonance is called current magnification.
𝐼
The above ratio also represents quality factor or Q-factor.
𝐵𝐿 or 𝐵𝐶
The quality factor is also given by at resonance
𝐺
𝐵𝐿 or 𝐵𝐶
Q − factor = 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐺
Coupled Circuits:
INTRODUCTION

Although the lines of magnetic flux have no physical existence, they do form a
very convenient and useful basis for explaining various magnetic effects and to
calculate the magnitudes of various magnetic quantities. The complete closed path
followed by any group of magnetic flux lines is referred as magnetic circuit. The
lines of magnetic flux never intersect, and each line forms a closed path.
Whenever a current is flowing through the coil there will be magnetic flux
produced and the path followed by the magnetic flux is known as magnetic
circuit. The operation of all the electrical devices like generators, motors,
transformers etc. depend upon the magnetism produced by this magnetic circuit.
Therefore, to obtain the required characteristics of these devices, their magnetic
circuits have to be designed carefully.
Magneto Motive Force (MMF)

The magnetic pressure which sets up or tends to set up magnetic flux in a

magnetic circuit is known as MMF.

1. Magneto motive force is the measure of the ability of a coil to produce flux.
2. The magnetic flux is due to the existence of the MMF caused by a
current flowing through a coil having no. of turns.
3. A coil with ‘N’ turns carrying a current of ‘I’ amperes represents a
magnetic circuit producing an MMF of NI

MMF=NI

4. Units of MMF = Ampere turns(AT)

Magnetic Flux:

1. The amount of magnetic lines of force set-up in a magnetic circuit is

called magnetic flux.
2. The magnetic flux, that is established in a magnetic circuit is
proportional to the MMF and the proportional constant is the reluctance
of the magnetic circuit.
 3. The unit of magnetic flux is Weber.

Reluctance:

1. The opposition offered to the flow of magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit is called
reluctance

2. Reluctance of a magnetic circuit is defined as the ratio of magneto motive force to the
flux established.
3. Reluctance depends upon length(l), area of cross-section(a) and permeability ofthe
material that makes up the magnetic circuit.(S l, S a, S l/a )

1. If the magnetic circuit is homogeneous, and of uniform cross-sectional area, the

magnetic field strength is defined as the magneto motive force per unit length of
magnetic circuit.
𝑀𝑀𝐹 𝑁𝐼
=
H=
𝐿𝐸𝑁𝐺𝑇𝐻 𝑙
 2. The unit of magnetic field strength is AT/m
Magnetic flux density(B)

1. The magnetic flux density in any material is defined as the magnetic flux established per
unit area of cross-section.

2.The unit of magnetic flux density is wb/m2 or TESLA

Relative permeability

1. It is defined as the ratio of flux density established in magnetic material to the flux
density established in air or vacuum for the same magnetic field strength.

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION::

When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, an EMF is generated; when it
carries current in a magnetic field, a force is produced. Both of these effects may
be deduced from one of the most fundamental principles of electromagnetism, and
they provide the basis for a number of devices in which conductors move freely in
a magnetic field. It has already been mentioned that most electrical machines
employ a different form of construction.

FARADAY'S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:

In 1831, Michael Faraday, an English physicist gave one of the most basic laws of
electromagnetism called Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. This law explains
theworking principle of most of the electrical motors, generators, electrical
transformers and inductors. This law shows the relationship between electric
circuit and magnetic field.
FARADAY'S FIRST LAW
Any change in the magnetic field of a coil of wire will cause an emf to be induced in the
coil. This emf induced is called induced emf and if the conductor circuit is closed, the current
will also circulate through the circuit and this current is called induced current.
Method to change magnetic field:
 By moving a magnet towards or away from the coil
 By moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field.
 By changing the area of a coil placed in the magnetic field
 By rotating the coil relative to the magnet.
Faraday's Second Law
It states that the magnitude of emf induced in the coil is equal to the rate of change of flux that
linkages with the coil. The flux linkage of the coil is the product of number of turns in the coil
and flux associated with the coil.
Faraday Law Formula

Consider, a magnet is approaching towards a coil. Here we consider two instants at time T1 and
time T2.
Flux linkage with the coil at time,

Flux linkage with the coil at

time,Change in flux linkage,

Let this change in flux linkage be,

So, the Change in flux linkage

Now the rate of change of flux linkage

Take derivative above equation we will get the rate of change of flux linkage
 But according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, the rate of change of flux linkage
is equal to induced emf.

Where, flux Φ in Wb = B*A B = magnetic field strength A = area of the coil

Lenz's law obeys Newton's third law of motion (i.e. to every action there is always an equal and
opposite reaction) and the conservation of energy (i.e. energy may neither be created nor
destroyed and therefore the sum of all the energies in the system is a constant).
Lenz's law : It states that when an emf is generated by a change in magnetic flux according to
Faraday's Law, the polarity of the induced emf is such, that it produces a current that's
magnetic field opposes the change which produces it.

The negative sign used in Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, indicates that the induced
emf and the change in magnetic flux have opposite signs.

