materials

Article
Forming Quality Analysis on the Cold Roll Forming
C-channel Steel
Xiangjun Hui 1, * and Xianming Wang 2
1 College of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang Industry Polytechnic College, Shaoxing 312000, China
2 College of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310000, China;
xwang@zjut.edu.cn
* Correspondence: hxj0517@126.com; Tel.: +86-137-3520-6355




Received: 13 September 2018; Accepted: 2 October 2018; Published: 9 October 2018


Abstract: Cold roll forming, as a metal plastic forming process, is still mainly used in industrial
production by the trial-and-error method, which wastes a lot of time and materials. In this paper,
the C-channel steel is taken as the research object. First, the empirical equations of forming passes are
verified and analyzed, then the cold roll forming model of C-channel steel is established, the forming
quality of each pass and the stress-strain distribution of the whole sheet metal are analyzed, and the
validity of the model is verified by experiments. The residual stresses of the web zone and flange
of the finished product were measured. The results show that the empirical formulas are still not
universal and the forming quality of the bite zone is poor. It needs to be adjusted by improving
the distribution of deformation. The external surface of the C-channel steel is undertensile stress,
while the internal surface is undercompressive stress, and the residual stresses of the flange are far
greater than those of the web zone. The research provides a reference for the design of the bite zone
and the number of forming passes.

Keywords: cold roll forming; C-channel steel; forming passes calculation; bite zone; residual stress;
X ray diffractometer

1. Introduction
Cold roll forming, as an energy-saving and material-saving metal cold forming process, is widely
used in construction, automobile, railway, aerospace, and other fields. As a kind of common metal
skeleton in construction, the forming quality of C-channel steel is particularly important. However,
with the shape of forming products becoming more and more complex, the requirement for forming
process is becoming higher and higher. In industry production, technicians also generally design
roll flowers by the trial-and-error method, which causes a large number of human and financial
losses, and also makes cold roll forming process is still generally considered as art, not science [1,2].
Zeng et al. [3,4] adopted equiradial design method to build a second-order response surface model
that represents the relationship between forming angle increment, roll radius, and the maximum edge
membrane longitudinal strains. They also established a first-order response surface model between
the above parameters and springback. By using the above methods, they optimized the roll profile and
also analyzed a twelve passes roll forming process of channel section with an outer edge. Li et al. [5]
simulated the U-channel steel cold roll forming process with the dynamic explicit finite element
method and obtained the optimized roll diameters by a response surface model. Li et al. [6] analyzed
the strip crossing former frame to next one and found that the concentration district of stress exits in
transition region and main deforming region below the roll gap central line. Xu and Wang [7] using
Prandtl-Reuss flow rule and Mises yield criterion and Updated-Lagrangian increment repeatedly
method to study the metal flow ruler from unsteady to steady. Zheng [8] simulated the springback

Materials 2018, 11, 1911; doi:10.3390/ma11101911 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2018, 11, 1911 2 of 11

