ENGINEERING PHYSICS (CS STREAM) PURNIMAA S DIXIT NOTES /22PHYS12/22

MODULE1 - LASER AND OPTICAL FIBERS

CHAPTER 1. LASER
Laser is a device that stimulates atoms or molecules to emit light at
particular wavelengths and amplifies that light, typically producing a very
narrow beam of radiation. The emission generally covers an extremely
limited range of visible, infrared, or ultraviolet wavelengths.
LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORDINARY LIGHT AND LASER
PROPERTY ORDINARY LIGHT LASER
Emission of light Spontaneous Stimulated
Coherence In-coherent out of phase Highly coherent in-phase
Intensity Less High
Wavelength Poly chromatic /multiple Highly monochromatic /single
Directionality Less High
Efficiency Less High
Beam divergence High Less
Pulse duration Long Short
Frequency distribution Wide Narrow
EXAMPLE Tube light, incandescent bulb Ruby laser, CO2 laser

Characteristics of Laser Beam:

The laser beam has a high directionality. This is because the cavity mirrors can
reflect photons which fall normally and suppress the other photon. The Laser
beam is highly monochromatic and the line width is very small. The laser beam
is also coherent. The temporal coherence is high. The intensity & focus ability
of laser beam is very high.
Interaction of photon with matter
For Photon to interact, its energy should match with the energy difference
between the two States the atoms involved in the interaction. Photons can interact
with matter in three different ways. They are as follows,
1. Stimulated absorption
2. Spontaneous emission
3. Stimulated emission
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1. Stimulated Absorption: A system in
a lower state E1 absorbs radiation and
going to a higher state E2 is called
stimulated / induced absorption. This can
happen if and only if the energy of the
radiationℎ𝜈 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1. This interaction
can be represented as,

Atom + Photon  Atom*

2. Spontaneous Emission: A system at a

higher energy level E2 comes to the lower
energy level E1 by emitting radiation of
energy,ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1, by itself without the
aid of any external agency is called
spontaneous emission. This interaction can
be represented as,

Atom*  Atom + Photon

3. Stimulated Emission : A system at a higher

energy level E2 comes to the lower energy level
E1, by the emission of radiation of energy E =
ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 , if and only if another photon of
same energy is passed by. There are 2 emitted
photons, both in same phase, wavelength,
amplitude and coherent. One called stimulating
Photon & other stimulated photon. This
interaction can be represented as,

Atom* +Photon  Atom + Photon

THE EXPRESSION FOR ENERGY DENSITY 𝝆(𝝂)OF INTERACTING

PHOTONS WITH FREQUENCY OF RADIATION (Ν) IN TERMS OF
EINSTEIN’S CO-EFFICIENT A AND B
Let us consider two energy levels of an atomic system E1 and E2 respectively such
that E2 > E1. Let N1 and N2 be the number of atoms per unit volume (population)
present in the energy level E1 and E2 respectively. If the radiation of frequency
(ν) corresponding to the energy difference (E2 - E1) falls on the atomic system, it
can interact in three distinct ways. In a collection of atom all the three transition
process occur simultaneously. Let 𝜌(𝜈) be the energy density of interacting
photon.
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Stimulated Absorption Rate (Γ12) -Number of atoms undergoing stimulated
absorption per unit time per unit area from lower energy level to higher energy
level, this depends upon the number of atoms available in the lower energy state
for absorption of these Photons and energy density of the interacting radiation.
Γ12 α N1, 𝜌(𝜈)
Γ12 = B12 N1 𝝆(𝝂) ----------- (1)
Spontaneous Emission Rate (U21) - Number of atoms undergoing spontaneous
emission per unit time per unit area from higher energy level to lower energy
level, this depends upon the number of atoms available in the higher energy state
for emission of these Photons.
U21 α N2
U21 = A21 N2 ----------- (2)
Stimulated Emission Rate (Γ21) - Number of atoms undergoing stimulated
emission per unit time per unit area from higher energy level to lower energy
level, this depends upon the number of atoms available in the higher energy state
for emission of these Photons and energy density of the interacting radiation.
Γ21 α N2, 𝜌(𝜈)
Γ21 = B21 N2 𝝆(𝝂) ----------- (3)
At thermal equilibrium, the number of atoms absorb and radiation for is equal to
number of atoms emitting radiation per unit time.
Stimulated absorption Rate = Stimulated Emission Rate + Spontaneous Emission
rate
Γ12 = Γ21 + U21 ----------- (4)
Substituting equation 1, 2, 3 in 4 we get,
B12 N1 𝜌(𝜈) = B21 N2 𝜌(𝜈) + A21 N2
B12 N1 𝜌(𝜈) - B21 N2 𝜌(𝜈) = A21 N2
𝜌(𝜈 ) [B12 N1 - B21 N2] = A21 N2
𝐴21 𝑁2
𝜌(𝜈) = ----------- (5)
𝐵12 𝑁1 −𝐵21 𝑁2
𝐴21 𝑁2
⁄𝐵 𝑁
21 2
𝜌(𝜈) = 𝐵 𝑁
( 12 1 −1)
𝐵21 𝑁2

