Report On A Project For The Drainage of

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REPORT
ON A
PROJECT
FOR THE
DRAINAGE OF THE TOWN
OF
MADRAS .
BY
CAPTAIN HECTOR TULLOCH,
ROYAL ENGINEERS.
Madras :
GANTZ BROTHERS ,
ADELPHI PRESS, 175, MOUNT ROAD,
1865 .
CONTENTS.
Paye.
INTRODUCTORY NOTES ..... 1
CHAPTER 1.- POSITION AND PHYSICAL FEATURES OF MADRAS 7
II. THE TOWN OF MADRAS ... 14
III.- DRY CONSERVANCY...... 19
IV. OBJECTIONS TO SEWERS ANSWERED ……………………….. 43
V.- DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT ... ... ... ... ... 74

ILLUSTRATIONS.
To face Page
Half Monthly Averages of 20 Years ' Meteorological

Observations at Madras .... 13
" Plan of a Latrine for the use of Natives, and in which

the excretions can be separately collected" -design-
ed by W. R. Cornish, Assistant Surgeon, Madras
Medical Establishment......... 27
Map of Madras, showing the Lines of Sewers proposed

to be laid down..... 75
Monthly Rainfall in England and in Madras 84

Section of Main Sewer..... 91
Plan of Black Town, showing the System of Street

Drains proposed to be laid down ... 94
36
Section of Outfall Sewer .... 96
Plan and Section of a Man-hole , Ventilator and Flush-
88886
ing Reservoir.... 98
Cross Sections of Sewers ...... 99
Perspective Section of a First Class Native House in

Madras, showing the system of drainage pro-
posed ....... 103
Chart showing the number of Days in the Year the

Wind blows in Madras from each Point of the
Compass .. 109
Map of Madras, showing the course taken by Winds

which pass over the Sewage-irrigated Lands ...... 110
Diagram showing the number of days in every Month
of the Year the Wind blows in Madras from each
Point of the Compass ..... 110
REPORT
ON A
PROJECT
FOR THE
DRAINAGE OF THE TOWN
OF
MADRAS .
INTRODUCTORY NOTES.
THE following Drawings and Papers accompany this Report : -

. awing
DRAWINGS.
. ets
of .
No.
She
Dr
No
of
Map of Madras shewing the Lines of the Main

and Branch Sewers proposed to be laid
down....... 1
( Index Plan...... 1 1
Index Section... 2 1
Detail Plan........ 3 14
Detail Section ..... 4 17
Crossing 2nd Tunnel south of Tannah near
20
5 1
Main Sewer........ Koshoopet...........
Crossing 1st Tunnel south of Tannah near 6 1
Koshoopett.....….…….
Bell Mouth Junctions ...... 7
Details (Manholes, Side Entrances, Ventila-
8 4
tors and Flushing Reservoirs) ......
Borings ...... 9
2 INTRODUCTORY NOTES .
ing
ts
Draw
Shee
No.
No.
of
of
.
. -
1
[ Index Plan and Index Section...
67
6
30
Detail Plan........
2
Black Town Branch Detail Section ....... 7
Sewer. Details (Manholes, Side Entrances, Ventila- 4 3
tors and Flushing Reservoirs) ......
Borings .... 5 2
Index Plan and Index Section ... 1 1
23
455
Detail Plan..... 2 4
Royapooram Detail Section.……………..
Branch Sewer.
Details (Side Entrances, Ventilators and 4 3
Flushing Reservoirs) .....
Borings... 5 1
15
Index Plan and Index Section .... 1
Detail Plan........ 2 5
Fort St. George Detail Section...... 3 5
Branch Sewer.
Details (Manholes, Side Entrances, Venti- 3
4
lators and Flushing Reservoirs )....
し Borings ...... 5 1
Index Plan and Index Section .. 1 1

Detail Plan..... 2 5
Pursewakum Detail Section ....... 3 5
Branch Sewer.
Details (Manholes, Side Entrances, Ventila-
4 3
tors and Flushing Reservoirs)...
Borings ...... 5 1
Index Plan and Index Section ...... 1 1

23
Detail Plan......... 2 4
Egmore Branch Detail Section ……………………………. . 3 4
Sewer. Details (Manholes, Side Entrances, Ventila- Į 4 3
tors and Flushing Reservoirs) ...
1
52
Borings ........
INTRODUCTORY NOTES . 333
co
Drawin g
Sheets
No.
No.
of
of
.
.
123
122
Index Plan and Index Section .....
Detail Plan ...... 2
Elemboor Branch Detail Section ……………
... 2
Sewer.
Details ( Side Entrances, Ventilators and 4 3
Flushing Reservoirs) .
Borings..... 5 1
123
Index Plan, Index Section, and Borings....... 1
Detail Plan ...………… . 1
Mount Road Detail Section ...... ...... 1
Branch Sewer.
་
Flushing Reservoirs)... ....
Index Plan, Index Section, and Borings.. 1 1

23
Detail Plan 2 1
Royapett Branch Detail Section....... 3 2
Sewer.
TH

Flushing Reservoirs) …….
12345
12321
Index Plan, Index Section......

Detail Plan.... 2
St. Thomè North Detail Section...... ..... ...... 3
Brunch Sewer.
Details (Side Entrances and Ventilators) …….. 4
Borings .......
1230
1332
[ Index Plan and Index Section…………..

Detail Plan .......... 2
St Thome West
Detail Section ......
45
Branch Sewer.
Details ( Side Entrances and Ventilators) .
Borings........ 1
1 2 3
123
Index Plan, Index Section, and Borings

Detail Plan ...... 2
Coorookoopett 3
Detail Section ........ ...
Branch Sewer.
Details (Manholes, Side Entrances, Ventila- 4 3
tors and Flushing Reservoirs... .......
4 INTRODUCTORY NOTES.
.Drawing
Sheets
No.
No.
of
of
. 1∞∞
123
[ Index Plan and Index Section ....
Detail Plan .....
Detail Section ….
…………….. 8
Works between Engine House and Triva- 4 2
toor High Road.………………
Outfall Sewer.
56789
Crossing at Trivatoor High Road ..... 1
Crossing at Ramanooja Iyer Street... 1
Outfall ..... 1
Details (Manholes and Ventilators). 1
Borings ..... 5
Map of Black Town showing the system of 1 1

Pipe-Drains proposed to be laid down ... S
23
Map of Fort St. George do. do. do...... 1
Map of Pursewakum and Vepery do . do. 3 1
Street Drains.
450
Map of Egmore and Elemboor do. do. do.) 4
Map of Triplicane and Chintadrapett do do. 5
Map of St. Thomè and Royapett do. do. do. 6
Map of Tondiarpett and Royapooram do. do. 7
Plan of the Site for the Engine House, 1

Boiler House, &c ......
•
INTRODUCTORY NOTES . 5
PAPERS.
Books.
Specification of Main Sewer and Works in connection therewith ......... 1
Specification of Black Town Branch Sewer, do . do ......... 1

Specification of Royapooram Branch Sewer, do. do......... 1
Specification of Fort St. George Branch Sewer, do. do .........
Specification of Pursewakum Branch Sewer, do: do ......... 1
Specification of Egmore Branch Sewer, do. do ......... 1
do. do ... 1
Specification of Elemboor Branch Sewer,
Specification of Mount Road Branch Sewer, do. do ......... 1
do. do ......... 1
Specification of Royapett Branch Sewer,
Specification of St. Thomè North Branch Sewer, do. do.... .... 1
Specification of St. Thomè West Branch Sewer, do. do ......... 1
Specification of Coorookoopett Branch Sewer, do. do ......... 1
Specification of Outfall Sewer, do. do......... 1
Table of Quantities and Estimate of all the Works in connection 1
with the Drainage of Madras ....... ....
Total... 14
Copy of Pamphlet :—" On some unsolved Problems in relation to Public

Health, by WILLIAM ROBERT CORNISH, Assistant Surgeon, Madras Medical
Establishment, Secretary to the Principal Inspector General, Medical Depart-
ment. No. 1.- The Cleansing of Towns."
Copy of Pamphlet :-" Reports and Orders of the Madras Government
regarding the adoption of the Dry Earth System of Conservancy in Barracks,
Hospitals, Prisons," &c.
The Datum Line for the levels used throughout the Drawings, Datum for
the levels.
and referred to in this Report, is what is usually understood in
6 INTRODUCTORY NOTES .
Madras as " mean sea level. " It is taken from a bench-mark
on a stone fixed in the Escarp of the North Ravelin of Fort St.

George. On the stone is the following inscription :
" Mean Level of the Sea from May to Octo-

ber, six feet ten inches below this Line which
answers to the Tide Guage mark.
Ascertained in 1821 by Major DeHavilland,
Acting Chief Engineer."

Division of A KNOWLEDGE of the natural position and features of a town
the subject. is so indispensable when the question of its drainage is to be
considered, that a description of the more important physical
characteristics of Madras will form the first part of this Report.
The general condition of the inhabitants, i. e. , the number and

density of the population, the construction and arrangement of
the dwellings , the present means of water- supply and drainage,
&c ., will next be treated of. Without this information no opinion
could well be formed on the suitableness of the project to the
requirements of the town, The system of " Dry Conservancy,"
which has attracted so much attention lately, will next be dis .
cussed. I shall then endeavour to meet the " Objections to
Sewers" which are occasionally urged, in consequence of the
favour with which dry conservancy has been received. The rest
of this Report will be confined to an explanation of the project
now submitted to Government, and to questions incidentally
arising out of it.
CHAPTER I.
POSITION AND PHYSICAL FEATURES OF MADRAS.
THE limits of the jurisdiction of the Municipal Commis- Position of

Madras.
sioners, or Madras Proper as the district contained within
.
them may be termed, extend to the south as far as the River
Adyar in a northerly direction to within a mile of the village
of Trivatoor-towards the west as far as the villages of Nun-
gumbaukum , Chetput, Kilpauk and Perambore -and towards
the east up to the sea. The area of this tract may be taken
at 27 square miles. The strata in parts consist almost en-
tirely of sand, but generally of alternate layers of sand and
clay. There is no rock to be found except at a considerable
depth below the surface, a depth which none of the sewers
which it is proposed to lay down will approach. The town
stands on a sandy plain- the lowest parts being from 2 to 6
feet, and the highest from 16 to 24 feet above mean sea level.
The average level of the whole of Madras may be taken at
from 8 to 12 feet above the datum line . Water is found in
all parts at a few feet above or below mean sea level.
If we except the western quarter of Madras, which is so

thinly populated that it is not worth while considering it as a
district to be drained at present, there is no single neighbour-
hood which is altogether elevated above the others. In each

there are high and low portions which differ from each other
in height from 8 to 16 feet, but in all the districts the lowest
parts, or those which must regulate the direction of the main
sewers, are nearly on a dead level with each other. The lowest
streets in Saint Thomè, Triplicane, Chintadrapett, Egmore,

со
8 PHYSICAL FEATURES OF MADRAS .
Vepery, Pursewakum, Black Town, Tondiarpett and Roya-

pooram, which are the important divisions of the Town, are,
in each instance, from 4 to 7 feet above mean sea level. It
will thus be seen that there is no natural line of drainage for
the town of Madras, considered as a whole. This is an im-
portant point, and one of the truth of which it will be well to
be convinced by a reference to the Map of Madras which

accompanies this Report. * Each district, however, has its
ridges and valleys which can be turned to account when we
take it by itself, and lay down its branch sewers and pipe-
drains irrespective of the other neighbourhoods.
Madras may be conveniently divided into four drainage

divisions .
1st Drainage Beginning from the north, the 1st, which comprises the
Division.
districts of Royapooram and Tondiarpett, is that quarter of the
Town which stretches northwards from the Railway and is
contained between the Canal and the Sea. A ridge half a
mile broad, and from 12 to 15 feet above mean sea level, runs
north and south midway between the Canal and the Sea, and
slopes gradually down on either side towards these boundary
lines. The soil , to a considerable depth, is almost everywhere
sand. The southern portion only of this division is thickly
inhabited .
2nd Drainage The 2nd division is that bounded by the Railway on the
Division.
north, the Canal on the west, the River Cooum on the south,
and the Sea on the east. It contains Black Town and Fort
St. George. In Black Town there are two ridges running

parallel to each other and almost due north and south. The
well known street, Popham's Broadway, which is from 6 to 8

feet above mean sea level, is the valley line between
these ridges. Beginning from the east, or from the road
running along the sea beach, which is from 11 to 12 feet
* Vide also the Map of Madras which faces page 75 of this Report.
PHYSICAL FEATURES OF MADRAS . 9
above the datum line, the ground rises to the west for
about a quarter of a mile until the first ridge is reached,

which, at its northern extremity, is 21 feet above mean sea
level . From this ridge the ground slopes downwards to the
west for another quarter of a mile as far as Popham's Broad-
way. From here the ground rises to the west for about a
third of a mile, until the second ridge along Salay Street is
reached, which varies in height from 13 to 20 feet above
mean sea level. After this the ground falls rapidly to the
west for about a quarter of a mile, or down to the Canal. Of
all the districts in Madras, Black Town offers the greatest
facilities for drainage. The strata found below the surface
consist of layers of different coloured sand. Water is usually
found at from 1 to 3 feet below the datum line.
There is nothing to note about the natural features of the

Fort except a general fall of the ground towards the west.
The 3rd drainage division which comprises the populous dis- 3rd Drainage
Division.
tricts of Vepery, Pursewakum, Egmore* and Elemboor is
bounded on the south by the Cooum, on the east by
Cochrane's Canal, on the north by Captain Cotton's Canal, and
on the west by the villages of Chetput, Kilpauk and Peram-
bore . The most striking characteristic of this division is a
general rise of the ground from the east to the west . In the
southern portion this rise is regular and almost uninterrupted .
It begins from the eastern part of Vepery and Egmore at 6 feet
above mean sea level, and continues as far as the western
limits of Madras till it attains a height of 24 feet above the
datum line . Pursewakum alone has features peculiar to
itself. Although it rises steadily to the west, there is a valley

line running east and west from which the land ascends to-
wards the north and towards the south. In other words, Pur-
* I have called the neighbourhood on the north bank ofthe Cooum facing the
south west part of Chintadrapett, " Egmore," as it is better known by this name
than by that of Poodoopett.
2
10 PHYSICAL FEATURES OF MADRAS.
sewakum stands on two slopes of ground meeting in a valley—

one slope faces the south and the other the north . The top
of the former is from 8 to 11 feet, and that of the latter from
10 to 15 feet above mean sea level . The valley itself is from
3 to 6 feet above the datum line . On account of its great
extent, it is somewhat difficult to drain the 3rd division . The
strata underlying the surface soil consist in some parts of sand,
and in other parts of clay. Water is found at from 1 to 3
feet below mean sea level.
4th Drainage The 4th Division is that portion of Madras which lies south
Division.
of the Cooum . In it there are three populous districts, viz . ,
Chintadrapett, Triplicane and Saint Thomè. The former
slopes down from 9 to 10 feet on the west to 5 feet above

mean sea level on the east. The land on which Triplicane
stands is perhaps the most irregular in Madras. It rises and
falls continually, and yet there is hardly an important feature
to notice. Perhaps, if I say the western quarter is generally
higher than the eastern, a clearer idea will be formed of this
district than by any detailed description I could give. For

drainage purposes Triplicane may be considered to be a flat
about 11 feet above the datum line . Saint Thomè is the half
of a little hill cut through the crest by the sea. The ground
falls on all sides except towards the east, where it is abruptly
terminated by a sandy cliff. The top of the hill is 21 feet, and
the bottom from 6 to 10 feet above mean sea level. In this
division, the strata are partly of sand and partly of clay. Water
is found sometimes above and sometimes below mean sea level.
Drainage
Outfalls. The natural drainage outfalls of Madras are the Rivers
Cooum and Adyar, Cochrane's Canal and the Sea.
The River The Cooum , which flows in a serpentine course through the
Cooum.
heart of the town, may be considered an extensive tank. The
bar at the river's mouth is the bund of this tank, and the water,
when only at mean sea level, extends more than 3 miles inland
.
PHYSICAL FEATURES OF MADRAS. 11
or nearly up to the College Bridge. From January to October

the river has no outlet to the sea . It is only during the mon-
soon, and not always then even, that the bar is open. During the
earlier months of the year the water stands at about mean sea
level, but it falls gradually during the hot weather to 14 feet
below the datum line, unless there is rain in the interval. The
level of the river is not affected by the tides of the sea. The
heaviest monsoon does not produce a sufficiently strong cur-
rent to scour the bed of the Cooum effectually. At present

this river forms a large cesspool for the districts of Vepery,
Egmore, Chintadrapett and part of Triplicane, all of which

Owing to the constant flow of sewage into
drain into it .
the Cooum, and to the stagnation of the water, so large a

quantity of solid filth has accumulated that the bed of the
river is raised considerably above its natural level. Strictly

speaking, the Cooum , for the last 3 miles of its length, has no
fall at all. In fact, if anything, the bed slopes in an opposite
direction to the course of the stream . The large drain near
Government House Bridge and the main sewer of Vepery

near Chintadrapett Bridge have both discharged such a quan-
tity of filth that the bed of the river between these points is
actually higher than it is for the previous mile. During the
monsoon the water escapes only because the river rises above
the bar and forces a breach through it. .
It will thus be seen
that, practically, the Cooum has no outfall at all. To attempt,
therefore, to convert it into a sewer is simply to make it a

cesspool.
The Adyar, which forms the southern boundary of Madras, The River
Adyar.
is really a smaller river than the Cooum, but it widens so con-
siderably before reaching the sea that its waters cover a much
larger area, and at its mouth it forms a small lake . Like the
Cooum it has no outlet to the sea, except for a short time dur-
ing the north-east monsoon. It is even less adapted for a
drainage outfall than the Cooum.
12 PHYSICAL FEATURES OF MADRAS .
Cochrane's Cochrane's Canal runs in a northerly direction from the

Canal.
Cooum to beyond the limits of Madras. At present it is the
cesspool for the western quarter of Black Town which dis-
charges its sewage into it. As there is no current to carry away
the solid matter, the bed of the Canal, like that of the Cooum, is
higher than its original level.
The Sea Madras has 9 miles of sea-coast. The Beach throughout is

Coast.
flat and sandy. For the first half mile from the shore the bed of
the sea slopes from 0 to about 7 fathoms or 42 feet in depth.
After this the slope becomes very gradual, for, at the distance
of 3 miles from the shore, the depth is only about 101
fathoms or 63 feet.
Tides. The difference of level between high and low tide is about
3 feet only, and high and low water mark are taken in Madras
at about 11 feet above and below mean sea level which is
invariably ascertained from Colonel DeHavilland's bench-mark
spoken of before. *
Sea Currents The two principal currents along the shore of Madras both
flow in a direction parallel to the coast. The first, or that which
flows from the north southwards, usually sets in about the mid-
dle of October, and continues to flow till February, or till such
time as the " long shore" winds begin to blow, when the second
current sets in and flows from the south northward. This current
ceases about August, when variable currents and calms set in
and continue till the burst of the N. E. monsoon in the middle of
October. The two principal currents , following as they do the

course of the winds, must, no doubt, be caused by them. If the
wind, therefore, is the chief cause of the currents along the coast
of Madras, I think accurate observations would prove that the
currents which prevail between August and October have a
* Although the correctness of Colonel DeHavilland's " mean sea level" bench-
mark has never been established by any official observations since 1821 , there are
many proofs that it is sufficiently true for all practical purposes. The tide guage ,
now in course of construction, will not be completed in time to admit of my mak-
ing use of the information to be obtained from it.
Mad ras
.Draina ge
.
Madras
at
Observations
Meteorological
Years
20
of
Averages
Monthly
Half
SOALES
. JANUARY
. FEBRUARY
. MARCH
. APRIL
. MAY
. JUNE
. JULY
. .
AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER .
DECEMBER SCALES
THERE
BAR 15
311
to
16 14
15
28
to 31
16
15
to 30
16
15
to ST .
31
to1516 ST TH to30 TPST
Co1516 ST 1516319
311
301
16
b301
15.
1516
to15
16
311 RAIN WIND
50
오
POINTS
이
CHILY MELOCITY IN MRES
OF DIRECTION
100 3000 t 40
N. 200
乏
N.N.W
+ t
이 N.W
R
BA
TE
UA
E
RO WNW
OM
ME
R
AN
TE
90 29.90 W 175
BA
R 30 W.
M
A
W.S.W
OF NOD S.W.
W
O
INCH
C TI 8.S.W
RE
80 2980 DI 20 S 150
T ER
E
OM DRY
E RM D
WET SSE
TH IN
AN
DRY W THERMOMETER THERM
OMETE
RS.E
WE
T
OF
ES.E
& TER 433 THERM
OMETE
70 70
29 ROME R10 125
E.
9
E C 8 ENE
ON N
I SI
CT
RE N.E
DI L
IN
MILES.
R 3
INCHES
HALF MONTHLY RAINFALL WIND

on 43
NNE
DEGREES
HUNDREDTHS
160 2950 100
F
JANUARY
. EBRUARY MARCH
. APRIL
. .
MAY JUNE JULY .SAUGUST
EPTEMBER .
OCTOBER NOVEMBER
.DECEMBER
A.BARREN
LITH H.TULLOCH
:,DEL
.1JAN
865 OF
AVERAGES
NOTE
THE
VELOCITY .
ONLY
YEARS
THREE
ARE
WIND
THE
OF
PHYSICAL FEATURES OF MADRAS. 13
tendency to flow in nearly the same direction as that which

prevails from February to August. The only difference be-
tween the winds at the two periods is that there is more

westing in those which blow from August to October. *
The velocity of the two principal currents at their full
strength is computed at 3 miles per hour.†
The general characteristics of the climate of Madras may be

ascertained from the accompanying diagram. ‡
* Vide " Diagram showing the number of days in every month of the year the
Wind blows in Madras from each point of the compass," which faces page of
this Report.
+ For all the facts respecting the depth and currents of the sea, I am indebted
to Captain H. D. E. Dalrymple, Master Attendant, who has most kindly furnished
me with the information I required.
I have thought it better to give the meteorological facts by " projection" than
in a table, as a comparison between the phenomena at different times can be much
more easily made in the one case than in the other. For every meteorological
fact used by me I am indebted to N. R. Pogson, Esq., Government Astronomer,
without whose help, which was most willingly given, this Report would have been
very incomplete.
CHAPTER II.
THE TOWN OF MADRAS.
Population of
Madras. THE population of Madras, according to the last statement
drawn up by the Assessor to the Municipal Commissioners , is
tabulated below .
No. of No. ofHouses Average

Important Districts Number
Drainage Position Division.
of each Drainage comprised in each ineachDrain- Population. of souls to
Division. Drainage Division. age Division . a House .
1 North of the Rail-

Royapooram.
way and east of 3,433 70,934 20-7
the Canal , Tondiarpett.
2 South of the Rail-
way, east of the Black Town. 12,363 149,004 12
Canal and north Fort St. George
of the Cooum ,
Pursewakum .
3 West of the Canal'
Vepery. 5,899 57,244 9.7
and north of the
Egmore.
Cooum,
Elemboor.
Chintadrapett.
4 South of the Cooum. Triplicane. 10,915 150,589 13.8
Royapett.
St Thomè.
Total... 32,610 427,771 13.1
In London the density of the population, with reference to

the houses, is about 5. A Madras dwelling, therefore, contains
more than 2½ times the number of people which a London
house does. The density of the population of the northern
portion of Madras (20.7) is extraordinary, being more than
four times that of London. *
* Even this is rivalled by some of the villages, such, for instance , as Royapett
which has a population of 19,210, and only 620 houses, -the density being nearly
31. Is it possible that a population of nearly twenty thousand can be living at
the rate of 31 in a dwelling—and such dwellings ? And if this is the average density
over the entire village, how many men, women, and children must there be in some
of the houses ? It is not surprising that cholera should be endemic in Madras.
THE TOWN OF MADRAS. 15
A native dwelling in Madras usually consists of one or more Native

dwellings.
open courtyards, each enclosed on all sides by a terraced or tiled
building. There are sometimes as many as five of these court-

yards running back from the street . Both the buildings and
the courtyards almost invariably slope towards the entrance,
and their floors are generally raised above the surface of the
road -- in some streets not more than a foot ; in others as much
as 4 or 5 feet. These facts are very important for the purposes
of this project, and will be referred to when the question of

house- drainage is treated .
The greater quantity of the water used by the inhabitants Water

Supply.
is drawn from wells built in one or more of the court-
yards. When there is one well only, it is usually in the

back courtyard . All natives who can afford it buy their
drinking water, which is usually brought from a distance.
For all other but drinking purposes, the water in the wells is
made to answer. On account of the abundance of water in
the Madras wells, much more is used than might be supposed.