in cold roll forming and found that the mechanical properties of material, sheet thickness, forming
angle and roll distance have effects on springback, and the springback law could not be calculated by
the general springback formula. Heislitz et al. [9] used PAM-STAMP (a kind of simulation software)
to simulate the cold roll forming process. They adopted eight-node solid elements to generate mesh
for long sheet and four-node shell elements to simulate roll surface. The results show that the strain
distribution after springback can be obtained by PAM-STAMP. Sukmoo et al. [10] used the rigid-plastic
finite element method to simulate the forming process, and found that the work hardening coefficient
has a very important effect on the forming length, annealed sheet is easier to be formed. By studying
the ICF (incremental counter forming) process, Park et al. [11] found that the longitudinal strain
distribution and the values could be controlled by the bending angle, which is influenced by the
forming parameters. Liu et al. [12] used mathematical models to analyze the distribution of bending
angle and longitudinal strain in the deformation process, and the calculated results were in good
agreement with the experimental data, which played a role in predicting the longitudinal strain
trend in cold roll forming. Jiang et al. [13] found that the number of elements and mesh affects the
stability and convergence of the simulation model. Jeong et al. [14] used rigid-plastic finite element
method to compare two different roll forming methods, and got a more reasonable roll flower design
method. Cai et al. [15] determined the three-dimensional curved surface of sheet metal in continuous
roll forming and found that the center line of roll gap has great influence on the forming axis and
longitudinal curvature.
Some scholars have studied the cold roll forming process parameters that affect the forming
quality. Luo et al. [16] have found that the yield strength, strengthening coefficient, and bending angle
increment are sensitive to the springback. Chen et al. [17] analyzed and designed the roll forming
machine and found that the springback and longitudinal strain of roll forming 1200 MPa super-high
strength steel sheet are more obvious, which need to be overbended and corrected. Bui et al. [18]
have studied the material parameters, roll distance, friction coefficient and forming speed in cold
roll forming process, and found that forming speed and friction play a minor role to product quality.
Bidabadi et al. [19] studied the pre-notched hole strip in cold roll forming and discussed the roll flower,
uphill and downhill strategies, roll distance, lubrication, hole distance, hole diameter, flange width,
and strip thickness. They found that the forming angle increment was the key factor affecting the
hole ovality.
Most of the above researches focused on the reliability of simulation model and the effects of
process parameters. Few researches are done on residual stress of cold roll forming. Weng et al.
adopted electrical discharge machining technique to cut coupons for residual stress measurement [20].
When compared with the saw-cutting method, it can greatly reduce the external disturbance caused by
heating, clamping, and vibration. Li et al. got the residual stress distribution in roll-formed square
hollow sections with X-ray diffraction method [21]. Zeng studied the residual stress on welding line
and established a prediction model for it [22]. Sánchez Egea et al. used X-ray diffractometer to identify
and evaluate the phase transformation induced. Furthermore, considering the thermomechanical
effect, they use two different hardening laws to study the residual stress of the wire drawing process
with X-ray diffractometer [23,24].
In this paper, the residual stress of C-channel steel are measured by the X-ray diffraction method
and predicted by the simulation model that we established. Meanwhile, the whole forming process
is analyzed, especially the bite zone. In this paper, the above aspects are studied with the method
combined simulation and experiment.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experiment and Simulation Model Set Up

The cold roll forming machine that was used in this experiment is shown in Figure 1. It consists
of ten passes vertical rolls and two passes horizontal rolls. The simulation model is established
properties are shown in Tables 1 and 2. The cross section dimensions of the C-channel steel and the
ten passes roll flowers are shown in Figure 2, in which V1 and V2 are two passes horizontal rolls for
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
straightening. 3 of 11

 is the plastic flow stress and  isσ the

Materials 2018, 11, 1911
= 617.2(0.001292 + ε)0.143 composition and the mechanical (1)
strain. The chemical
3 of 11
properties are shown in Tables 1 and 2. The cross section dimensions of the C-channel steel and the
ten passes roll flowers are shown in Figure 2, in which V1 and V2 are two passes horizontal rolls for
Table 1. Chemical composition of Q235 steel (%).
instraightening.
MSC.Marc. 2014 (MSC.Marc. is a full-featured advanced nonlinear finite element software).
The material used in the simulation C is Q235. TheSi constitutive
σ =S617.2(0.001292 + ε)0.143equation
Mn P is shown in Equation (1)
(1)
[4],
where σ is the plastic flow stress0.150
and ε is the strain.
0.035 0.300 The chemical
0.350 0.035composition and the mechanical
properties are shown in Tables 1 and 2. The cross section dimensions of the C-channel steel and the
Table 1.in
ten passes roll flowers are shown Chemical
Figure composition
whichofV1
2, inproperties Q235 andsteel
V2 (%).
are two passes horizontal rolls
Table 2. Mechanical of Q235 steel.
for straightening. C S Si Mn P
Yield Strength (MPa) Tensile Strength (MPa) 0.143 Elongation (%)
= 617.2 ( 0.001292 +
0.150 0.035 0.300 0.350 0.035
σ ε ) (1)
235 423 26
Table 2. Mechanical properties of Q235 steel.

Yield Strength (MPa) Tensile Strength (MPa) Elongation (%)

235 423 26

Figure 1. The finite element simulation and the mill of cold roll forming.

Table 1. Chemical composition of Q235 steel (%).

