Journal of Relationships Mating Performance: Exploring Emotional

Research
Intelligence, the Dark Triad, Jealousy and
cambridge.org/jrr Attachment Effects
Menelaos Apostolou, Christiana Paphiti, Eleni Neza, Maria Damianou
Original Article and Polyxeni Georgiadou

Cite this article: Apostolou M, Paphiti C, Neza University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus
E, Damianou M, Georgiadou P (2019). Mating
Performance: Exploring Emotional
Abstract
Intelligence, the Dark Triad, Jealousy and
Attachment Effects. Journal of Relationships A considerable proportion of the population in post-industrial societies experiences substan-
Research 10, e1, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1017/ tial difficulties in the domain of mating. The current research attempted to estimate the preva-
jrr.2018.22
lence rate of poor mating performance and to identify some of its predictors. Two
Received: 2 September 2018 independent studies, which employed a total of 1,358 Greek-speaking men and women,
Revised: 31 October 2018 found that about 40% of the participants experienced poor performance in either starting
Accepted: 24 November 2018 or keeping an intimate relationship, or in both areas. Furthermore, emotional intelligence,
Dark Triad traits, jealousy, and attachment style were found to be significant predictors of
Keywords:
mating performance; mating; Dark Triad; mating performance. In particular, higher emotional intelligence and narcissism were asso-
emotional intelligence; attachment; jealousy; ciated with higher performance in mating, while higher psychopathy, jealousy and an avoidant
evolutionary mismatch attachment style were associated with lower mating performance.
Address for correspondence: Menelaos
Apostolou, University of Nicosia, 46
Makedonitissas Ave., 1700 Nicosia, Cyprus. Being able to attract and retain a mate is of utmost evolutionary significance, because those
Email: m.apostolou@gmail.com who are not able to do so are unlikely to have their genetic material represented in future gen-
erations. As a consequence, strong selection pressures are exercised on men and women to
evolve mechanisms or adaptations that will enable them to be successful in this endeavour
(Buss, 2017). Examples of such adaptations are mate preferences that enable individuals to
screen prospective mates (Buss, 1989); emotions such as love, lust and loneliness that motivate
individuals to allocate resources in mating effort (Apostolou, 2016b); and sexual jealousy,
which motivates individuals to guard their partners (Buss, 2000). The presence of these
mechanisms is expected to ensure that most people do reasonably well in the domain of mat-
ing, a prediction that does not appear to hold.
More specifically, a recent study found that nearly one in two adults faced difficulties in
attracting or retaining mates (Apostolou, Shialos, Kyrou, Demetriou, & Papamichael, 2018).
In the same vein, two different studies found that about one in two singles in the Greek cul-
tural context were involuntary so — they wanted to be in a relationship but they faced diffi-
culties in doing so (Apostolou, Papadopoulou, & Georgiadou, 2018). Moreover, the high
prevalence of singlehood in post-industrial societies (Jones, 2012; Saad, 2015) is also suggestive
of the difficulties that people face in attracting and retaining mates. It has been proposed that
the mismatch between ancestral and modern environments has affected several of the adapta-
tions involved in mating, resulting in people experiencing poor mating performance
(Apostolou, 2015a). Recent research has identified several such adaptations, including
mechanisms that regulate sexual functioning and mating effort (Apostolou et al., 2018). The
purpose of the current research is to advance this line of work by identifying additional pre-
dictors of poor mating performance and to estimate its prevalence rate using different samples.
We will start by examining why there is a high occurrence of poor mating performance in con-
temporary societies.

The Evolutionary Origin of Poor Mating Performance

It has been proposed that one reason behind the high prevalence of poor mating performance
is the mismatch between ancestral and modern conditions (Apostolou, 2015a). More specific-
ally, selection forces have adjusted the adaptations involved in mating to function optimally in
a specific environment. When the environment changes, selection forces will adjust these
adaptations to work optimally in the new setting (Lynch, 2010; Nielsen & Slatkin, 2013).
© The Author(s) 2019 Nevertheless, this process takes several generations, and in the meantime, there would be
many individuals who have adaptations that are not well adapted to the demands of the
novel environment, a problem known as evolutionary mismatch (Crawford, 1998; Li, van
Vugt, & Colarelli, 2018; Maner & Kenrick, 2010). How many people are affected depends
on how drastic and how recent the change in the domain of mating has been. If the change