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𝑨𝟐𝟏
⁄𝑩
𝟐𝟏
𝝆(𝝂) = 𝑩 𝑵 ----------- (6)
( 𝟏𝟐 𝟏 −𝟏)
𝑩𝟐𝟏 𝑵𝟐

The population of various energy levels of a system in thermal equilibrium is

given by Boltzmann distribution law, which is given by
𝒉𝝂
𝑵𝟏 ( )
=𝒆 𝒌𝑻 ----------- (7)
𝑵𝟐
Substituting equation 7 in 6, we get,
𝑨𝟐𝟏
⁄𝑩
𝟐𝟏
𝝆(𝝂) = 𝑩 𝒉𝝂 ----------- (8)
( )
[ 𝟏𝟐 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 −𝟏]
𝑩𝟐𝟏

From planck’s law of blackbody radiation the radiation intensity is given by

(planck’s quantum theory of radiation)
𝟖𝝅𝒉𝝂𝟑⁄
𝒄𝟑
𝝆(𝝂) = 𝒉𝝂 ----------- (9)
( )
[𝒆 𝒌𝑻 −𝟏]

Comparing equation 8 and 9, we get,

B12 = B21 =1 ----------- (i)

Probability of stimulated absorption is equal to stimulated emission.

𝑨𝟐𝟏 𝟑
⁄𝑩 = 𝟖𝝅𝒉𝝂 ⁄ 𝟑 = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 = 𝑨⁄𝑩 ----------- (ii)
𝟐𝟏 𝒄
A and B are referred as Einstein’s co-efficient
𝑨⁄
𝑩
 𝝆(𝝂) = 𝒉𝝂 ----------- (10)
( )
[𝒆 𝒌𝑻 −𝟏]

Above equation (10) represents the expression for energy density 𝜌(𝜈 )of
interacting photons with frequency of radiation ν in terms of Einstein’s co-
efficient A and B

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REQUISITES FOR LASER SYSTEM AND CONDITION FOR LASER
ACTION
Requisites of a laser system are as follows,
i) Active medium / Amplifying medium / Gain medium
ii) Laser cavity / Resonant cavity
iii) Excitation Source / Pumping mechanism

i) Active medium : A medium in which light gets amplified. The medium

can be solid, liquid or gas. Only a small fraction of the medium is
responsible for stimulated emission and amplification and they are
called active centres. The remaining part of the medium supports the
active centres.

ii) Laser cavity : It converts the active medium into light generator. It
consists of the active medium bound between two mirrors. (The active
medium together with the two mirrors form optical cavity). One mirror
is 100% reflecting and the other is 90% reflecting. The two mirrors
along with the active medium form the cavity, in which two types of
waves, one moving towards right and the other moving towards left
exist. The path length travelled by the wave 2L (L length of optical
cavity) should support constructive interference.
𝑚𝜆
i.e. 2L = m𝜆 or 𝐿 =
2

iii) Excitation Source/Pumping : The process of exciting the atoms to the

required higher energy level is called pumping. If pumping is done by
optical energy, it is called optical pumping. [eg.: Ruby laser]. The
pumping done by electrical energy is called electrical pumping. [eg.:
He-Ne laser]. If pumping is done by chemical reactions, it is called
chemical pumping.