The simulation parameters that were established in MSC.Marc. are as follows: the Young’s
modulus 210 GPa, Poisson’s Cratio 0.3, the S dimensionsSi andofthe
the
Mn strip model are: length 500 mm, width
P forming.
Figure 1. The finite element simulation mill of cold roll
47.5 mm, and thickness 0.5 0.150
mm. The coulomb
0.035 friction
0.300 model has been
0.350 used in the simulation model.
0.035
The friction coefficient was assumed as 0.2 according to the
The simulation parameters that were established in MSC.Marc. are Zeng et al. as
[4],follows:
and thetheforming pass
Young’s
distance is 210 mm.
modulus 210 GPa, Poisson’s ratio
Table0.3, the dimensions
2. Mechanical of the
properties of strip
Q235model
steel. are: length 500 mm, width
47.5 mm, and thickness 0.5 mm. The coulomb friction model has been used in the simulation model.
Yield Strength
The friction coefficient was (MPa)
assumed as Tensile Strength
0.2 according to (MPa)
the Zeng et al. Elongation
[4], and the(%) forming pass
distance is 210 mm. 235 423 26

Figure 2. (a) The basic dimensions of C-channel steel; (b) Flower pattern.
Figure 2. (a) The basic dimensions of C-channel steel; (b) Flower pattern.
Figure 2. (a) The basic dimensions of C-channel steel; (b) Flower pattern.
The simulation parameters that were established in MSC.Marc. are as follows: the Young’s
modulus 210 GPa, Poisson’s ratio 0.3, the dimensions of the strip model are: length 500 mm, width
47.5 mm, and thickness 0.5 mm. The coulomb friction model has been used in the simulation model.
The friction coefficient was assumed as 0.2 according to the Zeng et al. [4], and the forming pass
distance is 210 mm.
Materials 2018, 11, 1911 4 of 11
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 11

2.2.
2.2. Residual
Residual Stress
Stress Measurement
Measurement
InIn thispaper,
this paper,residual
residualstress
stress isis adopted
adopted as as an
anindex
indextototest the
test forming
the formingquality of C-channel
quality of C-channel steel.
Residual stresses are mainly divided into macro residual stress, micro
steel. Residual stresses are mainly divided into macro residual stress, micro residual stress, andresidual stress, and the third
thekind of kind
third internal stress. The
of internal macro
stress. The residual stress isstress
macro residual measured in this in
is measured paper. The residual
this paper. stress is
The residual
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 11
measured by X-ray diffractometer see Figure 3. Rigaku D/max-2500PC
stress is measured by X-ray diffractometer see Figure 3. Rigaku D/max-2500PC (Ningbo, China) (Ningbo, China) is the X-ray
is diffraction
the device thatdevice
X-ray diffraction we used to we
that measure
used to themeasure
residualthe stress. The power
residual stress.ofThe
thepower
X-ray generator
of the X-ray is 18
2.2. Residual Stress Measurement
Kw. The measurement range of 2θ is −10°–158° and the parameters
◦ ◦
generator is 18 Kw. The measurement range of 2θ is −10 –158 and the parameters are shown in are shown in Table 3. Considering
theIn
Table 3. this
work paper,
of Sánchez
Considering residual
theEgea stress
worket of is adopted
al.Sánchez
[23], a Cu as et
anal.
index
radiation
Egea was
[23],toaused.
test the
Theforming
Cu radiation wasquality
residual of
stressThe
used. C-channel
was measured
residual steel.
with
stress
Residual
was stresses
themeasured
angle from withare mainly
81.5°–84°with divided
the angle from step81.5 into
size◦ –84macro
of 0.1° and
◦ with residual
measuring
step stress,
size of 0.1time micro
◦ and residual
ofmeasuring stress,
5 s per step. and
According
time the third
of 5 s pertostep.
GB/T
kind of internal
7704-2008 [25], stress.
the The
measuringmacro residual
principle is stress
shown is
in measured
Figure
According to GB/T 7704-2008 [25], the measuring principle is shown in Figure 4. 4. in this paper. The residual stress is
measured by X-ray diffractometer see Figure 3. Rigaku D/max-2500PC (Ningbo, China) is the X-ray
diffraction device that we used to measure the residual stress. The power of the X-ray generator is 18
Kw. The measurement range of 2θ is −10°–158° and the parameters are shown in Table 3. Considering
the work of Sánchez Egea et al. [23], a Cu radiation was used. The residual stress was measured with
the angle from 81.5°–84°with step size of 0.1° and measuring time of 5 s per step. According to GB/T
7704-2008 [25], the measuring principle is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 3. Residual measurement device and measurement locations on the specimen.