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 2 Menelaos Apostolou et al.

has been small, it is expected that most adaptations would interact in ancestral human societies (Puts, 2010, 2016). In contemporary
with the novel environment reasonably well, so few people would post-industrial societies, male-male competition is much weaker,
be affected. On the other hand, if the change in the environment as men typically do not form coalitions to monopolise access to
has been substantial, several adaptions may not be able to interact women by force (Pinker, 2011).
effectively with the very different environment, resulting in many In effect, mechanisms involved in mating have evolved in a
people experiencing poor mating performance. context of marriage regulation and forced mating, and may not
Furthermore, if the environmental change occurred many gen- be able to deal effectively with the demands of the postindustrial
erations ago, selection forces would have had sufficient time to context, where mate choice is freely exercised and individuals have
adjust the adaptations involved in mating to the new environmen- to find mates on their own (Apostolou, 2015a). For instance, as
tal conditions, which means that only a few individuals would women were controlled by their parents or were monopolised
experience poor mating performance. On the other hand, if the by men, they had limited space to exercise choice. Selection forces
environmental change was very recent, selection forces would on mechanisms that enable women to screen potential mates
not have had sufficient time to adjust the adaptations to the would have been relatively weak, allowing mutations to accumu-
new conditions, meaning that there would be people who lacked late, resulting in considerable variations. In the contemporary
well-adjusted adaptations and who would experience poor mating context, where mate choice is not regulated or forced, these
performance. It has been argued that there has been a recent and women would experience poor mating performance. To use
drastic change in the domain of mating that is responsible for the another example, high aggression would help ancestral men to
high prevalence of individuals who experience poor mating per- secure wives in the ancestral context, but it has the opposite effect
formance (Apostolou, 2015a). in a contemporary context.
More specifically, anthropological evidence from contempor- It has been proposed that adaptations that are likely to have
ary preindustrial societies, along with historical evidence from been affected by the mismatch between ancestral and modern
ancestral preindustrial societies, suggests that the contemporary conditions involve mechanisms that regulate sexual functioning
environment associated with mating is very different from the (Apostolou, 2015b, 2016a, 2016c), personality traits (Apostolou,
ancestral environment. In more detail, anthropological evidence 2016a), flirting skills, mating effort, and attention to looks
indicates that in a preindustrial context, mate choice is typically (Apostolou, 2015a). Apostolou et al. (2018) found that nearly
regulated and individuals are not free to choose their mates, one in two individuals experience difficulties in either starting
who are chosen by their parents (Apostolou, 2007, 2010). or keeping a relationship, with their mating performances pre-
Evidence from a sample of 190 contemporary foraging societies dicted by their level of sexual functioning, self-esteem, self-
indicated that the most frequent mode of long-term mating in perceived mate value, pickiness, personality, attention to looks,
about 70% of cases was arranged marriage, while free courtship and mating effort. Another study analysed 13,429 responses
marriage was a practice in about 4% of the societies (Apostolou, from a recent Reddit thread on the question why men were single
2007). Evidence from contemporary preindustrial societies that (Apostolou, 2018). The responses were classified in 43 broader
are based on subsistence agriculture indicated that free courtship categories, with the most frequent ones being poor flirting skills,
marriage was practised in 7% of societies for women and 23% of low self-confidence, poor looks, shyness, low effort, and bad
societies for men, while arranged marriage was the most frequent experience from previous relationships. The current research
form of marriage for both sexes (Apostolou, 2010). aims to advance this line of work by investigating whether emo-
These studies indicate that regulation of mating is typical of tional intelligence, Dark Triad personality traits, jealousy and
preindustrial societies and thus would have been typical of the attachment are predictors of poor mating performance.
ancestral ones. Consistent with this argument, one study analysed
the historical records of 16 historical preindustrial societies,
Emotional Intelligence
including Classical Greeks, Imperial Romans and Imperial
Chinese, and found that none of the societies had marriage Emotional intelligence refers to the capacity of individuals to rec-
based on free courtship; in 15 of these societies, marriages were ognise their own emotions and those of others, and adjust their
arranged, and in the remaining society, the historical sources emotions to adapt to specific environments or situations
were not clear about the dominant form of long-term mating (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004). Such capacity is expected to
(Apostolou, 2012). A study that employed comparative phylogen- be associated with better social and intimate relationships.
etic analyses with the purpose of reconstructing the ancestral Accordingly, it has been found that higher emotional intelligence
human condition provided further support that arranged mar- is associated with better relationships with intimate partners and
riage was typical of ancestral foraging societies (Walker, Hill, family, more successful interpersonal relationships, and less inter-
Flinn, & Ellsworth, 2011). personal aggression and problems (e.g., Mayeret al., 2004), higher
Apart from the regulation of mating, male-male competition relationship and life satisfaction (e.g., Smith, Ciarrochi, & Heaven,
appears to also characterise preindustrial societies. More specific- 2008), and prosocial behaviours (e.g., Frederickson, Petrides, &
ally, men form coalitions in order to fight other men and monop- Simmonds, 2012).
olise their resources, including women, by force (Ghiglieri, 1999; The capacity to understand and regulate emotion in the con-
Tooby & Cosmides, 1988). These conflicts could take the form of text of intimate relationships has been much less important in
small-scale raids but they could also escalate to full-scale wars. the ancestral context, where mate choice was regulated and male-
Anthropological, historical and archeological evidence indicates male competition was strong, than in a contemporary context,
that such fights were common in ancestral societies (Bowles, where mate choice is freely exercised. In particular, the former
2009; Keegan, 2004), but are considerably less common in context usually does not require a prolonged period of flirting,
Western societies (Pinker, 2011). Sex differences, such as men where emotional intelligence would play an important role; in
being more muscular and more aggressive than women, corrobor- the latter context however, where mating involves a prolonged
ate further the hypothesis that male-male competition was strong period of flirting, such a capacity plays a crucial role. The weak