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Conditions for Laser action are as follows,
i) Active centre
ii) Population inversion
iii) Metastable state

i) Active centre: Those materials which triggers the stimulated emission

of radiation are known as active centres. For example: Cr in Ruby laser,
CO2 in Carbon di oxide gas laser, Ne in Helium Neon laser etc.,

ii) Metastable state : Any ordinary excited

state cannot be used to achieve the
condition for population inversion.
Metastable state is a special excited state,
where an atom can stay for more than a
milli second (10-3sec). But in an ordinary
excited state, an atom can stay for less than
10-9 sec (nano sec). The metastable state
helps to attain the population inversion.

iii) Population inversion: Normally, the

population of atoms in lower energy
state is always greater than the
population of atoms in higher energy
state. Consider three energy state E1,
E2 & E3, where E1 < E2 < E3. Let E2
be the meta stable state. By supplying
suitable energy let the system goes
from E1 to E3. E3 being an ordinary
excited state, atoms get de-excited
from E3 to E2 or E1. At E2, atoms can stay for more than millisecond.
So, the population of atoms at E2 increases rapidly and becomes greater
than the population of E1. This condition, where the population of
higher energy state is greater than the lower energy state is called
“Population inversion”.

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SEMICONDUCTOR LASER:
Semiconductor laser is a specially fabricated p-n junction device that emits
coherent light when it is forward biased. GaAs is a compound semiconductor
which is formed when Ga (trivalent) and As(pentavalent) atoms are combined.
The bonding between two atoms is partially ionic and partially covalent. Hence
its energy gap is large (about 1.43eV)
Construction: It consists of a heavily doped single
crystal of GaAs semiconductor diode having P and N
sections. P-type = zinc and N-type = tellurium are the
dopants used. P-N junction is formed and is connected
to a DC supply in forward biased condition. The
junction is the active region. The front & back face
perpendicular to junction are polished. These two
parallel and polished faces form the laser cavity. The
faces parallel to the p-n junction are made rough.
Working: The p-n junction is heavily doped. Due to this the n-side valence
band and a portion of conduction band are occupied by electrons. Therefore,
Fermi level (EFn) lies within CB. Similarly in p-side, Fermi level (EFP) lies with
in valence band. When the p-n junction is forward biased, the energy levels
shift and the new distribution is shown in figure.

Energy level diagram of diode laser (a) Before biasing (b) After biasing.

At low forward current the electron hole recombination causes non radiative
transitions. As the current increases, the carrier concentration in depletion region
increases. The upper levels have more electron and lower levels have more holes.
If a photon of energy slightly greater than the band gap is incident it stimulates
the transition of electron from CB to VB. These electrons combine with hole
emitting coherent radiation.

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Wavelength of the emitted beam is given by
ℎ𝑐
λ = = 8400𝐴0
𝐸𝑔
Semiconductor lasers are smallest and least expensive. We use direct band gap
semiconductors for semiconductor laser such GaAs. There is no metastable state
for it. The pumping is, the forward current flowing through the junction
semiconductor lasers are used in optical communications and photonic industry.
Advantages of Semiconductor laser
1. It generates both continuous and pulsed Laser output.
2. It has high efficiency compared to other laser devices.
3. The output can be easily modulated.
4. It is highly economical.
Applications of Semiconductor laser
1. It is used in optical fibre communication.
2. It is used in commercial CD recording and reading.

APPLICATIONS OF LASERS:
BARCODE SCANNER
A bar code consists of a series of strips of dark and white bands. Each strip
has a width of about 0.3 mm and the total width of the bar code is about 3
cm. Information such as the country of origin, manufacturer of the product, the
direction of scan, price, reading error checking, weight of the product, and expiry
date can be stored in the pattern of dark and white strips. By a simple scanning,
complete information regarding the product can be obtained.

1D barcode 2D QR barcode Barcode Scanner

Barcode scanners capture the reflected light and decode it into a numerical
sequence of binary code. Traditionally, barcode scanners use laser or LCD light.

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By capturing the black and white pattern on a barcode, they process and relay that
information back to the POS or computer connected to them.
The barcode scanner has a three part system that facilitates the capturing and
transferring of the information within the barcode:

1. Illumination System
2. Sensor or Lens
3. The Decoder
1. Illumination System: In order to read the code and relay the image back to be
processed, the barcode must be illuminated. This used to be done using traditional
lamps. Now barcode scanners will have built in LED or lasers that act as
illuminators.
2. Sensor or Lens: A light sensor called a “photodiode” takes the image that is
collected and converts it into a corresponding electrical signal. It appears and
functions almost as a reverse LED, capturing light and putting it into a wire.
3. The decoder: Many modern barcode scanners contain decoders built directly
into the handle of the gun. These decoders take the binary code that is read by the
scanner and convert it into a usable piece of information for whatever software
you’re using. Some scanners will require the use of a “keyboard wedge,” which
acts as an external decoder between the actual scanner hardware and the
computer.