Figure 3. Residual measurement device and measurement locations on the specimen.
Table 3. Measurement parameters of residual stress.
Incident X-ray
Parameter
Z Value
Bragg crystal angle 82.33◦
Crystal surface Z’211
Wavelength 1.54 angstrom
Figure 3. Residual measurement
Light device and measurement
 0seams 1 mm locations on the specimen.
 Diffraction X-ray

Incident X-ray
Z
 
Z’ Sample surface
Diffraction Crystal Surface

0
X Direction of determination
 Diffraction X-ray

(  90 0    X )
 
2 X
Sample surface
Diffraction Crystal Surface
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of residual stress measurement.
X Direction of determination
The residual stress is measured according to the variation
(  90 0    X of
) the crystal plane spacing. For Q235
steel, the deformation of the sheet under external force will cause the distortion of crystal lattice in
three-dimensional direction, which2will X cause the peak position shift and the change of half-peak

width. From the BraggFigureequation 2d sin  n where stress

4. Schematic diagram of,residual d is measurement.
the crystal plane spacing, 2θ is the
diffraction angle, λ isFigure 4. Schematic diagram
the wavelength and n isofthe
residual
orderstress measurement.
of reflection, the strain and stress can be
deduced.
The residual
While stress isstress
the residual measured
of theaccording to the variation
selected direction can be of the crystal
calculated byplane spacing. equation:
the following For Q235
steel, the deformation of the sheet under external force will cause the distortion of crystal lattice in
three-dimensional direction, which will cause the peak position shift and the change of half-peak
width. From the Bragg equation 2d sin  n , where d is the crystal plane spacing, 2θ is the
diffraction angle, λ is the wavelength and n is the order of reflection, the strain and stress can be
Materials 2018, 11, 1911 5 of 11

The residual stress is measured according to the variation of the crystal plane spacing. For Q235
steel, the deformation of the sheet under external force will cause the distortion of crystal lattice in
three-dimensional direction, which will cause the peak position shift and the change of half-peak
width. From the Bragg equation 2d sin θ = nλ, where d is the crystal plane spacing, 2θ is the diffraction
angle, λ is the wavelength and n is the order of reflection, the strain and stress can be deduced.
While the residual stress of the selected direction can be calculated by the following equation:

σX = K · M (2)

E π
K=− cot θ0 (3)
2(1 + ν ) 180◦
where σX is the residual stress in X direction, while K is a stress constant, E represents the Young’s
modulus, v is the Poisson ratio, θ0 denotes the bragg angle at unstressed state, and M is the slope of
line 2θ ϕX − sin2 ϕ. Where ϕ represents the azimuth angle of diffraction crystal plane, and 2θ ϕX is the
diffraction angle for selected ϕ.
The workpiece in Figure 4 is a part of C-channel steel. The measuring position are web zone and
flange while the bending zone is difficult to measure because of its small size.

3. Forming Passes Design and Analysis

There have several calculation methods for the number of forming passes:
√
2a2
n= , (4)
d tan α1

While α1 is the estimated angle (range 1◦ ~1.5◦ ), a is the bending edge length, and d represents the
roll distance.
0.15
Y 2.1
 
0.834 α
n = 0.237h 0.8
+ 0.87 + 2 s(1 + 0.5z) + e + f + 5zs, (5)
t 90 0.003U

where h is the maximum height of cross section, t is the thickness of material, α2 represents
the total forming angle, Y is the yield stress, U is the tensile strength, and z represents the
pre-punching/punching and continuous coefficient of sheet metal, sis the shape coefficient, e is
the additional number of forming passes, and f is the tolerance coefficient.