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 Journal of Relationships Research 3

selection pressures in the ancestral context on this capacity are of the environmental change indicates that there has not been suf-
likely to have resulted in several individuals today having such ficient time for mate-seekers to evolve mechanisms that would
an inadequate capacity, resulting in poor mating performance. enable them to screen out narcissists.
In a preindustrial context where individuals are heavily
dependent on their spouses for subsistence, social protection
The Dark Triad
mechanisms are not well developed and less emphasis is placed
The Dark Triad refers to a collection of three subclinical, socially on intimacy, people may tolerate a lack of empathy, neglect,
aversive traits, namely Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psych- and physical and psychological abuse from their long-term part-
opathy, which represent conceptually distinct yet overlapping per- ners. In effect, Dark Triad traits may not have been predictors of
sonality dimensions (Paulhus & Williams, 2002). Narcissism is mating success in such a context. On the other hand, in a post-
characterised by grandiosity, attention-seeking, feelings of entitle- industrial context, where much more emphasis is placed on
ment and superiority, egotism, dominance and a lack of empathy intimacy, individual rights are well protected and people are less
(e.g., Corry, Merritt, Mrug, & Pamp, 2008). Machiavellianism is dependent for their subsistence on their partners, it will be
characterised by deception, manipulation and exploitation of more difficult for people with Dark Triad traits to keep a relation-
others, which stems from a cynical disregard of conventional ship. On the basis of these arguments, we predict that the Dark
morality (e.g., Jakobwitz & Egan, 2006). Psychopathy is charac- Triad would be a predictor of mating performance. In particular,
terised by deficits in both self-control (i.e., impulsivity, reckless- narcissism would be associated with increased performance in
ness, and thrill-seeking) and affect (i.e., callousness), as well as starting a relationship, but narcissism, Machiavellianism, and
antisocial behaviour (e.g., Lykken, 1995). psychopathy would be associated with poor performance in keep-
Dark Triad traits are considered socially aversive and were ing a relationship.
found to correlate negatively with global empathy (Ali &
Chamorro-Premuzic, 2010), honesty-humility (Aghababaei,
Jealousy
Mohammadtabar, & Saffarinia, 2014), agreeableness and con-
scientiousness (Jakobwitz & Egan, 2006; Jonason, Li, & Buss, Jealousy constitutes an adaptation that protects individuals from
2010). Therefore, these traits are expected to be particularly being cheated, and enables them to keep their partners (Buss,
impairing in intimate relationships. Lower mating success has 2000). More specifically, people monitor their partners’ behav-
been linked with higher levels of psychopathy (Diener & iour, with clues of infidelity triggering jealousy, which motivates
Seligman, 2002), whereas narcissism has been linked with lower corrective action. For instance, they may terminate a relationship
relationship commitment and intimacy (Campbell & Foster, or they may threaten their partners with the termination of the
2002), as well as with long-term relationship impairment relationship or other consequences. Jealousy may also motivate
(Campbell & Miller, 2011; Jonason, Valentine, Li, & Harbeson, physical or psychological aggression toward their partners or
2011). It has been argued that these traits exist in the population their partners’ extra-pair mates. Such aggression may make
in a relatively high frequency because they have benefits that bal- their mates terminate any extra-pair relationships or may act as
ance out their costs (Figueredo et al., 2006; Jonason, Koenig, & preventing measure: If people know that their partners would
Tost, 2010; Nettle, 2006). For instance, individuals who have react in this way, they may refrain from cheating in the first place.
such traits may be effective in attracting casual mates, which The mechanism of jealousy has evolved to serve these goals in
can balance the cost of not being able to keep them for a long per- a preindustrial context, and may not work optimally in the con-
iod of time. temporary one. More specifically, in an ancestral context where
We argue that the environmental change in the domain of individuals were less autonomous and more dependent on their
mating has increased both the prospective benefits from short- spouses for their subsistence, high levels of jealousy could be tol-
term mating, especially in relation to narcissism, and the cost of erated without breaking the relationship. In a postindustrial con-
long-term mating for all three traits. More specifically, those text, where individuals are more autonomous and less dependent
who score high in narcissism are superficially charming, pay con- for their subsistence on their partners, an equally high level of
siderable attention to their looks, and are social and extraverted jealousy could lead to the termination of the relationship. In the
(Corry et al., 2008). At the same time, parents, who are older same vein, preindustrial societies tolerate physical aggression
and more experienced than their children do not fall for charm, against partner. For instance, among many nomadic tribes of
and demand solid proofs before consenting to marriage North American Indians such as the Blackfeet, in cases of infidel-
(Apostolou, 2014). Similarly, as opposed to their children, parents ity, an acceptable practice was for husbands to mutilate their
do not value good looks as much in a prospective in-law wives’ noses (Ewers, 1958). Such jealousy-motivated physical
(Apostolou, 2014). Thus, narcissistic individuals would have a aggression is not tolerated in a postindustrial context, but instead
limited success in passing parental choice, and as a consequence, results in adverse consequences for the aggressor. Overall, we pre-
they would not be so successful in the ancestral context where dict that, due to the mismatch problem, several individuals would
marriages were arranged. On the other hand, they can be very experience non-optimal levels of jealousy that are likely to impair
effective in attracting short-term mates in the contemporary post- their mating performance.
industrial context where people find their own mates.
The sociable nature of narcissists would enable them to meet
Attachment
prospective short-term mates who are in ample supply as they
are not kept in confinement, as is usually the case in an arranged It has been argued that the way children attach to their mothers
marriage context (Apostolou, 2014). Young and inexperienced determines, to some degree, how they attach to opposite-sex part-
individuals who, outside the control of their parents, are driven ners. In particular, research was initially based on Ainsworth,
by libido and love, and who place considerable importance on Blehar, Waters, and Wall’s (1978) three-category typology of attach-
looks, could easily fall prey to narcissists. In addition, the recency ment styles in infancy — secure, anxious, and avoidant — as well

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 4 Menelaos Apostolou et al.