LASER PRINTER
Laser printers are digital printing devices that are used to create high quality text
graphics on plane printer. A diode laser is used in the process of printing in laser
printer. The data required to be printed is transferred from the computer to the
laser printer. The printer reaches the required temperature via heating of the
corona wire passes an electrical static charge to the selenium coated drum unit
and making it negatively charged.

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Once the laser is activated, the beam reflects off a moving mirror unit which
directs the beam directly onto the drum unit. In the areas where the beam hits the
drum, the charge is changed from negative to positive. The positive charged areas
now represent where toner particles will adhere to the drum and be directly
transferred onto the paper.
The ink roller now begins to coat the drum with toner. Toner is comprised of
microscopic ink particles which, now negative charged, adhere to the negatively
charged areas on the drum unit. A positively charged sheet of paper is now passed
close to the drum, attracting the negatively charged toner particles onto the page.
The paper, now containing the inked content, is passed into the fuser unit where
the rollers fuse the toner particles to the paper. The page is then passed through
to the other side of the copier, and you now have one successful printout.

LASER COOLING
Laser cooling is a multi-process that includes a number of
techniques in which atomic and molecular samples are
cooled down to a temperature near absolute zero. These
techniques depend on the fact that when an object which
is usually an atom re-emits a photon -a particle of light -
its momentum is subject to change. For a combination of
particles, their thermodynamic temperature is
proportional to the variance in their particle velocity. This
means that more homogeneous velocities among
particles correspond to a lower temperature. These
techniques used in the process of laser cooling combine
atomic spectroscopy with the aforementioned
mechanical effect of light so as to compress the
distribution of the velocity of an ensemble of particles,
thus leading to the cooling of the particles.
Methods of Laser Cooling Laser cooling uses a wide
range of methods. Some of these methods include
Doppler cooling, which is now viewed as laser cooling
itself because it is the most commonly used method.
Other methods include Sisyphus cooling, resolved
sideband cooling, Raman sideband cooling, velocity
selective coherent population trapping (VSCPT), gray
molasses, cavity mediated cooling, polarization gradient
cooling, anti-stokes cooling in solids, electromagnetically
induced transparency (EIT) cooling, and the use of the Zeeman slower.
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CHAPTER 2. OPTICAL FIBRES
Optical fibres are light guides used in optical
communication as wave guides. They are made of
transparent dielectric materials like glass or
plastic.
An optical fibre is made of two parts. One
is the inner cylindrical material made of glass or
plastic called core and the other is called cladding
which envelopes the core. Cladding is made of
same material as that of core but with lesser
refractive index. The cladding envelopes core as concentric cylinder. There is a
material continuity between core and cladding. The cladding is enclosed in a
polyurethane jacket which safeguards the fibre against any chemical reaction with
the surrounding. Many such fibres, each protected by individual jacket grouped
to form a cable. A cable may consist of one to several hundred fibres.
A waveguide is a tubular structure through which energy can
be guided in the form of waves. This is also called light guide
(or) fibre wave guide. The guiding mechanism is as follows:
We know that in an optical fibre cladding has a R.I always
lesser than that of the core. The light signal which enter into
the core can strike the core-cladding interface only at large
angles of incidence. The light signal undergoes reflection
after reflection with the core. Since each reflection is T.I.R
the signal sustains its strength and also present
within the core during propagation. The
guiding or propagation of light continues as
long as the wave guide/fibre is not bent too
sharply. This is because for sharp bends the
light does not undergo T I R and hence the
strength of the signal drops down. Therefore
care should be taken to avoid very sharp bends
in the fibre. The principle mainly involved in
optical guide is T I R.
Consider a plane xx’ separating two media of
refractive index n1& n2. Let n1>n2. A light
wave AO be incident on xx’ at O at an angle of
incidenceθ1. Since n1>n2, the light gets
refracted as OA’ with θ2as the angle of
refraction. Alsoθ2 > θ1. As the angle of
incidence θ1is increased, angle of refraction θ2
also increases and for an angle θc, the refracted
ray just grazes the boundary, θ2 = 900.
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For any angle of incidence θ1> θc , the ray gets reflected back into the medium
of R.I n1. This is called TIR. The angleθc , for which θ2 = 900 is called critical
angle. According to Snell’s law,
n1sinθ1 = n2sin θ2
When θ1 =θc , θ2 = 900,
n1sinθc = n2, sinθc = n2/ n1
θc = sin-1(n2/ n1).
TIR has a special importance. During any other reflection like plane mirror
reflection, some energy is lost. But in TIR there is absolutely no loss in energy.
Because of this property, optical fibres are able to sustain the light signal
transmission over a long distance.
Acceptance angle, acceptance cone and Numerical aperture:
Consider the ray AO entering into the core at an angle θ0 with the axis of the
core. Let this gets refracted as OB at an angle θ1 to the axis. Let the angle of
incidence at B be critical angle. Therefore, the ray just graces the core – cladding
interface as BC. The angle of incidence at B is (90 - θ1).
From the fig. it is clear that any ray falling into the core making an angle less
thanθ0, will have the angle of refraction less thanθ1. Due to this the angle of
incidence at B becomes greater than critical angle and hence the ray undergoes
TIR. On the other hand any ray entering
the core with an angle greater than θ0 will
be incident at B making an angle less than
the critical angle and so gets refracted and
lost.
If OA is rotated around the axis of the core
by keeping θ0 same, it is seen that those
rays which are funneled into the core
within this cone of half angle θ0 will only
be TIR and the rest of the incident light
emerge from the sides of the fibre.
Angleθ0is called acceptance angle and sinθ0is called numerical aperture (NA).
NA represents the light gathering capacity of optical fibre.
Let n0 , n1 , n2 be the refractive index (RI) of the surrounding, core and cladding
medium respectively. For refraction of ray A0
𝐧𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉𝟎 = 𝐧𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉𝟏 … … … … … … . (𝟏)
𝐧𝟏
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉𝟎 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉𝟏 … … … … … … . (𝟐)
𝐧𝟎
At the interface point B, n1 sin(90 − θ1) = sin 90 (n2 )
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n1 sin(90 − θ1 ) = n2
𝐧𝟐
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉𝟏 = … … … … … … . (𝟑)
𝐧𝟏
Also we have, from equation (2)
n1
sinθ0 = sinθ1
n0
𝐧𝟏
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉𝟎 = √(𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝛉𝟏 … … … … … … . (𝟒)
𝐧𝟎
Substituting equation (3) in equation (4) we get