Almost all the wells in or near the thickly populated parts of
the town contain more or less organic matter. This is en-
tirely due to the sewage of the town escaping first through
the badly constructed drains in the streets, and then through
the sub- soils to the stratum of sand which holds the present
water- supply of Madras. Sooner or later, this water- supply

must become so impregnated with the sewage as to be render-
ed unfit for use. In many places this has already occurred,
for the wells are as offensive as cesspools, and in consequence
have been abandoned by the people. These facts, which have

been brought to light by the numerous borings I have made
in all parts of the town, may be relied on by Government.
I bring them thus prominently to their notice, in order to show
* Every well in the town should be closed as soon as it is disused , for foul water
never ceases to give off poisonous gases, and it becomes more foul the longer it is
kept.
16 THE TOWN OF MADRAS.
the necessity for a system of water-tight pipe-drains and sewers,

which, while it relieves the dwellings of all liquid refuse, will,
at the same time, preserve the water-supply of Madras from

contamination . *
Present sys-
tem of house The greater portion of the water drawn from the wells by
drainage . the inhabitants is used for washing and bathing, and generally
in the back courtyard, where also the cleaning of the pots and
pans takes place. All the refuse water, both from the yards
and from the cook-rooms, is discharged by an open channel

(about 4 or 6 inches square) into the street drain . There is
a privy in each house, usually on one side of the back court-
yard. It consists of seats formed by low walls of brick in
chunam between which the ordure falls, while the urine escapes
into the same open channel which conveys away the waste
water from the dwellings. All solid filth is removed by
scavengers, who call at each house once or twice in the day,
and deposit it in the Municipal carts which convey it away
from the precincts of the town. As a rule, there are no cess-

pits in the dwellings. The house-drain for all liquid refuse
has its outlet in the front of the dwelling, where it drops its
contents into an open drain of a rectangular section ( about 15
* In some places I met with pure liquid sewage. There is no mistake about
this, for the smell was so overpowering as to leave no room for doubt in the matter.
As a general rule, a well dug in virgin soil in Madras will produce good water—
provided that it is sufficiently far removed from dwellings. By good water I mean
water not impregnated with sewage. Of a town situated, as Madras is, on the sea
coast, and with a sub-soil of sand, it would be impossible, unless a very great num-
berof borings were made, to say where the water would or would not be slightly brack-
ish. Wherever good water occurs, the sand is uncoloured, sharp and sweet, while,
in all instances in which sewage has percolated through the upper strata, the sand
beneath is coloured dark with organic matter, and is more or less offensive to taste
and smell. It is remarkable that some wells dug on the very margin of densely
populated neighbourhoods produced good water. A little consideration will explain
this peculiarity. The chief supply of water being drawn by the inhabitants from
wells situated in the town, the " pull" has been from the margin all round to the
centre. No sewage, therefore, has flowed out of the town into these wells on the
outskirts.
THE TOWN OF MADRAS. 17
inches by 1 foot) running along the side of the street. This, Present
street drains.
again, is connected further on with another drain of a similar
kind, but of larger dimensions, and so on, until the last dis-
charges itself into a sewer which lies a few feet below the
surface of the ground. Both the street-drains and the sewers

are built of ordinary bricks set in shell lime mortar. They are
as porous as they can be, and smell most offensively. Having
no proper slope, they are daily choked up with filth, the re-
moval of which is effected by manual labour only. It is for

the cleansing of these drains, which are a receptacle for all the
solid filth of the streets, that so large an establishment of
scavengers is employed by the Municipal Department.
At present the main sewers of Madras have three outfalls- Present main
sewers.
the Sea, the River Cooum and the Canal. Black Town drains
into the sea, except the small portion of it lying to the west
of Salay Street which drains into the Canal. Vepery,
Egmore, Chintadrapett and part of Triplicane drain into the
Cooum. The main sewer of Black Town has its outfall at
the north- east angle of the Fort. This, being the largest, is the
most offensive sewer in Madras . The main sewer of Vepery
discharges its contents into the Cooum near Chintadrapett

Bridge, where it has deposited a great quantity of filth in the
bed of the river. The mouth of the main sewer of Chintadra-
pett and Triplicane is near Government House Bridge, where

an effect similar to that of the Vepery sewer.has been produced.
Besides these main channels which discharge both sewage
and flood- waters, there are numerous small drains which have
their outlets in the Cooum and the Canal.
1
It must not be supposed from the above that all the sewage Parts of the
Town wholly
of the Town is discharged at one or other of these outfalls . undrained.
Nothing could be further from the fact. There are both
individual streets and extensive areas in each neighbourhood
which have no outlet at all, and where the sewage stands in
3
18 THE TOWN OF MADRAS.
open trenches round the dwellings, and stagnates from day

to day, and from month to month. The only cleansing process
that ever takes place is that caused by a heavy fall of rain,
when the water overflows the sides of the trenches, and, in
seeking an outfall, carries away some portion of the filth

with it.
CHAPTER III.
DRY CONSERVANCY.
In the present state of the question of conservancy, a

report on a proposal to cleanse an Indian Town by means
of sewers would be very incomplete, if it did not enter into
a full discussion of the new theories which have lately been
started regarding dry conservancy.
Any organic substance exposed to the air is soon destroyed
by the oxygen of the atmosphere. The moisture is evapo-

rated, and the body converted into new compounds of a more
permanent form than those of which it was originally com-
posed. While the body is in this state of decomposition ,
offensive gases are given off, but when it has taken its more
permanent form, the evolution of the gases usually ceases.
If, however, water be poured on the substance, or it be allowed
to lie in water, a second process of decomposition takes place,
which again ceases when all the water has been evaporated.
This may be repeated many times .
The noxious smells about cook- rooms and privies arise, to a
great extent, from the decomposition of organic matter pro-

moted, in the first instance, by the action of the atmosphere,
but continued by that of water. The nuisance caused by
allowing refuse vegetables to lie in the streets and dry by the
heat of the sun is harmless, compared with the effect that is
produced by throwing them into the water lying in the drain
close by .
Hitherto, in privies, all excrementitious matters have been

removed by aid of water. It is now demonstrated that water
can be dispensed with, and that privies can be kept much
20 DRY CONSERVANCY.
more wholesome without it. It is urged that certain sub-

stances which have the power of preventing the exhalation of
foul gases should take the place of water. Of these , charcoal,
ashes and clay are the most important. It is found that they
.
rapidly absorb the moisture in excrement, and thus at once
deprive it in a measure of its offensive properties . But this
is not all . Even the bricks and chunam with which the walls
and floors of privies are built are now objected to , inasmuch

as they soon become saturated with urine or refuse water
and retain for a very long time the power of exhaling noxious
odours. It is proposed, therefore, either to dispense with
these materials altogether by building with clay which is a
deodorizer, or, at all events, to cover them with some substance,
such as tar or asphalte, which does not absorb moisture - On
these broad principles dry conservancy is based .
Dr. Hatha- The best account of the new system is given in the Punjaub
way's system
of dry con- Sanitary Report for 1862, by the originator, Doctor Hathaway,
servancy . of the Bengal Medical Service. The following is an extract
from this Report :
" The latrines used in the Punjaub Jails are perfectly free from any
effluvium whatever, and the essential points in which they differ from
the majority of those constructed for Military use are as follows :-
A. The absence of all masonry or pucca work containing lime

cement.
B. The prohibition of all cesspools or reservoirs, and all drains or

pipes, whether closed or open, leading in or out of the latrine or
urinary.
C. The prohibition of water being used to flush the ground or

flooring, which is to be kept perfectly dry.
D. The flooring being of earth, (instead of pucca masonry or stone)

on which dry sand to the depth of 4 inches over a layer of well ram-
med clay is strewed, and the portable vessels for the reception of both
fluid and solid refuse matter being deposited on the sand.
DRY CONSERVANCY. 21
E. The immediate removal of all refuse matter from the latrine

itself, and the careful burial every evening in trenches dug for the pur-
pose.
F. The abolition of the practice of sprinkling powdered lime in the

urinaries and latrines, or in any other spot."
The other points to be attended to are-to build urinals

separate from latrines- to provide thorough ventilation for
both- to make all the seats in the latrines of wood and the
pans of iron or earthenware- to provide a large iron recep-

tacle with a close fitting lid in the rear of each latrine, into
which the contents of the pans are to be emptied as fast as the
latter are used to keep the seats, floor, and vessels scrupu-
lously clean--and to use charcoal and wood-ashes as disin-
fectors in place of lime.
Such are the main features of dry conservancy on Doctor Suggested

improve-
Hathaway's principle. It is impossible to call in question ments on
the great success which has attended its introduction . The Doctor
Hathaway's
privies are clean and free from all offensive smell, and have system.
met the entire approval of the authorities in Bengal . Like
every thing else, however, of the kind, the dry system is still
capable of improvement. Some important modifications,
therefore, have already been made. The chief of these is the
use of clay as a disinfector in place of charcoal or wood-ashes.

The advantages of clay are-that it is easily procurable and
exceedingly cheap -that in a dry state it is one of the best
disinfectors for excrementitious matters yet discovered - and
that after use it possesses a high value as a fertilizing manure.
Another modification is the use of tar or asphalte for the floors
and the walls of the privies. This has not, however, the ad-
vantage of cheapness . The last improvement yet made con-
sists in the separation of the urine from the fæces . This idea
originated with Doctor Thudichum, a physician in England.
The subject of dry conservancy is now attracting consider-

22 DRY CONSERVANCY.
Opinions of able attention in England, and, from what can be gathered,

the advo-
cates of Uni- still more attention in India, to which country it is much
versal Dry better suited . The great argument in favour of it is based on
Conservancy
the fact that the most valuable manure known to man, viz. ,
urine, will be saved for agricultural purposes. If the ma-
nured clay should hereafter possess a high commercial value,
the argument will be all the stronger. So far as the appli-
cation of dry conservancy to latrines is concerned, I am en-
tirely in accord with the advocates of this system -provided
that the cost of it is not to be borne by the people who could
never, as will be shown presently, afford to pay for it . But some
of these advocates, in the heat of the excitement caused by a
new and very important discovery, will not look at the ques-
tion except from one point of view. The consequence is, that
the most absurd and extraordinary statements are made by
them as to the efficacy of the new principles, and as to the won-
derful application that may be made of them . " The old sys-
tem of drainage by sewers is obsolete—is a quarter of a century

behind the age-- is not worthy the science of the day. Dry
conservancy absolutely revolutionizes the subject of drainage.
We must begin ab initio - the great sanitary problem of the
day has been solved . We are to have no more sewers and no
nuisances. The town is to be cleansed on new principles, and
at little or no cost to the inhabitants . "
If it should be thought that this is an exaggerated ac-

count of the effect expected to be produced by the adoption
of dry conservancy, the following extracts will prove that it
is not. Speaking of the application of the dry system to large
cities (and more especially to London) in which water drain-
age exists, and where it might naturally be supposed that the
subversion ofthe present system of sewers would be attend-
ed with considerable expense, the Reverend H. Moule says-
" In the establishment of the earth sewage system no public works
are required, whilst the three and a half millions being spent by the
DRY CONSERVANCY. 23
Metropolitan Board for the greater efficiency of the public works now
existing, would have defrayed double the cost of all private works of
the earth sewage system for London ; and the manure saved, instead of
wasted, would, on the very lowest estimate, have produced a clear income
of £50,000 a year. *
The same idea has been repeated in other words by a

gentleman in Madras, who has now for some years interested
himself in the question of sanitary reform. In a pamphlet

called " The Cleansing of Towns," written by Doctor Cornish,
Assistant Surgeon, and Secretary to the Director General of
the Medical Department, he says-
"The greatest advantage of all would be the doing away with the
necessity for costly drainage works, "t-and again, " Before spending
some half a million of money in a system of sewers for Madras, it may
be well perhaps for the rate-payers, who will ultimately have to defray
the cost of tho ' improvement,' to enquire whether for an expenditure
of one-twentieth part of the money it may not be possible to make our
chief city a model of cleanliness, and its excreta so valuable, that the
cost of collection should be a mere trifle in the Municipal expenditure. " +
It will thus be seen that both the Reverend H. Moule The fallacy
and Dr. Cornish consider dry conservancy sufficient of itself of universal
dry conser-
to correct all the evils of a town,-those at least which arise vancy.
from defective drainage. The picture has been painted in

such bright colours, and has so greatly pleased the painters,
that they have not cared to enquire whether it is true to
nature. But the argument for dry conservancy, put in few
words and cleared of everything which in any way keeps the
real point at issue from view, may be stated thus- " because
dry conservancy is the best system for privies ; therefore it
* Vide Page 448 of Volume XI of the " Journal of the Society of Arts," for
May 15, 1863. Mr. Moule subsequently disclaimed any intention to apply dry
conservancy except to towns which were wholly undrained .
+ Vide Page 19 of Dr. Cornish's Pamphlet.
Vide Page 23 of the same Pamphlet,
24 DRY CONSERVANCY.
is the best system for towns." The fallacy arises from

forgetting that in the one case, i . e., in privies, excrementitious
matters only are dealt with, and in the other that the same
excrementitious matters form but an inappreciable amount
of the filth to be removed. It is just as if a man should at-
tempt to clean out the dust-holes of London by crushing
the bones to be found in them, and then carrying away the
powder as manure. Of course, he could urge that he had
taken away the foulest portion of the refuse and had utilized it
for agricultural purposes, and this would be perfectly true.
But it would be equally true that he had left nearly all the filth
behind. And this is a case exactly parallel with that of dry
conservancy, when it is insisted that this system must super-

sede that of sewers . The advocates of the former keep urging
that all the urine and fæces will be carried away and convert-
ed into manure, and, of course, nobody can deny the proposi-

tion which is perfectly patent. But it is also true that almost
all the sewage will be left behind. In a word, though urine and
fæces are undoubtedly the most offensive part of town sewage,
yet in bulk they do not amount (as in the case of London
for instance) to more thanth of the whole . This is so
easily proved, that it can escape the observation only of
persons so wedded to a new theory, as to be unable to
look adverse facts in the face, but it explains at the same

time why those who have to remove the sewage in England
do not consider the extravagant proposition to do away with
sewers worth refuting.
Proportion of The average of the returns of the Metropolitan Water Com-
excrement to
liquid sewage panies shews that the quantity of water used in London per
head of the population is 44 gallons = 440 lbs. The average
quantity of excrementitious matter voided by each in-
dividual may be taken at 2 lbs . of urine* and lb. of fæcest ,
* Vide Page 679 of Fownes ' Manual of Chemistry, 7th edition.

+ According to Baron Liebig.
DRY CONSERVANCY. 25
or together to 24 lbs. This is equivalent to 2 =

very
440
1
little more than th of the waste water . Suppose, however,
200t
that in Madras, 5 gallons only or 50 lbs. of water are used

per head of the population, then the excrementitious matter
will be 2 = not one- twentieth of the water. Mr. Fraser, C. E. ,

50
informs me that he proposes to supply 20 gallons or 200 lbs.
of water per head of the population . If this is done , the ex-
crementitious matters will be very little more than one-
hundredth of the waste water to be removed. The propor-
tion of night-soil to liquid sewage in Bombay is calculated at

1 to 775. *
It might, however, be supposed, in answer to all Refuse water

that,
admitted to
this, it would be contended that, if sewage were deprived be only less
offensive
of excrementitious matters, it would not be offensive , and than excre-
ment.
might lie harmless in the drains. This certainly would be an
extraordinary argument to urge with any one acquainted with
the mode of conservancy adopted in Madras, where already
almost all the fæcal matter is removed by the Municipal carts,
and the smell in the streets is, nevertheless, perfectly sickening.
But still it would be taking the bull by the horns. The ad-
vocates of the dry system, however, take up no such position .

On the contrary, they urge with all the force they can that
water ! water ! is the chiefcause of the evils in privies- prohibit
its use, and the privies will be clean and wholesome . Indeed,
they insist that waste water from dwellings is only less offensive
than excrement itself. The following extract from Dr, Cornish's
pamphlet will shew that I do not misrepresent the views of
these gentlemen-
" In tropical countries the putrefactive process, when water is present,

proceeds with a truly wonderful rapidity. Not only do animal excretions
* Vide Page 32 of " Correspondence on the subject of the Drainage of Bombay,

1863."
4
26 DRY CONSERVANCY .
decompose with great speed, generating poisonous compounds to pollute

the atmosphere, but common house-sweepings, cook-room refuse, &c.,
when mixed with water, become in a very short time an intolerable
nuisance. Even the waste water from bath-rooms, if retained for a few
hours in a cesspool or reservoir, will be almost as offensive as excre-
mentitious matters themselves. "*
Now, is it not strange that the same people who see so

clearly the danger of allowing waste water to stagnate and
poison the air, will not admit the necessity of making pro-
vision for its removal. The project now submitted to Govern-
ment, like all drainage projects, has for its object the removal
of this very waste water without retaining it in cesspools
or reservoirs. When it is shown that this can be done effec-
tually in all towns by a cheaper method than that of sewers,

of course that method should and will be adopted, but until
then there is little doubt that the system of drainage by
sewers will prevail in India as in Europe.
Dry conser- It will thus be seen, that, in advocating the universal

vancy does
not provide application of dry conservancy, it has been entirely forgotten
for the
removal of that the use of water, which should be prohibited in privies,
waste water. should be encouraged in houses. By strict supervision, water
may be excluded from the former, but, so long as we are
human, it must be used in the preparation of our food, and for

the cleansing of our persons and our dwellings . To those
with your
who say " no public works are required," " do away with
sewers and adopt the dry system," is it not natural, under all
the circumstances mentioned above, to reply, -" in that case,
what shall we do with our waste water, for you yourselves say
it is only less offensive than excrement ?" The advocates for

the universal application of dry conservancy are bound to
answer this question before they make the extravagant pro-
posal to cleanse a town solely by building model privies.
* Vide Page 6 of Dr. Cornish's Pamphlet.

PLAN OF A LATRINE.
DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF NATIVES,
AND IN WHICH THE EXCRETIONS CAN BE SEPARATELY COLLECTED .
ESTIMATE OF LATRINE AS GIVEN BY 8.ANDERSON ESQR

Section thro A.B. ASST CHIEF ENGINEER. MADRAS RAILWAY.
Excavation Cub yard . 54-/4/- 13 8
Brickwerk ão 65 6/-/- 390
Plastering Square 20 6/-/- 120
Flooring with asphalte.. A..... 14 23/322
Stone work Gub font 36°1/"/- 36
Teak timber
"
130 3/8/- 455
.
reapers per•hundred lineal feet. 1800 3/8/- 90
.8
Zinc sheeting.. Tons 1 524/698 10 8
Lead pipe Lin foot 28 1/8/42
Contingencies.. 216 13 4
Rupees 2384
REFERENCE -
Elevation. a. Urinal.
. L
Plan .
3:67
a a
-14 10°
12
77'3
0:5
"
47
4-0.0
6'111
a
4... 7'0 42.3 7.0
Longitudinal Section ,
Scale . 12 Feet to the Inch.

36
fest.
G Winchester with thedras.
Copied from the original in Doctor Cornish's Pamphlet . "The Cleansing of Towns.
DRY CONSERVANCY . 27
But in order that Government may understand all that is The dry
system for
proposed to be done in Madras, I will try to put the system towns as
of dry conservancy as a whole before them. Public privies proposed
Cornisby
h.
of an improved design are to be built in all parts of the town
and at such convenient distances apart as shall induce the
inhabitants to use them.
" One side of the building is for males, and the other for females,
twenty of each might be accommodated at one time in the privy. The
urine, voided into a channel against one wall of the building drains
along an asphalted gutter, (the whole of the interior, floor and walls
is to be asphalted) , and after being filtered through a movable screen
containing coarsely powdered charcoal, is finally received into an
asphalted reservoir outside, which reservoir is to be nearly filled every
day with dry earth, to allow of the urine being absorbed and sub-
sequently carted away without decomposition or offence. The object of
the filtration through charcoal is to remove the mucus of the urine, by
which arrangement it will not begin to decompose for a period of 24
hours or more.
"In the privies, the following arrangement is suggested. In the space

allotted to each person the toty will keep a flat, saucer-shaped chatty
painted or soaked in coal tar, and well dried previous to use, to receive
the solid excrement. These chatties should always contain a little dry
earth or wood-ashes, and after use the evacuation should be immediately
covered with a small quantity of wood-ashes, kept in readiness for the
purpose within the enclosure, and the whole removed to the shed out-
side, where the chatty should be emptied, and the mixed ashes and
fæcal matter put into an iron tub or basket for removal. It will be
observed in the plan, that separate provision is made for the reception
of the urine passed during defecation , in an asphalted channel, which
conveys it to the urine reservoir outside. "*
It is expected that the excrementitious matter, after being

converted into manure, will be gladly removed by contractors
who will find it pay them to use it on the lands about Madras.
It is moreover considered that, on account of the highly

28 DRY CONSERVANCY.
deodorizing properties of clay, no nuisance will be caused by

the construction of the latrines even in the heart of the town,
and that the removal of the manure through the streets will
give no offence.
The success
of the It is evident, on a prima facie view of the matter, that the
scheme entire success of the scheme will depend on a universal use
entirely
dependent being made of the latrines . Because, if some people use
ou a uni-
them and others do not, we shall have both the expense of
versal use
being made the new system and the nuisance of the old. It is not shown,
of the lat-
rines. though, how this end is proposed to be secured . Whether
the people will be compelled by law to frequent the public
privies, or whether the use of them is to be entirely voluntary.
It would not much signify, however, if a dozen laws were
passed on the subject, for the State, having no control over
the individual in his dwelling, could not prevent his evading
the law in it if he chose to do so.
Dry conser- We will assume, therefore, that it is intended that the

vancy for
women, question should be decided by the common sense of each
individual. But common sense appears to me to be against
the universal use of public latrines, so far at least as women
are concerned . Can it be expected that any respectable man
will permit his wife or his daughters to leave the privacy of
their home- to walk, say, 150 yards in dry and wet weather
along a public street to a public place for such a purpose- to
mix there with perfect strangers -and to perform such a duty
in their very presence . Yet, if the women as well as the
men did not use the privies , what measure of success would
attend the introduction of dry conservancy. The advocates
of this system may point to the fact that the existing public
latrines are made use of by women , which is perfectly
true ; but it is by women of the very lowest classes , and
by such of them only as have no backyard or enclosure of any
kind to resort to . And even these women are driven to the
DRY CONSERVANCY. 29
public privies only by the strict supervision of the Police . In-
stead, therefore, of encouraging what every one will admit

is a proper sense of decency, dry conservancy proposes to
lower all classes to the same degrading level. Surely this is a
backward step in civilization . Let it be remembered , too , that
children and young girls are to be subjected to this public
ordeal. To what a state of morality must this lead ?
Even in England , where every water-closet at the Railway

Stations is a separate room and has a lock and a key in the
door, the prejudice even among men against it is so strong
that nothing but the greatest necessity will induce them to
use it. I am aware that this prejudice arises in a great
measure from the fact that infectious diseases are easily pro-
pagated by the water-closet system, but it arises also from
other causes. In spite, too, of every care that might be taken
in the public latrines in Madras, it would be impossible to pre-
vent some of these infectious diseases spreading amongst the
people. They must all wash at one and the same place. It
would not be possible to have large tanks in the heart of the
town, and, if these were erected, the cost ofthe system would be
enormous, as will be shown presently.
Besides, how will it be possible to arrange for the wants of How will the
sick be pro-
the sick, who will not be able to leave their dwellings, and vided for.
who, at the rate of five sick in every hundred of the popula-
430,000 × 5
tion, will amount in number to 21,500
100
souls -producing daily more than 21 tons of excrementitious

matter. Where, too, will the line be drawn amongst the com-
munity as to the use of the latrines ? If natives must use

them, so must East Indians, and so must Europeans. There
cannot be one law for the native and another for the European.
And will Europeans and East Indians submit to such an
arrangement ? Will they sit on the same seats with natives,
and in the same manner ? If not, it will be necessary to
30 DRY CONSERVANCY.
provide separate latrines for the different races, and this again
will add to the cost.
The difficul-
ty of carry- In rainy weather, moreover, how will it be possible to in-
ing out dry duce the people to go to the privies . This is the very time,
conservancy
in wet wea- too , when the offensiveness ofurine and fæces will be greatest .
ther.
The difficulty of carrying out dry conservancy in wet weather
has been partly foreseen by Doctor Cornish, but not entirely
provided against. He says " In wet weather a supply of
dried earth should be kept ready prepared under cover."*
This is all very well so far as the clay is concerned, but what
will be the use of it if people do not frequent the latrines at
that time .
The necessity One great objection to dry conservancy has already been
of constant
supervision brought to the notice of Government. This is the liability
one of the
great objec- of all public latrines to become mere cesspits, unless constant
tions dry supervision is exercised over the toties employed in them .
toan-
conserv
cy. Doctor Chipperfield, in his report on the Railway Stations,
says-
"I fear that great difficulty will be experienced in causing native

officials to carry out effectual conservancy, if supervision be left en-
tirely to them. Certainly, the native Station Masters are very
intelligent men ; but as Doctor Mackay remarks, being natives.
themselves, they are not alive to the injurious consequences of the
neglect of sanitation."' "
Thus, two Medical gentlemen suggest the necessity of Euro-

pean superintendence, the cost of which will be very heavy. A
system of conservancy which requires unremitting attention
.
and becomes a nuisance by the least neglect, is ill- suited to a
large population . As a proof of this, I need only recal to the
recollection of Government the outbreak of cholera at the
Railway Stations.
* Vide Page 18 of Dr. Cornish's Pamphlet,

DRY CONSERVANCY . 31
In advocating universal dry conservancy, people are too apt Thee differ-
enc be-
to be led away by the success which, under certain conditions, tween dry
has attended its introduction into India. Whenever it has conservancy
in small
been tried on a limited scale, as, for instance, in Barracks, Jails, establish-
ments and
Hospitals, &c., its success has been complete. But the reason in towns.
is so obvious, that it is strange it should be so often over-
looked. If Government have a number of troops , or prisoners,
or invalids whom they can easily keep under discipline,
every individual can be compelled to make use of the latrine.
The very fact of a man entering a hospital is an admission
on his part that he is willing to submit to the regulations of

the place. But the question assumes a different aspect alto-
gether when Government have to deal with a mixed popula-
tion of half a million men, women, and children, scattered
over many square miles of country-living in all kinds of
houses-and over whom, as soon as they are within their
own doors, Government can exercise no control whatever.
How can a universal use of public privies be enforced under

such circumstances .
But Dr. Cornish claims one great advantage for uni- The cheap-
versal dry conservancy, viz. , that it is much cheaper than the ness of dry
conserv ancy,
sewer system. This is certainly the most unfortunate mis- a delusion ".
take that has yet been made by the advocates of the new
theory, and the one which will tend to damage it more than
anything else. He says :-
" Before spending some half a million of money in a system of sewers
for Madras, it may be well perhaps for the rate-payers, who will
ultimately have to defray the cost of the ' improvement,' to enquire
whether for an expenditure of one-twentieth part of the money it may
not be possible to make our chief city a model of cleanliness, and its
excreta so valuable, that the cost of collection should be a mere trifle in
the Municipal expenditure. "*
It will thus be seen that 24 lacs of rupees is the sum set

down for cleansing Madras thoroughly according to the new
principles. It has always been maintained by the Engineering

profession, that, whatever objections might be raised to the
sewer system, it was the cheapest means known of disposing
of sewage. A sewer, once built properly, will, with occasional
trifling repairs, last for centuries. An inconceivable quantity

of water may be passed through it. It will work as well in
the night as in the day. With fair play the supervision

required is most trifling. It is necessary, therefore, to ascertain
if dry conservancy is cheaper.
Dr. Cornish says :-

The number "A large number of latrines and public urinals are wanted , and these
of latrines
required. must cost some money. Those at present in use might I think in
many instances be altered to suit the new system. The conservancy
establishment will also have to be enlarged ."
Now, first, as to the number of latrines. Unless they are
aware of it, Government will no doubt be surprised to learn

that already, while there is no attempt at a system of dry
conservancy, the Municipal Commissioners have built nearly
a hundred latrines. † These are not sufficient for even the
lowest classes of the people. How many, therefore, will be
required for the entire population ? Government have order-
ed that 8 seats shall be provided for every Company of Euro-
pean Soldiers. This is equivalent to nearly 10 per cent. I will
suppose, however, that 6 seats only will be sufficient for every
hundred souls. The total number of seats required for
Madras will be:- 430,000 × 6 = 25,800 . Each latrine, ac-

100
cording to Dr. Cornish's design , (vide drawing) , is to hold

40 seats. Therefore, the total number of latrines required
will be :- 25,800 645 latrines.

40
The cost of
Each new latrine, according to Doctor Cornish's estimate,
the latrines.

+ The exact number is 88.
DRY CONSERVANCY. 33
(vide drawing), is to cost 2,384 Rs. Suppose that each of the

present latrines could be altered to his design for 2,000 Rs. *
so that there would be a hundred existing when the new
scheme was carried out. Then the total cost of all the latrines
would be :-
Rs. Rs.
100 present latrines × 2,000 = 2,00,000

545 new do × 2,384 = 12,99,280
Rs. 14,99,280
or almost exactly 15 lacs of Rupees .
Suppose the same number of urinals, or 645† in all, are re- The number
and cost of
quired for the town, and that each will cost 400+ Rs. ; then urinals.
the total cost of the urinals would be : -
645 urinals × 400 Rupees = 2,58,000 Rs.
Of the sheds, Doctor Cornish says " I premise as a part of Number and
cost of the
the scheme that sheds are to be built, for the reception and sheds.
storage of dry earth, and for receiving the deposits from the
latrines . These sheds might easily be constructed to hold
* From an examination of the latrines now in use, I believe it would be cheaper

to erect new latrines than to alter the present ones.
There ought properly to be double or treble this number, because urine is
voided 5 or 6 times as often as fæces.
The urinals must be covered buildings in order to keep out the rain which
would otherwise spoil the urine for manure. It may be urged that no urinals
should be estimated for, if I take Dr. Cornish's estimate for the latrines, in each of
which there is a urinal provided. But it must be remembered that it is he who
urges the construction of urinals apart from latrines. In page 19 of his Pamphlet,
he puts the following as one of the five great advantages of his plan :-" Public urinals
distinct from privies, can be set up in the most convenient situations, and arranged
upon this system, and the whole of the fluid excretion thus saved for restoration to
the soil." The doing away with urinals in the latrines will effect little or no saving,
as they are already as narrow as they can well be. Indeed , I dont think the seats
and the urinal could be used at the same time by a number of persons, for there is less
than 5 feet of standing room between them, and how could forty people pass and
re-pass each other without the greatest confusion in such a small space. I have,
however, taken the cost of each urinal at Rupees 400, instead of 500, which I should
have taken each at if there had been no urinals in the latrines.
5
a supply of earth to last for several weeks at a time . "* It

would undoubtedly be cheapest to have a shed attached to
each privy, otherwise the clay would have to be carted un-
necessarily far. Suppose a shed could be erected for 500
Rupees, then the total cost of all the sheds would be :-
645 sheds × 500 Rs. = 3,22,500 Rs .
The extent of
the land Each latrine is 56 feet long by about 30 broad. Allow a
required for passage all round 10 feet wide for the cart which is to bring
the works.
and carry away the clay. Then the area covered by each
latrine will be : -
(56 + 20) × ( 30 + 20) = 3,800 square feet,

or say 4,000 square feet, allowing for the passages from the
street to the entrances, and for arrangements being made for
the natives to wash themselves, for which there is no provision.
in the latrines, where, according to the new theory, water

must not be admitted . Then the total area occupied by
the new latrines would be : -
4,000 square feetx 545 latrines = 2,180,000 square feet.
Suppose that each urinal with its passages, &c. , occupied

500 square feet only. Then the total area of the ground for
the urinals would be :-
500 square feet x 645 urinals = 322,500 square feet .
Suppose that each shed , with the passages for the cart and
the storing and drying rooms, occupied the same space as a
latrine ; then the total area of all the sheds would be :-
4,000 square feet x 645 sheds = 2,580,000 square feet .