as Hazan and Shaver’s (1987) conceptualisation of comparable in an unmarked envelope and sealed it. In the current study,
adult styles in the romantic relationships area. Later studies 831 Greek and Greek-Cypriots participated (414 women, 417
(e.g., Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991) showed that attachment men). The mean age of women was 31 (SD = 10.8), and the
styles can be better conceptualised in a two-dimensional space. mean age of men was 32.7 (SD = 11). Moreover, 34.8% of the par-
The first dimension, attachment avoidance, reflects the extent to ticipants were single, 30.4% were in a relationship, 28.4% were
which an individual tries to maintain behavioural independence married, and 6.3% were divorced.
and emotional distance from partners. The second dimension,
attachment anxiety, reflects the degree to which an individual
worries that a partner will not be available in times of need. Materials
These two dimensions were found to be associated in theoretically The survey consisted of four parts. In the first part, participants
predictable ways with relationship quality and adjustment were given the mating performance instrument developed by
(Mikulincer & Shaver, 2003). Apostolou et al. (2018). This instrument is a five-item scale
We believe that the way children attach to their parents in early designed to measure how well individuals perform with regard
life does not determine the way they attach to opposite-sex part- to starting and keeping intimate relationships using a 5-point
ners in adult life. Such a hypothesis would not be compatible with Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). In the
an evolutionary perspective, since it would not make sense for second part, the Short Dark Triad was given, a measure that con-
individuals to have evolved so that their early relationships with sists of 27 items that are rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 =
their mothers would determine their relationships with opposite- strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree; Jones & Paulhus, 2014).
sex partners for their entire life (Harris, 2009). It is more likely This brief measure was chosen to prevent participants’ fatigue
that adaptations that regulate social interaction are responsible and drop-out rates, and because of its superior reliability and con-
for the way that individuals attach to their parents, as well as to struct validity (Jones & Paulhus, 2014). Prior to commencing this
intimate partners. In this respect, the research on attachment survey, the English original instrument was translated in the
becomes relevant to the argument put forward in the present Greek language using the forward and backward translation
study: These adaptations have not been properly optimised for method, and it was pilot tested.
the current mating context, resulting in interaction or attachment In the third part, the Trait Emotional Intelligence
with intimate partners that impairs success in intimate Questionnaire — Short Form was used, which consists of 30
relationships. items that are rated on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree
In a preindustrial context, where no such attention is paid to to 7 = strongly agree; Petrides & Furnham, 2006). This instrument
intimacy, those who are emotionally cold and distant from their has been translated to Greek, and studies showed good reliability
partners may suffer few negative consequences in intimate rela- and validity for usage in Greek samples (Stamatopoulou, Galanis,
tionships. Actually, it can be argued that such an attachment & Prezerakos, 2016). As above, this instrument was chosen on the
style would be beneficial. More specifically, in a context of strong basis of its good psychometric properties to prevent participants’
male-male competition, this form of attachment would be profit- fatigue and reduce drop-out rates. Finally, in the last part, demo-
able for men as it would enable them to force sex and better mon- graphic information was collected (i.e., sex, age, marital status).
opolise women. It may have also been optimal for women, who, The order of presentation of the first three parts was counterba-
by not being emotionally involved with their captors, could escape lanced across participants.
when the opportunity arose and could protect their feelings. On
the other hand, in a free-mate choice context, where intimacy is
of primary importance in a relationship, avoidant attachment Results
would result in low performance in intimate relationships. Prevalence
Overall, we predict that high scorers in attachment avoidance
will experience poor mating performance. To begin with, we attempted to estimate the prevalence rates of
poor mating performance by calculating the frequencies of parti-
cipants’ answers for the mating performance instrument. From
Study 1 Table 1, we can see that about one in five participants indicated
The purpose of Study 1 was to estimate prevalence rates of poor that they found intimate relationships difficult. Furthermore,
mating performance, as well as to test whether mating perform- about 29% indicated that they found it difficult to start a relation-
ance was predicted by emotional intelligence and the Dark ship and about 22% found it difficult to keep a relationship. We
Triad traits. also calculated that 27.2% of the participants answered ‘1’ or ‘2’
(indicating low performance) in at least one of the two questions
about starting and keeping a relationship. Finally, 12% answered
Methods ‘1’ or ‘2’ in both questions. Thus, 39.2% of the participants indi-
cated difficulties in at least one domain of mating performance.
Participants
For data collection, three research assistants were employed who
Contingencies
recruited people who volunteered to take part in a research on
intimate relationships (no remuneration was given). The only pre- For the purpose of testing our hypotheses, we ran an analysis of
requisite for participation was to be 18 years or older. The study covariance (ANCOVA). This statistical tool was deemed appropri-
took place in Greece and in the Republic of Cyprus, with the data- ate because it would enable us to predict one continuous variable
collection process lasting about two months. Before they were from one or more continuous and categorical independent vari-
given the survey, the participants were asked to sign a consent ables. Accordingly, the mating performance was entered as the
form. Upon completion, participants placed the questionnaire dependent variable, the sex was entered as a categorical