n1 n2 2
sinθ0 = √(1 − 2 )
n0 n1

n1 √n1 2 − n2 2
sinθ0 =
n0 n1
Since NA = sinθ0 we have
√𝐧𝟏 𝟐 − 𝐧𝟐 𝟐
𝐍𝐀 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉𝟎 = … … … … … … . (𝟓)
𝐧𝟎
Refractive Index Profile
The curve which represents the variation of refractive index with respect to radial
distance from the axis of the optical fibre is called refractive index profile.
Types of optical fibres
If a fibre can support only one ray for propagation, it is called single mode fibre.
If a fibre can support more than one mode for propagation it is called multimode
fibre.
1. Step index single-mode optical fiber
a) Single mode optical fiber is made of thin core (8 - 10µm) and thick
cladding (60 – 70 µm)
b) Both core and cladding has uniform but different refractive indices
c) It is designed to transmit only one mode of wave propagation
d) Light rays propagating through it are in the form of meridional rays and
propagates in zig-zag manner
e) Input light source suitable are lasers
f) Splicing (joining the two free ends of fiber) is very difficult
g) Loss in signal strength is relatively less, hence output pulse is essentially
same as input pulse
h) Very Expensive, Used in Submarines communication system
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2. Step index multi-mode optical fiber

a) Multimode optical fiber is made of thick core (50 - 200µm) and thin
cladding (200 – 250 µm)
b) Both core and cladding has uniform but different refractive indices
[n1 > n2]
c) It is designed to transmit large number mode of wave propagation
d) Cut-off condition is less than 2.4 i.e., V> 2.4
e) Light rays propagating through it are in the form of meridonal rays
and propagates in zig-zag manner
f) Input light source suitable are lasers, LED
g) Splicing is relatively easier
h) Loss in signal strength is very high, hence output pulse is widened
and is not same as input pulse
i) Less Expensive, Used in LAN communication system

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3. Graded index multi-mode optical fiber (GRIN)

j) Multimode optical fiber is made of thick core (50 - 200µm) and thin
cladding (200 – 250 µm)
k) R.I of the core varies across the diameter gradually (Max. at the
center optical fiber axis and becomes equal to cladding at the
interface) and R.I of the cladding remains a constant
l) It is designed to transmit large number mode of wave propagation
m) Cut-off condition is less than 2.4 i.e., V> 2.4
n) Light rays propagating through it are in the form of skew rays and
propagates in helical or spiral manner
o) Input light source suitable are lasers, LED
p) Splicing is relatively easier
q) Loss in signal strength is relatively less, hence output pulse is almost
same as input pulse
r) Cost effective, Used in high data rates transfer over relatively long
distances communication system