φ = Fn1 t, (6)

For ϕ is the shape factor function, F is the sum of the lengths of left and right vertical edges, n1
represents the total bending angle of the section, and t is the thickness of material.

n = ( H/L) cot θ, (7)

While H is the bending height, L is the frame distance, and θ is the forming angle.
Equation (4) is the original equation proposed by Halmos [2], which is the earliest equation used
for calculating the forming passes. It is calculated from a simple linear model. Its principle is to calculate
the total distance from the first pass to the end pass of cold roll forming, and then determine the roll
distance to get the required number of forming passes. However, this equation only provides a rough
evaluation without considering the key factors, so the result is not very reliable. Halmos [2] proposed
an empirical Equation (5), but it has not been completely verified. Hiroshi et al. [1] summarized
Equation (6) according to the data graph that was given by Japan Iron and Steel Association with
the shape factor method, and calculated the forming passes with the specific data graph. Zhao [26]
proposed Equation (7) to determine forming passes by bending height, frame distance, and forming
Materials 2018, 11,
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distance, and forming angle. In this paper, the cold bending machine used in the research is used to
angle. In this paper, the cold bending machine used in the research is used to verify the number of
verify the number of forming passes, the results are shown in Table 4.
forming passes, the results are shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Comparison of calculation methods on forming passes.
Table 4. Comparison of calculation methods on forming passes.
Calculation Method Number of Forming Passes
Calculation Method Number of Forming Passes
Equation (4) 10
Equation (4) 10
Equation (5) 14
Equation (5) 14
Equation
Equation (6)(6) 9 9
Equation
Equation (7)(7) 8 8

4. Results
4. Results and
and Discussion
Discussion

4.1. Simulation Analysis of the Forming Process

4.1. Process on
on the
the C-Channel
C-Channel Steel
Steel
Cold roll forming
Cold forming isisaaprocess
processofofmetal metal slowslow deformation
deformation duedueto its
to special forming
its special length.
forming The
length.
frontfront
The partpart
of the ofsheet is always
the sheet formed
is always formedfasterfaster
than than
that of theofback
that the part.
back On part.the whole,
On the sheet
the whole, the metal
sheet
is in aisstate
metal in aof gradually
state twisting
of gradually and bending.
twisting and bending. The stress and strain
The stress distribution
and strain analysis
distribution of theof
analysis sheet
the
metalmetal
sheet is helpful to understand
is helpful to understand the the
dangerous
dangerous areaareaandandthe thewhole
wholeforming
formingprocess.
process. The The dangerous
dangerous
area is a region where
area where critical
critical levels
levelsofofstrains
strainsare arereached,
reached,especially
especiallyatat thethe
bending
bending zone
zoneof ofthethe
C-
channel steel.
C-channel steel.In this area,
In this thethe
area, strain value
strain is larger
value thanthan
is larger the theother zones,
other and and
zones, the materials
the materials in thisin area
this
flowflow
area to thetoadjacent
the adjacent areas. So, the
areas. So, thickness
the thickness reduction
reduction in this area
in this is large,
area is large,which
whichmay may cause
causecracks.
cracks.It
is convenient for the overall improvement of the
It is convenient for the overall improvement of the roll flowers design. roll flowers design.
The sheet
The sheet metal
metal model
model is is marked,
marked, as as shown
shownin inFigure
Figure5,5,and andthethefront
frontpart
partnodes
nodesAA11,,A A22, and thethe
back part nodes C11,, C
back C22 are
aretaken
takenas asthe
themeasuring
measuringnodes. nodes.As Aswewecancanseeseefrom
fromB2B, 2the
, thesheet
sheet meshmeshin
thickness direction is divided into three layers and the local
in thickness direction is divided into three layers and the local grid refinement is used grid refinement is used for a better
better
forming effect of
forming of Section
Section 1. 1. Figure 6a,b show that the the maximum
maximum peak strain strain (i.e.,
(i.e., the
the bending
bending area area
between the
between thewebwebzone zoneand andthetheflange)
flange) in in
thethe front
front part part of the
of the sheetsheet is smaller
is smaller thanthan
that that
in theinback
the back
part,
part,the
and and the stress
stress distribution
distribution in the in thepart
front frontis part
also is also smaller
smaller than that thanin that in the
the back back
part. Thepart.
mainThereason
main
reason
is the workis the work hardening
hardening in coldofforming
in cold forming the sheet ofmetal.
the sheet
The metal.
sheet hasTheundergone
sheet hascyclic
undergone
loadingcyclicand
loading and unloading. Because of the deformation of the front part,
unloading. Because of the deformation of the front part, the deformation of the back part tends to the deformation of the back part
tends
the to the
shape of shape
the roll ofbefore
the rollit before
enters it theenters
roll, the
androll,the and the deformation
deformation of the deformed
of the deformed back part back part
occurs
occursitwhen
when contacts it contacts
the roll.theAtroll.
thisAttime,
this time, the deformation
the deformation of the ofsheet
the sheetmetalmetal
willwill be more
be more difficult
difficult to
to form due to the material work hardening, so the required stress is
form due to the material work hardening, so the required stress is also greater than that of the frontalso greater than that of the front
part (see
part (see Figure
Figure 6b). 6b). As a result, the forming of the back part is more thorough, the thinning is larger,
and the
and the peak
peak strain
strain is
is relatively
relatively larger.
larger.