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 Journal of Relationships Research 5

Table 1 The Prevalence Rates of Mating Performance in Study 1 and 2

Study 1 Study 2

1–2 3 4–5 1–2 3 4–5

I do well in romantic relationships 17.9% 35.8% 46.3% 21% 34.8% 44.1%

I find romantic relationships difficult 50.2% 29.1% 20.7% 52.2% 26.8% 21%
Some people are doing well with romantic relationships. They find partners easily 26.6% 37.1% 36.3% 37% 30.7% 32.4%
and have no difficulty in keeping a romantic relationship. This description
characterises me
I find it easy to start a romantic relationship 29.1% 35% 38.6% 33.6% 33.8% 32.6%
I find it easy to keep a romantic relationship 22.3% 32.7% 45% 24.2% 29.9% 46%
Note: The percentages indicating poor performance are in bold type.

independent variable, and age, emotional intelligence, narcissism, approximately two months. In this study, 527 Greek and
Machiavellianism, and psychopathy were entered as continuous Greek-Cypriots participated (323 women, 204 men). The mean
independent variables. The results indicated that there was a sig- age of the women was 29.5 (SD = 10.3), and the mean age of
nificant effect of emotional intelligence, F(1,807) = 10.39, p = .001, the men was 30 (SD = 9.7). Moreover, 41.5% of the participants
η2p = .013, with a positive coefficient (.117), suggesting that higher were in a relationship, 24.4% were married, 20.7% were single,
emotional intelligence was associated with higher performance in and 2.6% were divorced.
mating. Moreover, there was a significant effect of narcissism,
F(1,807) = 24.77, p < .001, η2p = .030, with a positive coefficient
(.279), suggesting that higher scorers had higher performance in Materials
mating. No other significant effects were produced. The survey consisted of four parts. In the first part, participants
We repeated the analysis for starting a relationship. As before, were given the mating performance instrument developed by
there was a significant effect of emotional intelligence, F(1,807) = Apostolou et al. (2018). In order to measure adult attachment,
7.11, p = .008, η2p = .009, with a positive coefficient (.152), suggest- we employed the Experiences in Close Relationships (ECR)
ing that higher emotional intelligence was associated with higher scale, which is a 36-item, self-report attachment measure
performance in starting a relationship. In addition, there was (Brennan, Clark, & Shaver, 1998). The measure can be used to
a significant effect of narcissism, F(1,807) = 11.81, p = .001, create two subscales, namely Avoidance (or Discomfort with
η2p = .014, with a positive coefficient (.303), suggesting that higher Closeness and Discomfort Depending on Others) and Anxiety
scorers had higher performance in starting a relationship. No (or Fear of Rejection and Abandonment). Participants’ responses
other significant effects were produced. were measured in a 7-point Likert scale: 1 = strongly disagree to 7
The analysis was repeated for keeping a relationship. As above, = strongly agree).
there was a significant effect of emotional intelligence, F(1,807) = In the third part, in order to measure jealousy, we employed a
13.34, p < .001, η2p = .016, with a positive coefficient (.186), sug- seven-item instrument. In particular, we employed a shorter ver-
gesting that higher emotional intelligence was associated with a sion of an instrument developed by Pines and Aronson (1983),
higher performance in keeping a relationship. Furthermore, from which we dropped the items that were predominantly
there was a significant effect of narcissism, F(1,807) = 5.01, related to how participants would see the jealousy of their part-
p = .024, η2p = .006, with a positive coefficient (.303), suggesting ners, as we did not consider these items relevant to our hypoth-
that higher scorers had higher performance in keeping a relation- eses. Participants’ responses were measured in a 7-point Likert
ship. In addition, there was a significant effect of psychopathy, scale, with higher scores indicating more jealousy. In the last
F(1,807) = 3.61, p = .048, η2p = .004, with a negative coefficient part, demographic information was collected (i.e., sex, age, marital
(-.126), suggesting that higher scorers experience lower perform- status). The order of presentation of the first three parts was coun-
ance in keeping a relationship. No other significant effects were terbalanced across participants.
produced.