+ Doctor Cornish has suggested that the roofs of the privies and urinals, (and
therefore also of the sheds one may conclude) , might be of leaves ; this would be
most objectionable, for all thatch easily catches fire. The risk of having a number of
thatched buildings in the heart of the town would be very great. Thatched build-
ings would be more expensive in the end, as the thatch would require constant
renewal.
DRY CONSERVANCY. 35
The total ground taken up by the latrines, urinals, and

sheds , will be
square feet.
Latrines 2,180,000
Urinals 322,500
Sheds 2,580,000
Total ... 5,082,500
5,082,500 sq . ft.
= say only 2,117 grounds of land .
one ground= ) 2,400 sq. ft .
Land in the heart of the town, where the latrines, urinals , Cost of the
land.
and sheds must be built to be of use, is most expensive . *
But suppose that Government could purchase land for, say,
250 Rupees a ground . Then the total cost of all the land
would be :-
2,117 grounds × 250 Rupees = 5,29,250 Rupees.
Of the establishment required for dry conservancy, Doctor the

Number
estab-of
Cornish says " To work a latrine and urinal such as has lishment
required .
been briefly described, if in a populous neighbourhood, there
would be required two toties constantly on duty, say from
4 A. M. to 10 P. M., and this would necessitate the employ-
ment of four persons - two males and two females ." As there
would be 645 latrines and the same number of urinals, the
total number of toties for both latrines and urinals (assuming
that 4 persons could daily look after both a latrine and urinal)
would be :-
645 latrines and urinals x4 toties = 2,580 toties .
*
On the outskirts of the thickly populated parts of the town, some land requir-
ed for the project now submitted has been valued by the Collector's Department at
400 and 350 Rupees per ground. In the heart of the town, land would be much
more expensive than this. But I take the low rate of 250 Rupees a ground in order
to prevent all controversy on the subject.
+ Vide Page 19 of Dr. Cornish's Pamphlet. I learn from the Barrack Master's
Department that four men andfour women are required daily for the latrine attached
tothe Parcherry Barracks, in which there are only 12 seats for men and 12 for women.
36 DRY CONSERVANCY.
Two men at least would be required for each shed , for the
toties (two ofwhom at each latrine would be women ) could not
attend to the latrines and urinals and also to the sheds, where
the drying and storing of clay would need much labour. I do
not think the toties could even attend to both the urinals and
latrines, for they would be separate buildings, but, however, let

this be assumed. The total number of men for the sheds
would be :-
645 sheds x 2 men = 1,290 men,
or the total establishment would consist of
For Latrines - 2,580 men & women.
For Sheds 1,290 men.
Total ... 3,870 souls .

Cost ofestab-
lishment. Suppose each toty received no more than 3 Rupees
monthly, which is about as small a sum as any person who
had to work for 9 hours in the day (this is what is proposed)
could possibly live on. The total monthly cost would be :—

3,870 persons × 31 Rupees = 13,545 Rs.,
and the total yearly cost :-
13,545 Rupees x 12 months = 1,62,540 Rs .
At the present value of money, or supposing 5 Rupees

yearly to represent a capital of 100 Rupees, the above sum
would then represent a capital of :-
1,62,540 Rupees × 20 = 32,50,800 Rs. ,
i . e. , upwards of 32 lacs of Rupees.
Cost of
removal of The cost of carting away the excrementitious matter should
manure, next be considered . Suppose, as before, that each individual
produces 2 lbs. of urine and lb. of fæces daily, and that (accord-
ing to the Rev. H. Moule) " one ton of earth or of London
* Each man and each woman employed in the Fort receives 4 Rupees
6 Annas a month, but, as I have no wish to exaggerate the cost, I prefer taking
3 Rupees monthly as the pay of each toty.
+ To simplify the calculation, I have taken this as the present value of money,
although Government 5 per cent, paper (while I write) is at 102 to 1034. The cost
of my own project is calculated at the same value of money.
DRY CONSERVANCY. 37
clay would be sufficient for 1,000 uses, " then the total
quantity of earth and excrement to be removed daily, (assum-
ing that each individual retired once a day, and that the popula-
tion was 430,000) , would be :-
430 thousand x 1 ton = 430 tons of clay
430,000 souls × 21 lbs . = 430 tons of excrement (at least)
Total ...860 tons of manure.
A pair of good bullocks may draw in a good cart a load of

a ton.t Suppose the manure had to be taken an average
distance of two miles, and that each pair of bullocks made

3 journies in the day. Then each pair would remove daily 11
tons of manure. The number of pairs of bullocks required
would be :-
860 tons
=
say 570 pairs only.
1/1/1
Suppose a pair of bullocks with driver could be hired for 12
Rupees a month, which is about as small a sum as could
well keep the man and bullocks alive, then the total monthly
cost of bullocks would be :-
570 pairs × 12 Rupees - 6,840 Rs.

and the total yearly cost 6,840 Rs . x 12 months = 82,080 Rs. ,
which, capitalized at the present value of money , would be : ---
82,080 Rs. × 20 = 16,41,600 Rupees . T
* Vide Page 448 of Volume XI of the " Journal of the Society of Arts." Ac-
cording to the Sanitary Commissioners, " a considerably larger quantity of earth
will be required in this country than in England," and " it will not be desirable
to use, a second time, earth that has served to deodorize excreta." Vide page 27
of their Report on the Dry Earth System of Conservancy.
† This, from enquiries I have made, is, I learn, more than a pair of bullocks
can do, but it is better to under- estimate the cost.
Alwar Chetty receives from Government 17 Rupees monthly for each cart he
employs in the Fort, and Mr. Pritchard receives 25 Rupees monthly for each of
his carts.
¶ Lest Government should think that this is an exaggeration, I beg to remind
them that the Municipal Commissioners, in spite of all their efforts to reduce the
expenditure, are now spending 80,000 Rupees yearly, or a Capital of 16 lacs of
Rupees for scavenging alone, which proves the extraordinary cost of the removal
of goods by carts and by manual labour.
Total cost of Without going further, I will sum up the total cost of uni-
dry conser-
vancy. versal dry conservancy for Madras as proposed to be carried
out by Dr. Cornish .
Rs.
Cost of Latrines ..... 14,99,280
Urinals ..... 2,58,000

Sheds ...... 3,22,500
22
Land for latrines , urinals ,
and sheds ....... 5,29,250
‫دو‬ Establishment ............ 32,50,800
"" Carting away manure ......... 16,41,600
Total Rs... 75,01,430
I was as unprepared for this result, when I commenced the
calculations, as, no doubt, Government will be to have it placed

before them . Indeed, like many people, I supposed at first
that there might be some grounds for Dr. Cornish's state-
ment that Madras could be made a " model of cleanliness" for
21 lacs of Rupees . * Yet no charge has been made for the carts
which should be of a peculiar construction to prevent the escape
of poisonous gases and which will cost a great deal of money
-no charge for lighting the buildings during the night which is
proposed by Dr. Cornish himselft -nor for the 25,800 earthen-
ware pans required in the seats- nor for the iron receptacles for
the urine and fæces - nor for the removal of the running stream
of water proposed for use after defecation - no charge for the
* There is no limit to the requirements of dry conservancy. Every increase in
the population will require more latrines, more urinals, more sheds, more clay and
a larger establishment. Ifthe population increases at the rate of 1 per cent. , there
100 - 1 = 6,450 more people to be provided for, and they will
will be yearly 430,000
require 10 latrines, 10 urinals, 10 sheds , and 40 scavengers, In the course of a
few years the cost would be something frightful.
Vide Page 19 of Doctor Cornish's Pamphlet,
DRY CONSERVANCY. 39
clay*-no charge for supervision over the army of sweepers

(3,870 in number ) -and no charge for repairs of any kind what-
soever, which will be very heavy for works of this nature, -
and yet the cost has reached the enormous capital of 75 lacs
of Rupees. It may be urged that the clay will be brought and
the manure carried away for nothing . Let me even grant the
extravagant proposition, that there are men in Madras willing
to risk a capital of 16½ lacs† of Rupees on the mere chance
of being able to sell manure . The balance will then be
75-16-58 lacs of Rupees, and for this sum what is to be
got the removal of about one-twentieth or of one-hundreth

of the sewage, according as 5 or 20 gallons of water are used
per head of the population. The rate-payers of Madras
who will ultimately have to defray the cost of this " improve-
ment" would indeed do well to enquire whether Madras can
be made " a model" of cleanliness for 2 lacs of Rupees ; and
if not, whether it would be worth while to secure the " im-
provement" for three quarters of a million sterling, in order

that they might have all the sewage left behind.
* If 1 ton suffices for 1,000 uses , and Madras contains 430,000 people, there
will be required daily 430 tons of clay. The Engineer to the Municipal Commis-
sioners informs me that his Department has to pay 8 Annas per cart load of clay.
If each cart brings a ton (more than an ordinary load), the daily cost of the clay
will be 430 Rupees, the monthly cost 430 × 30 = 12,900 Rupees , the yearly cost
12,900 × 12 = 1,54,800 Rupees, which represents a Capital of 1,54,800 × 20 = 30,96,000
Rupees, or nearly 31 lacs, which should properly be added to the estimate of 75 lacs.
+ Dr. Cornish says, " In Madras, however, a European gentleman has, I believe,
found it a paying concern to contract for the removal of the contents of barrack
privies, to his grass land, in the outskirts of the town." If Mr. Pritchard, Veterinary
Surgeon, is here referred to, the facts of the case are these. Mr. Pritchard employs
3 carts daily in taking the night soil of the European barrack in the Fort to his
lands, but Government pay him 75 Rupees monthly to do so. Surely this is not
the meaning which Doctor Cornish's statement conveys. It only proves that
even urine and fæces, unmixed with water, will not be removed for nothing.
40 DRY CONSERVANCY.
The Sani-
After the above was put in print, Colonel Orr, Secretary
taryCommis-
sioners on the to Government in the Department of Public Works, kindly
cost of Dry
Conservancy, gave me a copy of the Sanitary Commissioners' Report on
" The Dry Earth System of Conservancy." The opportunity
.
has thus been afforded me of comparing my estimate with
that prepared by those who have given the subject their more
immediate attention, and who, therefore, are the most quali-
fied persons to speak on it.
The Pamphlet, consisting as it does of a letter from the
President of the Commission , and a report by Doctors Mac-
farlane and Montgomery on some experiments conducted
under their immediate supervision by Dr. Blacklock at the

General Hospital, contains the opinions of four Officers whose
views should certainly carry great weight with them .
Dr. Blacklock says :-
" The expense of carrying out this plan in the Latrines of European
and Native Hospitals in this country, is as follows. The calculation
has been made with great care by Mr. Harvey, Assistant to the Pro-
fessor of Chemistry .
Europeans- 200. Rs. A. P.
Pay for one Toty, at Rupees 7 per month.......... 7 0 0
Do. six Toties do. 6 each per month ... 36 0 0
For digging earth, to 1 men, at Rs. 8 per month
per man...... ...... ....... .. ... ... 14
..... 0 0
Two pairs of Bullocks with Cart and Driver, at
12 Annas per day per pair, for 30 days ......... 39 4 0
To cover wear of spades, scoops, &c ......... ....... 3 12 0
Total ... 100 0 0

or 8 Annas per man per month.
Natives- 100 . Rs. A. P.
Pay for two Toties, at 6 Rupees per month, per man 12 0 0
For digging earth ....... ........... 2 0 0
Cart hire per month .... 5 12 0
To cover wear of spades, &c ........ 0 4 0
Total ... 2000
or Annas 3 and Pies 3 nearly, per man per month ."

DRY CONSERVANCY. 41
The President of the Commission says :-
" As regards the cost of the system of dry earth sewage, according
to Dr. Blacklock's experiment, it was found that the charge for each
European patient was 8 Annas, and for each native 3 Annas and 3
Pies per mensem.
The cost, therefore, in Barracks, Jails, &c., when men using the
Latrines are in health, would be about one-half of the above ; say,
about 4 Annas per month per man, supposing the cost to be calculated
on Dr. Blacklock's data."
I will now apply these data to the case of Madras which

contains 430,000 people .
At 4 Annas per man per month, the monthly cost of dry

conservancy will be :-
430,000 × Rupee = 107,500 Rupees.
The yearly cost will be :-
107,500 Rupees x 12 months = 12,90,000 Rupees,
which sum capitalized at the present value of money will be :-

12,90,000 × 20 = 258,00,000 Rupees, i. e., 258 lacs of
Rupees, or upwards of 2 millions sterling .
And in this estimate the cost of the Latrines and of the
land has been entirely omitted . Yet it is nearly 3 times

the amount of my own estimate (75 lacs, ) and approaches
the cost of the stupendous Drainage Works of London.
It will now be seen why, in a previous part of this Report,

I said that I was entirely in accord with the advocates of the
system of dry conservancy-provided that the cost of it was
not to be borne by the people.
Dry conservancy may be a capital thing, but Government

only can afford to maintain it. To introduce it into Madras
would indeed be to present the poor man with an elephant.
TheMunicipal Commissioners would find it difficult to solve the
problem, " how to maintain dry conservancy which will cost
13 lacs of Rupees yearly on their annual income of 3 lacs only. "
6
It is really time to look facts in the face. The state of
Madras is quite disgusting. Something must be done to remedy
it sooner or later. Doctor Cornish says-"

Doctor Cornish says- Adopt dry con-
servancy, and Madras will become a model of cleanliness for 2
lacs of Rupees." The Sanitary Commissioners, on the other

hand, report officially to Government that dry conservancy
will cost 4 Annas per man per month, which, as I have shown,
represents a capital of 258 lacs of Rupees, and is more than
100 times the amount of Dr. Cornish's estimate. What is
the use of urging that the manure produced on the new prin-
ciples will fetch money, or that the cost of collecting it will
be, as declared by Dr. Cornish, " a mere trifle in the Municipal
expenditure ?" Can any people be found in Madras willing
to buy manure of the value of 2 millions sterling ? Because,

until they come forward, some one must pay for the experi-
ment, and it is utterly impossible that the inhabitants can
afford to do so.
When the advocates of dry conservancy themselves show

that the cost of removing the excrementitious matters only
will amount yearly to more than four times the whole Munici-
pal income, it is really necessary to enquire whether there is
not some other mode of cleansing Madras, and whether
drainage by sewers is not, after all, both the cheapest and

the most effectual means of doing it.
www
43
CHAPTER IV.
OBJECTIONS TO SEWERS ANSWERED.
BEFORE passing on to a description of the project now submit-

ted to Government, it is necessary that the general objections to
the system of drainage by sewers should be met. Fortunately,
these objections have been very fully stated by the same Officer
who has pleaded so strongly on behalf of universal dry conser-
vancy. When the arguments on both sides of the question
.
shall have been fully stated , it will not be difficult for Govern-
ment to decide between them.
At the present time, when sanitary questions are attracting The import-
ance of the
great attention, it is of vital importance that the general princi- general prin-
ples of water- supply, drainage, barrack construction, &c. , should ciples of
drainage.
be thoroughly discussed . If mistakes are made at the outset in
carrying out large and important works, the chances are that
they will be repeated over and over again, and at an enormous
cost to Government. Whereas, if the correct principles of any
one subject are clearly defined, there is every hope of their uni-
versal adoption . As this is the first project which has been
submitted to the Madras Government for the complete drainage
of a large town in the Presidency, it would be a grievous error to
carry it out if it should be based on erroneous theories .
On this account, therefore, I have considered that I should be
discharging my duty to Government better by omitting nothing

in this Report bearing on the question of drainage than by con-
fining myself strictly to the immediate subject matter.
44 OBJECTIONS TO SEWERS ANSWERED .
Physical The reason why dry conservancy has " taken" better with the
conditions of
England and Indian than with the English public is, that the physical condi-
India com-
pared. tions of this country are so much more favourable to its develop-
ment. England has a damp, while India has a dry climate.
The heat of the sun, which is so important an agent in the dry
system, acts perfectly in India. Moisture is rapidly absorbed,
and clay easily dried. In England, the damp air and the con-
tinued absence of sunshine for many days together are obstacles ,
though not insurmountable ones , to the perfect working of the
system. In England , moreover, it is raining more or less con-
stantly throughout the year, while in India the entire supply of
rain is obtained in a few days. The rivers in England are flow-
ing all the year round. Those in the south of India are dry for
some months . All these facts are urged as arguments against
sewers .
Doctor Cornish says-

"(
' Let anybody who seriously considers the question, just think,-
first, where the water to flush sewers is to come from, and, secondly,
where the sewage is to go to, after it leaves the crowded community.
Let him reflect upon the fact that the great tract of country sloping
away from the mountain ridge-the ' back bone' of India- to the
Coromandel Coast, and whose rivers flow eastward, is naturally so
arid, that for months together the streams which take their rise in
the Western Ghauts, and empty their storm-waters into the Bay of
Bengal, are nothing more than wilds of sandy waste, with perhaps a
tiny stream meandering through the middle. "*
The argument put in few words is this-" Because the rivers
in Southern India do not flow all the year round , therefore

there must always be an insufficiency of water." The fallacy
is so obvious that I have only to state the proposition in other
terms, and it will be admitted. " Because wheat does not grow
all the year round in England, therefore there must always be an
* Vide Page 7 of Doctor Cornish's Pamphlet.

OBJECTIONS TO SEWERS ANSWERED . 45
insufficiency of wheat there." But, surely, if people will grow

a sufficient quantity of wheat in the season , there need be no
lack at any time of the year. And so, if sufficient water is There is a
sufficiency of
stored in the monsoon and when the rivers are flowing, there water in
India for all
need be no lack during the hot months. To prove that we have purposes.
not sufficient water, it is necessary to show that the rainfall, the
source of all water in every country, * is deficient. Yet what is
the case ? The rainfall in India on the average is double that of
England . It is true that the evaporation is greater, but after
making every allowance for loss due to this cause, there is an
enormous balance of water available for the use of man. Has
India, then, any reason to complain ? Every effort which has
been made to store water in the country is a standing protest

against the statement that we have not sufficient water. The
success of even small tanks is very great. Would Government

otherwise keep them in repair ? What works can be better
adapted to the purpose of store-reservoirs than large tanks
and annicuts ? It is a great mistake to suppose that all the towns
in England draw their water- supply from large and ever-flowing
rivers, and that these large rivers are necessary to works of
drainage. Numerous towns in England are supplied with water
from store-reservoirs exactly similar to the tanks of India,
and their success is complete. Doctor Cornish says that water
in India " requires to be raised from below the surface, " as if it
had been proposed to supply large towns from wells . All water
comes originally from above, and if the same plan is adopted
in this country to secure a sufficiency of water as is adopted in
England, i. e., to dam up streams and form large basins, why
need we go below the surface for our supply ?
The following is a list of most of the principal towns in the

Madras Presidency. Through the help of several Officers, each
personally acquainted with some of the localities mentioned , I
* I am, of course, speaking generally.

46 OBJECTIONS TO SEWERS ANSWERED.
have been able to indicate the sources of supply for most of the
towns.
Name of Town. Sources of Supply. REMARKS.
Ganjam A river flows by the town. I have not been able to obtain
Russelcondah much information about
Berhampore these towns, for the localities
Chicacole... A large river flows by have not been examined for
the town. purposes of water-supply.
Waltair ...... A large supply can be It is supposed that an unlimited
secured from some supply might be brought from
neighbouring hills. hills distant about 4 or 5 miles.
Vide page 377, Vol. II., Report
of the Commissioners " On the
Sanitary State of the Army in
India." This is confirmed by
information obtained from an
Officer of Engineers personally
acquainted with the locality.
Samulcotta ....... A channel from the Go-
davery annicut flows
to the town.
Coringa ... ... Do. do. do.
Coconada... Do. do. do.
Dowlaishweram Stands near the Goda-
very annicut.
Ellore....... A channel from the Kist-i
nah annicut flows to
the town.
Masulipatam... Do. do do. This town is to be supplied with
water now that the necessity is
very urgent.
Bezwarah ............ Stands near the Kistnah
annicut.
Guntoor ... The locality has notbeen examined
for purposes of water-supply.
Ongole. I can obtain no information about
this town.
Cumbum ...... One of the largest Tanks This tank is like a lake, and is
in the country is close seldom, if ever, dry.
to the town.
Nellore......... River Pennar, the annicut
across which is near
the town.
Cuddapah The River Pennar flows There is no doubt that Cuddapah
close to the town, and can be well supplied with water
it is intended to bring if Government wish it.
an irrigation channel
from Kurnool to it.
OBJECTIONS TO SEWERS ANSWEred . 47
Kurnool . .... ...... A channel from the anni-

cut across the Toonga-
budra runs near the
town.
Nundial ...... ...... The main channel from I am informed on the best possi-
the Kurnool annicut ble authority that the water of
will run within 3 miles the Toongabudra will be taken
of Nundial, and when to Nundial in about 12 months
it is required a branch from this date.
channel can be taken
to the town.
Bellary.. A project for supplying This is perhaps the driest district
this town with water in the Presidency, yet I learn
has already been before that abundance of water can be
Government. obtained for Bellary . Time
only is required to mature a
project, so that it may be put
before Government in such a
shape as to admit of their form-
ing a judgment on the subject.
Madras... Red Hill Tank and Rivers W. Fraser, Esq., C. E., informs me
Cortelliar and Cooum. that from the Cortelliar only he
can obtain at least 20 gallons
per head of the population .
St. Thomas' Mount. River Adyar...... I believe quite sufficient water
could be obtained by putting
a dam across the river.
Vellore...... Both stand near the an-
Arcot... ... nicut across the Palar.
Salem... ... The RiverTirugamu Mut- I am informed by two Officers
tai flows to the town personally acquainted with the
from the Shervaroy and locality, that this town can be
Surragoomallay Hills, easily and abundantly supplied
and has water even in with water.
the dry weather. More-
over, a large quantity
could be stored near
the Hills.
Coimbatore ...... Even at present there are " This station could be fully sup-
2 or 3 large tanks near plied, and that at a level com-
the station which have manding the native town, if the
water in them for the surplus water of the Noyel
greater part of the River were stored near the head
year, although it is of the Bolumpatty Valley."
used for irrigating an Extract from a letter to me
extensive tract of rice from an Officer personally ac-
ground. quainted with the locality.
These towns are at pre-

Tranquebar...... sent supplied from the All the towns on the delta of,
Combaconum
Cauvery, but it runs or near the Cauvery, could be
Trichinopoly supplied with water all the
dry in the hot season.
year round, if large reservoirs
These towns are also de- were formed (as has already
pendent ontheCauvery, been proposed) on the tribu-
Tanjore ... .... but at both there are taries of this river.
Negapatam... local streams,the floods
of which might be
stored.
Madura...
I cannot obtain exact informa-
tion about these towns.
Palamcotta ... It stands near a river.
To the worst that may be said of any town in this list, it may
be replied that the locality has not been examined specially for
purposes of water-supply. All the towns on the Malabar side
of India are omitted , as hardly any one would maintain that there
was an insufficiency of water on the Western Coast . I believe
that the following extract from a letter to me by W. Fraser, Esq.,

C. E., expresses briefly the general opinion of all Engineers in
this country-
" I have had occasion to consider this subject a good deal, and I am
of opinion that abundance of water can be had everywhere in the South
of India if proper means be adopted to secure it, and that it is difficult
to conceive a case where money spent in this way would not be a pro-
fitable investment. "
So far, therefore, as drainage depends on water-supply, is there

any reasonable cause to object to sewers ?*
Water for As to the quantity of water required for flushing sewers

flushing
sewers. which Doctor Cornish supposes must be very great, the follow-
* The more I enquire of my brother-Officers as to the possibility of storing water

for irrigation and other purposes up-country, the stronger assurance I obtain of the
facilities for doing so,
OBJECTIONS TO SEWERS ANSWERED. 49
ing extract from a Report on the Drainage of Bombay, by Robert

Rawlinson Esq., C. E., " who," according to Sir Charles Wood,
"has earned a high reputation for skill in that branch of Engineer-
ing," will show that very little water suffices for the pur-
pose :-
During the dry season in Bombay the sewers should be regularly

flushed with fresh water. The volume of water used need not be
large, nor the expense very great" ........... " At the great hospitals
on the Bosphorus used by the British Army during the Crimean war,
large wine casks were used as flushing tanks. These were placed over
the heads of the sewers, and were regularly filled from the Bosphorus
by labourers (natives) who carried the water to fill the casks , then an
orderly suddenly opened a valve, some 6 inches square, which dis-
charged the water, about 250 gallons, in a few seconds. These sewers
were large and rudely constructed , with flat bottoms, some 3 feet
wide, but they were flushed free from deposit by the means describ-
ed."+
What could be better for sewers in this country than the
ordinary water- carts used in Madras filled by the aid of pecot-

tahs ? The large sewer in Bangalore is flushed throughout the
year with water supplied from an ordinary tank.
The sewers proposed in this Project will be as perfectly arrangements

Flushing
smooth as skill can make them, and not one of them will be so for the
Madras
wide at the bottom as the above-mentioned, while most of them sewers .
will have a diameter at bottom of only one foot . So far as
Madras is concerned there need be no anxiety about a deficiency
of water for flushing purposes. I could only wish that there

was not so much available under the surface as there is, because
the cost of building the sewers is proportionately increased.
The flushing arrangements will be most complete and will cost
nothing after the sewers are once built.
The next objection to sewers is condensed in the question,
* Vide Page 97 of " Correspondence on the subject of the Drainage of Bombay."