Figure 5. Node
Figure 5. Node positions
positions of
of the
the sheet
sheet metal
metal model.
model.
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Figure 6. (a) Equivalent strain distribution and strain comparison; (b) Equivalent stress distribution
Figure 6. (a) Equivalent strain distribution and strain comparison; (b) Equivalent stress distribution
and stress comparison between front part to behind part of the strip.
and stress comparison between front part to behind part of the strip.
However, forming quality at the beginning of the sheet (the bite zone) is poor. As shown in the
However,
Bite zone forming
in Figure 7, thequality
crimp at ofthe
thebeginning
bite zone is of very
the sheet
obvious(the andbite the
zone) is poor.angle
bending As shown
is too in the
large
Bite zone in Figure 7, the crimp of the bite zone is very obvious and
to meet the forming dimension requirement. This is mainly due to the fact that the bite zone is the the bending angle is too large to
meet the forming dimension requirement. This is mainly due to the fact that
initial part of the forming sheet and it directly faces the straight roll shape during the forming process. the bite zone is the initial
partback
The of the
partforming sheet and
has already it directly
deformed faces
to the the of
shape straight
the rollroll shape
due to theduring the forming
deformation of theprocess. The
front part.
back part has already deformed to the shape of the roll due to the deformation
From the strain and stress distribution of the 1st pass in Figure 7 can be seen, in the back area of the of the front part. From
the contact
roll strain and stress
zone, distribution
there is strain and of the 1st pass
stress, which in has
Figure
caused7 canthe beuncontact-roll
seen, in the back areaarea of the roll
deformation,
contact
and zone,the
it makes there is strain
forming and stress,
process which has caused
has transitional stage, and the uncontact-roll
the forming quality area deformation,
is relatively good. and it
makes the forming process has transitional stage, and the forming quality
From the strain distribution of 2–4th passes, it can be seen that the main forming parts of these passes is relatively good. From
thethe
are strain distribution
Section 1 in Figureof 2–4th
2. It canpasses,
be seenit can
thatbethe
seen highthat the main
strain zone forming
is locatedpartsat the ofbending
these passes edgeareof
Section 1, where the forming dimension error is large. The stress distribution of 5–7th passesedge
the Section 1 in Figure 2. It can be seen that the high strain zone is located at the bending shows of
Section 1, where the forming dimension error is large. The stress distribution
that the stress at the roll contact zone is bigger and the stress on both sides is radially decreased. of 5–7th passes shows
thatstress
The the stress at the rollincontact
distribution lateral zoneof theissheet
biggerisandbasedtheon stress
the on rollboth
passsides is radially
distance. decreased.
The larger stressThe
is
stress distribution in lateral of the sheet is based on the roll pass distance.
focused on the roll contact zone, while stress of the sheet between two passes is smaller because The larger stress is focused
there
on the
has no roll contact
direct zone, while
roll actions. Thestress
stressofisthe sheet
larger atbetween
the upper two andpasses
lower is smaller
bendingbecausezone ofthere has no
the flange.
direct
The rollstress
sheet actions. The stress isdirection
in longitudinal larger atisthe upperconcentrated
mainly and lower bending zone ofzone
in the bending the that
flange. The sheet
is directly in
contact with the roll, and the stress on the center of the web zone and the flange is relativelycontact
stress in longitudinal direction is mainly concentrated in the bending zone that is directly in small.
withstrain
The the roll, and the stress
distribution on thepasses
of 8–10th center shows
of the web
thatzone and the flange
the bending zone of is the
relatively
flangesmall.
is a high Thestrain
strain
distribution ofarea,
concentration 8–10th
where passes
the shows that the is
sheet thinning bending zoneand
the largest, of the
it isflange is a higharea
a dangerous strain
for concentration
the design of
area, where the
the C-channel steel. sheet thinning is the largest, and it is a dangerous area for the design of the C-channel
steel.
4.2. Residual Stress Analysis on the C-Channel Steel
The measurement of residual stress mainly concentrates on the internal and external surfaces of
web zone and flange. Figure 8 shows the experimental and numerical results of the residual stress
on the internal and external surfaces corresponding to the measurement points shown in Figure 8.
The simulation results have a certain error when compared with the experimental results. It can be
seen that the residual stress in the web zone is significantly less than the flange, and the residual
stress on the external surface is slightly larger than the internal surface. The comparison between the
simulation model and the experimental samples can further prove the reliability of the simulation
model, so the model can be used to predict the residual stress. The reasons for the errors are as follows,
for simulation errors: (i) The mesh size of the sheet, especially at the bending zone. More layers and
smaller size of the elements are needed to improve the simulation results. (ii) The assumed friction
coefficient might not proper. A more accurate friction coefficient is needed. For measurement errors:
(i) Q235 is used as material parameters in the simulation model, but a layer of zinc is deposited on the
surface of the material, which is not reflected in the simulation model. The zinc coating may interfere
Materials 2018, 11, 1911 8 of 11