Results
Study 2
Prevalence
The main purpose of Study 2 was to estimate prevalence rates of
poor mating performance, as well as to test whether mating per- For the purpose of estimating the prevalence rates of poor mating
formance was predicted by jealousy and attachment styles. performance, we calculated the frequencies of participants’
answers to the mating performance instrument. From Table 1
we can see that about one in five participants indicated that
Methods they found intimate relationships difficult. Also, about 34% indi-
cated that they found it difficult to start a relationship and about
Participants
24% that they found it difficult to keep a relationship.
The data-collection process was similar to the one employed in Furthermore, we estimated that 29.2% of the participants
Study 1. In addition, the research took place in Greece and in answered ‘1’ or ‘2’ (indicating low performance) in at least one
the Republic of Cyprus, and the data-collection process lasted of the two questions about starting and keeping a relationship.

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 6 Menelaos Apostolou et al.

Finally, 14.2% answered ‘1’ or ‘2’ in both questions. Thus, 43.4% starting relationships and of exaggerating their performance. On
of the participants indicated difficulties in at least one domain of the other hand, the higher performance in keeping a relationship
mating performance. is probably the result of the exaggeration bias. To control for this
bias, future studies may attempt to estimate mating performance
by asking close friends and relatives about participants’ perform-
Contingencies
ance rather than participants themselves.
For the purpose of testing our hypotheses, we ran an ANCOVA, With respect to Machiavellianism and psychopathy, we found
where mating performance was entered as the dependent variable, that only the latter had a negative effect on keeping an intimate
and sex, age, jealousy, avoidance, and anxiety were entered as the relationship. Yet, the effect was at the significance level, and future
independent variables. The results indicated that there was a sig- research needs to replicate it in different samples. In general, the
nificant effect of jealousy, F(1,450) = 6.53, p = .011, η2p = .014, with effect sizes suggested that the impact of Dark Triad traits on mat-
a negative coefficient (-.069), suggesting that higher scorers ing performance was limited. Still, as discussed above, such low
experienced lower mating performance. Moreover, there was a effect may partially be explained by high scorers in these traits
significant effect of avoidance, F(1,450) = 137.09, p < .001, η2p who misreport their mating performance. Accordingly, future
= .234, with a negative coefficient (-.422), suggesting that higher replication with different research methods that would partially
scorers experienced lower mating performance. No other signifi- control for these limitations is necessary for understanding better
cant effects were produced. the impact of Dark Triad traits on mating performance.
We repeated the analysis for starting a relationship. As before, Consistent with our hypothesis, higher scores in jealousy were
there was a significant effect of avoidance, F(1,450) = 52.78, associated with lower mating performance. The effect size indi-
p < .001, η2p = .104, with a negative coefficient (-.404), suggesting cated that the impact of jealousy on mating performance was
that higher scorers experienced lower performance with respect small. One possible explanation is that participants underesti-
to starting a relationship. No other significant effects were pro- mated their level of jealousy. Another possibility is that in the cur-
duced. Moreover, we repeated the analysis for keeping a relation- rent population, the prevalence of those who scored sufficiently
ship. As above, there was a significant effect of avoidance, high in jealousy for it to have noticeable effects on their mating
F(1,450) = 56.36, p < .001, η2p = .113, with a negative coefficient performance was relatively low. Future research that would poten-
(-.410), suggesting that higher scorers experienced lower perform- tially employ different instruments and methods should examine