 There exists a definite relation between the direction of the induced current, the
direction of the flux and the direction of motion of the conductor. The direction of the
induced current may be found easily by applying either Fleming's Right-hand Rule

 There exists a definite relation between the direction of the induced current, the
direction of the flux and the direction of motion of the conductor. The direction of the
induced current may be found easily by applying either Fleming's Left-hand Rule
HOW TO INCREASE EMF INDUCED IN A COIL:
 By increasing the number of turns in the coil i.e. N, from the formulae derived above it is
easily seen that if number of turns in a coil is increased, the induced emf also gets
increased.
 By increasing magnetic field strength i.e. B surrounding the coil- Mathematically,
if magnetic field increases, flux increases and if flux increases emf induced will also
get increased. Theoretically, if the coil is passed through a stronger magnetic field, there will
be more lines of force for coil to cut and hence there will be more emf induced.
 By increasing the speed of the relative motion between the coil and the magnet - If the
relative speed between the coil and magnet is increased from its previous value, the coil
will cut the lines of flux at a faster rate, so more induced emf would be produced.

APPLICATIONS OF FARADAY'S LAW:

Faraday law is one of the most basic and important laws of electromagnetism. This law finds its
application in most of the electrical machines, industries and medical field etc.
 Electrical Transformers work on Faraday's law of mutual induction.
 The basic working principle of electrical generator is Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction.
 The Induction cooker is a fastest way of cooking. It also works on principle of mutual
induction. When current flows through the coil of copper wire placed below a cooking
container, it produces a changing magnetic field. This alternating or changing magnetic
field induces an emf and hence the current in the conductive container, and we know that
flow of current always produces heat in it.
 Electromagnetic Flow Meter is used to measure velocity of certain fluids. When a
magnetic field is applied to electrically insulated pipe in which conducting fluids are
flowing, then according to Faraday's law, an electromotive force is induced in it. This
induced emf is proportional to velocity of fluid flowing.
 Form the bases of Electromagnetic theory; Faraday's idea of lines of force is used in well
known Maxwell's equations. According to Faraday's law, change in magnetic field gives
rise to change in electric field and the converse of this is used in Maxwell's equations.
 It is also used in musical instruments like electric guitar, electric violin etc.

SELF INDUCTANCE:
Inductance is the property of electrical circuits containing coils in which a change in the
electrical current induces an electromotive force (emf). This value of induced emf opposes the
change in current in electrical circuits and electric current 'I' produces a magnetic field which
generates magnetic flux acting on the circuit containing coils. The ratio of the magnetic flux to
the current is called the self-inductance.
𝜓 = 𝑁∅
𝐿=
𝐼
The phenomenon of inducing an emf in a coil whenever a current linked with coil changes is
called induction. Here units of L are Weber per ampere which is equivalent to Henry.
‘Ø’ denotes the magnetic flux through the area spanned by one loop, ‘I’ is the current flowing
through the coil and N is the number of loops (turns) in the coil.
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE:
Mutual Inductance is the ratio between induced Electro Motive Force across a coil to the rate
of change of current of another adjacent coil in such a way that two coils are in possibility of
flux linkage. Mutual induction is a phenomenon when a coil gets induced in EMF across it due
to rate of change current in adjacent coil in such a way that the flux of one coil current gets
linkage of another coil. Mutual inductance is denoted as (M), it is called co-efficient of Mutual
Induction between two coils

Mutual inductance for two coils gives the same value when they are in mutual induction
with each other. Induction in one coil due to its own rate of change of current is called self
inductance (L), but due to rate of change of current of adjacent coil it gives mutual
inductance (M)
From the above figure, first coil carries current i1 and its self inductance is L1. Along with its
selfinductance it has to face mutual induction due to rate of change of current i2 in the second
coil. Same case happens in the second coil also. Dot convention is used to mark the polarity of
the mutual induction. Suppose two coils are placed nearby
Coil 1 carries I1 current having N1 number of turn. Now the flux density created by the coil 1 is
B1. Coil 2 with N2 number of turn gets linked with this flux from coil 1. So flux linkage in coil 2
is N2.
φ21 [φ21 is called leakage flux in coil 2 due to coil 1].

Now it can be written from these equations,

DOT CONVENTION:

 Dot convention is used to determine the polarity of a magnetic coil in respect of other
magnetic coil.
 Dot convention is normally used to determine the total or equivalent inductance (Leq).

SERIES AIDING:
 Suppose two coils are in series with same place dot.
 When 2 dots are at the same place of both inductors(while at entering place or leaving
place)as shown in below figure i.e. the total mutual inductance gets aided(added)

Mutual inductance between them is positive.

SERIES OPPOSING:

 Suppose two coils are in series with opposite place dot.

 When 2 dots are at the opposite place of both inductors(while one at entering place and
other at leaving place)as shown in below figure i.e. the total mutual inductance gets
differed

Mutual inductance between them is negative.