† Vide Page 101. - Ibid,
7
"Where is the sewage to go to?" And the reply suggested is,

" The rivers ."
" The great rivers, the Godavery, the Kistna, and the Cauvery, which
contain more or less water throughout the year, do not run near to
many populous towns, and are practically unavailable for the purpose.
Along the Coast, sewage might probably be pumped into the sea, but
the difficulty would still remain with inland towns, such as Bangalore
and Secunderabad . " *
Rivers , as The error in this reasoning lies in supposing that rivers, as

outfalls, no
part of the outfalls for sewage, are a necessary part of the sewer system.
sewer system They form no part of it at all. It is indeed unfortunate that in

so many instances in England sewers should have been led to
rivers, but this is not the fault of the sewers but of the people
who built them. According to the same mode of reasoning
railways may be objected to, because they have often (as in the
case of the first portion of the Madras Line) been carried not to
the towns where one would suppose they would be required, but
away from the towns into the wastes of the country.
All sewage All sewage, and especially in this country, should be returned
should be
utilized on to the soil- to the same place where the solid manure of dry
land. conservancy is to be conveyed. Those who are so anxious to
preserve urine and fæces as manure should not forget that, after
all, they cannot manage in India without water, which must
descend as rain or be raised artificially before crops can be made
to grow. The only difference, so far as the agricultural part of

the question is concerned, between solid manure and liquid
sewage, is that in the first case you have an article which is
almost useless by itself, and in the second you have nearly all
that is required to produce anything . The mistake lies in
reasoning from England to India without considering the dif-

ferent conditions of atmosphere, soil, &c . , prevailing in the two
countries. In England it is raining more or less throughout the
year, and the first question which the agriculturist puts to

himself is, " How shall I get rid of the water ?" In India it
rains for about 20 or 30 days, and the first question the ryot asks
is, " From where shall I get water?" The soil in England in
its normal state is saturated with moisture, and every effort is
made to keep it dry. The soil in India is dry, and every effort
is made to keep it moist. Sewage is manure in a diluted state .
But its use even in England, now that they understand how the
sewage should be applied and what crops should be grown under it,
is almost uniformly successful and is advocated by the greatest
authorities. Doctor Cornish, however, maintains a different
position.
" Practically, the liquid sewage system in Europe has failed as regards
its use to the agriculturist, for the simple reason that the more valuable
portions of the sewage have been decomposed and dissipated in the form
of highly poisonous and offensive gases, leaving only the more stable
and worthless constituents remaining in the mixed fluid of the drains.
The farmers who expected in the sewage laid on to their grounds per-
petual streams of fluid guano, have been chagrined to find that the
ammonia has flown away, and the phosphoric compounds have dissolved
into thin air, leaving nothing but a fetid fluid behind no more ferti-
*
lizing in its properties than ordinary river water.'
But, in admitting this, Doctor Cornish grants almost all that

we contend for. Surely river water in India applied to land will
produce enormous profits . Moreover, he does not adduce any
proof of his statement that the application of liquid sewage has
practically failed . I will, however, show that even in England
the evidence now all inclines the other way.
The case of Edinburgh, where, by the use of sewage, land Instances of

the utiliza-
has risen in yearly rent value from £2 to £6 per acre to from tion of
£30 to £40 per acre ( Scotch) is so well known that I need not sewage.
dwell on it . About Milan land yields a net rent of £8 per
acre. The meadows are mown four times in the year for stable
feeding , and besides this three crops of hay are yearly obtained
by sewage -irrigation . At Clitheroe in Lancashire it has been

proved that the fertilizing properties of sewage water are nearly

four times as great as those of common farmyard manure. At
Mansfield , in Nottinghamshire, land has risen in rent value
from 48. Gd. to £ 14 per acre. At Ashburton and at other
towns in Devonshire, liquid sewage has been applied for 50

years, and the yearly rent of land has reached £8 to £12 per
acre, while land not improved with sewage yields a yearly rent
of only £ 1 to £2 per acre. * But all these, though well
known, are old instances of the effect of the application of liquid
sewage. The most recent instance, and the one which is
attracting so much attention in England, and which, it is

supposed, will at last decide the question in favour of the use
of liquid sewage, is that of Croydon. † The inhabitants have
* For all these facts vide " Dempsey's Rudimentary Treatise on the Drainage
of Towns and Buildings," Weale's Series.
+ THE SEWAGE EXPERIMENT AT CROYDON.-" We saw the other day several fields
covered with 12 to 14 tons of grass per acre," says a writer in the Agricultural Ga-
zette. " It stood as high as a walking stick, and as thick upon the ground as it could
grow. Of a dark green colour, and still succulent from end to end of every stalk,
with the flower spike barely through , it was then the very best green food that
could be given to milch cows. And for this purpose it was being sold. Cow keep-
ers in the neighbourhood were coming all day long and carrying it away, paying
18. a rod, or at the rate of £8 per acre for it on the spot. And many tons (from
6 to 30) were being sent to London cow-houses : 258. a ton being charged for it
delivered there. The produce had been after the rate of 13 and 14 tons per acre.
A second cut will be ready there before the middle of this month, a third towards
the end of July, and a fourth in September. Perhaps a fifth may be obtained , or
the last growth may be grazed upon the land. The particular field to which we are
alluding now was sown in 1862. It yielded 4, and some of it 5 crops last year- 12 ,
10, 7 and 5 tons per acre, respectively ; and it looks as well this year as ever it has
done. The land is worth barely 30s. per acre naturally. There are some 240 acres
thus in grass, for the most part in Italian rye-grass. The enormous productiveness
of that plant under favoring circumstances has probably hardly anywhere as yet
been fully realized . The land in question, about 300 acres in extent, is let to the
Croydon Board of Health , and they have sublet it to their tenant Mr. Marriage, for
a term of 9 years, at £5 per acre. It lies about two miles and a half from Croy-
don. Mr. Marriage receives the whole of the sewage of Croydon for the use of this
land ; and passing the whole (about one million or more gallons per day) over the
surface of the land, he thus removes from it its noxious and fertilizing elements,
and converts the filthy turbid ditch-water which comes on to the farm into the
been compelled to make use of the sewage of their town for

the irrigation of land . The result is, that enormous crops of
green food have been obtained, and this without any nuisance
or inconvenience, while at the same time the surplus water after
irrigation is found, on entering the River Wandle, to be purer
than the water of the river itself. At Beddington, near Croy-
don, mangel-wurzel has been grown most successfully by the

aid of sewage. Sewage is also utilized as manure in Wolver-
hampton, Carlisle, Clipstone, Horde, and many other towns.

At Manchester, the local authorities find that half the cost of
removing the town sewage is repaid them by its market value,
and they believe that the system can be organized so as to
defray its own charges and leave a surplus too. Even in London ,
contractors have lately come forward and offered to remove the
whole of the London sewage without any expense to the in-
habitants, on condition that they should be allowed to have the
use of it for a term of 50 years . They propose to utilize it
on 60,000 acres of land in Essex. But the Corporation of
London are not, it appears, willing to let them have it on these
terms, because it is contended by parties interested in the

matter that the sewage can be sold at a high rate, and that thus
clear and limpid stream which leaves it. At the farm , it is made to flow in fur-
rows about 16 yards apart, from which it is gradually poured out over the inter-
vening lands.
Although legal proceedings were taken some ' years ago against the Board of
Health because of the nuisance they were guilty of when only a small piece of land
had been used, none has yet been proved or even charged against Mr. Marriage
and his farm. One million or more gallons have to be used and purified every day,
so that at short intervals every field is continually throughout the year being flooded .
The large produce, probably 8,000 tons or more ofgreen food, annually disappears
as fast as it is grown ; and there will, no doubt, prove to be room enough in the
demand of 3,000,000 of people for all the produce which will one day similarly arise
out of a proper use of the 20,000,000 cubic feet per diem of sewage water which is
about the quantity in the way of the Metropolitan Board of Works." ―The Builder,
volume XXII., No. 1,115, page 451 , June 18th, 1864.
it will ultimately defray the cost of the Metropolitan drainage

works. *
* " A very great question has just been put in the way of practical solution.
After an enquiry, facilitated by the best professional evidence, a select Committee
of the House of Commons has arrived at the conclusion that it is not only practi-
cable, but would be found actually profitable, to turn the sewage of towns to ac-
count in fertilizing the land for the purposes of ordinary agriculture. Though the
subject is by no means a new one, yet the question has recently increased so greatly
in importance, and embraces at the present moment so many problems of urgency,
that we must bespeak for it the especial attention of our readers.
The successful solution of the problem on which the Committee has now reported,
will answer all these questions together. If we can take the sewage of our towns
from our rivers, and transfer it to the land , we shall at once escape a great evil
and gain a great good. Land, and land only, will take up this refuse and absorb
it with entire impunity. We can do no harm to our soil or its products . The roots
of growing plants possess a power more subtle than the chemist's, of disintegrat-
ing this matter and appropriating its most noxious ingredients to their own bene-
fit. The most delicate vegetables can be raised in absolute purity from a bed of
manure. Treat sewage as guano, and it becomes, instead of an unmanageable
nuisance, a substance of infinite value. It will not combine safely either with air
or with water, but it has a natural affinity to earth. After trying two elements
with it, let us try a third. In the new experiment we can certainly do no harm ;
we shall probably do a great deal of good.
In fact, there has never been a doubt in the matter except as concerned the
practical way of going to work. The difficulties in view were all mechanical.
Town sewage would be of great use in the country- that was admitted, but how
to get it there ? Could the transfer be so managed as to pay the cost ? It is very
easy to run a drain into a stream close by, but could a drain be run into the coun-
try, with an outfall convenient for the wants of the agriculturist ? As these were
the questions on which the problem turned , so they are the questions, we rejoice
to find, which are now answered favorably in the Committee's Report. Engineers
of the greatest experience and reputation combined in explaining the machinery
required for the purposes in view, and the charge likely to be entailed. Not only
was there nothing impracticable in the process, but nothing forbidding in the ex-
pense. The work could actually be done at the present time with a profit rather
than a loss on doing it, and as the demand for the manure became greater, and the
system was improved, the profit would be materially enhanced . Already, it is said,
the local authorities at Manchester find that half what they spend in removing
the town sewage is re-paid them by its market value, and the system, we are told,
could be so organized as to defray its own charges, and leave a surplus too . The
Committee, indeed, are of opinion, that the great Metropolitan drainage scheme
must be regarded as defective, in so far as it omits the utilization of the sewage, but
The application of sewage to land is, like other branches of The univer-
sal applica-
agriculture, a science of itself. Occasional failures will occur, tion of sew-
and many more must be expected until the subject is better advocated
age to land
understood, but these are or will be due to want of knowledge in England .
that imperfection can probably be remedied without much difficulty when once
the new demand has been established, and the system of supply arranged . It is
very properly intimated in the Report that the first object should be the discon-
tinuance of mischief. It will certainly be a very welcome incident if it is found
that the rate-payers of a town would experience a pecuniary benefit in addition to
a sanitary gain."
6
-Extract from an article in the London Times' of the 7th September, 1864.
" Those who remember the rival debates and proceedings of the Common Coun-
cil and the Metropolitan Board of Works, a few days ago, will not be at all surprised
to learn that a deputation from the former body has just had an interview with
the Prime Minister on the subject of the sewage of the Metropolis.
Up to a very recent time it was not believed that the sewage of a town could
really be made to produce any considerable revenue. The fact had often been as-
serted, and the theory itself could be plausibly maintained, but there was no evi-
dence or conviction that the system could be practically worked . Lately, however,
and especially since the enquiries made by Parliamentary Committees , a different
opinion has grown in favor, and the belief, we may say, is now generally entertain-
ed that a good system of town drainage may be made to pay its own expenses, and
leave a surplus revenue for the benefit of the community.
*
Messrs. Hope and Napier proposed to commence operations near the great
drainage reservoirs down the river, to take the sewage from those points straight
away to the Essex coast, and then apply it to the reclamation and fertilization
of some 20,000 acres of sea-sand flats to be embanked for the purpose.
Mr. Ellis proposed to carry the sewage back again from the reservoirs to the
Hampstead and Highgate hills, and from those elevations to distribute it over
large tracts ofcountry for the ordinary purposes of agriculture.
Messrs. Hope and Napier asked for a concession of the Metropolitan sewage
for 50 years, on the condition that after deducting from the profits of the
enterprise a sum equal to 10 per cent. on the outlay or capital of 2,000,000, the
residue should be equally divided between the Company and the Board.
But, in the meanwhile, and since this scheme had been entertained, a belief had
arisen in the extraordinary value of sewage as an agricultural manure ; insomuch
that when the Common Council met, an estimate was actually put in giving
£2,899,972 as the annual value of that commodity which Mr. Thwaites and his
colleagues were preparing to mortgage for 50 years at a nominal rate of profit. "
-Extracts from an article in the London Times' of the 25th November 1864 .
and judgment on the part of those who use the sewage and not
to the thing itself. Every year the use of liquid sewage in Eng-
land increases, and the belief in its value is now general. It is
not a perfect manure, but no substance can possibly be a perfect

manure. All that should be contended for sewage is, that it has
great fertilizing properties.
" The Evidence" of the Parliamentary Committee of Enquiry in

their second Report " asserts that sewage contains the elements of
every crop which is grown and that, as compared with solid manure,
there are advantages in the application of sewage to the land. In the
application of solid manure, loss is sustained by evaporation : but no
such loss occurs with sewage. In the application of solid manure to
the land, years may pass before its entire productive qualities are all
absorbed, causing a loss to the farmer by the slow return of the capital
invested in manure ; but in the application of sewage, or any liquid
manure, no such loss occurs, as every particle of it comes into imme-
diate action on the crop in a day or two.'
The Social Science Association in England, at their last
Congress held in York, in September 1864, under the Presi-

dentship of Lord Brougham, resolved :-
" That this Meeting regards the sewage of towns as of undoubted

value as a fertilizer of the soil ; and while recognizing the importance
of getting rid of it as a source of disease from houses, is decidedly of
opinion that the true destination of sewage is the soil ; and, therefore,
strongly recommends the continuance of all efforts to divert it from
rivers, and to distribute it over the land of the country."+
But the last Committee which has been appointed by the

House of Commons to enquire into the subject of the utilization
of sewage, and which sat during the months of May, June, and
July of last year ( 1864), urge, in their Report, that a law should
be passed compelling towns to use their sewage on land.
* Vide Page 43 of Vol . XXI. of " The Builder," for January 17, 1863.
† Vide Page 717, Vol. XXII . of " The Builder," for October 1 , 1864.
" Your Committee have come to the conclusion that, it is not only
possible to utilize the sewage of towns, by conveying it in a liquid
state, through mains and pipes to the country, but that such an un-
dertaking may be made to result in pecuniary benefit to the rate-
payers of the towns where sewage is thus utilized." 1
" We recommend that the important object of completely freeing

the entire basins of rivers from pollution should be rendered possible
by general legislative enactment, enabling the inhabitants of such
entire districts to adopt some controlling power for that purpose : but
it should include a provision for compelling Local Boards to render the
sewage of their districts innocuous by application to the land for agri-
cultural purposes ."*
Can better testimony to the advantage of using sewage be

brought forward ?
Baron Liebig says-
" The employment of sewage in agriculture would make it possible

to bring large tracts of land into cultivation, which hitherto, owing to
the expense of tillage, had been laid waste and neglected :
" It is neither fantastic nor ridiculous to believe that, without pur-

chasing foreign manure, and by a judicious utilization of the sewage of
towns and villages, England would be able to dispense with the impor-
tation of food from abroad. "t
And again, in his very last letter on this subject addressed to

Lord Robert Montague , he says—
"If clearly understood and properly managed, the employment of

sewage will prove a blessing to agriculture. ”+
I refrain from bringing forward more evidence on this point

for fear of wearying Government.
If all this can be declared of England, where already there
* Vide Page 690, Vol. XXII, of " The Builder," for September 17, 1864.
† Vide Page 657, Vol. XI, of " Journal ofthe Society of Arts," for August 21 ,
1863.
↑ Vide Page 776, Vol. XII, of " Journal of the Society of Arts," for October 28,
1864,
8
is too much moisture in the soil , what wonderful fertility might

be produced with sewage in India ? Pour water on the land-
flood it if you like-and what is the result ? A succession of
crops. Would not better crops be secured with water mixed
with manure ? It may be granted that solid manure, bulk for
bulk, is more valuable than sewage. But that is not the point
at issue. The point is, whether solid manure in a dry country
like India with 20 or 30 wet days in the year (Doctor
Cornish says 12 days only, which is all the better for my argu-
ment) is worth 20 or 100 times its bulk of sewage, which,
according as 5 or 20 gallons of water are used per head of the
population I have already shown , it will amount to . And even
this is not putting the case fairly, because every pound of solid
manure will have to be carried to the fields, and then spread and
mixed with the soil by manual labour, whereas liquid sewage
can be applied to the land by simply opening a sluice. Thus

drainage works in India should be looked upon as works of
artificial irrigation- that they will ultimately become so, I have
no doubt whatever. * The land will make its claim good to

every drop of water and every ounce of manure, in spite of all
that may be done to prevent it. It will, in the proper place,
be shown in how remarkably favourable a position Madras is

situated for the utilization of its sewage.
Outfall for It is necessary that I should here answer the question

the sewage
of inland " Where is the sewage of all inland towns to flow to ?" It
towns.
would really seem, from the manner in which this is put, as if
India were the only country in the world which had inland
towns. Where does all the sewage of all the inland towns of
Europe go to ? They do not all stand on, or even near, rivers.
India is no worse situated for the disposal of the sewage of her
inland towns than England is. And if the sewage is in India
always returned to the soil, as the Parliamentary Committee
* Already the sewage of Bangalore fetches money ; it is true, a very small sum, but
time must be given to enable the people to learn the full value of liquid manure.
Vide Page 7 of Doctor Cornish's Pamphlet.
propose it shall be in England, what does this objection, with

reference to inland towns, amount to ?
The next objection will be understood from the following Water-

closets not
extract : necessarily
" The greatest advantage of all would be the doing away with the sewer
a part of the
necessity for costly drainage works, which it is thought will never be system.
ofany use in keeping the town clean of ordure, for the simple reason
that natives will not sit upon, or use water-closets. "*
This is indeed putting the cart before the horse. To do away
with drainage works because men will not sit in a particular way
at a particular time ! Are we then to suppose that sewers were
introduced to suit water-closets ? Until now it has always been
believed that water-closets were introduced to suit sewers.
But why will not natives use water-closets ? and how has this
been ascertained in Madras ? Perhaps they object to sit on
them in the same manner as Europeans. Nothing would be

easier than to design water-closets to admit of natives sitting
with their feet on the seats. It is suggested, however, that it will
take " 100 years for them to get over their prejudices." This
is a long time to give such an intelligent people of whom and
their prejudices even Doctor Cornish says-
66
Many of these" i. e., prejudices " must be looked upon as simply
the result of ignorance or of habit and custom. Natives are not above
learning and following good examples, when they see with their own
eyes the superiority of many of our modern appliances of civilization
over their own rude and clumsy contrivance. "‡
Supposing that hereafter it should become advisable to intro-
duce water-closets, is not this sufficient to prove that they will
be used ?||

+ Vide Page 19.-Ibid.
Vide Page 9. - Ibid.
At one time it was urged in Bombay that natives would not use water supplied
on the English system-i. e., through iron pipes. But this is not found to be the
case. If water-supply and drainage works are to be delayed on account of some
supposed prejudices on the part of the natives against them, it will be long before
any improvements are made in our towns.
Dry Whatever may be said to the contrary, that system of conser-

conservancy ,
as proposed' vancy is the best which, provided it is not injurious to health, can
ed to a dispense with the employment of men and women on duties

at present,
suit
low state of which no human being should be called upon to perform. Water-
society only.
closets require no toties, and 40 men could easily look after all
the sewers of Madras. But dry conservancy in Madras would
require that 4,000 of the inhabitants should be engaged in one
of the most disgusting of occupations . The use of water-closets,
however, is altogether beside the question ofdrainage. Whether
the excrement is removed by means of them or is carried away
in carts, the sewers will still have quite sufficient work to do .
I have mentioned the subject of water-closets in order that it

may not be supposed I wish to pass over anything which may
even be thought an objection to sewers .
Materials to The next argument against sewers will be seen from the fol-
be used in
the lowing extract :-
construction "s
of sewers. India, for many months of the year, is a dry and thirsty land, so
greedy of moisture, that unless sewers be built of some less absorbent
material than brick and mortar, the soil will take up all the watery
parts ofthe sewage, leaving the solids to choke up the artificial chan- ·
nels. This state of things obtains in the town of Madras throughout
the hot and dry seasons, and it is no wonder that, under such circum-
stances, the odour of our drains should have obtained a proverbially
evil repute .
Of Madras it has been averred by competent authority, that before

the construction of drains, its abominations were not so noticeable as
they have since become. The attempts hitherto made to follow in
Indian towns the European model of sewerage, have undoubtedly had
the effect of making those towns more pestiferous than they were
before sewers were thought of. "*
No attempts, that can really be called such, have yet been
made to follow the European model of sewerage. It is noto-
rious that in Madras the worst kind of bricks and ordinary (not
even hydraulic) mortar have been used. The mortar, moreover,
is made of shell lime. It is not extraordinary, therefore , that the

drains should be a nuisance . But to argue that because bad mate-
rials are used in Madras all sewers are objectionable, is tantamount
to saying that because bad flour is sometimes used all bread is
unwholesome. If proper bricks and proper hydraulic mortar
are used, sewers could not be objected to. In the project now sub-
mitted, I have provided that steam-pressed bricks only shall be
used, and that they shall be set in hydraulie cement, and that the
sewers shall be lined throughout with a coating of asphalte. The
subject of materials is so entirely a professional one, that I will
not pursue it further in this place.
There is really no similarity at all between the European The

European
model of sewerage and the system which has been carried out system of
sewerage has
in Madras. It is absurd to compare the two. In Madras the had no trial
street drains are all open-in England they are always closed. in India.
In Madras the drains are near the surface- in England they are
at a considerable depth underground. In Madras no attention
whatever is paid to the slopes of the drains- whereas in Eng-
land the inclinations are regulated on scientific principles, and
the drains are laid with almost mathematical precision.
Now, when it is remembered that the whole question of

drainage is one of slope -that it is necessary that every single
drain and pipe should be laid with the utmost care and at such
an inclination as shall enable it to keep itself free from deposit
--and when nothing of this kind is attempted in Madras, where
the drains are built solely with reference to the slope of the
surface of the ground, and not at all with regard to the inclina-
tion which each drain should have-is it surprising that the
present drainage system should be a failure and a nuisance ?
It would, on the contrary, be extraordinary if it were other-

wise. The Madras sewerage has failed simply because it is
totally unlike the model system adopted in England. So far,
therefore, from being discouraged by the present state of the
Madras drains, we should rather be encouraged by it to give
the European system what it has not yet had, —a trial .

Noxious
odours not The next objection to sewers is, that they create a great nui-
peculiar to of sewers
sewers, but sance, and this, if it were true of a proper system
incidental to only, and not of other systems of conservancy, would certainly
all systems
of be a more valid one than any yet brought forward. But, unfor-
conservancy tunately, this nuisance is an objection to all systems of conser-
vancy. Where foul matter is disposed of, there must be more

or less smell . Latrines on the dry conservancy principle are
not inodorous but merely less offensive than those in which

water is used. * And dry conservancy after all, contemplates
merely the removal of excrementitious matters , and leaves the

question of the nuisance caused by refuse water untouched. So
what is to be done ? Sewers remove all liquid refuse with a
little nuisance. Dry conservancy, so far as it goes, removes
—
some of the refuse with, say, less nuisance, but unfortunately
it does not go very far, for it leaves at least nineteen- twentieths
of the refuse behind. We are merely on the horns of a
dilemma, and must choose between two evils. Of these, sewers

are incomparably the less evil, because, at least, they do form
a complete system, and the effect of them is known, but dry
conservancy is merely a partial expedient, and the fearful conse-
quences of leaving waste water stagnating about our dwellings
cannot be foreseen. To combine the two systems, i. e. , to utilize
excrementitious matters in public privies on dry conservancy
principles and to have a system of sewers, would be impossible.
The expense of such an arrangement would ruin even Bombay
itself.
Sewers can Those who exaggerate the nuisance caused by sewers should
be rendered
innocuous by remember that in a very short time this will be no argument at
disinfection. all . The subject of deodorizing and disinfecting sewage is in
a most hopeful state. Already it has been announced that the
Thames can be disinfected for £20,000 a year. That is not a

* Ifthere is any doubt of this, a visit to the model latrine on the north bank of
the Cooum near Poodoopett will convince the most sceptical .
3
large sum for so great a sewer. Mr. Norton's experiments in
Madras, moreover, have not been so unsuccessful that it can be
said sewers will never be disinfected cheaply ; that they can be
disinfected, there is no doubt. The question now has resolved
itself into one of expense only. Some of the greatest analytical
Chemists of the day have declared that it is quite possible both
to prevent any smell arising from sewers, and to retain at the

same time the manuring properties of the sewage. Indeed, in
* Examination of Doctor Letheby before the Royal Commission on the Sanitary

State of the Army in India :--
" Q. Has your attention at all been directed to any other disinfectants ?
A. It has been directed to nearly all the disinfectants.
Q. Do you think them of any use ?
A. I do not think they are, for water.
Q. I mean for the sewers ?
A. If your object is not to disinfect but to keep the sewage from putrefying, so
that no bad odours may be evolved from it, in the course of its discharge there are
several things which will stop its putrefaction, and give you an opportunity of trans-
porting the material without any danger, but I do not know ofany substance that can
be used in reasonable quantities which has the power completely of arresting putre-
faction.
Q. What do you recommend as the most useful ?
A. Carbolic acid of coal tar.
Q. What is that commonly called in commerce ?
A. It is commonly called creosote. The creosote of commerce is taken from
wood tar, but this is the creosote of coal tar ; creosote is the common name of it,
and it is a powerful antiseptic ; it is the chief constitutent of the dead oil or tar
used for preserving timber.
Q. Is it easily made ?
A. It is easily made from gas tar.
Q. And is it inexpensive ?
A. Very inexpensive.
Q. Applied to sewers or cesspools, does it prevent putrefaction ?
A. It does.
Q. And destroys the putrid matter ?
A. No, it stops putrefaction ; it does not destroy the organic matter.
Q. That is what is commonly meant by an antiseptic ?
A. Yes.
Q. Is that the article known in commerce as McDougall's powder or fluid .
A. It is.
Q. Is that used for stopping decomposition ?
A. Yes.
England, antiseptics are already used with the best effects. For
Madras, I have arranged that the sewers shall be throughout
Q. Would you recommend it for that purpose ?