ance with respect to keeping a relationship. No additional signifi- the effect of jealousy further.
cant effects were produced. Our results indicated that avoidant attachment had a negative
impact on general mating performance, as well as on starting and
on keeping a relationship. The effect sizes indicated that this
Discussion
attachment style had a substantial impact on mating performance;
Consistent with our original hypotheses, we found that across two that is to say, high scorers were likely to exhibit a substantial
independent studies about 40% of participants experienced poor decrease in their mating performance. This negative effect was
performance in either starting or keeping an intimate relation- found in both starting and keeping a relationship, suggesting
ship, or in both domains. Furthermore, emotional intelligence, that this style does not have an advantage in one area that bal-
Dark Triad traits, jealousy and attachment style were found to ances its disadvantage in the other. As discussed in the introduc-
be significant predictors of mating performance. In particular, tion, such attachment style could had been beneficial in an
higher emotional intelligence and narcissism were associated ancestral environment where male-male competition was strong,
with higher performance in mating, while higher psychopathy, but is harmful in a contemporary environment where individuals
jealousy and an avoidant attachment style were associated with have to choose their own mates.
lower mating performance. It is important to state that the effects we have found in the
Emotional intelligence was a significant predictor of average current research can only be partially attributed to the evolution-
mating performance, as well as of starting and of keeping a rela- ary mismatch. In particular, there are good theoretical reasons to
tionship. The effect sizes indicated that emotional intelligence had believe that certain traits such as low empathy, which potentially
a higher impact on keeping than on starting an intimate relation- impair success in intimate relationships, have nevertheless been
ship. The effect size suggested further that emotional intelligence selected because of benefits that balanced such costs (Jonason
had a limited impact on mating performance. We would expect, et al., 2010; Nettle, 2006). As discussed in the introduction, the
however, that this trait would have a higher impact on mating per- evolutionary mismatch may have affected the costs and benefits
formance. One possible explanation is that a moderate score in of these traits in the contemporary environment; yet, even without
this domain is sufficient for achieving a good performance in the existence of this mismatch, we would expect these traits to be
mating, and there are only few people who score below this present in the contemporary populations. For instance, low
level. Future research needs to examine the relationship between empathy would enable exploitation of others in ancestral and con-
emotional intelligence and mating performance further. temporary environments, which would balance the costs of poor
Consistent with our original hypothesis, high scorers in narcis- mating success. We have argued that the latter costs were probably
sism indicated a higher performance in starting a relationship, but lower in ancestral environments, allowing for a higher prevalence
as opposed to our original hypothesis, high scorers also indicated rate of this trait; still, even if they were equal to contemporary
a higher performance in keeping a relationship. One possible costs, we would expect that there would still be sufficient benefits
explanation for the latter finding is that it would be hard for nar- to allow this trait to be present in the population, albeit in lower
cissists to admit that they were not good at starting and keeping a frequencies.
relationship, so they indicated higher performance than is actually The high prevalence rate of poor mating performance found in
the case. This being so, higher performance in starting a relation- this study is consistent with the findings of a different study
ship probably constitutes an amalgam of narcissists being good at (Apostolou et al., 2018), and suggest that it is a common problem