PARALLEL AIDING:
 Suppose two coils are in parallel with same place dot.
 When 2 dots are at the same place of both inductors(while at entering place or leaving
place)as shown in below figure i.e. the total mutual inductance gets aided(added)

𝒅𝑰𝟏 𝒅𝑰𝟐
V=L1 +M
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝑰𝟐 𝒅𝑰𝟏
V=L2 +M
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

From the above figure,

i=i1+i2

Therefore total inductance is given by,

PARALLEL OPPOSING:
 Suppose two coils are in parallel with opposite place dot.
 When 2 dots are at the opposite place of both inductors(while one at entering place and
other at leaving place)as shown in below figure i.e. the total mutual inductance gets
differed

𝒅𝑰𝟏 𝒅𝑰𝟐
V=L1 −M
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝑰𝟐 𝒅𝑰𝟏
V=L2 −M
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

From the above figure,

i=i1+i2
Therefore total inductance is given by,
COEFFICIENT OF COUPLING:

The fraction of magnetic flux produced by the current in one coil that links with the other coil is
called coefficient of coupling between the two coils. It is denoted by (k).
Two coils are taken coil A and coil B, when current flows through one coil it produces flux; the
whole flux may not link with the other coil coupled, and this is because of leakage flux by a
fraction (k) known as Coefficient of Coupling.

k=1 when the flux produced by one coil completely links with the other coil and is called
magnetically tightly coupled.

k=0 when the flux produced by one coil does not link at all with the other coil and thus the coils are
said to be magnetically isolated.

DERIVATION:

Consider two magnetic coils A and

B.When current I1 flows through coil
A.

Considering coil B in which current I2 flows

Multiplying equation (1) and (2)

The above equation (A) shows the relationship between mutual inductance and self inductance
between two the coils

SERIES MAGNETIC CIRCUIT:

 A series magnetic circuit is analogous to a series electric circuit. A magnetic circuit is
said to be series, if the same flux is flowing through all the elements connected in a
magnetic circuit. Consider a circular ring having a magnetic path of ‘l’ meters, area of
cross section ‘a’ m2 with a mean radius of ‘R’ meters having a coil of ‘N’ turns carrying a
current of ‘I’ amperes wound uniformly as shown in below fig

The flux produced by the circuit is given by

In the above equation NI is the MMF of the magnetic circuit, which is analogous to EMF in
theelectrical circuit.
PARALLEL MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

 A magnetic circuit which has more than one path for magnetic flux is called a parallel
magnetic circuit. It can be compared with a parallel electric circuit which has more than
one path for electric current. The concept of parallel magnetic circuit is illustrated in fig.
2. Here a coil of ‘N’ turns wounded on limb ‘AF’ carries a current of ‘I’ amperes.
The magnetic flux ‘φ1’ set up by the coil divides at ‘B’ into two paths namely
Magnetic flux passes ‘φ2’ along the path ‘BE’
Magnetic flux passes ‘φ3’ along the path ‘BCDE’ i.e φ1= φ2 + φ3

The magnetic paths ‘BE’ and ‘BCDE’ are in parallel and form a parallel magnetic circuit.
The ATrequired for this parallel circuit is equal to AT required for any one of the paths. Let
S1= reluctance of path EFAB

Let, S1= reluctance of path

EFABS2= reluctance of
path BE S3= reluctance of
path BCDE
Total MMF= MMF for path EFAB + MMF for path BE or path BCD
NI=Ф1S1+ Ф2 S2= Ф1 S1+ Ф3 S3
COMPOSITE MAGNETIC CIRCUIT:
Consider a magnetic circuit which consists of two specimens of iron arranged as shown in
figure. Let ℓ1 and ℓ2 be the mean lengths of specimen 1 and specimen2 in meters, A1 and A2 be
their respective cross sectional areas in square meters, and 1 and 2 be their respective relative
permeability’s.
The reluctance of specimen 1 is given as

and that for specimen 2 is

If a coil of N turns carrying a current I is wound on the specimen 1 and if the magnetic flux is
assumed to be confined to iron core then the total reluctance is given by the sum of the
individual reluctances S1 and S2. This is equivalent to adding the resistances of a series
circuit. Thus the total reluctance is given by

And the total flux is given by

Problem :Sketch the dotted equivalent circuit for the coupled coil shown in the fig. and find
the equivalent inductive?

Solution: The dotted equivalent circuit is

The equivalent inductive reactance is

j Xeq = j3 + j5 + j6 - 2 x j2 -2x j3+ 2x j4) = j14 - j2 = j12
Problem: Sketch the dotted equivale1lt circuit for the coupled coils shown in figure and find the
equivalent inductance at the terminals AB. All coupling coefficie1lt are 0.5.

Solution: The dotted equivalent circuit is

M12 0.5 0.2 0.05 0.05
 M23 0.5 0.05 0.1 0..0035

M31 0.5 0.2 0.1 0..0707

Equivalent inductance between terminals A and B LAB

= 0.2 + 0.05+ 0.1 + 2(0.05 - 0.035 - 0.0707)
=0.2386H
Problem: For the given circuit as shown in figure

a) Find the equivalent reactance

b) Draw the transformer coupling circuit

Solution

i) The equivalent reactance is

j Xeq = j5 + j8 + j11 + 2(-j3 - j4 +j5) = j24 - j4 = j20

ii) The T/F coupling circuit is

PBRVITS, KAVALI
PBRVITS, KAVALI
PBRVITS, KAVALI
 UNIT-V
TWO PORT NETWORKS:
Introduction:
A general network having two pairs of terminals, one labeled the “input terminals’’ and the other
the “output terminals,’’ is a very important building block in electronic systems, communication
systems, automatic control systems, transmission and distribution systems, or other systems in
which an electrical signal or electric energy enters the input terminals, is acted upon by the
network, and leaves via the output terminals. A pair of terminals at which a signal may enter or
leave a network is also called a port, and a network like the above having two such pair of
terminals is called a Two - port network. A general two-port network with terminal voltages and
currents specified is shown in the figure below. In such networks the relation between the two
voltages and the two currents can be described in six different ways resulting in six different
systems of Parameters and in this chapter we will consider the most important four systems.