A. Yes, I would, for we have tried it very largely in some of the sewers of the
city, and with a good effect.
Q. Is it preferable to Condy's solution ?
A. Condy's solution is more powerful as a deodorizer ; it is a true disinfectant,
and oxydizes the putrid matter, whereas McDougall's liquid simply prevents
putrefaction." -Vide Page 269, Vol. I. of the " Report ofthe Commissioners."
Examination of Doctor Angus Smith, F. R. S., before the Royal Commission on
the Sanitary State of the Army in India.
66 Q. You are prepared to give evidence upon the subject of disinfectants ?
A. Yes, I came for that purpose. *** In speaking of disinfectants . I am dis-
posed to say that there is not very much information upon the subject, for the sub-
ject has not until very lately been taken up with any enlarged views, but only for
trifling purposes, and in very narrow ranges. I would divide the class of bodies
used for disinfectors into twokinds- first, disinfectants ; and next, antiseptics. There
are many bodies which destroy the putrefactive condition of the organic matter ,
but which do not prevent putrefaction from continuing- they destroy it only for a
moment, or, in other words, they destroy the products formed, and leave the sub-
stance to form more. Antisepties may or may not destroy the products, but they
prevent their recurrence. I think, therefore, that whenever we use disinfectants it
is important that we should use antiseptic bodies that will prevent decomposition
from going on. So far as we know, all the noxious emanations from organic mat-
ter arise during the decomposition of the organic matter. Whenever the organic
matter begins to decompose, the parts of which it is composed are separated and
come out in forms which are hurtful to health, but we can prevent this decompo-
sition going forward. We can prevent the formation of those gases or vapours
which are injurious to health.
I have had considerable experience with regard to the sewage of towns and as to
preserving those matters in such a condition that they shall not be offensive by
giving off emanations into the atmosphere, and that they shall be so preserved
that their value as manures will not be diminished, and I find that these two im-
portant results may be obtained simply by the use of antiseptics. They are be-
coming, for this reason, very much used in farm-yards, in stables, and cow-houses
by farmers generally. It is found that the great loss which is caused by the
decomposition of the manures is thus obviated. The manure can be preserved
for many months in a condition as sound as it was at the beginning, and at the
same timeit is found that a manure so treated does not give out any offensive smell :
the animals, therefore, which are otherwise continually exposed to foul emanations,
are preserved in very much better health. I could give many instances proving
that animals are preserved, by this means, from disease, but it would probably be
tedious to give them. The country generally is scarcely aware how much this sub-
ventilated through charcoal disinfectors, a plan which is found

to answer admirably in Europe.
ject has been cultivated in some parts of it, and how largely farmers and keepers
of horses are becoming acquainted with the value of disinfectants for the preserva-
tion of manures, and for the preservation of the health of animals, nor is it aware
that, whilst the health of the valuable animals is preserved , the destruction of the
lower forms, such as insects, grubs, &c., is at the same time secured.
It was in pursuit of this enquiry that Mr. McDougall and I performed some
experiments at the desire of the Board of Works upon the treatment of sewage in
the same manner, in order to prevent decomposition in the sewers, and mainly,
perhaps, also to preserve the manure matter untouched. We took specimens of
the sewer water disinfected and not disinfected, and kept it for various periods of
time, one, two, three and four days, weeks, and months, and we found invariably
that if enough were added of disinfecting matter there was no emanation of gaseous
matter from the sewer water, and that, in fact, the sewer water could be completely
prevented from decomposition by the use of a very small quantity of the disinfec-
tants. It was proposed by me, although it did not receive any attention, that these
disinfectants should be applied to the sewers themselves, instead of allowing the
putrid matter to flow through cities in many of the streets, and that we should
pour the disinfecting materials into the sewers and prevent the formation of those
gases at once, instead of allowing them first to form, and then endeavour to put
them away. * *
Q. Is it the fact that this disinfecting fluid (McDougall's powder) does not at
all deteriorate the value of the sewage matter as manure ?
A. On the contrary, I am endeavouring to show that it preserves its value and
prevents decomposition.
Q. Then it is equally good as manure after the mixture has taken place with
the disinfecting fluid as it was before it ?
A. Yes, decidedly so. * * *
Q. Did he (Mr. McDougall) not offer to disinfect the Thames for a certain sum
of money ?
A. I do not know that he made that offer, but he gave reasons for his belief
that it could be done for a certain sum.
Q. Can you state what that sum was ?
A. Ithink it was at first about £15,000 a year if continued during the whole
year but that would have disinfected not only the Thames, but the whole of the
Metropolis, all the sewers and the streets, and the Thames besides.
Q. Do you think that that was a reasonable sum to name as the probable
expense ?
A. There might have been perhaps a few thousands to be added to that, mak-
ing the sum possibly £20,000 if it were used for the whole year : but as it would
require to be used for only a part of the year, the first sum is probably too large,
or at least abundant."- Vide Page 155, Vol. 1 ofthe " Report ofthe Commissioners."
9
Why sewers It may be asked, "if sewers can be thoroughly

cost more
than disinfected, what is the use of placing them so deep
ordinary
masonry underground ?" And it has been suggested, that the modern
works.
system of sewers has been devised by the Engineer to " afford
him the opportunity of dealing with magnificent estimates."
This is an unfortunate reason to adduce in this country, where
Engineers, instead of receiving a percentage on the outlay, have
their projects returned on their hands unsanctioned , if the cost
is at all considerable . The truth is, that there are very few
places where sufficient fall can be obtained for sewers to prevent

their becoming choked up, without creating it artificially. This
is why sewers cost more than ordinary masonry works.
These are all the objections known to me which can be

urged against sewers, and I trust they have now been fully
answered. In bringing them forward, however, Doctor Cor-
nish has illustrated the evil of sewers by two examples, viz.,
Bombay and Calcutta. It is necessary that these cases should

be gone into.
Sewers of Of the sewers of Bombay, the only faults that can be

Bombay.
found are that " the sewage is proposed to be turned into the
harbour for the benefit of the shipping, " and " that there is
not the smallest probability of the works being, in the remotest
sense, of a reproductive nature." * Now, a glance at a map of
Bombay will showhow wisely the plan of sewerage has been de-
signed. Bombay stands on the extremity of a long island, the
margin of which nearly all round is elevated over the central
portion which is an unhealthy salt-water marsh lying below high
tide level. The elevated is the inhabited portion of the island.
Now, to make use of sewage, it would be necessary, in the first
place, to reclaim the swamp at great cost, and, in the second
place, it would be fraught with the greatest danger to the inhab-
itants. To carry it to the mainland by sewers would cost so much
that the works could not be made remunerative. The sewage
*Vide Page 23 of Doctor Cornish's Pamphlet.

is, therefore, discharged into the sea in that direction from which
the wind blows least often in the year. To complain, then , that
sewers are objectionable because a town, which has no land on
which it could safely utilize its sewage, does not do so, is surely
very unreasonable.
Now, with reference to Calcutta, the case is much worse . Sewers of

Calcutta.
Doctor Cornish says, " Mr. Strachey, in his late Minute on the
sanitary condition of Calcutta, with its underground sewers, has

declared it to be the most filthy of the filthy cities of the world."
I give, in a note, Mr. Strachey's Minute entire, from which it
will be seen that so far from Mr. Strachey saying that sewers are
the cause of the filthy state of Calcutta, his words aret-" This

The Conservancy of Calcutta and Towns in the North- West contrasted.-" It is
not my wish to describe in detail the condition of Calcutta . To all who are here
upon the spot, the facts are notorious. The state of the Capital of British India,
one of the greatest and wealthiest cities in the world , is a scandal and disgrace to
a civilized Government. The questions that are involved are not mere questions
of ordinary sanitary improvement, such as those which commonly arise in other
cities and in other countries. The condition of this City is such that it is literally
unfit for the habitation of civilized men. Even if we put aside all questions of
public health, and look on the matter as one of common decency, or as one of good
goverment, the state of Calcutta is disgraceful to the last degree.
It cannot be too prominently stated that the condition of Calcutta is not the
normal condition of Indian cities. I have seen the most important towns of the
North-Western Provinces, of the Punjaub, and of the Central Provinces. Their
sanitary state is doubtless often in many respects most objectionable, butin compari-
son with Calcutta they are really almost faultless. There is no apparent reason
why the difficulty of keeping Calcutta in at least a tolerable state of cleanliness
should be greater than that experienced in other Indian cities. It is true that
Calcutta is larger, but, on the other hand, it is incomparably richer, and it possesses
greater natural facilities for carrying out a proper system of conservancy than any
which exist in the cities of Northern India. Even, however, if it should be consi-A
dered that the difficulties of cleaning Calcutta are greater, there is certainly no
necessity that there should be such an extraordinary difference as that which ac-
tually exists.
It is often said that nothing effectual can be done for the purification of Cal-
cutta until the great system of drainage now in progress is brought into operation.
In reply to this, it appears to me quite sufficient to point to the fact that the cities
of Northern India are kept in a state of at least tolerable cleanliness , and free from
state of things appears to be mainly the result, not of the ab-

sence of properly constructed works of drainage and of public
convenience, although such works are doubtless most urgently re-
quired, but of the almost total neglect of the ordinary every-day
operations ofconservancy,” —a very different thing altogether! It
is manifest, too, that a system of drainage, which is now only
" in progress" according to Mr. Strachey himself, and has not
not yet been " brought into operation," cannot be the cause of a
state of things already existing. And Mr. Strachey actually
advocates the construction of sewers, so that the President
of the Calcutta Sanitary Commission cannot think sewers objec-
tionable.
But Doctor Cornish says, -" As regards the Calcutta scheme,

there are not wanting men of eminence in sanitary knowledge
who have from the first prophesied its ending in a gigantic
failure," and he refers the reader to Doctor Norman Chevers'
Minute on the subject, which again I have thought it best to
all, especially disgusting, nuisances, without any such system of scientific drainage.
What is possible there is beyond the slightest doubt possible here also.
So far as the theory of the conservancy of Calcutta is concerned , there seems, in
the present absence of properly constructed drains, comparatively little to find
fault with ; but the practice is something very different from the theory. Thus, for
example, the whole of the solid portions of the filth of the city is supposed to be
carried away every day. But, in fact, throughout the greater part of the native
quarter of the town, nearly all the night-soil and other filth from the houses runs,
or is thrown, into the open drains on the sides of the streets, and , since these drains
have generally little or no fall, the greater portion of the filth remains there. Itis
no exaggeration to say that the most important streets and thoroughfares of the
northern division of Calcutta form, to all intents and purposes, a series of huge
public latrines, the abominable condition of which cannot adequately be described .
This state of things appears to be mainly the result, not of the absence of pro-
perly constructed works of drainage and of public convenience, although such works
are doubtless most urgently required, but of the almost total neglect of the ordi-
nary every-day operations of conservancy." -" From a Minute by J. Strachey, Esq.,
President of the Bengal Sanitary Commission, dated 5th March 1864." Vide Page
26 of Doctor Cornish's Pamphlet.
* Vide Page 23 of Doctor Cornish's Pamphlet,
give entire. * From a perusal of this paper, it will been seen that
Doctor Chevers makes no objection whatever to the sewers, but
* The Drainage of Calcutta.-" Calcutta is a city built in a rice-field, which

is another word for swamp, or place in which all malarious venoms, ―ague, dysen-
tery, asthma, cholera, -breed eternally, until thorough drainage breaks up their
nests. This may be said of nine-tenths of the other towns in Bengal Proper, but
we have close beside us a cause of destruction which they have not-a vast salt
lagoon hemming us in landward and poisoning every breath of cool air which comes
to our greedy lips from the always unwholesome East. By what appears to me the
greatest and most calamitous sanitary blunder on record, it occurred to the minds
of the Drainage Commissioners of 1857, to utilize this ' Dismal Swamp,' this ' Slough
of Despond,' reeking with marsh damps and with the decomposed elements of
myriads of dead creatures which, in deference to an esteemed friend and brother
sanitarian, I must say do not stink, but send up continually, to use an opposite
quotation of his own, an ancient and very fish-like smell.' It occurred, I say, to
these Commissioners, that the waters of this salt swamp robbed the breeze of its
malaria, as those of rivers and sea estuaries do, and that, because salt preserves
meat, these brackish waters would have the power to disinfect the whole sewage
filth of this city, which is , accordingly, to be voided into them !
The gentlemen who made this frightful mistake are good men and true, whom I
heartily honor ; but, to say nothing of a host of authorities in modern times, there
has been no English physician, since the days of Queen Elizabeth, who would not
have told them that the most pestilentially deadly of all swamps are those which
*
contain salt water. * * * *
The drainage system ought, on no account, to include the removal offæcal excreta
by the sewers. The whole of the bath-room and tatty excreta should be removed
by a system of conservancy. The present tatty arrangements should be thoroughly
re-organized. Those public necessaries which now occupy objectionable sites
should be removed, and latrines nearly like those first introduced at Agra should
be established in comparatively safe and open situations. The whole ordure of the
city should be removed, nightly, in well-constructed trapped iron conservancy
carts, drawn by horses. * * * · *
The feculent excreta and every kind of solid filth , road scrapings, and sweepings,
stable-litter, the refuse of knackeries, markets, tan-yards, urinaries, gardens, cook-
rooms, &c . , &c., &c. , being collected and carried away in conservancy carts, the fluid
sewage of the city, that is, all liquid matter from manufactories, markets, gas-works,
cook-rooms, &c., &c. , which could not be removed in conservancy carts, being pro-
perly diluted and flushed onward with an abundant supply of fresh water , at high
pressure, should be voided by a system of underground sewers of very moderato
capacity, the inlets of which ought to be secured against the entrance of storm-
water and of all solid refuse, while the whole rain-water, except such portion of it
as may be required to flush the sewers, &c., should be carried off by a system of
open surface-drains." -" Doctor Norman Chevers' Indian Annals of Medical Science,
No. XVII., Page 63." Vide Page 37 of Doctor Cornish's Pamphlet.
simply to the outfall being placed in a salt marsh . * Indeed , he,

like Mr. Strachey, advocates the sewer system, and , as I consider ,
lays down the true principles on which drainage in this country
should be carried out. He says : -
" The feculent excreta and every kind of solid filth , road scrapings ,
and sweepings, stable-litter, the refuse of knackeries, markets, tan-
yards, urinaries, gardens, cook-rooms, &c. , &c. , &c. , being collected and
carried away in conservancy carts, the fluid sewage of the city, that is,
all liquid matter from manufactories, markets, gas works, cook-rooms,
&c., &c., which could not be removed in conservancy carts, being
properly diluted and flushed onward with an abundant supply of fresh
water, at high pressure, should be voided by a system of underground
sewers of very moderate capacity, the inlets of which ought to be
secured against the entrance of storm-water and of all solid refuse,
while the whole rain-water, except such portion of it as may be requir-
ed to flush the sewers, &c., should be carried off by a system of open
surface drains."
Thus, it will be seen that the very two witnesses whom Doctor
Cornish brings forward to prove that there should be no sewers,
give the strongest evidence against him. One, Mr. Strachey,

says, " drainage works are urgently required," and the other,
Doctor Chevers, points out how the " underground system of
sewers" should be constructed. The case against sewers, there-
fore, so far from being made out, utterly falls to the ground.
Dr. Chevers' I beg respectfully to draw the attention of Government to
views on
drainage. Doctor Chevers ' views on the subject of drainage as meriting
great consideration at the present time. I believe them to be
the true principles on which drainage works in this country
should be carried out, and the only broad principles on which
success can be ensured at least cost. I arrived at the very same
conclusion as Doctor Chevers has done very soon after I com-
menced the preparation of this project for the drainage of
Madras, and, further on in this Report, I have brought forward
* It would be no argument against railways generally, if some one should pro-

pose to carry one from Madras to the brackish swamp near Ennore.
OPJECTIONS TO SEWERS ANSWERED. 71
all the facts which I had collected to show the difficulty of fol-
lowing the English plan of sewerage, in Madras or in those parts
of the Presidency where the total rainfall was obtained in a few
days, and the enormous expense it would entail. The proposi-
tion now made for the drainage of Madras , viz . , to separate rain-
water from sewage -to carry away the former by open surface
drains, and the latter by sewers of moderate capacity, will , I trust,
be received by Government with greater favour, now that it is
put forward by an eminent man, than if it had been made by
myself alone.
But, it may be thought that a very simple answer to all that has The ad vo-
cates of dry
been said regarding sewers may be made by the advocates of dry
conservancy
conservancy . "We do not object to sewers but only to costly propose to
dispense
works of drainage. " Although such an argument would be very with sewers
altogether.
absurd, simply because all works of town drainage must be costly,
still some attempt at a compromise might have been expected in
the matter, but so far from this, it is insisted that the question of
cleansing towns is one simply of dry conservancy , or sewerage—
either one or the other-that it cannot be partly of both. The

following passage will render this clear : —
" The truth is, that even if a thorough system of drainage, as in
European countries, were advisable, the practical application of the prin-
ciple would be attended , in the Peninsula of India, by difficulties insur-
mountable. "*
If insurmountable practical difficulties are urged against a

thorough sewer-system on the European model, i. e., on the most
scientific principles known to Engineers, how great must be the
difficulties attending a partial or incomplete system of drainage,
and what folly it would be to attempt to carry out such a
system ? It follows, therefore, that the advocates of universal

dry conservancy will admit no compromise in the matter.
In fact, they desire that the question should be settled by a de-
cision of Government as to whether they will have dry conser-

vancy only, or drainage by sewers only. That the former alter-
native is impossible, I trust it has already been proved . That

the latter is possible, is proved by the hundreds of instances in
which it has been most successfully carried out.
The origina- It is easy to see how, in bringing forward the dry system for
tors of dry
conservancy adoption in Madras, its advocates have been led into their great
admit the error. The two gentlemen- Dr. Thudichum and the Rev.
necessity of
sewers . H. Moule -who have directed attention to the subject in Eng-
land, were charged at a Meeting of the Society of Arts, when
the question was discussed, with the intention to interfere with
sewer drainage. Immediately after the discussion, Dr. Thudi-

chum, to whom this intention was attributed, perhaps unfairly,
said, in reply
" Regarding the allegation that his plan would produce nuisance
and interfere with the proper working ofthe sewers, he should certainly
blush if such an imputation could be brought successfully against him ,
for he claimed to be a physician and a chemist ."+
It is clear, therefore, that Doctor Thudichum does not propose
that his plan shall in any way supersede sewers.
The Rev. H. Moule, too, who had fairly brought the charge
upon himself by using unnecessarily vchement language, and
by declaring openly that " no public works were required,"

found it necessary to retract, and said that--
" He had throughout disclaimed having anything to do with London

or towns where there were water- works. But his field of operation was
vastly wider than that. He contended that the Board of Health too
much overlooked the country districts. The cottages were detached
but wholly undrained.”‡
This is practically conceding the whole point at issue, for Mr.

Moule disclaims any intention to apply the system of dry conser-
vancy to towns having a water- supply. Now, every town sooner
or later must have its water-supply, and it is the great necessity
* Twenty-second Ordinary Meeting, May 13, 1863.
† Vide Page 451 , Vol. XI., of the " Journal of the Society of Arts", for May 15 ,
1863.
Vide page 452, -Ibid.
of Madras. Mr. Moule, moreover, wishes to apply dry conser-

vancy only to localities which are wholly undrained - in fact,
dry conservancy, as proposed by him , is merely a temporary mea-
sure to be adopted only until the neighbourhood becomes suffi-
ciently important to have its system of water- supply and drainage.

No one can object to dry conservancy on such conditions. But by
not keeping carefully in view the objects proposed by the origina-
tors of the dry system, its advocates in India have made the capital
mistake of supposing that the removal of excrementitious matter
is all that is required to keep our towns clean and their inhabi-
tants healthy. If a thousand model latrines were to be built in
Madras immediately, the state of the streets would not be in any
way affected by them. The drains would be as offensive as
they now are, and the people would be burdened with the cost of
an experimental system of conservancy which, by absorbing all

their funds, would effectually put a stop to all works of real im-
provement . †
* Some of the most disgusting and filthy neighbourhoods in Madras are well
furnished with privies.
+ Throughout this Report I have argued the question of " Universal Dry Con-
servancy or Sewers" as against Doctor Cornish, considering that, by the publica-
tion ofhis Pamphlet on " The Cleansing of Towns," he has, as it were, constituted
himself the exponent and advocate of the former system in Madras. And while
doing so, I have at the same time endeavoured to meet all the objections to sewers
which I have heard or seen stated by those who have adopted the new theory.
Having been entrusted by Government with the preparation of a project for drain-
ing the town, I have felt it incumbent on me to go into the question of dry conser-
vancy very fully, as my silence on the subject might have been construed into an
admission on my part that drainage by sewers was not the best-the only means
of cleansing the town. I am not aware that any other gentleman besides Dr. Cornish
has really proposed to dispense with sewers,
CHAPTER V.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT.
Outline of
the Project. Ir is proposed to drain Madras from the south to the north-
to separate the sewage from the rain - water-to carry the former
by sewers of small capacity to one central spot , north of, but
near, the Madras Railway, and in the neighbourhood of the
village of Coorookoopett -to lift it there by steam pumps-
and, according as Government may decide , either to discharge

it by an outfall sewer into the sea at a point two miles north of
the Railway, or to utilize it on some thousands of acres of waste
land lying to the north- west of Madras .
In order to render the description of the Project clear, I shall,

for the present, defer the consideration of the proposition to
utilize the sewage for agricultural purposes, and treat the sub-
ject of drainage as if it were necessary to take the sewage away
from Madras altogether .
The outfall.
The first point to settle in every project for drainage is the
locality of the ultimate outfall for the sewage . Everything
hinges on this. At present the sewage of the town, as before
mentioned, is discharged partly into the Cooum, partly into
the Canal, and partly into the sea ; and these are all the out-
No sewage falls available for Madras . The evil of polluting rivers with
sho uld be dis-
charged into the filth of cities has grown to such great proportions in Eng-
the Cooum or
the Canal. land, and is so fully recognized by all classes, that attempts
have lately been made to place the conservancy of all rivers
in the United Kingdom in the hands of a Controlling Board.
It is unnecessary for me to dwell on the present disgusting
state of the Cooum or on that of the Canal. To say that they
are mere cesspools, from which the sewage cannot possibly
e
EK Taag .
Th ER
Mo
fr
om EY
nd
om
as
St
Guindy
Sy dapett AS
Nabobs OF SEWERS
m
u
Bungalow LittleMount
C. RC
Gpal
Gov.House
Quarters AID DOWN.
Nubobs
MILE
3MILES.
fure
RS.
Observatory LEVELS
Mosque Mod SEA LEVEL)
Ta
Nabobs
Chokapa Chetty
FeedDowla
111
on
Parchary
the
Pan
PermalPag
Mackey'sCh
T Kotoor andlights
Ameerbangh
Bungalow
Venkataksina
Chetty
Elphinstone E
Brodie Castle
meny
Quib
arpeit Trivator
Choultry
Brunton Villa
BOC MADRAS JAN: 1865 .

DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT. 75
escape, is to bring the subject with sufficient clearness even to

the minds of those who have never visited Madras. It should
be an indispensable condition of every project for draining the

town that the Cooum and the Canal should not be converted into
sewage reservoirs . Until this is acted upon, all attempts to

render Madras healthy must necessarily be only partially suc-
cessful.
The only outfall, then , left for consideration , is the sea . The The sea, the
best outfall,
abominable stench from the mouth of the sewer at the north- but no
east angle of the Fort, which drains a portion of Black Town should
sewage be
only, is convincing evidence that it is not sufficient merely to discharged
near the
discharge the sewage into the sea. No description can convey to town.
the minds of those who have never lived within the influence
of the smell from this sewer, its overpowering offensiveness

while the outlet is open. The Fort would hardly be habitable
from October to February, or while the north- east winds prevail ,
if this outlet were kept open during the whole day. For-
tunately, the sewer is large enough to hold all the sewage which
flows into it, for a day or two, so that it is unnecessary to open
the mouth except for about a couple of hours during the night.
This is done, too, at a time when the wind is blowing from the
west in order that the smell may be driven out to sea.
In some instances in England, no nuisance arises from the

outfalls of sewers being placed on the coast and opposite to
towns. But this is due to causes which do not prevail in
Madras. In England, the tides rise and fall considerably. In

London, the difference between low and high tide is 20 feet-
in Liverpool, it is 32 feet- in the Bristol Channel, as much as
47 feet . The velocity of the ebb stream, or that which conveys
the sewage away from the coast is, under these circumstances ,
very great. But in Madras, the tides rise and fall three feet
only, and the water is exceedingly shallow. The consequence

is, that the velocity of the ebb stream is trifling, and the sewage
keeps floating by the coast instead of being carried out to sea
76 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT.
at once. The prevailing currents , too, for 10 months in the

year, follow the line of the coast , i. e., run north and south .
Sewage , therefore , discharged opposite the Fort , flows directly
in front of Black Town or Triplicane, the two most important ,
because the most densely populated , neighbourhoods of Madras .
The nuisance at present from the drain near the Fort is as

nothing compared with the nuisance which would ensue, if the
main outfall for the drainage of the entire town were situated
in the same locality. Under the present imperfect arrange-
ments for drainage, the quantity of sewage which ultimately

reaches the sea is small, and it is sufficient if the mouth of the
main discharging sewer is opened occasionally. But under a

complete system of water-tight sewers, and street and house
pipe-drains, the quantity of sewage would be considerable, and
it would be impossible to pond it up for many hours together
without incurring great expense. The line of coast, too, for a
quarter of a mile or so on either side of the outfall, would be so
covered with filth of every description, that the sea breeze, in-
stead of being, what it now is, a great source of health to the
inhabitants of Madras, would be deprived of all those pleasant
associations which we at present connect with it . No outfall so
situated as to contaminate our sea breeze should be permitted .
If this is granted, it follows that no sewage should be

discharged on the sea-board of Madras Proper, i. e., within the
limits of the inhabited strip of coast land from Royapooram in
the north to St. Thomè in the south. Government should insist
on this. The question, therefore, so far as the outfall only is

concerned, resolves itself now into this, " Shall the sewage
be carried into the sea north, or south, of Madras ?" In order to
decide this satisfactorily, several points should be considered .
" Is the town with regard to its physical features more favor-
ably situated for a southern or for a northern outfall ?" "What
is the direction of the prevailing winds ?" " What that of the
prevailing sea current ?" " What particular advantages docs

a northern or a southern outfall offer in itself ?"
The most important of these considerations is , without doubt, Madras

Position of
that which relates to the general configuration of the ground renders a
northern
on which the town stands. Now, it has already been explained outfall
that, practically, there is no natural line of drainage for Madras, necessary.

considered as a whole. But if this point admits of dispute,
then the only line of drainage, which it is possible to call such,
is the valley along which the Canal runs. And, certainly,
although the greater part of Black Town and all Royapooram

drain into the sea, yet the portion of Madras lying to the north
of the Cooum may, in some respects, be considered as two slopes
of ground inclining towards the Canal. The fact, too, of the
districts south of the Cooum being generally on a higher level
than the valley itself, may strengthen this view- viz. , that
there is a natural drainage line . But this very fact shows
that the southern portion of Madras, if it is the higher, must
be drained towards the north, i. e. , if the valley of the
Canal is taken as the drainage course. And the northern
portion cannot be drained to the south, because, in that case,

the outfall into the sea must be situated somewhere between
Triplicane and Black Town, which, it has already been shown,

would be highly objectionable, because the sea breeze would be
contaminated. The only course left to adopt then, is, to
drain the whole of Madras to the north. And this is exactly

what is proposed to be done. So far then as the question is
affected by considerations of the natural position of the town,
the advantage of the northern outfall is clear and decided.
Now, with respect to the winds, the situation of the two out- The situation
of the outfall
*
falls is about equally favourable. The prevailing winds are considered
with
those which blow between south and west, and these winds in reference to
either case would convey the smell of the sewage out to sea. the winds.
* Vide " Chart showing the number of days in the year the Wind blows in
Madras from each point of the Compass," which faces page] of of this Report.
The winds, which would bring the smell into Madras, are, in
the case of a northern outfall, those between N. N. E. and
E. N. E., and, in the case of a southern outfall, those between