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Advantage of optical communication:
i) Carries large amount of information.
ii) The material used for making optical fibre is very cheap.
iii) Because of their compactness and light weight fibres are much easier to
transport.
iv) There is not energy radiation from the fibre so the possibility of
information taping is ruled out. If any tapping is done it can be easily
made out.
v) Since the signal is optical no sparks are generated and hence it leads to
protection from flame.
vi) Fibre communication is easily compatible with the electronic system.
vii) In the case of metallic cables, the e.m wave causes interference between
one communication channel to other where as in optical fibres there is
no interference.
viii) There is no disturbance due to the signals from lightning, sparking,
electrical equipments etc.
Limitations :
i) Splicing is a very difficult and skillful task.
ii) Optical connectors which are used in splicing is highly costly.
iii) Maintenance cost is high.
iv) Fibers cannot be bent in to circles.
v) They undergo expansion or contraction with temperature which leads
to loss in signal power.
Attenuation: It is the power loss suffered by optical signal, when it propagates
through the fiber. It is also called fiber loss. It is represented by α.
10 p
α(dB/km) = − log10 ( o ),
L pi
Where, The unit of α is dB/km.
L length of fiber in km,
Pi  Input power in watt
P0  Output power in watt
Types of Attenuation
Attenuation can be due to i) Absorption, ii) Scattering iii) Radiation.
Absorption: The power can be lost by intrinsic or extrinsic absorption. Each
fiber material has its own nature of absorbing certain λ. This is called intrinsic
absorption. The absorption by the impurities present in the fiber is called extrinsic
absorption.
Eg. : Hydroxy ions.
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Scattering: The signal gets scattered by impurities of very small size. This
1
scattering is more if λ of light is small, as scattering is proportional to 4. Due to
λ
very small variation in R.I. Also, scattering occurs. The structural
inhomogenities can also cause scattering.
Radiation: This occurs due to bending of fibre. It can be macroscopic and
microscopic. The loss is negligible for macroscopic bends, microscopic bends
are mainly manufacturing defects, due to which the I.R gets lost and the power
loss occurs.

Application:
1. Point-to-point telecommunication system
The voice gets converted into analog electrical
signal which gets coded in the binary form by
coder. These are converted into optical pulses
and get modulated by suitable light source.
This is done by optical transmitter. From this
the optical power is fed into optical fibre which
gets transmitted through it by undergoing TIR.
The output from optical fibre is fed into a photo
detector which converts them into binary
electrical signal. They are then decoded and
then get converted into sound energy.
While getting transmitted through optical fibre the signal gets attenuated and the
power drops. To regain the power a repeater unit, which has a receiver &
transmitter kept side by side is used. A receiver receives the optical signal,
converts into electrical signal, amplifies and modulates it and send it to the
transmitter. A transmitter amplifies the signal, converts it into optical signal and
feed it into the fiber. The block diagram is as shown.

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2. Fibre optic networking LAN:

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a type of
computer network that interconnects
multiple computers and computer-driven
devices in a particular physical location
such as schools, residences, laboratories,
business zone, etc. Until the earlier years of
2000’s, most LANS used copper cables.
However, due to the benefits and popularity
of fiber optics, many LANS are now using
fiber optic cables.
Optical Network: An Optical Network is basically a communication network
used for the exchange of information through an optical fibre cable between one
end to another. It is one of the quickest networks used for data communication.
Elements of optical network an optical network is basically composed of the
following elements:
Stations: Stations in an optical network serves as the source and destination of
the information being transmitted and received. Stations are basically those
devices that are used by the users of the network. For example, a computer or any
other telecommunication device.
Trunk: A trunk is basically a transmission
line i.e., optical fibre cable in order to transmit
the optical signal. A network is composed of
one or multiple trunks for signal transmission
over large distance.
Node: Node is nothing but acts as a hub for
multiple transmission lines inside the network.
In case of a single transmission line, an optical
network does not require nodes, as in this case
stations at both the ends can be directly
connected to the fibre cables.
Topology: When multiple fibre cables are employed in an optical network, then
these are connected through nodes. But the way in which the multiple nodes are
connected together denotes the topology of the network. Router: A router is
basically placed inside an optical network that provides a suitable path for signal
transmission.

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