Impedance Parameters: Z parameters (open circuit impedance parameters)

We will assume that the two port networks that we will consider are composed of linear elements
and contain no independent sources but dependent sources are permissible. We will consider the
two-port network as shown in the figure below.

Fig 5.1: A general two-port network with terminal voltages and currents specified. The
two-port network is composed of linear elements, possibly including dependent sources, but
not containing any independent sources.The voltage and current at the input terminals are V1
& I1, and V2 & I2 are voltage and current at the output port. The directions of I1 and I2 are both
customarily selected as into the network at the upper conductors (and out at the lower
conductors). Since the network is linear and contains no independent sources within it, V1 may
be considered to be the superposition of two components, one caused by I1 and the other by I2.
When the same argument is applied to V2, we get the set of equations

V1 = Z11I1 + Z12I2
V2 = Z21I1 + Z22I2

PBRVITS, KAVALI
This set of equations can be expressed in matrix notation as

V1 Z11 Z12 I1
Z2
V2 1 Z22 I2
And in much simpler form a

[V] =[Z][I]
Where [V] ,[Z] and [I]are Voltage, impedance and current matrices. The description of the Z
parameters, defined in the above equations is obtained by setting each of the currents equal to
zero as given below.
Z11 = V1/I1 │ I2=0
Z12 = V1/I2 │ I1=0
Z21 = V2/I1 │ I2=0
Z22 = V2/I2 │ I1=0
Thus ,Since zero current results from an open-circuit termination, the Z parameters are known as
the Open-circuit Impedance parameters. And more specifically Z11 & Z22 are called Driving
point Impedances and Z12 & Z21 are called Reverse and Forward transfer impedances
respectively.
A basic Z parameter equivalent circuit depicting the above defining equations is shown in the
figure below.

Fig 5.2: Z-Parameter equivalent circuit

PBRVITS, KAVALI
Admittance parameters: ( Y Parameters or Short circuit admittance parameters
The same general two port network shown for Z parameters is applicable here also and is shown
below.

Fig 5.3: A general two-port network with terminal voltages and currents specified. The two-
port network is composed of linear elements, possibly including dependent sources, but not
containing any independent sources.
Since the network is linear and contains no independent sources within, on the same lines of Z
parameters the defining equations for the Y parameters are given below. I1 and I2 may be considered
to be the superposition of two components, one caused by V1 and the other by V2 and then we get
the set of equations defining the Y parameters.

I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2
I2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2
where the Ys are no more than proportionality constants and their dimensions are A/V
(Current/Voltage). Hence they are called the Y (or admittance) parameters. They are also defined in
the matrix form given below.
Y11 Y12
I1 V1
Y21 Y22
I2 V2
And in much simpler form as

[I] = [Y][V]
The individual Y parameters are defined on the same lines as Z parameters but by setting either of
the voltages V1 and V2 as zero as given below.

PBRVITS, KAVALI
The most informative way to attach a physical meaning to the y parameters is through a direct
inspection of defining equations. The conditions which must be applied to the basic defining
equations are very important. In the first equation for example; if we let V2 zero, then Y11 is given by
the ratio of I1 to V1. We therefore describe Y11 as the admittance measured at the input terminals
with the output terminals short-circuited (V2 = 0). Each of the Y parameters may be described as a
current-voltage ratio with either V1 = 0 (the input terminals short circuited) or V2 = 0 (the output
terminals short-circuited):
Y1
1 = I1/V1 with V2 = 0

Y12 = I1/V2 with V1 = 0

Y2
1 = I2/V1 with V2 = 0
y2
2 = I2/V2 with V1 = 0

Because each parameter is an admittance which is obtained by short circuiting either the output or
the input port, the Y parameters are known as the short-circuit admittance parameters. The specific
name of Y11 is theshort-circuit input admittance, Y22 is the short-circuit output admittance, and
Y12 and Y21 are the short-circuit reverse and forward transfer admittances respectively.

Fig 5.4: Y parameter equivalent circuit

PBRVITS, KAVALI
Hybrid parameters: ( h parameters )
h parameter representation is used widely in modeling of Electronic components and circuits
particularly Transistors. Here both short circuit and open circuit conditions are utilized.
The hybrid parameters are defined by writing the pair of equations relating V1, I1, V2, and I2:

V1 = h11. I1 + h12.V2
I2 = h21.I1 + h22.V2
Or in matrix form :

V1 I1
h
I2 V2
The nature of the parameters is made clear by first setting V2 = 0. Thus,

h11 = V1/I1 with V2 =0 = short-circuit input impedance

h21 = I2/I1 with V2 =0 = short-circuit forward current gain
Then letting I1 = 0, we obtain

h1
2 = V1/V2 with I1=0 = open-circuit reverse voltage gain
h2
2 = I2/V2 with I1=0 = open-circuit output admittance
Since the parameters represent an impedance, an admittance, a voltage gain, and a current gain, they
are called the “hybrid’’ parameters.
The subscript designations for these parameters are often simplified when they are applied to
transistors. Thus, h11, h12, h21, and h22 become hi, hr, hf, and ho, respectively, where the subscripts
denote input, reverse, forward, and output.