S. and S. E. Both the former and the latter blow for about
80 days in the year.
Sea currents With reference to the sea currents, the advantage lies de-
render a
northern cidedly with the northern outfall . The current which flows
outfall
necessary. from the north southwards begins about the middle of October
and ends in February, or runs for about 4 months in the year.
This current would, in the case of a northern outfall, bring
the sewage in the direction of Madras, and, in the case of a
southern outfall, would carry it away from Madras . The

current which flows from the south northwards begins in
March and ceases in August, or continues to flow for about six

months. During the remainder of the year, i. e., in Septem-
ber and the first half of October, the prevailing winds are
from the south, and if, as is most probable, the currents run
in the direction of the wind, this second current will have a
northerly direction. Thus, for about 7 months, the northward
current would, in the case of a northern outfall, carry the
sewage away from Madras, while, in the case of a southern
outfall , it would bring it to Madras . There is no doubt,

therefore, that, so far as the currents of the sea are concern-
ed, the outfall should be placed to the north of Madras.
Special The special advantages which the northern outfall offers

advantages of
a northern are very great. There are no Engineering difficulties to be
outfall.
overcome in the construction of the works, or to render them
expensive. If the sewage were taken to the south , the out-

fall should be placed at least one mile south of St. Thomè, in
order to prevent any nuisance to the inhabitants of this
locality. This would make it necessary to carry the sewage
either by a tunnel beneath the river Adyar, or by an aque-
duct over it. Either of these works would cost a large sum
of money. In the south , the sewage could not be utilized
for agricultural purposes so judiciously as in the north, for

the prevailing winds would blow the smell to the town . The
lands, moreover, are not well situated, whereas, in the north,
there are upwards of 20,000 acres of waste ground situated
on the most favourable level possible, and in the direction
from which the wind blows least often during the year. All
these considerations render it advisable to adopt a northern
outfall for the drainage of Madras .
Having settled this point, it next becomes necessary to de- How far
north should
cide how far north the sewage should be discharged. Andthe outfall be
placed?
this admits of some difference of opinion . The arrangements
made in this Project are to place the outfall, for the present, at
a point 2 miles north of the Railway Station . This is 1 miles
from the nearest dwellings in Royapooram. I believe no
nuisance will arise from this arrangement. When the northerly
current is running, the sewage will have flowed a distance
of more than two miles before it comes opposite to the
nearest part of Black Town . Should it, however, be found
hereafter that the outfall is not far enough away to the north, I
have arranged so that it may ultimately be removed to a
point 3 miles north of the Railway. Without positive evi-
dence that the outfall at this distance would prove a nuisance,
it would not be desirable to place it higher up on the coast.
The question is one of expense only, for, so far as the Engi-

neering difficulties are concerned , it would be as easy to carry
the sewage 4 miles to the north as to discharge it where it is
now proposed to place the outfall .
Having now arranged about the direction in which Madras Impossibility

of draining
is to be drained, and the distance from the town at which the Madras by
outfall should be situated, the next question requiring an gravitation.
answer is, " Can the sewage be discharged into the sea simply
by gravitation, i. e. , without lifting it at any intermediate
point between the town and the outfall ?" An examination
of the Map of Madras, * which accompanies this paper, should

convince any one that this is impossible . The present system
of open drains is a practical attempt to answer this question
in the affirmative. But what the effect is, Government know
well. Hardly a single drain has sufficient fall to keep itself

free from deposit, and the consequence is, that the work which
the drains should do, has to be done by the scavengers of the
Municipal Department, and at a tremendous cost to the

people. It is, indeed, impossible to drain a place like Madras,
which covers 27 square miles of country, and many parts of
which, in all quarters of the town, are elevated from 3 to 6
feet only above the sea, by simple gravitation, and without

raising the sewage artificially. .
A great deal has been written
and said about the expense of pumps, but those who object
to them forget that there is only one alternative for them to
adopt. That is, to lay down their sewers either at a dead
level, or at a slope which, to all practical purposes, is no better
than a dead level. I think I can render this very clear.
The lower parts of Tondiarpett, Royapooram, part of the

valley of Black Town along Popham's Broadway, and of that
to the west of the Canal, parts of Pursewakum, Veyasurpady,
Perambore, Vepery, Chintadrapett, and of the District between
Triplicane and St. Thomè, are from 3 to 6 feet above the sea.
How can all these neighbourhoods be connected together by

any system of sewers, and the sewage be discharged into the
sea by gravitation ? Take the single neighbourhood of Pur-

sewakum. It is two miles from the sea. There is a valley
half a mile long, running east and west through it, which is
in some parts 6 feet and in others only 3 feet above the sea.
There are portions of the surrounding neighbourhood, more-
over, which are half a mile distant from the valley and only
8 feet above the datum line. Now, the street drains from these
places down to the sewer in the valley, should be laid at such
* Vide also " Map of Madras," facing page 7 of this Report.

inclinations as will keep them clear of deposit . Suppose

they are 9 -inch pipes. These should be laid at a slope of at
least 1 in 250. As they would be half a mile or 2,640 feet
at
long, the total fall required for them would be (2640 =)
least 10 feet. If they were 6 -inch pipes , the total fall required
would be about 18 or 20 feet. But if the lowest part of the
valley is 3 feet above the sea, and the streets, half a mile dis-
tant, 8 feet only above the sea, the total fall available is only
5 feet. And after the sewage had been collected in the valley,
it would still have to be taken 2 miles to the sea with a fall of
only 3 feet, and, in its course, it would have to cross the canal,
the water in which is at a dead level with the sea. How could
pipes or sewers on such a system of slopes keep themselves
clear of deposit. It is utterly impossible to drain Madras into

the sea without first raising the sewage by artificial means .
If this, then, be admitted, the next point to settle is, "Where Position of
pumping
shall the sewage be pumped up ?" This is almost altogether a station.
question of Engineering. If the ground were very favourable,
i. e., if th soi we
e l re hard and there were no water to interf
ere
wit the cons o f t h s e , i t m i b e b e t o t a t
h truc e w ers g ht s t k e he
t
sew righ awa iotno a spot nea its ulti o o t c ,
age t y r mate utfall n he oast
and to pum it up the a o B ut this is not
p re t nce into the sea .
the case . The stra b t s s c c o
ta eneath he urface oil onsist hiefly f
san , and wat
d er is found in almost all parts of Madras at about
the sea leve . It bec t posi nece
l ome , herefo , tive ssar
to
s re ly y
rais the sew a s i poin . I hav sele a
e age t ome nterme t e cted
diat
poin ver nea the Mad R ,e but lyin to the nor
t y r ras ailwa g th of
y
it and in the nei of the vill of Coor .
ghb age ooko
our opeth
This will nece thheoocdons of a tun u n der te
ssit truc nel
ate tion
Rai . But a tun
lwa nel would have been necessa , even if the
y ry
site for the pum had bee to the sou
ps n th of the Railwa ; for
y
the sew o T and of the nei to the
age f ondiar ghb
pe our
nort of the Rai mustt, in that case , hav bee hobordo to
h lwa t e 11 n ugh
y t
the site by a tunnel crossing the Railway. It will thus be

seen that, under any circumstances, a tunnel was unavoidable.
The site selected for the cesspool and pumps is situated in that
quarter ofthe town from which the wind blows least often in the
year, and it is near the lands on which it is proposed to utilize
the sewage .
The pumping I have considered whether it might not be advisable to have

should be
concentrated two cesspools and two sets of pumps -one for the portion of
at one point. Madras lying to the north of the Railway, and the other for
that lying to the south of it. But the first cost of such an
arrangement would be even greater than that of the tunnel
now proposed , and the working expenses of such a system of
sewerage would be nearly double that in which all the pump-
ing work was concentrated at one point.
I trust that it has now been satisfactorily shown that

Madras should be drained towards the north, -that (putting
aside for the present the question of utilizing the sewage) the
best outfall is the sea, that it will be sufficient if the outfall
is placed on the Coast 3 miles north of the Railway, —that it

is not possible to drain the town by gravitation, and that, con-
sequently, the sewage must be pumped up at some intermediate
point between the town and the ultimate outfall.
Sewage So far, this Project does not differ from the system of drain-
should be
separated age adopted in many towns in England . I beg now to draw
from rain the attention of Government to a point which appears to me to
water.
demand the greatest consideration. In England, it is usual to
have one and the same system of sewers to carry off both rain-
water and sewage. I propose, however, that in Madras, sewage
shall be carried away by a system of underground sewers and

pipes of very small dimensions, and that rain water shall be
removed by a system of open surface drains unconnected with
the underground sewers and pipes . To justify such a depar-

ture from the stereotyped system of sewerage which has the
sanction of European engineers, it will be necessary that full

and sufficient reasons should be given .
In designing sewerage works, the dimensions of the sewers

are regulated almost entirely on considerations of rainfall. The
sewage proper forms so small a proportion of the total amount of
fluid matter to be removed, that if a sewer is large enough to

discharge the rain which falls on the district for the drainage of
which it is constructed, it is hardly worth while to consider the
small quantity of sewage which may flow into the sewer. In
fact, sewers in England are constructed, first, for the removal of

the rainfall, and then for the removal of the sewage. * In a
country, however, like England, where the rainfall is pretty

evenly distributed through all the months of the year, and
where there are no extraordinary falls of rain such as we so often
have in India, this principle of carrying off both rain water
and sewage by one set of channels is not perhaps objectionable.
It rains off and on throughout the year. Sometimes for days
together there is no cessation at all. The consequence is, that
the amount of water in the sewers does approximate to some
extent to a constant quantity. In heavy rainfalls the amount is

somewhat in excess of this quantity, and in light rainy weather
it is somewhat below it.
But in India the conditions of rainfall are totally different to The rainfall
in England
those in England. In the first place the yearly rainfall in India and in Madras
is double that of England . And while in England the supply contrasted.

is received in small monthly instalments all the year round, the
supply in India is often received in 10 or 12 days only .
The accompanying diagram has been prepared with the view

to explain the extraordinary difference between the rainfall in
* In London the sewage proper is calculated at about 1-5th of the ordinary rain-
fall. Vide Page 305 of Neville's Hydraulics,
England and in Madras . The first fact to which I beg to direct

the notice of Government is the marked evenness of the line
which represents the " mean" rainfall in England. * The

greatest difference in the quantities of rain which fall in any
two months is between those which fall in April (about 1
inches) and in November (about 3 inches). But even this
difference amounts to only 24 inches. So evenly distributed is
the rainfall, that if it were said of England that the quantity of
rain which falls in every month of the year is 2 inches, there

would really be no great error made.
The second fact to which I would draw attention is the paral-

lelism between the thick and thin red lines. The former
shows the maximum quantity of rain that has been known to

fall in England in each month of the year. It runs throughout
about two inches above the thin line and thus indicates that
the maximum quantity of rain in each month is 2 inches only

more than the mean quantity.
Now, let meturn to the rainfall in Madras, the yearly quantity
(about 50 inches) being double that of London (about 25 inches).

The thin blue line represents the mean rainfall of 20 years'
observations. It will be seen that in the first four months of
the year there is, practically speaking, no rain at all- that in the
next 5 months the rainfall is only slightly in excess of that of

England- but that in the months of October, November, and
December, it is considerably in excess of it. Now, if sewers are
to be constructed for the removal of rain water, it is very evi-
dent that in Madras they must be large enough to discharge the

rainfall in the months of October and November, when the
heaviest quantity of rain descends. Suppose that the dimensions
of the sewers in Madras are regulated by comparison of the mean
monthly rainfalls in London and Madras. Then, the mean rainfall
* Vide Page 311 of " Neville on Hydraulics ."

Madras Drainage.
JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER
35
30
25
1
20
15
10
19
8
INCHES
MADRAS
1846
.
MADRAS
MEAN
ENGLAND
MAXIMU M
IN
ENGLAND
MEAN
MADRAS
1857
MADRAS JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER
MAXIMUM
IN 1847.
1852 1851
MADRAS MADRAS
Monthly Rainfall in England and Madras .

A.BARREN LITH.JAN. 1865. # TULLOCH,DEL
in Madras in October (about 13 inches) being more than 3 times

the mean rainfall in London in November (about 4 inches), it
is evident that the sewers must have three times the discharg-
ing capacity. A single mile of sewers laid down on this prin-
ciple would cost more than the entire project now submitted to
Government.
The difference between the maximum monthly rainfalls in

Madras and in England is even still greater than that between the
mean monthly rainfalls in the two places. The maximum quan-
tity which has fallen in one month in England is, as shown by
the thick red line, nearly 6 inches. But the maximum in Madras
is, as shown by the green line, nearly 38 inches or upwards of
6 times the maximum of England.
Together with the mean and maximum monthly rainfalls in
the two countries , I have projected on the accompanying diagram
the monthly rainfalls in Madras of some of the most interesting
years. From these it will be seen that it is far from an unusual
occurrence to have upwards of 20 inches of rain in a single
month ofthe year.
If we compare the daily rainfall in England and in Madras,

the difference becomes still more striking. The following are
the greatest daily rainfalls in England of which I can find any

record :-
Rainfall
Locality. Date. in 24 REMARKS.
hours.
Inches
LitDorsetshire
tle Bridy } July 1858 2:06 Vide page 332 of " Beardmore's Manual
of Hydrology."
Oxford........... July 1853 1.82 Vide page 333, Ibid.
Wandsworth.... 12th June 1859 2.17 Vide page 293 of " Neville's Hydrau-]
lics." This fell in two hours.
Manchester....... 7th Aug. 1859 1849 Do. do..
Southampton.... 26th Sept. 1859 2.05 Do. do. This fell in 24 hours.
Truro...... 25th Oct. 1859 2:4 Do. do.
Holborn...... 1st Aug. 1846 4.00
Highgate... Do. 3.5 Do do. These quanties are stated
Greenwich... Do. .95 to have fallen in one hour.
The following is a table of some of the heavy daily rainfalls

in Madras in the years from 1822 to 1857 :
Rainfall in
Date. 24 hours. REMARKS.
Inches.
4th November 1822 7.88
29th October 1825 8.87
9th May 1827 12.08
27th November 7.77
31st October 1836 7.50 This fell in the night only.
20th November 99 9.65
27th December 1845 7.20
21st October 1846 20.58
4th May 1851 11:45
4th November "" 7.90
20th November1856 6.22 This fell in 5 hours.
24th October 1857 18.04 Before sunrise 5·83 inches - before sunset 12:21
inches.
It will thus be seen that while 4 inches is the utmost that

has been recorded to have fallen in England during the day, up-
wards of 20 inches have been known to fall in Madras in the
same period of time. How could Madras afford to pay for

sewers constructed to discharge five times the quantity of water
which the London sewers discharge ?
Thevery mode in which the monsoon in this country comes down

renders it difficult to provide underground sewers to carry away
all the water. It is well known that a tremendous storm of
rain of short duration , i. e. , for an hour or so, is not nearly so

trying to sewers as an ordinary storm continued over several
hours. In a storm of an hour or so, the whole of the rain cannot
reach the sewers until some hours after the storm has passed ;
the consequence is, that the sewers are able to discharge the
entire rainfall without bursting. The kind of fall though, which

tests sewers to the utmost, is one distributed over several
hours , -when it begins to rain at the rate of (say) an inch

an hour, continues at this rate (say) for an hour or two, then
increases to (say ) 1 inch per hour, continues again at this rate
for an hour or two more, then increases to 1 inch per hour for
another hour, then to 2 inches and 2 inches, and ultimately
to as much as 3 inches ; then gradually decreases in the same
way without there having been the slightest intermission from
the beginning to the close of the storm. Any one who has been
in the country for a few years will not think the above an exag-
gerated picture of the burst of a heavy monsoon.
I had hoped by an examination of the records in the Madras
Observatory to have been enabled to place before Government

some interesting facts with regard to the monsoons, but the very
violence of these rain storms has hitherto prevented their being
recorded with sufficient detail. Mr. Pogson, the Government
Astronomer, has most kindly gone over the records of 20 years
with me. But in nearly all the most interesting cases, after a
The great
few hours' rain , the anemometer has broken down and thus storm of
October 1846.
failed to record any results . There are fortunately two excep-
tions to this rule, and one of these, I am glad to add , is the
greatest daily rainfall that has been known in Madras-the
storm of October 1846, when about 23 inches of rain fell in
24 consecutive hours . The details of this I give below..
It appears to have commenced raining on the 18th October.

Up to 6 A. M. on the 20th, however, only 3 inches fell. It
then progressed very steadily for about 20 hours, till the maxi-
inum rate of 21 inches per hour was attained after which it
gradully decreased again till at the expiration of about another

12 hours when the monsoon was over. In this storm , Madras
received, in 24 hours, i . e. , from 10 A. M. on the 20th to 10
A. M. on the 21st, about as much rain as falls in London
during the whole year .
$8 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT.
s
1846 Inches. Inches.

Oct. 20th 6 to 7 A. M... ...... 0.048 Oct. 21st 0 to 1 A. M...... ... 2.000
7 to 8 99 ...... ... 0.187 1 to 2 29 ... 2.525
8 to 9 ... 0.250 2 to 3 "" ... 1.925
9 to 10 99 ...... ... 0.175 3 to 6 "" ... ...... 4.800
10 to 11 99 ... ...... 0.175 6 to 7 ...... ... 0.750
11 to 12 " 0.250 7 to 8 29 1.080
8 to 9 "" ...... ... 0.250
Total from 6 to 12 A. M... 1.085 9 to 10 99 ...... 0.750
10 to 2-30 P. M....... O'250
0 to 1 P. M...... ... 0.250
1 to 2 "9 ... ...... 0.502 Total from 0 A. M. to close of
2 to 3 ...... ... 0.501 storm ............ 14.330
3 to 4 99 0.562
4 to 5 29 ... 0.425 Inches.
5 to 6 0.425 Heaviest fall in 1 hour (from
6 to 7 "9 ... 0.875 1 to 2 A. M. on 21st ) ......... 2 * 525
7 to 8 "" 1.000 Heaviest fall in 6 hours (from
8 to 9 0.475 0 to 6 A. M. on 21st) ......... 11.250
9 to 10 ... 0.775 Heaviest fall in 12 hours (from
10 to 11 "" ... 1.425 6 P. M. on 20th to 6 A. M.
11 to 12 32 ......... 1.700 on 21st).... .17.500
Heaviest fall in 24 hours (from
Total from 0 to 12 P. M... 8.915 10 A. M. on 20th to 10 A. M.
on 21st).. .23.420
The storm of
This certainly was a very extraordinary fall of rain , but the
October 1857.
great monsoon of 1857 does not contrast unfavourably with
it. Unfortunately we have no hourly record of it. We know,
however, that 5.83 inches fell on the 24th October before sun-
rise, and 12-21 before sunset- thus making a total of upwards
of 18 inches in about 18 hours.
The storm of In 1851 , the south-west monsoon came down with a tre-
May 1851 .
mendous burst- 11.45 inches fell in 5 hours. Thus - 2 inches
in the 1st hour- 2 inches in the next hour-nearly 3 inches

in the next- 1 inch in the next- and 14 in the last . No under-
ground sewers could stand against such a body of water as
would flow into them at one of these outbursts ofthe monsoon.
And these extraordinary falls seem to occur at intervals of
about 8 or 10 years. I am given to understand that the main
sewer of Calcutta is as much as 30 feet wide . While Madras
remains as poor as she is, it will be folly to attempt the con-

struction of sewers on such a scale .
It will naturally be asked, " If the sewers are not to carry Rain water
must be
away the rain water, how is it to be got rid of ?" The answer removed by
open
is-" by open channels." I propose, however, at first, to channels.
make use of the existing large drains as the outlets for
storms . This will, no doubt, cause surprise to many, con-
sidering how much the present drains have been abused. It
is well known , in drainage engineering, that when the quantity

of water is great, the form of the sewer is of little consequence.
Whether it has a rectangular section or an oval section, the

velocity is still sufficient for all possible purposes . Now, the
section of the Madras drains is certainly very far from fault-
less. Nevertheless for storm waters they will answer admir-
ably. When Madras can better afford it, it will be time to re-
construct these channels, but having them now at hand, I am
decidedly of opinion that they should be used. The drains
which I propose to keep are not, of course, the open street
drains in all parts of Madras , but the few large underground

and open channels which discharge immediately into the sea,
the Cooum, or the Canal. All the street drains should be

taken up, for the bricks of which they are constructed are of
the worst possible kind and so saturated with liquid filth , that
every effort to cleanse the town without the removal of these
drains will be ineffectual. At present, all that would be
necessary would be to re-place these drains with broken

granite, down which the rain water would flow until it ulti-
mately entered, as it now does, one of the large outlet drains.
The Municipal Commissioners , who spend yearly about 20,000
Rupees in new drains, would have that sum available for this
work, inasmuch as no new drains would be required in the

town if this project were carried out. Ultimately it might
become necessary to have open channels of stone set in mortar,
similar to those in use in England .
On this question of the separation of rain-water from

2
sewage, I understand that it will be urged by the advocates of
universal dry conservancy against me-" So, after all, your

sewers will not get rid of the rain water . " But these gentle-
men forget that this argument tells, if possible, much more
against them than against me. For, at all events, I do propose
to dispose of all liquid refuse except storm waters, whereas

the advocates of universal dry conservancy propose to get rid
of 100th part only of the liquid refuse, and moreover of none

ofthe storm water. If, therefore, it is necessary for the advocates
of sewers, so also must it be necessary for the advocates
of universal dry conservancy, to dispose of storm waters .
It is no use to find fault with a sewer system from which
storm waters are excluded , unless some mode of removing these
storm waters, better than that suggested by me, is put forth by
the objectors. All that I maintain is, that it will be unadvis-
able to adopt the European system of sewage in its entirety
in Madras, simply because, if rain water is to run in the same
channel with sewage, the discharging capacity of the channel
in Madras must be four times what it is in London for the
same area to be drained-that sewers laid down on this prin-
ciple will be perfectly useless for eleven months in the year-
and that the cost of them will ruin the Municipality.
The general system of sewers proposed to be laid down

will best be understood by reference to the accompanying map
of Madras.
Main Sewer. The Main Sewer will start from the village of Koshoopett
near St. Thomè at mean sea level (datum line) , and , after
receiving all the sewage from that neighbourhood , will pass on
through Meersahibpett. On entering Ice House Road, it will
be joined by the Royapett Branch Sewer, and will then run
eastwards until it arrives at the south end of the high road
.
through Triplicane, when it will turn to the north and run
through the heart of this populous district . On leaving Tri-

ainage .
LAIN SEWE
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-MYLAPOOR MEER SAHIB PETTAH- EPETTAH
ICEOPEN
SURF
< VENCATA CHELLA MOODELY STREET GROUND -X
SURFACE
19
142
10.10
MADEGROUND
100
COOUM
RIVER
CLAY AND SAND
SURFACE
MADE
142
4/89 8.68
SURFACE
MIXED
5.74
BROW
2 55
69.5.
630 6 13 SAND
MADE CROUND
2'20
SURFACE
3 54 ORDINARY
6.67 M00 SURFACE
1:37
SURFACE SOIL
7.36
10
SAND
06.2
4.79
10
81.8
6 2.48
N WATER SOIL
2.9
WATER LEVELT WATER LEVEL IGS

50
LEVEL 144
+ 0'07- 0.60 SS 89
DATUM LINE. BLUISH SAND 037
8.05 DARK
100 CLAY WATER LEVEL091 WATT
3 MILES 1'00
LEVEL
ORDINARY
268
SAND
-4.51 ORDINARY SARD YELLOWISH
BLUISH SAND, NOT BOTTOMED. BROWN SAND BLUTSH
NOT BOTTOMED." SH13SANT
.91
-5:00
-7.56
BROWN SAND -761
NOT BOTTOMED
10'11
-10'83
6416 FEET RUN , 3' x 2'EGG
EGG SHAPED
ROWN SAND
INCLINATION I IN 1320 OR 4 FEET PER MILE . TOMED -13'31
BLUISH SAND -14001
NOT BOTTOMED BLUE ANDV
SANDO
NOT BOTT
1389 FEET RUN -18 8

4X2-8 BLUE
ECC SHAPED NO
CLINATION IN 1920
23 FEET PER MILE
HORIZONTAL ( SIGNED ) H.
HOCK JAN: 1865.
plicane, it will enter the neighbourhood of Chintadrapett,

and run beneath the open ground lying at the back of Messrs.
Burghall's stables and on up to the road along the bank of the
Cooum. It will then turn to the north, pass under the river,
and continue its course along Sydenham's Road, which lies to
the west of the People's Park. On leaving this road, it will
cross the north-west part of the Park, and, running across the
Canal to the south of Elephant Gate Bridge, will join Wall
Tax Road, along which it will continue its course for about
half a mile. On leaving this road it will enter the private garden
lands lying to the north-west of Black Town, and, passing
under the north Rampart, will run in a straight course, beneath
the open plain, near the Government Distillery. It will sub-
sequently cross the Madras Railway, and finally terminate at

a point a few yards to the north of it.
The Black Town Branch Sewer, which will drain nearly Black Town
Branch
the whole of the neighbourhood between Salay Street and the Sewer.
sea, will run in the valley along Popham's Broadway, and ,

issuing out of Monegar Choultry Gate, will turn to the west
and join the Main Sewer before it passes under the Railway.
The Royapooram Branch Sewer, which will drain all that Royapooram
Branch
portion of this district to the east of the ridge between the Sewer.
Canal and the sea, and also the north-east part of Black Town,
will run parallel to the Coast and at about a quarter of a mile
from it. As it enters Black Town, it will turn to the west,
and, skirting the north of this neighbourhood, will join the

Black Town Branch Sewer near Monegar Choultry Gate.
The small portion of the inhabited part of Madras which Coorookoo-

lies to the north of the Railway, and which does not drain into pett
SewerBranch
.
the Royapooram Branch Sewer, will be drained by the Coo-
rookoopett Branch, which will run direct to the cesspool from
this village .
92 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT .
Fort Saint
The Fort St. George Branch will drain the Fort and the
George
Branch southern half of that portion of Black Town lying to the west
Sewer
of Salay Street. It will start from near St. Mary's Church,
pass under the ramparts and ditches of the Fort, and take a
westerly course until it reaches Wall Tax Road, when it will
turn to the north and join the Main Sewer near Elephant Gate
Bridge.
Pursewakum The Pursewakum Branch will run in the valley of this
Branch
Sewer. neighbourhood, and after draining the whole of it will join the
Main Sewer in the People's Park.
Egmore The Egmore Branch, which will drain the whole of Poo-
Branch
Sewer. doopett, will start from a point on the west bank of the Cooum
near Lord Harris ' Bridge, and will run along the bank of the
river until it enters Poonamallee Road, along which it will con-
tinue its course up to its junction with the Main Sewer at the
south- west angle of the People's Park.
Ellemboor The Elemboor Branch will start from the village of

BranchSewer
Elemboor and keep a straight course up to its junction with
the Egmore Branch, on the bank of the Cooum.
Mount Road The Mount Road Branch is a small sewer which will run
BranchSewer down the Mount Road from a point near the southern gate of
Messrs . Waller and Co.'s stables to another point near the

Round Tannah. It will be required for the drainage of the
neighbourhood about the Madras Club.
Royapett The Royapett Branch will start from a point in the heart
BranchSewer
of this village and run down Royapett High Road up to its junc-
tion with Ice House Road, where it will turn to the east and
join the Main Sewer in Meersahibpett.
Saint Thomè The peculiar configuration of St. Thomè renders two

Branch Sew-
ers. sewers necessary for its drainage. One of these will run to
the north of the village, and the other to the west of it.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT . 93
All the sewers proposed to be laid down in this Project All sewers
be eg g- to
are to be egg-shaped,-the diameter of the upper arch being shaped.
double that of the invert. As it is now generally acknowledged
by the Engineering profession that this is the best form for
sewers where the quantity of sewage is constantly varying, it

is unnecessary for me to dwell on the advantages of adopting
it for the Madras sewers.
The formula by which the dimensions and slopes of the Hydraulic

formula.
sewers have been calculated is the one used by Mr. Beardmore
in his work, " Manual of Hydrology ;"
v = 55 √ 2 hf,
in which v is the velocity of the stream in feet per minute-

-
h the hydraulic mean depth in feet and f the fall in feet
per mile.
A single example will best explain how the dimensions Dimensions

of sewers,
of the sewers for the Main Line have been decided on. how calcu-
lated.
It has been assumed that the quantity of water used per
head of the population may ultimately be as high as twenty
gallons per diem. Excepting the western portion of the neigh-
bourhood lying to the north of the Railway, the population of
which is about 54,000, the whole of Madras will be drained
through the Main Sewer. If the population of Madras be taken

at 428,000, the total quantity of water flowing into the cesspool
in 24 hours through the Main Sewer will be (428,000 - 54,000)
× 20 gallons = 7,480,000 gallons or 1,196,800 cubic feet . As-

sume that half this quantity, or 598,400 cubic feet, will run off
in 8 hours, the period of maximum daily flow, then the quan-
tity to be discharged every minute by the Main Sewer will be
598,400 cubic feet
8 hours × 60 minutes (say) 1,247 cubic feet.
Now, a sewer 6 feet by 4 feet, laid at a slope of 2 feet per

mile, will discharge upwards of 1,650 cubic feet per second, assum-
ing the co- efficient of friction to be 75. The velocity of the

stream would be about 18 inches per second. Allowing a large
margin for prospective population, I think if the Main Sewer

at its junction with the cesspool is 6 feet by 4 feet and laid at
an inclination of 2 feet per mile, it will be quite large enough.
I very much doubt if the Main Sewer will for many years be
more than one-third full. But it is safer to make the sewers
too large than too small.