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 Journal of Relationships Research 7

in post-industrial societies. We have argued that the commonness Accordingly, future studies need to replicate our results in more
of this problem is explained by the recent and drastic evolutionary representative samples.
change in the environment in the domain of mating. Given the Performance in the domain of mating is a complex phenom-
complexity of the phenomenon, other factors may also be at enon with many factors predicting it. The current research iden-
play. Despite the explanation that can be adopted, it is a fact tified several such factors, but considerable more research is
that a large proportion of adult population experiences poor per- necessary for additional factors to be identified.
formance in this domain. Such poor performance can be asso-
Author ORCIDs. Menelaos Apostolou, 0000-0002-0685-1848
ciated with negative feelings, such as anxiety, depression and
loneliness (Apostolou, 2016b), which may in turn result in poor Financial support. This research received no specific grant from any fund-
performance in other domains, such as work life. For instance, ing agency, commercial or not-for profit sectors.
a recent study found that poor performance in mating was asso-
ciated with negative feelings such as loneliness and lower life sat- Conflict of interest. None
isfaction (Apostolou, Shialos, & Georgiadou, 2019).
Ethical standards. The authors assert that all procedures contributing to
When engaged in mating, people can employ different strat- this work comply with the ethical standards of the relevant national and insti-
egies: They can employ a short-term strategy that involves having tutional committees on human experimentation and with the Helsinki declar-
multiple casual mates without investing much in these relation- ation of 1975.
ships, and a long-term one that involves having few mates and
investing heavily in the children coming from these relationships.
They may also adopt a mixed strategy where individuals engage in References
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