Fig 5.5: h parameter equivalent circuit 17.9

PBRVITS, KAVALI
Transmission parameters:
The last two-port parameters that we will consider are called the t parameters, the ABCD
parameters, or simply the transmission parameters. They are defined by the equations
V1 = A.V2 – B.I2
I1 = C.V2 – D.I2
and in Matrix notation these equations can be written in the form

V1 = AB V2

I1 = CD –I2
where V1, V2, I1, and I2 are defined as as shown in the figure below.

Fig 5.6: Two port Network for ABCD parameter representation with Input and output
Voltages and currents

The minus signs that appear in the above equations should be associated with the output current,
as (−I2). Thus, both I1 and −I2 are directed to the right, the direction of energy or signal
transmission.
Note that there are no minus signs in the t or ABCD matrices. Looking again at the above
equations we see that the quantities on the left, often thought of as the given or independent
variables, are the input voltage and current, V1 and I1; the dependent variables, V2 and I2, are the
output quantities. Thus, the transmission parameters provide a direct relationship between input
and output. Their major use arises in transmission-line analysis and in cascaded networks.

PBRVITS, KAVALI
 The four Transmission parameters are defined and explained below.
First A and C are defined with receiving end open circuited i.e. with I2 = 0

Reverse voltage
A = V1/V2 with I2 =0 = Ratio

C = I1/V2 with I2 = 0 = Transfer admittance

Next B and D are defined with receiving end short circuited i.e. with V2 = 0

B= with V2 = = Transfer impedance

V1/−I2 0

D= 2 with V2 = = Reverse current ratio

I1/−I 0

Inter relationships between different parameters of two port networks:

Basic Procedure for representing any of the above four two port Network parameters in terms of
the other parameters consists of the following steps:
1. Write down the defining equations corresponding to the parameters in terms of which the other
parameters are to be represented.

2. Keeping the basic parameters same, rewrite/manipulate these two equations in such a way that
the variables V1 ,V2 ,I1 ,and I2 are arranged corresponding to the defining equations of the first
parameters.
3. Then by comparing the parameter coefficients of the respective variables V1 ,V2 ,I1 ,and I2 on the
right hand side of the two sets of equations we can get the inter relationship.

PBRVITS, KAVALI
Z Parameters in terms of Y parameters:
Though this relationship can be obtained by the above steps, the following simpler method
is used for Z in terms of Y and Y in terms of Z:
Z and Y being the Impedance and admittance parameters (Inverse), in matrix notation they are
governed by the following inverse relationship.

Or:

Thus :

Z Parameters in terms of ABCD parameters:

The governing equations are:
AV2 –
V1 = BI2
CV2 –
I1 = DI2
from the second governing equation [ I1 = CV2 – DI2 ] we can write

Now substituting this value of V2 in the first governing equation [V1 = AV2 – BI2] we get

PBRVITS, KAVALI
Comparing these two equations for V1 and V2 with the governing equations of the Z parameter
network we get Z Parameters in terms of ABCD parameters:

Z Parameters in terms of h parameters:

The governing equations of h parameter network are:
V1 = h11I1 + h12 V2
I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2
From the second equation we get

Substituting this value of V2 in the first equation for V1 we get:

Now comparing these two equations for V1 and V2 with the governing equations of the Z parameter
network we get Z Parameters in terms of h parameters:

Here h = h11 h22 – h12 h21

PBRVITS, KAVALI
 Y Parameters in terms of Z parameters:
Y and Z being the admittance and Impedance parameters (Inverse), in matrix notation they are
governed by the following inverse relationship.

Or:

Thus:

Here Z = Z11 Z22 – Z12 Z21

The other inter relationships also can be obtained on the same lines following the basic three
steps given in the beginning.
CONDITIONS FOR RECIPROCITY AND SYMMETRY IN TWO PORT NETWORKS
A two port network is said to be reciprocal if the ratio of the output response variable to the
input excitation variable is same when the excitation and response ports are interchanged.
A two port network is said to be symmetrical if the port voltages and currents remain the same
when the input and output ports are interchanged.
In this topic we will get the conditions for Reciprocity and symmetry for all the four networks.
The basic procedure for each of the networks consists of the following steps:

Reciprocity:

First we will get an expression for the ratio of response to the excitation in terms of the
particular parameters by giving voltage as excitation at the input port and considering the
current in the output port as response ( by short circuiting the output port i.e setting V2 as zero ).
i.e find out ( I2 /V1 )

PBRVITS, KAVALI
 Then we will get an expression for the ratio of response to the excitation in terms of the same

parameters by giving voltage as excitation at the output port and considering the current in the
input port as response ( by short circuiting the input port i.e. setting V1 as zero ). i.e find out ( I1
/V2 )