The general As it is not intended that the sewers proposed to be laid
principles of
drainage on down according to this Project shall remove rain water, it is
which this
Project is necessary that the principles on which the general system of
prepared.
drainage have been designed should be explained . In order
to utilize to the utmost the natural slopes of the ground for
the street drains, I have run the Main and Branch Sewers, as
a general rule, along the valley lines of each neighbourhood .
To ascertain, however, at what depth they should be placed
below ground, I commenced laying down the street drains from
the highest points in each district, and working down to
the Main and Branch Sewers . The slopes given to the
street drains, which will be earthenware pipes of 6 and 9

inches in diameter, are such as to admit of the sewage flow-
ing through them at the velocity of at least 3 feet per

second. The 6-inch pipes at the highest points in each
district will be laid at an inclination of from 1 in 150 to 1 in
100, and, in those streets which are situated nearer the valleys,
the slopes of the drains will be much greater than this. The
slopes of the 9 - inch pipes range from 1 in 250 to 1 in 170 .

In fact, the levels at which the sewers are put below ground
are such as to admit of the pipe-drains in all the streets being
laid at such inclinations as will generally enable them to keep
themselves clear of deposit.
Drainage of On the accompanying plan of Black Town, the complete
Black Town.
system of sewers and pipes for this district is shown. The
Bason
Peepipin
Bason Bridge
Hospital Bridge
MAIN SEWER
FORT
5
HH
General
Hespital
ST ORGE
Memorial
Hall
GE
Medical Mint
College
12
CH
ER
Water Works
TOW K
N
wwww 오
AN
C
SEW
BLA
BR
Madras Drainage.
PLAN OF BLACK TOWN
SHOWING THE SYSTEM OF STREET
PROPOSED TO BE LAID DOWN. CI
SCRL
HOSOL
FIGURES ENCLOSED IN A CIRCLE THUS - 6 ) OR (+6) DEN
LEVELS AT WHICH THE INVERTS OF THE PIPES ARE TO BE SCHOO
REFERENCE TO DATUM LINE GR MEAN SEA LEVEL . 8
Grand
ALL OTHER FIGURES DENOTE THE LEVELS OF THE STRE
M
Jail
RA
REIER NCE 70 DATUM LINE . C

OO
BEWER
CH
9 INCH EARTHENWARE PIPES

AP
WE
AN
6 INCH D 0
Y
SE
BR
RO
Scale 6 In
0
82
A. BARREN, LITHOC. JAN. 1865

general principles of drainage which I have adopted will be

better understood by an examination of this plan than by any
written explanation on my part.
I have given the greatest consideration to the question of

slope. Had the strata on which Madras stands been favour-
able to the construction of sewers at a great depth, I should have
laid them at a much greater slope than that on which they
are placed at present, but these strata consist almost every-
where ofsand or clay, and water is found in all parts at about the
level of the datum line. The building of the sewers, therefore,
if they were put very deep below the surface, would be diffi-
cult, and attended with considerable expense. I have prefer-

red to adopt a medium slope, and propose to turn the abun-
dance of water to use in flushing the sewers.
The Main Sewer at its head will be 3 feet by 2 feet, and Details of
Main Sewer.
laid at an inclination of 4 feet per mile, and at its termination
it will be 6 feet by 4 feet with an inclination of 2 feet per mile.
It will start at about the level of the datum line and will ter-
minate at the level of 16.25 feet below the datum line . Where
each Branch Sewer joins the Main, the dimensions of the latter
will be increased, and as the Main Sewer becomes larger the
slope will be gradually decreased .
All the Branch Sewers, without exception, are to be 3 feet Dimensions

and slopes of
by 2 feet, and to be laid at an inclination of 4 feet per mile. Branch
They are considerably larger than they need be, so far as the Sewers.
quantity of sewage which they will have to convey away is con-

cerned, but it would be difficult to cleanse a sewer of smaller
dimensions thoroughly . I had thought at one time of using

large earthenware pipe-drains for the branch sewers, but the
expense of these would be as great as that of the sewers now
proposed.
The entire system of sewers is designed to secure one uni- One uniform
velocity of form velocity ( about 18 inches per second) for the sewage
flow through-
out the throughout its flow from the beginning to the end of each
sewers.
sewer.
Junctions.
All junctions between the sewers will be effected by Bell-
mouth Junctions .
Outfall
As fast as the sewage arrives at the end of the Main Sewer,
Sewer
it will be pumped up by means of steam pumps to a height of
10 feet above the datum line, and it will immediately enter the
Outfall Sewer, which will carry it to the sea . The position of
this Outfall Sewer is shown in the map of Madras which

accompanies this report. Its dimensions are the same as
those of the Main Sewer at its junction with the cesspool, but
while the inclination of the latter is 2 feet per mile, that of the
Outfall Sewer is 3 feet per mile . This extra fall has been given
with the view to secure a greater velocity for the flow of the
sewage, as there will not be those facilities for flushing the
Outfall Sewer which exist for the other sewers.
A great portion of the Outfall Sewer will run above the
surface of the ground , but the line which has been adopted for
it is very favourable, and no impediments to traffic will in any
way be caused by this work.
Outfall. The Outfall into the sea has been designed with great care.
It will be built of solid ashlar masonry, standing on a groyne
of granite boulders run out 200 feet into the sea. The invert
of the sewer will be on a level with low water-mark. I think
the Outfall will be found strong enough to resist the action of

the surf.
Arrange- Everysewerwill be thoroughly ventilated through charcoal

ments for
ventilating disinfectors. The ventilators will be placed at about 100 yards
the sewers.
apart, and will be so arranged that dust or gravel falling through
them from the roads will be intercepted and prevented from
Madras Drainage.
or OUTTALL
ne
NG
NG
NG
NG
La
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BO
27
NO 28. B NO 29 .
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OwRm NO 18
1
a
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STONE ON
FOUNDATI
17.01
MADE
150 16'05
ON
15:51 GROUND
MADE
30
ROUND
12 12
CREY MADE
11-61 218 !
SAND GROUND
WHITE AND 946
GREY 8.81
8.05 2.00
SAND 7 46 GROUND
6'45 WHITE 662
AND MADE
YELLOW!
82 YELLOW 245
GR4 62 10
SAND AND CROUN
3 WHITE
68.11
3.90 SA 10'60 3.97

GREY
NOT SAND
BOTTOMED 2.95 SAND
17:41
GREYISH SA YELLOW
CRE
0.21
MEG NOT BOTTO HIGH WATER MARK

1906
64.£୮"[
WATER LEVEL MEAN SEA LEVEL

-0.88 -1.06
WHITE AND
YELLOW SAND 150 LOW WATER MARK
NOT BOTTOMED TOTAL LENGTH
-3.14
YELLOW AND -3.06 2 MILES 2684FEET
WHITE SAND YELLOWAND
GREYBOTTOM
SAND
NOT BOTTOM ED NOT
X INCLINATION
INCLINATION
28'7
MILE
184
PER
IIN
OF
WER 6 FEET BY 4 FEET.

50
IIN
·
Y
ET PER MILE.
x
( SIGNED 4,0 FEET
A.BARREN , LITHOGRAPHER , JAN 1865.

entering the sewers . The dirt can be removed at stated times

without interfering with the action of the ventilator.
In connection with every ventilator there will be either a Man-holes

man-hole or side entrance leading into the sewer, so that, when and side-
entrances,
necessary, men may easily enter the sewers to clean or inspect
them .
The St. Thomè and Outfall Sewers being above the level Flushing
arrange-
at which water is found, arrangements cannot be made for col- ments.
lecting water below ground for flushing them, but for all the
other sewers there will be a flushing apparatus in connection
with every ventilator and man-hole or side entrance, as the case
may be. The flushing arrangements will, therefore, occur at in-

tervals of about 100 yards apart, and it is expected that each
apparatus will cleanse the sewer thoroughly up to that point
¹n it where the next apparatus occurs.
The accompanying plan represents a flushing reservoir

in connection with a man-hole and ventilator. The foul air
from the sewer will travel up the man-hole shaft-pass

through the charcoal in the box a, the bottom and top of which
will be made of iron wire netting--and will escape, first through
the opening b, and then through the ventilator g, to the open air.
Any gravel or dust falling through the ventilator will be inter-
cepted in the chamber c, and when it is necessary to remove the
rubbish, the trap door d will be opened, the box a pushed into
the recess e, and the chamber c will be cleansed through the
door f, on the opening of which the rubbish will fall out and be
received in a basket held at the mouth of the entrance. When
the rubbish has been removed, the door fwill be closed, and the
box a will be pulled out of the recess and replaced in its ori-
ginal position over the man-hole shaft. Thus, all the foul air
that escapes from the sewer will be made to pass through the
charcoal which, it is expected , will, in a great measure, disin-

fect it.
13
At the bottom of the man-hole shaft there will be a masonry
reservoir, (capable of holding about 350 gallons of water), which

will be fed from a filtering well. The reservoir will be connected
with the sewer by an iron pipe ( 6 inches in diameter) furnished
at one end with a stop valve and at the other with a sluice gate.
The water from the filtering well will pass into the reservoir
through a small pipe, and when the reservoir has sufficient water
collected in it, the pipe will be closed by a self-acting ball-valve.
In order to flush the sewer, the man employed on the work

will first open the trap door at the surface of the ground- he
will then descend the ladder, and, pushing the box of charcoal
into its recess e, pass down to the bottom of the man-hole shaft.
A few turns of the handle fixed to the stop valve will open the
mouth of the flushing pipe, when the water from the reservoir
will rush through it, open the sluice gate k by the force of its
pressure, and pass into the sewer with considerable velocity.
After all the water has escaped , the sluice gate will fall down by
its own weight, and the stop valvewill be closed bythe man, who
may then leave the reservoir to fill again, and pass up the ladder
to the open air. As soon as the reservoir is emptied, the water
from the filtering well will begin to flowinto it, and in the course
of a few hours the whole apparatus will be again ready for
use.
It is expected that a pressure of 2 fect of water in the re-
servoir will give a sufficient scouring velocity to the water. If,

however, this amount of pressure should, in practice, be found
insufficient, the reservoir can be filled to the depth of 3 feet by
altering the position of the ball-valve.
The Outfall Sewer and the St. Thomè Branch Sewers must
be flushed by forming temporary dams across them and remov-

ing the dams suddenly. This is practised in England and found
to answer .
Madra
Draina s.
ge
OF
SECTION
PLAN
AND
AND
VENTILAT OR,
MANHOLE FLUSHINGRESERVOIR.
Section
A.B.
thro: ..:
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at
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with
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..
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E.F
PALNGASTMASSEUSTERT
Filtering Flushing Man
Well. Reservoir Hole
Filtering 3
Well.
Reservoir
Flushing
Sewer
line
of
Centre
BY
H.TULLOCH
DESIGNED
A...
MADRAS
LITHOC
BARREN CAPT
R.E.
AN
16
OF
SCALE FOOT
INCH
THE
TO. 15
Peet.
6 1 8 9 10 12 13 +
Madras Drainage.
CROSS SECTIONS OF SEWERS .
GROSS SECTIONS OF MAIN SEWER .
62 Bricks. 30° 18
2.0. Brick
3.0
RAD 3
.
INVERT BLOCK
INVERT BLOCK)
AT BEGINNING IN
UNDER THE COOUM.
351
2 Bricks 18 Bricks .... 4:0 132
RAD: 6
RAD: 6
INVERT BLOCK INVERT BLOCK
UNDER THE MADRAS RAILWAY .

AT END
GENERAL CROSS SECTION
OF
OUTFALL SEWER. GENERAL CROSS SECTION
OF
BRANCH SEWERS .
12Bricks 131
20
3.0
RAD
1Brick
INVERT ALICĂ
INVERT BLOCK
O
SCALE.4 FEET TO AN INCH

THOGRAPHED BY A BARREN . JAN: 1865. 3 1 SIGNED H.TULLOCH CAPT R.E.
5 2 C 5Feet
All the sewers and other works will be constructed with Materials to
be used in the
machine-made steam pressed bricks laid in the best hydrau- works.
lic cement. The inner surface of the sewers and other
works will be lined with asphalte half an inch thick, and the
inverts of the sewers will be formed with earthenware blocks
of English manufacture. Round those sewers which run
beneath the level of water, there will be a casing of concrete.

A general idea of the form of the sewers and the manner in
which they will be constructed may be obtained from the
accompanying diagram.
Assuming that 20 gallons of water will be used, per diem, Pumping
per head of the population, the total quantity of sewage to be required.

powere
raised by the steam pumps daily would be :-
Population of Madras. Gallons. lbs.
428,000 X 20 × 10 = 85,600,000 lbs.
And if half this quantity be supposed to enter the cesspool

during the 8 hours of maximum flow, the power of the en-
gines should be sufficient to raise 42,800,000lbs. in 8 hours.
The average lift from the cesspool into the outfall sewer would
be 26 feet. The power of the pumps, therefore, should
be :-
fbs. feet.
42,800,000 × 261
= say 70 horses.
33,000lbs × 8 hours × 60 minutes.
I consider that two engines, each of 36 horse power, would
be ample for all purposes. I would not recommend the erection

of a third engine as a reserve, for I very much doubt if, for many
years, the quantity of water used daily per head of the popula-
tion, will even approximate to 20 gallons. Indeed, one engine
of 36 horse power would, in my opinion , lift all the sewage that
might flow into the cesspool during any hour of the day.
The second engine, therefore, would be as a reserve. If, at any
future period, it were found that these two engines were not suffi-
cient for the work required of them, a third could easily be pro-
cured, but it would be very unadvisable to go to the expense of
providing more engine power at first than could be utilized after-

wards.
Cesspool. By the cesspool, to which I have alluded so often, it must

not be supposed that a large reservoir for ponding up the sew-
age for many hours is intended. This system, which is practised
in England, and of which the most notable examples are to be

found in the Grand London Drainage Works is obviously not
suited to a country like India where decomposition sets in so

rapidly. The cesspool for the Madras Drainage Works, will be
a small well of, perhaps, 8 or 10 feet in diameter, into which the
sewage will be led for conveniences of pumping. During those
hours of the day when there is little or no sewage to be raised the
engines will be stopped and the sewage will be allowed to accu-
mulate in the Main Sewer, which, in fact, will be the ponding
reservoir, and take the place of those enormous cisterns which

are constructed in Europe.
Engines and As so many improvements are yearly made in England in

Boilers .
pumping engines, of which the Indian Engineer is not so much
.
as aware, I have thought that it would be useless for me to at-
temptthe designs for the engines for the Madras Drainage Works.
Much better designs could be obtained by the Government
from some one of the numerous Engineers in England , who
devote their entire attention to this class of work. A few
remarks as to the requirements of the engines for Madras will not

be out of place here. First, the boilers must be constructed
on the most improved principles, and with the view to the small-
est consumption of fuel in proportion to the work performed .
Where, as in Madras, coal is sometimes not to be had at less than
50 shillings per ton, the necessity for the careful construction

of the boilers, with the object of saving fuel, cannot be exagge
rated. 2ndly . The boilers must be made for the combustion

of either coal or wood. 3rdly. In connection with the pumps,
arrangements must be made for separating, if necessary, the

liquid from the solid portion of the sewage and a filth-hoist for
the purpose of raising the latter must be erected to be worked by
the engines. I would leave it to the Engineer in England to
decide what style of engine should be adopted—whether high or
low pressure, whether condensing or non-condensing, whether
single acting or double acting, & c.
On receipt of the plans of the engines, the buildings at the Pumping

Pumping Station can be designed . With this report is forward- Station.
ed a plan and sections of the ground where the sewage is to be
raised, and such information is given on the plan as will enable
the Engineer in England to understand the special require-
ments of the case.
The street drainage will be effected by means of 9 -inch and Street Drain-
age.
6-inch glazed earthenware pipes of English manufacture. Only
in one instance will a pipe of larger dimensions be laid down . I
propose to use pipes of these two sizes as the most convenient
for the objects in view. Every street will be drained by a 6-inch

pipe leading to a 9-inch sub-main, which will run directly to the
main or branch sewers. The 6-inch street pipes will usually
begin at 3 feet below the surface of the ground, and will slope
down uniformly to meet the 9-inch sub-mains. The least slope
for the 6-inch pipes will be at the top of the ridges in each Dis-
trict (about 1 in 150), and the greatest slope in those streets which
are nearest the main and branch sewers (about 1 in 50) . In
laying down the street drains, it will be necessary to provide

means of access to them at intervals of about three hundred
feet apart, so that they may be easily cleansed when obstructed.

In connection with these entrances leading to the drains, venti-
lators and small flushing reservoirs might be formed, similar to
those adopted for the sewers. Where the pipes were above the
level of the water, some other means of flushing would have to

be arranged. A water- cart, with a long hose, would , perhaps ,
be the simplest plan.
I would strongly urge that the pipes used for the Madras
drainage be of the kind known as " saddle and chair" pipes.
If they get broken, they can easily be removed and others can
be substituted without shifting more pipes from their position in
the line than the number to be replaced.
House Drain- The house-drainage will be effected by three and four- inch
age. earthenware pipes laid at as great an inclination in each instance
as the internal arrangements of the walls and rooms of the
dwelling will admit of. The pipes will start from the back yard
of the house and will issue into the street from under the front
door of the dwelling. The admirable system known as " back

drainage" in England cannot be adopted in Madras. The des-
truction of property would be so great as to put it entirely out
of the question . In London, where there is generally an
open yard at the back of every house, there is no difficulty
in draining the houses to the rear-in fact, it is cheaper to
do so, but in Madras the back-yard to the house is sur-
rounded by small buildings, the destruction of which would
be necessary before a pipe could be laid. Every house,
moreover, invariably slopes, and some very considerably,
from the back-yard towards the street. To attempt " back
drainage" will be to drain the houses against the natural slope
of the ground. Many objections may be found and urged

against carrying the pipe through the entire length of each
man's dwelling and taking it into the street drain from under
his front door, but long attention to this subject, and a careful in-
spection of numerous dwellings all over the town, have convinced
me that this is the only method at our disposal. It is not pos-
sible to make use of the present house drains, which are usually
channels of about 4 inches square, and run beneath the wall

Ma
Dr drna
asge
. ai
PERSPECTIV
SECTI ON E F
A
NA
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CLA
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TI
US VE
IN
.MADR
TE
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sho
the
Syst
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.proposed
PRIVY
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3 IOR .
4NCH PIPE
A.BARR
MADRAS
L,. ITHOC EN
DRAWN
TULLO
H.
CAPTAI
R.E.
BY NCH
which separates two contiguous buildings, and is common to

both. These drains having been built along with the houses,
there is no means of getting at them except by pulling down
the walls, which cannot be done without causing damage to the
dwellings. In many of the streets, the slopes which have been
given to these channels are very slight, and they constantly

become choked up in consequence.
I considered at one time whether it would not be possible to

dispense with new house drains altogether, and to use the pre
sent channels although they are so defective. But I found, if
this were attempted , that the dimensions of the main and branch
sewers would have to be enormously increased, and at least six

times the amount of pumping power already recommended would
have to be provided . I will try and make this clear.
The number of houses in Madras is 32,610 . The area of
each, together with the open yards attached, may, at a fair calcu-
lation, be taken at 1,000 square feet. The whole of the rain-
water falling on this area is drained into the streets by the pre-
sent house drains. If, therefore, these drains are to be used, the
main sewer must be capable of discharging not only the sewage
proper of all the houses, but also the rain which falls on an area of
(32,610 houses × 1,000 square feet = ) say 32,610,000 square

feet. Now, I have already shown (page 88 ) that 24 inches of
rain have been known to fall in 24 hours in Madras. But
I will not take such an exceptional case for purposes of calcula-

tion. In page 86, it will be seen that between the years 1822
and 1857 there have been twelve instances in which upwards

of 6 inches of rain have fallen in 24 hours. In other words, a
fall of 6 inches in 24 hours occurs, on an average, about every
third year. This, I think, therefore, every one will admit, is a

fair datum for calculation . Now if the sewers could not dis-
charge this quantity, we may be perfectly certain that they

would be always liable to burst whenever a heavy fall of rain
occurred. A fall of 6 inches in 24 hours would render it neces-
sary that the main sewer should be capable of discharging every

32,610,000 ×
minute 3) at least 11,200 cubic feet of water.
24 × 60
To this must be added about 1,600 cubic feet of sewage, so that
the total discharging capacity of the main would be, say in

round numbers, 13,000 cubic feet per minute. A barrel sewer,
10 feet in diameter, laid at a slope of two feet per mile, would
be required for this, but its cost would be at least three times as
great as that of the main sewer proposed to be laid down by me.
The cost of all the branch sewers would, in like manner, be
greatly increased . If I take the cost of the Main Drainage

according to this project at twenty lacs of rupees, the cost of the
Main Drainage, if the sewers are constructed to discharge the
rain which falls on the houses, would be fifty lacs of rupees,
and while, in the former case, pumping engines of about 72

horse power would probably be sufficient for all purposes, in
the latter case we should have to provide additional power to
the extent ofupwards of 400 horses . The cost of this, calculated
at 1,500 Rupees per horse power, would be six lacs of rupees.
This additional horse power, moreover, would not be required
except for one day in every three years.
If the sewers could be arranged to admit of the construc-

tion of storm-overflow channels leading to the sea and to the
other natural outfalls about Madras (such, for instance, as the
River Cooum and the Canal), a great portion of the rain during
heavy monsoons might be prevented from entering the sewers ;

but much as I have thought over the question, I cannot see
how this can be done. Madras is, for all drainage purposes,
almost a dead flat, raised only from 3 to 6 feet above the sea,
and it covers 27 square miles of country. A free outlet, under
these circumstances, I have already (page 80) attempted to
show, is impossible . The sewers must be laid at a considerable
depth below the level of the sea, the Cooum, and the Canal. If
this is not done, all the street drains will be constantly becoming
choked up for want of sufficient slope. If, therefore, the sewers
are placed below the level of the natural outfalls in Madras, no

storm -water can be passed off into these, unless the sewers are
subjected to great pressure of water- an alternative which
few would recommend.
All these considerations have led me to the conclusion

that in Madras, where the conditions of rainfall are so different
to those in England , it would be advisable to effect a perfect

separation between rain-water and sewage. I would, therefore,
leave the present house drains as the discharging channels for
rain-water, and would lay down three and four-inch earthen-
ware pipes in the manner already proposed in page 102 for

the sewage. In every yard, or wherever water may be used
within a native dwelling, there would be a small cistern fitted
up with a sink. The earthenware pipe, which would run from
the back to the front of the house, would, in most cases, pass
directly under these sinks and be connected with them by

syphon traps.
To illustrate my meaning, I will take the most ordinary

case -a native dwelling with, say, three open yards, one behind
the other, and with a well in the back, and another in the
front, yard. The earthenware pipe would start from near the
well in the back yard, run across the second yard to the well
in the first yard , and thence pass through the dwelling and out
under the front door. It would join the strect drain in the
middle of the street. Round each well it would be necessary
to put up a brick dam two or three inches high-just

sufficiently high to intercept the water, and sufficiently far from
the parapet of the well to admit of the inmates of the dwelling
bathing and cleaning their pots in the space between the para-
pet and the dam. A sink would be fixed in this open space
so that all the water that was used at the well would escape
through the sink and pass at once into the earthenware pipe.
In many cases the dam would not be required, for there is
already a channel from each well, and the sink might at once
be fixed in it . Care should be taken not to lay it at the lowest
point in the open yard, as, in that case, the rain falling on the
roofs of the houses and in the yard would enter the earthen-
ware pipe.
The house drainage should be carried out under the
immediate direction of the Municipal Commissioners . Every
house-owner should be at liberty to lay down the drains in his
house himself, subject to the approval of the work by the
Commissioners, or, if he preferred it, the Commissioners should
lay down the drains for him at their own cost, and increase the
rate charged on the house by such a sum as in 30 years would
amount to the value of the work done with interest thereon.
The removal I must not omit to explain in this place how I intend
of excreta.
that the excreta should be disposed of. So far as the urine is
concerned the matter will be very simple. The connection
at present between the privy drain and the house drain will
be stopped , and the former will be joined to the new earthen-

ware pipe through which all the urine will escape to the sewers.
For the removal of the ordure I would encourage, as much as
possible, the system which obtains at present throughout the

*
town, but I would , at the same time, try to improve it . The
abominable smells in all parts of Madras are not produc-

ed, as is generally supposed, by the excreta of the popula-
tion, but by defective drainage . It is the refuse water in the
houses and in the streets into which all manner of garbage
is thrown to ferment and generate foul gases, that creates the
dreadful nuisances so much complained of. What is chiefly
required to prevent excreta producing a nuisance is a constant
Vide page 16 of this Report.
inspection of the privies in the dwellings. Although the

ordure is removed daily, yet the privies themselves are not
kept clean. Very often there is a stoppage in the channel
which carries away the urine, or the ordure is dropped on the
bare floor from which it is impossible to remove it altogether.
Now, if the Municipal Commissioners would organize a
system of inspection and insist on every householder keeping
his privy in a wholesome state, we might soon get rid of the
evil . Of course, the use of clay, ashes , &c. , should be encou-
raged as much as possible. This would be nothing more than
the dry system applied to dwellings, and would have this
advantage, that each householder would be saddled with no
more than the expense of removing the nuisance produced in

his own house and by his own family. The cost of this plan
to the Municipality would really be most trifling. For the
first few months it might be necessary to examine each privy
once in every two or three days, but after a few men had
been punished for the filthy state of their privies, even this
amount of inspection would not be called for. A weekly
inspection would subsequently answer every purpose. Twenty-

five Native Inspectors would suffice for the whole of Madras.
In each District there should be one European or East Indian
Superintendent, who should keep the Inspectors up to their
work, and receive their daily reports. Both the Superinten-
dent and the Inspectors should have no work but that of
looking after the privies.
If each Superintendent received 30 Rupees, and each

Inspector 7 Rupees monthly, the total yearly cost of (say) 8
Superintendents and twenty-five Inspectors would not amount
to 5,000 Rupees. The only objection which may be urged

against this scheme, is, perhaps, that the householders would
object to the privacy of their dwellings being invaded for the
inspection of their privies. But, considering that ultimately
the privies would not require to be inspected more than

perhaps once a week or so, and that sweepers at present enter
each house every day to clear away the ordure , the above objec-
tion would really be an absurd one.
The best system for the removal of excreta is the sewer
system- provided that plenty of water can be employed to
carry away the urine and ordure, and that a liberal use can
be made of some deodorizing solution to prevent effluvia.