Equating the RHS of these two expressions would be the condition for reciprocity

Symmetry:
First we need to get expressions related to the input and output ports using the basic Z or Y
parameter equations.
Then the expressions for Z11 and Z22 ( or Y11 and Y22 ) are equated to get the conmdition for
reciprocity.
Z parameter
representation: Condition
for reciprocity:

Let us take a two port network with Z parameter defining equations as given below:
V1 = Z11I1 + Z12I2
V2 = Z21I1 + Z22I2
First we will get an expression for the ratio of response (I2) to the excitation (V1) in terms of the
Z parameters by giving excitation at the input port and considering the current in the output port
as response ( by short circuiting the output port i.e. setting V2 as zero ).The corresponding Z
parameter circuit for this condition is shown in the figure below:

( Pl note the direction of I2 is negative since when V2 port is shorted the current flows in the
other direction )

Then the Z parameter defining equations are :

V1 = Z11 . I1 − Z12. I2 and

0 = Z21 . I1 − Z22. I2

PBRVITS, KAVALI
To get the ratio of response (I2) to the excitation (V1) in terms of the Z parameters I1 is to be
eliminated fom the above equations.
So from equation 2 in the above set we will get I1 = I2. Z22/ Z21
And substitute this in the first equation to get

V1 = (Z11 .I2. Z22/ Z21)− Z12. I2 = I2 [(Z11 . Z22/ Z21 ) − Z12 ]

= I2 [(Z11 . Z22− Z12.Z21 ) / Z21 ) ] I2 = V1 . Z21/(Z11 . Z22− Z12.Z21 )

Next, we will get an expression for the ratio of response (I1) to the excitation (V2) in terms of the
Z parameters by giving excitation V2 at the output port and considering the current I1 in the
input port as response (by short circuiting the input port i.e. setting V1 as zero). The
corresponding Z parameter circuit for this condition is shown in the figure below:

( Pl note the direction of current I1 is negative since when V1 port is shorted the current flows
in the other direction )
Then the Z parameter defining equations are :
0 = −Z11 . I1 + Z12. I2 and

V2 = −Z21 . I1 + Z22. I2
To get the ratio of response (I1) to the excitation (V2) in terms of the Z parameters I2 is to be
eliminated fom the above equations.
So from equation 1 in the above set we will get I2 = I1. Z11/ Z12
And substitute this in the second equation to get

V2 = (Z22.I1. Z11/ Z12)− Z21. I1 = I1 [(Z11 . Z22/ Z12 ) – Z21 ]

= I1 [(Z11 . Z22− Z12.Z21 ) / Z12 ) ]I1 = V2 . Z12/(Z11 . Z22− Z12.Z21 )

Assuming the input excitations V1 and V2 to be the same, then the condition for the out responses
I1 and I2 to be equal would be
Z12 = Z21
And this is the condition for the reciprocity.

PBRVITS, KAVALI
Condition for symmetry:
To get this condition we need to get expressions related to the input and output ports using the
basic Z parameter equations.
V1 = Z11I1 + Z12I2
V2 = Z21I1 + Z22I2
To get the input port impedance I2 is to be made zero. i.e V2 should be open.
V1 = Z11 . I1 i.e Z11 = V1/I1 │ I2=0
Similarly to get the output port impedance I1 is to be made zero. i.e V1 should be open.
V2 = Z22 . I2 i.e Z22 = V2/I2 │ I1=0
Condition for Symmetry is obtained when the two port voltages are equal i.e. V1 = V2 and the
two port currents are equal i.e. I1 = I2. Then
V1/I1 = V2/I2 i.e Z11 = Z22
And hence Z11 = Z22 is the condition for symmetry in Z parameters .

PBRVITS, KAVALI
Y parameter representation:
Condition for reciprocity :
Let us take a two port network with Y parameter defining equations as given below:
I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2
I2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2
First we will get an expression for the ratio of response (I2) to the excitation (V1) in terms of the
Y parameters by giving excitation (V1) at the input port and considering the current (I2) in the
output port as response ( by short circuiting the output port i.e. setting V2 as zero )
Then the second equation in Y parameter defining equations would become
I2 = Y21V1 + 0 and I2 / V1 = Y21
Then we will get an expression for the ratio of response (I1) to the excitation (V2) in terms of the
Y parameters by giving excitation (V2) at the output port and considering the current (I1) in the
input port as response ( by short circuiting the input port i.e setting V1 as zero )
Then the first equation in Y parameter defining equations would become
I1 = 0 + Y12V2 and I1 / V2 = Y12
Assuming the input excitations V1 and V2 to be the same, then the condition for the out responses
I1 and I2 to be equal would be
I1 / V2 = I2 / V1
And hence Y12 = Y21 is the condition for the reciprocity in the Two port network
with Y parameter representation.

PBRVITS, KAVALI
Condition for symmetry:
To get this condition we need to get expressions related to the input and output ports ( In this
case Input and output admittances ) using the basic Y parameter equation
I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2
I2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2
To get the input port admittance, V2 is to be made zero. i.e V2 should be shorted.
I1 = Y11 . V1 i.e Y11 = I1/V1 │ V2=0
Similarly to get the output port admittance V1 is to be made zero. i.e V1 should be shorted.
I2 = Y22 . V2 i.e Y22 = I2/V2 │ V1=0
Condition for Symmetry is obtained when the two port voltages are equal i.e. V1 = V2 and the
two port currents are equal i.e. I1 = I2. Then
I1/V1 = I2/V2

And hence Y11 = Y22 is the condition for symmetry in Y parameters.

ABCD parameter representation:
Condition for reciprocity :
Let us take a two port network with ABCD parameter defining equations as given below:

V1 = A.V2 – B.I2
I1 = C.V2 – D.I2
First we will get an expression for the ratio of response (I2) to the excitation (V1) in terms of the
ABCD parameters by giving excitation (V1) at the input port and considering the current (I2) in
the output port as response ( by short circuiting the output port i.e. setting V2 as zero )
Then the first equation in the ABCD parameter defining equations would become

V1 = 0 – B.I2 = B.I2
i.e I2 / V1 = – 1/B

Then we will interchange the excitation and response i.e. we will get an expression for the ratio
of response (I1) to the excitation (V2) by giving excitation (V2) at the output port and considering
the current (I1) in the input port as response ( by short circuiting the input port i.e. setting V1 as
zero )
Then the above defining equations would become

0 = A.V2 – B.I2

PBRVITS, KAVALI
 I1 = C.V2 – D.I2

Substituting the value of I2 = A.V2 /B from first equation into the second equation we get

Assuming the input excitations V1 and V2 to be the same , then the condition for the out
responses I1 and I2 to be equal would be

I1 / V2 = I2 / V1

i.e – (AD –BC)/B = – 1/B

i.e (AD –BC) = 1

And hence AD – BC = 1 is the condition for Reciprocity in the Two port network with
ABCD parameter representation.
Condition for symmetry:
To get this condition we need to get expressions related to the input and output ports. In this case
it is easy to use the Z parameter definitions of Z11 and Z22 for the input and output ports
respectively and get their values in terms of the ABCD parameters as shown below.

V1 = A.V2 – B.I2
I1 = C.V2 – D.I2
Z11 = V1/I1 │ I2=0
Applying this in both the equations we get
Z11 = V1/I1 │ I2=0 = (A.V2 – B.I2)/(C.V2 – D.I2) │ I2=0
= (A.V2 – B.0)/(C.V2 – D.0)

= (A.V2)/(C.V2) = A/C

Z11 = A/
Similarly Z22 = V2/I2 │ I1=0
and using this in the second basic equation I1 = C.V2 – D.I2
we get 0 = C.V2 – D.I2 or C.V2 = D.I2

PBRVITS, KAVALI
 V2 / I2 = D/C

Z22 = D/C

And the condition for symmetry becomes Z11 = Z22 i.e A/C = D/C

Or A=D
Hence A = D is the condition for Symmetry in ABCD parameter representation.

h parameter representation:
Condition for reciprocity :
Let us take a two port network with h parameter defining equations as given below:

V1 = h11. I1 + h12.V2

I2 = h21. I1 + h22.V2
First we will get an expression for the ratio of response (I2) to the excitation (V1) in terms of the
h parameters by giving excitation (V1) at the input port and considering the current (I2) in the
output port as response ( by short circuiting the output port i.e. setting V2 as zero )
Then the first equation in the h parameter defining equations would become

V1 = h11. I1 + h12.0 = h11. I1

And in the same condition the second equation in the h parameter defining equations would
become
I2 = h21. I1 + h22.0 = h21. I1
Dividing the second equation by the first equation we get

I2 / V1 = ( h21. I1) / (h11. I1) = h21 /h11

Now the excitation and the response ports are interchanged and then we will get an expression
for the ratio of response (I1) to the excitation (V2) in terms of the h parameters by giving
excitation (V2) at the output port and considering the current (I1) in the input port as response (
by short circuiting the input port i.e. setting V1 as zero )
Then the first equation in h parameter defining equations would become
0 = h11. I1 +h12.V2
i.e h11. I1 =– h12.V2
i.e. I1 / V2= – h12 / h11

PBRVITS, KAVALI
Assuming the input excitations V1 and V2 to be the same, then the condition for the out responses
I1 and I2 to be equal would be
I1 / V2 = I2 / V1
i.e = – h12 / h11 = h21 /h11

i.e. h12 = – h21

And hence [h12 = – h21 ] is the condition for the reciprocity in the Two port network with
h parameter representation.
Condition for symmetry:
To get this condition we need to get expressions related to the input and output ports. In this case
also it is easy to use the Z parameter definitions of Z11 and Z22 for the input and output ports
respectively and get their values in terms of the h parameters as shown below.
h parameter equations are : V1 = h11. I1 + h12.V2

I2 = h21. I1 + h22.V2
First let us get Z11 :

Z11 = V1/I1 │ I2=0

= h11 + h12.V2 / I1
Applying the condition I2=0 in the equation 2 we get

0 = h21. I1 + h22.V2 i.e –h21. I1 = h22.V2r V2 = I1 (–h21 / h22)

Now substituting the value of V2 = I1 (–h21 / h22) in the above first expression for V1 we get

V1 = h11. I1 + h12. I1.( –h21 / h22 )

Or V1/ I1 = (h11. h22 – h12. h21 )/ h22 = Δh / h22

Or Z11 = Δh / h22

PBRVITS, KAVALI
Where h = (h11. h22 – h12. h21 )

Now let us get Z22 :

Z22 = V2/I2│ I1 = 0
Applying the condition I1 = 0 in the second equation we ge
I2= h21. 0 + h22.V2 i.e V2/I2 = 1/ h22
And Z22 = 1/ h22
Hence the condition for symmetry Z11 Z becomes ( h / h22) = (1/ h22 ) i.e h=1
= 22
Hence h = 1 is the condition for symmetry in h parameter representation.
Table: Summary of conditions for reciprocity and symmetry for Two port networks in
terms of all four parameters.