There is nothing to equal the water- closet for cleanliness and
wholesomeness. It acts perfectly if deodorizers are used as
well as water. Both deodorizing and antiseptic solutions will,
before long, be procurable at prices that will admit of their
free use even by householders , but many years must elapse
before every house in Madras is supplied with water. Until
then, I am satisfied that it will be best to continue the present

system .
The utiliza-
tion of the Having now explained the Project generally, it is neces-
sewage. sary that I should return to a point in connection with it to
which I have hitherto only alluded , in order that the description
of the works should be as clear and uninterrupted as possible.
In the chapter headed " Objections to Sewers"(from page 50 to

59), I have already attempted to prove that sewage is a valu-
able manure, and that those who are best qualified to speak
on the subject are unanimous in the opinion that it should
not be wasted but applied to agricultural purposes. It is
unnecessary, therefore, that I should repeat the arguments in
this place . The points to which I now wish to draw attention
are the very favorable position of Madras for the utilization
of its sewage, and the rare opportunity thus afforded to
Government of making an experiment on a large scale on this
very important question of the day.
The land on which it is proposed to use the sewage lies
to the north- west of Madras. It is a portion of that exten-
Madras Drainage .
CHART
SHOWING THE NUMBER OF DAYS INTHE YEAR
THE WIND BLOWS

IN
MADRAS
LE
X
FROM EACH POINT OF THE COMPASS .
HS
AB
NT
OR
NT
MO
S
N
AV
ER
OU
G
ESS
THA
ND
OW
N DURIN
4
IC
MB
NF
YS
YS 87
AM
THE
TO
YS L
WI
R
TO
NUL
BL
WH
OTA
172 ,O
BY DA
YS3
F
YNS U
YS
NW O
YS
1/2 W
N
W
DA
DA
DA4
DA BY
YW
DA Y
S
34N
DA
16
S
13
W
54N
N
2
N
S
DA
B
DAY
4
22
DAY
13
DAY
10
22
NE
BY
N
NE
YS
2.2
DA
NE
BY
W
AYS
N
E
4D
W
ENE
D4AYS
Y
W
N
X
B
E BY N
X
SAVE
AYS
W
22YS
/
D2
DA
‫ايل‬
6
3
152
BW
Y
S
DAYS
EY
S
B
1434
YS
ES YS
DAYS
A
E
DA
32
4D
3/
SW
1434
SW
S
BY
N
TH TOTA UMB
DAYS
W
BY
S
S
BY
W
W
S
E ER OF DAYS DUR
BY
L
W
WH TH FA A WI BL
TO27 ORTOMO
IN IC E VO OW MOU ND
SE
222 G H RA S 8 RE
NT
DAYS BL
E Y S
5 DA
184
Y S
-
DAYS B E
SE
-
25 DAYS 23 DAYS 224DAYS 94DAY S

214 S
D
E
SS
S BY E
S
The favorable Winds or those which would convey the smell of the Sewage awayfrom Madras, - are marked with arrows.
DAYS 10
10 20
Note . The Results shown above are averages of 5 Years observations.

A.BARREN LITHOG JAN: 1865
DRAWN BY H. TULLOCH; CAPTAIN R..
sive low -lying tract stretching toward the north, along which
the Canal runs. The average level of the land is from 2 to 6
feet above datum (mean sea level) . It is not possible to say
how much land will be required ; that will depend on the
quantity of sewage available. But if this quantity should be
even ten times as much as I have allowed for, there is more
than sufficient land for the purpose. The only objection
which I can conceive will be made to the use of the sewage,
is the general one that a nuisance will be created in Madras

whenever the wind blows over the sewage-irrigated land
towards the town . This objection I shall, therefore, at once
attempt to meet .
The accompanying Chart shows the number of days in the
year the wind blows in Madras from each point of the com-
pass. All those winds marked with arrows are winds which
would convey the smell of the sewage away from Madras.
The other winds would blow over the sewage lands to some
one or other inhabited quarter of the town. Now, a glance will

convince any one by how very much the favorable winds
exceed the unfavorable ones. While the latter blow for less
than three months, the former blow for more than nine months
of the year. It must not be supposed that each wind blows
continuously during the number of days marked in the Chart .
What is meant to be shown is, that the total number of days
in the year during which the wind blows from any one point
of the compass amounts to that shown in the Chart. The
winds N. E. by N. and N. N. E. , which I have marked as unfa-
vorable, are really in only a very slight degree so, for they
would have to travel nearly two miles before they reached
the nearest inhabited part of Madras, which would be the out-
skirts of Pursewakum . The nuisance, therefore, if there were
any, which I altogether doubt, would, at all events, be so very

slight as to be scarcely felt.
On the accompanying Map of Madras I have shown the
position of the sewage-irrigated lands, and have projected

the directions of the winds so that the course taken
by each may be at once seen. The only winds, if any, which

would be positively unfavorable, are those which blow from
between W. by N. to N. by E. , but, practically speaking,
there are no winds from between W. to N. Only occasionally,
for a day or two in each month of the year, does the wind
blow from the points between these quarters. It never con-
tinues in them. To render this clear I have drawn the ac-
companying diagram which shows the number ofdays in every

month of the years 1847, 1848 , 1849 and 1850 , during which
the wind blew in Madras from each point of the compass. It
will be noticed how thinly scattered over all the months of the
year are the days on which the wind blew from between
N. and W.
I think it will now be admitted that no inconvenience
will be likely to arise from the use of the sewage on the site
I have pointed out. But should the Government have any
doubt on the matter, it would be very easy to select a much
better site by going farther away from Madras. It is a ques-
tion of expense only, for the farther the land is situated, the
longer must be the channel which conveys the sewage to it.
I have merely chosen the nearest site on which I consider
sewage might be applied without objection being made. My
opinion is, that the sewage might even be used around
the very spot on which it is pumped up from the cesspool

without any nuisance to the inhabitants.
I had partly designed an Irrigation Sewer, but I sub-

sequently decided not to complete it as it was essential to
I have not selected these years, but the Government Astronomer (N. R.
Pogson. Esq.,)gave me the records of them as being those which were in the most
convenient form for reference. No records of later years have as yet been pub.
lished.
Tandavarovan Chut Drainage.
Madras
MAP OF MADRAS
SHEWING THE COURSE TAKEN BY WINDS
WHICH PASS OVER
Finale
ջ առ THE SEWAGE IRRIGATED LANDS .
Note- a .The figures indicate the number ofdays in theYear

Keelpaukum the Wind blowsfrom eachpoint.
WN b. The favourable Winds arethose marked with
W arrow heads and enclosed between thethick lines.
4
NWBYW
22
N
W
1/2
NW
BY
Co
N
RABLE
2/
2
tt
WINDS
N
Spur
N
Tank
W
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LESS
Venkatareddy Male SEWAGE IRRIGATED LANDS
R
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D
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Nuddarovan Chat
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WAGE IRRIGATED LANDS .
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S T N D S I C H V E S E D
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E
3/2
Madras.
Drainage
MADRAS
BLOWS
WIND
YEAR
THE
MONTH
EVERY
OF
NUMBER
DAYS
IN
SHEWING
DIAGRAM
COMPASS
OF.
POINT
THE
EACH
FROM
YEAR. 1847. 1848. 1849. 1850.
APRIL
JUNE
SEPT
APRIL
APRIL
TOTAL
SEPT.
MONTH.
JULY
AUG.
JAN.
TOTAL
NOV.
• DEC.
JULY
JUNE
TOTAL
FEB:
MAY
TOTAL
MAR
FEB
FEB
• : ост
MAR
LAUG
MAY
OCT
DEC
ΛΟΝ
JAN
MAR
JAN
N 7 7 5 17 36 9
•
NE
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: : 9 · 14 ... 13/4 53
20.
.. ... ...
022
WIND
NNE ... :
21 • · 21
:: 18 • 1373184
...
N
BY
NE 21 ... 23 21 24
89
224
NE 17 20 20 16 18473
NEBYE · ::
15 ... 14 • 10 12 51 12/4
ENE : 16
: 12
: 3 6 94
37
BYNE • 5 5 3 185 42
E · : 6 :0 4 1 24
BYSE · • 3 0 1 1226
ESE 4 • 2 • 2 1 249
SE
BYE 0 • 2 5 2429
SE : 2 : 5 · 3 • 34155
SE
BYS : 3 11 • 4 307/4
121
SSE : : 8 23 25 2014
25
81
::
BYSE · 9 · • 25 30 29 23 93
%
S 24 ...
... 29 33 16102/25/2
BY
W S · 29 · :· • · 19 • 24 9204
81
SSW : ::: 38 : · 21 14 86212
13
SWBYS ...... 27 15 18
· 70172
10
SW 31 ... ... 29 ... ... 27 969
24
........ ... ...
W
SWBY 22 14 15 7 14 58%2
WSW 10 · 17 26 64 16
222 500
WBY S 9 :• 13 21 2972 18
W 8 8 · • 21 46 11%
·
00
BWNY • · 4 · : 4 · 3 :: 205
•
·
DIRECTION OF
WNW • 1 2 • 8 18 4/2
7
BY
W
NW : 2 3 5 123
NW : 2 3 1 7 14
NWBNY 1 : 3 2 4 10 /2
NNW :· 4 4 4 2
143/2
N
BY
W 6 4 : 5 5421G
Note
Eacha.
represents
dot
day
one Diagram
slightly
Chart
results
Wind
found
Mean
differ
those
from
will
the
The
this
in
be
to
C.""."
b.
winds
The
favourable
are
marked latter
observationsand
years
averages
former the
The of
5
4.,
are
of
BARREN,
JANA.
LITH:
1865 with
arrowheads. DRAWN
BY
M.
TULLOCH.
know first what site the Government might select for the
utilization of the sewage. The great advantage of using the
sewage will be the saving effected by not having to construct
the Outfall Sewer, a work that will cost about three lacs of
Rupees. Besides this, the sale of the sewage may be expected
to realize a considerable sum .
Before going on to state the cost of this Project, I beg

very respectfully to urge on the attention of Government the
great importance of the question of utilizing the sewage of

Madras. Every town in India has an interest in its decision,
and could it be proved that the sewage of towns could be profit-
ably and safely applied to land in India, an incalculable bene-
fit would be conferred on the whole country .
The following is a List of the quantities of work to be Cost of the

works.
done, and the rates at which they are calculated :-
Quantities . Description of work and rate. AMOUNT.
MAIN DRAINAGE.
Cub. ft.. Rupees .
1,337,751 Brickwork in hydraulic cement, at 6 As. per cubic foot 5,01,657
1,718,121 Concrete, at 2 Annas per cubic foot....... 2,14,765
Sq. ft.
1,053,100 Asphalting, at 15 Rupees per square of 100 feet......... 1,57,965
7,000 Plastering, at 2 Rupees 8 Annas per square of 100 feet 175
Run. ft.
104,928 Invert Block, at 1 Rupee 8 Annas per running foot ... 1,57,392
Cub. ft.
27,106 Ashlar Granite, at 1 Rupee 8 Annas per cubic foot..... 40,659
Cub. yds.
529,169 Earthwork, including excavation , re-filling, re-mak-
ing road and every expense, at 1 Rupee 4 Annas 6,61,461
per cubic yard ………
..
991 Tunnelling, at 7 Rupees per cubic yard 2010. 6,937
33,281 Embankment, at 1 Rupee per cubic yard ...... ... 33,281
20 Gravel, at 1 Rupee 2 Annas per cubic yard ..... 23
Cub. ft.
809 Teakwood, at 3 Rupees 4 Annas per cubic foot........ 2,629
Sq. ft.
4,203 Galvanized iron netting, at 6 Annas per square foot ... 1,576
lbs.
31,614 ......
Wrought iron, at 150 Rupees per ton………
. 2,117
Quantities. Description of work and rate. AMOUNT.
Number.
1,104 Rivets, at 1 Anna 6 Pie each ........ 104
336 Cast iron Ventilators, at 30 Rupees each . 10,080
336 Trap Doors, at 140 Rupees each ...... 47,040
263 Ball Valves, Sluice Valves, Sluice Gates with pipes 23,670
complete for each Flushing Reservoir, at 90 Rupees
Tons.
6,258 Granite Boulders at 2 Rupees per ton ...... 12,516
Total Rupees... 18,74,047

STREET DRAINAGE.
Run. ft.
577,490 Six-inch glazed earthenware pipe drains, including
digging, laying down , jointing, filling up, and every 7,21,863
expense, at 1 Rupee 4 Annas per running foot...
61,400 Nine-inch do do do
1,07,450
at 1 Rupee 12 Aunas per running foot.....
2,800 Twelve-inch do do do
6,300
at 2 Rupees 4 Annas per running foot.........
Number.
214 Man-holes and Side-entrances for the nine and
twelve- inch pipes, at 500 Rupees each ….. …….... !} 1,07,000
Total Rupees ... 9,42,613
I have thought it best to show clearly the exact quantities

of work and the rates at which they are calculated, so that an
opinion may be formed by the Government on the Estimate.
For sewerage works none but the best procurable materials

should be used . Admirable steam-pressed bricks have
already been made in Madras -sufficiently good for any

engineering purpose . I propose to use bricks similar to these
for the Madras sewers . Hydraulic cement can be made
wherever lime and clay are to be had, and I have no doubt

excellent cement will be produced when the time comes to
begin the works. In London, brickwork for sewers, when
the bricks are picked stocks and laid in Portland cement,

costs under a shilling a cubic foot ; but such brickwork will
not be attainable in Madras . Brickwork with picked stocks
in blue lias lime costs under 9d. a cubic foot. I have taken
9d. , or 6 Annas, as the rate for the Madras sewers .

In London, concrete, composed of blue lias lime and clean

ballast, costs under 3d. per cubic foot . I have taken 3d. , or
2 Annas, as the rate for Madras. Hitherto, I believe, concrete
has cost somewhat more than this ; but it has been made in
such small quantities, that it is difficult to say what the cost

will be when it is manufactured on a large scale.
I think it will be necessary to coat the interior surface of

the sewers with asphalte, and I do not apprehend any diffi-
culty in the work, as the brickwork will all be built in blocks
on the surface of the ground before it is laid in the sewers. *
The cost of the asphalte coating will, I think, be covered by
the rate allowed for it, viz. , 15 Rupees per square of 100 feet.
" The whole of the brickwork executed under this contract shall be built in
blocks above ground previously to being put into position in the sewers and other
works. Each block shall be at least 18 inches long by 12 inches high, and there
shall be a sufficient number of boxes provided by the contractor, to admit of
the blocks remaining in the boxes for at least two days. As soon as each block
has been built, the joints on that side of it which shall correspond with the
internal surface of the sewers, or other works, shall be scraped and kept open to
the depth of not less than one inch. After the block has been removed from the
box, and after the hydraulic cement has become perfectly hard and set, that side
of it which shall correspond with the internal surface of the sewer, or other work,
shall be coated with a coating of asphalte not less than a quarter of an inch thick.
The asphalte shall be poured in a melted state into the joints, so as completely
to fill them , and the coating when finished and dry shall be perfectly smooth and
even. The asphalte coating shall in no case be laid on until three days have
elapsed from that on which the block was removed from the box. The asphalte
shall be boiled with linseed oil in proportions to be decided by the Engineer, and
no sand or other material shall be mixed with it.
The brickwork shall be executed in the best manner, the blocks laid evenly and
uniformly to the curvature of the moulds and centres, in neat, close, and regular
joints, kept straight or regularly curved as the case may be, with the direction, and
parallel with the rise of the sewer. The brickwork in the blocks generally to be
in old English or other bond as may be ordered, and to break joint correctly with
the bricks underneath. The joints of the blocks with each other on the internal
surface of the sewer, or other work, to be finished off smooth with melted
asphalte to the depth of at least one inch. The joints of the bricks with each
other, or of the blocks with each other, shall not exceed 3-16ths of an inch in
thickness ." -Extract from the " Specification" for the Sewers.
It is most essential that the inverts of the sewers should be
laid with the best material. They are exposed to much more
friction than the other parts of the sewers. For smoothness
of surface and for durability there is nothing to equal the
glazed earthenware blocks which are now manufactured and

used in such large quantities in England for the inverts of
sewers. They have been laid down in the London sewers at
2 shillings per running foot. I have allowed 3 shillings, or
1 Rupee 8 Annas, per running foot for Madras.
Earthwork, including digging, re-filling, tamping, shoring,

pumping, keeping the works clear of water, re-making road-
ways, and every expense whatsoever, has been done for the
London sewers at 2s . and 6d. per cubic yard . There is no

reason why this rate should be exceeded in Madras.
Six- inch glazed earthenware drain pipes have been laid

down in London at 2s . per running foot, including digging,
re-filling, and every expense whatsoever. Nine-inch pipes
have been laid at 2s. and 6d., and twelve-inch pipes at 3s. per
foot run. The rates I have adopted for the Madras sewerage
are,-for the six-inch pipes, including all bends and junctions ,

1 Rupee 4 Annas ; for the nine-inch, 1 Rupee 12 Annas ;
and for the twelve-inch, 2 Rupees 4 Annas per running foot .
The use of none but the best earthenware pipes should be

contemplated . It would be folly to use country-made pipes
as they are manufactured by the potters at present.
I have assumed that each Man- Hole or Side- Entrance for
the street drains will cost 500 Rupees. The quantities of

materials will differ according to the position of each , but I
think the above will be found a near approximation to the
cost.
The other items in the preceding estimate are of small

amount, and it is not necessary that I should refer to them, as
any slight alteration in the rates for them will affect the total
cost of the works in only a slight degree.
Some land will have to be bought up for the works, and

the value of this has been ascertained, in communication with
the Collector's Department, at 25,340 Rupees . A few small
buildings in the line of the sewers will likewise have to be
purchased. The cost of these will be 20,000 Rupees. The cost
of the engine and pumps ( 72 Horse-power) has been calculat-
ed at 1,500 Rupees per horse -power, delivered in Madras,
or altogether to 1,08,000 Rupees. The Pumping Station,
and works in connection with it, (including expenses of erect-
ing the machinery) will, it is calculated, cost 70,000 Rupees.

There are no plans for this work, as I have already explained,
but I believe 70,000 Rupees will cover all expenses.
The total estimate for all the works is as follows :-

Rs .
Main Drainage..... 18,74,047
Street Drainage... 9,42,613
Land to be purchased... 25,340
Buildings do. 20,000
Engines and Pumps of 72 Horse- power,

at 1,500 Rupees per horse-power .... 1,08,000
Pumping Station , including cost of putting

up machinery, and other works ..... 70,000
Total Rupees... 30,40,000

Add about 10 per cent. for sundries and
contingencies ...... 3,10,000
Total Rupees ... 33,50,000
If Government decide, as I trust they will , that the

sewage shall be utilized for agricultural purposes in the neigh-
bourhood of the Pumping Station, the cost of the Outfall
Sewer, about three lacs of rupees, will be saved . An Irrigation

Sewer will, in this case, have to be built, but its length need
not be more than one-third that of the Outfall Sewer, and its
dimensions need not be so great. The cost of the Irrigation
Sewer may be put at about a lac of rupees. Deducting the cost
of the Outfall Sewer (about 3 lacs of rupees) from the amount

of the above estimate (33 lacs), and adding the cost of the
Irrigation Sewer (say a lac of rupees) , the total of the estimate
becomes 31 lacs.
It will be seen that I have allowed the large margin of
upwards of 3 lacs ( 10 per cent . on the estimate) for unfor-

seen contingencies.
Establish- The cost of the establishment for superintendence will
ment for su-
perintending probably be as follows :-
the works. Rs.
1 Mechanical Engineer specially brought out
from England to superintend the work-
ing of the engine and to keep the ac-
counts ..... 400
2 European or East Indian Engine - drivers,

at 50 Rupees each..... 100
4 trained Firemen, at 15 Rupees each ....... 60

4 ordinary Firemen, at 8 Rupees each........ 32
25 men (mostly sweepers ) to look after the
sewers and pipe drains, and to be avail-
able generally for any work, at 5 Rupees

each .... 125
1 Storekeeper and Accountant .. 50

1 Clerk ...... 25
4 Peons, at 6 Rupees each 24
Monthly cost, Rupees ... 816

12
Yearly cost, Rupees ... 9,792

If5 Rupees yearly represent a Capital of 100 Rupees, the

above sum for superintendence would represent a Capital of
( 9,792 × 20 = ) say, 2 lacs of Rupees .
I think it may fairly be assumed that for many years to Cost of fuel,
oil, tallow, &c.
come, the quantity of sewage will not exceed 10 gallons per
diem per head of the population . The total quantity of
sewage to be raised by the pumps daily, taking the popula-
tion of Madras at 430,000, would, therefore, be 4,300,000
gallons. Good engines of the largest size (of about 200 or

300 horse-power) lift from 2 to 3 million gallons of water a
hundred feet high with a ton of coal. Small engines (such
as those proposed for the Madras Drainage) would not lift

more than half this quantity, or say 14 million gallons a hun-
dred feet high. This is equivalent to more than 4 million
gallons 27 feet high, which is the height to which the pumps
will have to raise the sewage. About a ton of coal, or say
1½ tons at the outside, will, therefore, be consumed daily in

Madras. The cost of coal, if imported direct from England
and not purchased in the local market, may be taken at 20
Rupees a ton. The yearly cost for fuel will be (365 × 30 =
10,950 Rupees.
To this sum we should add, say 2,050 Rupees for oil,
tallow, and other sundries, which would then make the
total yearly expenditure about 13,000 Rupees. This would
represent a Capital of ( 13,000 x 20- ) say 2 lacs of rupees.
If the works are properly executed in the first instance, Cost of re-
pairs .
and a sufficient establishment, such as that proposed, is main-
tained to look after them, the repairs ought to cost little or
nothing. There are sewers at Home which have cost nothing
for repairs for years after they have been laid down . But I
will assume that the repairs every year will amount to per
cent. on the cost of the works, i . e. , on 314 lacs, supposing that

the Outfall Sewer is not built. This will be equivalent to , say,
16,000 rupees yearly, or to a Capital of about 31 lacs.

The total estimate , then, under all heads, will be as

follows :-
Cost of works ........ .... 31 lacs.
Superintendence . 2
Fuel and sundries . 238 ""
Repairs .......... 31 99
391 lacs .
The cost of We are now in a position to compare the cost of sewerage

dry conser-
vancy and of with that of Dry Conservancy. In my estimate above of 391
sewers com- lacs of rupees , I have included every possible charge . I will
pared.
even assume now that the works may cost as much as 50 lacs
or half a million pounds sterling. And what will the rate-
payers receive for this sum ? All liquid refuse will be removed
from the precincts of their dwellings and will be utilized on
land. Ultimately, I have no doubt that the value of the
sewage for agricultural purposes will repay the cost of main-

tenance, but I will not assume this now.
The Estimate I prepared of the cost of Dry Conservancy*
was 75 lacs of Rupees. But I did not include the cost of pro-
curing clay, which amounted to 31 lacs , † and I excluded all
cost of repairs and a number of other items. The calculations
based on the enquiries made into the cost of Dry Conservancy
by the Sanitary Commissioners,|| brought up the cost of this
system to 258 lacs. Let me suppose, though for argument's sake ,
that a million pounds sterling will cover all expenses. We then
have half a million pounds sterling for a system of sewerage by
which all liquid refuse is removed, and a million pounds ster-

ling for Dry Conservancy by which only urine and ordure are
removed, which together amount to one hundredth part of
* Vide Page 38.

+ Vide note to Page 39.
Vide Pages 38 and 39.
|| Vide Pages 40 and 41 .
the sewage . So that it will cost at least twice as much to
remove urine and ordure only according to the Dry Conser-

vancy system as it will to remove a hundred times their
amount of sewage by the Sewer system .
It has been urged that the cost of draining Madras accord- Cost of
Drainage
ing to this Project will amount to as much as the value of all considered
with refer-
the house property in it, and that it will be better to remove ence to the
the town bodily, as the Americans remove their houses, than value
houseof
pro-
to attempt to drain it. It is best to meet arguments of this perty.
kind by facts. The value of a house is usually considered
equal to 30 years' rental. The number and yearly rent of all
the houses in the town may be obtained by any one from the
Municipal Commissioners' Office, and the value of all the
houses will be found to be 850 lacs of rupees or 8 million
pounds sterling. Half a million pounds sterling (the assumed

cost of this Project) is not 6 per cent. on the value of the
houses at present, and a good system of water supply and
drainage will raise their value in the course of a few years by
at least twenty per cent. Money laid out in water supply and
drainage works is merely capital sunk to improve house pro-
perty. The inhabitants recover the outlay by the enhanced
value of their houses.
There is an impression that Madras can be drained for a Cost of

Drainage
very small sum of money. I have no hesitation in saying that must always
the idea is absurd . It is possible to have a cheap system of be great.
water supply, but it is utterly impossible to haveacheap system
of town drainage. In supplying a town with water, you may
carry a few pipes to a few central stations and make the in-
habitants fetch their water from them. But in draining a
town you must carry a pipe from every single house in the
town, without exception, to some one central spot . The
length of drains in the latter instance becomes
mous. Whatever scheme of drainage is adopted for a
town, the length of the sewers and pipes must be almost

exactly the same. In the case of Madras, there must be about
140 miles of sewers and pipes, or, if not, some parts of the
town will be left undrained. For whatever sum of money
140 miles of drains can be laid down, for that sum only,
and for no less, can Madras be drained .
Contractor It is necessary for me to add only that the success of
for works.
this, or of any Project for the drainage of the town, will
depend, in a great measure, upon the manner in which the
works are executed . Contractors who have had practical
experience in sewerage works will have no more than the
ordinary difficulties to contend with in the building of the
sewers and the laying down of the pipes for Madras, but
should any one attempt the work who is unacquainted with
town drainage, certain failure will overtake him . In the pre-
sent day, contractors in England have attained great skill in
the execution of sewerage works, and I, therefore, venture to
recommend that, when the Government shall have come to a
decision on the subject, they should invite tenders for the

Madras Drainage Works in London, and accept not necessarily
the lowest tender, but the tender of some well -known builder
who has already proved himself competent, and who possesses
the requisite amount of capital for the undertaking.
H. TULLOCH ,
Captain, Royal Engineers.

BANGALORE ,
December, 1865. f

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DRAINAGE OF THE TOWN

CAPTAIN HECTOR TULLOCH,

INTRODUCTORY NOTES ..... 1

CHAPTER 1.- POSITION AND PHYSICAL FEATURES OF MADRAS 7

II. THE TOWN OF MADRAS ... 14

III.- DRY CONSERVANCY...... 19

IV. OBJECTIONS TO SEWERS ANSWERED ……………………….. 43

V.- DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT ... ... ... ... ... 74

Half Monthly Averages of 20 Years ' Meteorological

" Plan of a Latrine for the use of Natives, and in which

Map of Madras, showing the Lines of Sewers proposed

Monthly Rainfall in England and in Madras 84

Plan of Black Town, showing the System of Street

Plan and Section of a Man-hole , Ventilator and Flush-

Perspective Section of a First Class Native House in

Chart showing the number of Days in the Year the

Map of Madras, showing the course taken by Winds

DRAINAGE OF THE TOWN

THE following Drawings and Papers accompany this Report : -

Map of Madras shewing the Lines of the Main

Index Plan and Index Section ... 1 1

Index Plan and Index Section .. 1 1

Index Plan and Index Section ...... 1 1

Index Plan, Index Section, and Borings.. 1 1

Details (Side Entrances, Ventilators and 4 3

Index Plan, Index Section......

[ Index Plan and Index Section…………..

Index Plan, Index Section, and Borings

Map of Black Town showing the system of 1 1

Plan of the Site for the Engine House, 1

Specification of Black Town Branch Sewer, do . do ......... 1

Copy of Pamphlet :—" On some unsolved Problems in relation to Public

Madras as " mean sea level. " It is taken from a bench-mark

on a stone fixed in the Escarp of the North Ravelin of Fort St.

" Mean Level of the Sea from May to Octo-

Ascertained in 1821 by Major DeHavilland,

Acting Chief Engineer."

The general condition of the inhabitants, i. e. , the number and

POSITION AND PHYSICAL FEATURES OF MADRAS.

THE limits of the jurisdiction of the Municipal Commis- Position of

all parts at a few feet above or below mean sea level.

If we except the western quarter of Madras, which is so

hood which is altogether elevated above the others. In each

streets in Saint Thomè, Triplicane, Chintadrapett, Egmore,

Vepery, Pursewakum, Black Town, Tondiarpett and Roya-

be convinced by a reference to the Map of Madras which

Madras may be conveniently divided into four drainage

St. George. In Black Town there are two ridges running

well known street, Popham's Broadway, which is from 6 to 8

about a quarter of a mile until the first ridge is reached,

There is nothing to note about the natural features of the

itself. Although it rises steadily to the west, there is a valley

sewakum stands on two slopes of ground meeting in a valley—

slopes down from 9 to 10 feet on the west to 5 feet above

district than by any detailed description I could give. For

or nearly up to the College Bridge. From January to October

rent to scour the bed of the Cooum effectually. At present