PBRVITS, KAVALI
Different types of interconnections of two port networks:
Series Connection:
Though here only two networks are considered, the result can be generalized for any number of
two port networks connected in series.
Refer the figure below where two numbers of two port networks A and B are shown connected
in series. All the input and output currents & voltages with directions and polarities are shown.

Fig : Series connection of two numbers of Two Port Networks

Open circuit Impedance parameters ( Z ) are used in characterizing the Series connected Two
port Networks .The governing equations with Z parameters are given below:
For network A :

And for network B:

Referring to the figure above the various voltage and current relations are:

PBRVITS, KAVALI
Now substituting the above basic defining equations for the two networks into the above
expressions for V1 and V2 and using the above current equalities we get:

And similarly

Thus we get for two numbers of series connected two port networks:

Or in matrix form:

Thus it can be seen that the Z parameters for the series connected two port networks are the
sum of the Z parameters of the individual two port networks.
Cascade connection:
In this case also though here only two networks are considered, the result can be generalized for
any number of two port networks connected in cascade.

Refer the figure below where two numbers of two port networks X and Y are shown connected
in cascade. All the input and output currents & voltages with directions and polarities are shown.

PBRVITS, KAVALI
 Fig 5.8: Two numbers of two port networks connected in cascade

Transmission ( ABCD ) parameters are easily used in characterizing the cascade connected
Two port Networks .The governing equations with transmission parameters are given below
For network X:

And for network Y:

Referring to the figure above the various voltage and current relations are:

Then the overall transmission parameters for the cascaded network in matrix form will become

PBRVITS, KAVALI
Where

Thus it can be seen that the overall ABCD Parameter matrix of cascaded two Port Networks is
the product of the ABCD matrices of the individual networks.
Parallel Connection:
Though here only two networks are considered, the result can be generalized for any number of
two port networks connected in parallel.
Refer the figure below where two numbers of two port networks A and B are shown connected
in parallel. All the input and output currents & voltages with directions and polarities are shown.

Fig 5.9: Parallel connection of two numbers of Two Port Networks

Short circuit admittance (Y) parameters are easily used in characterizing the parallel connected
Two port Networks .The governing equations with Y parameters are given below:
For network A:
And for network B:

PBRVITS, KAVALI
Referring to the figure above the various voltage and current relations are:

Thus

Thus we finally obtain the Y parameter equations for the combined network as:

And in matrix notation it will be:

Thus it can be seen that the overall Y parameters for the parallel connected two port
networks are the sum of the Y parameters of the individual two port networks.
Image impedances in terms of ABCD parameters:
Image impedances Zi1 and Zi2 of a two port network as shown in the figure below are defined
as two values of impedances such that :
a) When port two is terminated with an impedance Zi2 , the input impedance as seen from Port
one is Zi1 and
b) When port one is terminated with an impedance Zi1 , the input impedance as seen from Port
two is Zi2

Figure 5.10: pertaining to condition (a) above

PBRVITS, KAVALI
 Corresponding Relations are : Zi1 = V1 / I1 and Zi2 = V2 / – I2

Figure 5.10: pertining to condition (b)

Corresponding Relations are : Zi1 = V1 / – I1 and Zi2 = V2 / I2
Such Image impedances in terms of ABCD parameters for a two port network are obtained
below:
The basic defining equations for a two port network with ABCD parameters are :

V1 = A.V2 – B.I2

I1 = C.V2 – D.I2
First let us consider condition (a).
Dividing the first equation with the second equation we get

But we also have Zi2 = V2 / – I2 and so V2 = – Zi2 I2. Substituting this value of V2 in the above
we get

PBRVITS, KAVALI
 Now let us consider the condition (b):

The basic governing equations [V1 = A.V2 – B.I2 ] and [I1 = C.V2 – D.I2 ] are manipulated to
get

But we also have Zi1 = V1 / – I1 and so V1 = – Zi1 I1. Substituting this value of V1 in the above
we get :

Solving the above equations for Zi1 and Zi2 we get :

I1 = C.V2 – D.I2

Conditions for Reciprocity and symmetry for Two Port Networks in terms of the
various parameters :

PBRVITS, KAVALI
 Relations of Interconnected two port Networks :

The overall Z parameters for the series connected two port networks are the sum of the Z
parameters of the individual two port networks.

The overall Y parameters for the parallel connected two port networks are the sum of the Y
parameters of the individual two port networks.

The overall ABCD Parameter matrix of cascaded two Port Networks is the product of the
ABCD matrices of the individual networks.

PBRVITS, KAVALI