with the results of X-ray diffractometer measurement; (ii) there has a certain degree of residual stress
release of the measurement sample that is used in experiment because of the cutting. To improve the
measurement
Materials 2018, 11, results, theREVIEW
x FOR PEER sample can be measured by mechanical measurement method, such as 8 ofthe
11
hole-drilling method. However, it is a kind of destructive measurement method.

3.282 × 10−1 5.349 × 102

2.954 × 10−1 4.813 × 102

2.626 × 10−1 4.276 × 102

2.298 × 10−1 3.739 × 102

1.969 × 10−1
3.202 × 102
1.641 × 10−1
2.665 × 102
1.313 × 10−1
2.129 × 102
9.847 × 10 −2 1.592 × 10 2
6.565 × 10−2 1.055 × 102
3.282 × 10−2 5.183 × 10 1
0.000 × 100
-1.850 × 10 0

4.875 × 10−1

4.387 × 10−1

3.900 × 10−1

3.412 × 10−1

2.925 × 10−1

2.437 × 10−1

1.950 × 10−1

1.462 × 10−1

9.750 × 10−2

4.875 × 10−2

0.000 × 100

6.030 × 102

5.418 × 102

4.807 × 102

4.195 × 102

3.584 × 102

2.972 × 102

2.361 × 102

1.749 × 102

1.138 × 102

5.264 × 102

-8.514 × 100

5.047 × 10−1

4.543 × 10−1

4.038 × 10−1

3.534 × 10−1

3.030 × 10−1

2.525 × 10−1

2.021 × 10−1

1.516 × 10−1

1.012 × 10−1

5.072 × 10−2

2.740 × 10−4

Figure 7. The forming quality of the bite segment.

Figure 7. The forming quality of the bite segment.

4.2. Residual Stress Analysis on the C-Channel Steel

The measurement of residual stress mainly concentrates on the internal and external surfaces of
web zone and flange. Figure 8 shows the experimental and numerical results of the residual stress on
the internal and external surfaces corresponding to the measurement points shown in Figure 8. The
simulation results have a certain error when compared with the experimental results. It can be seen
that the residual stress in the web zone is significantly less than the flange, and the residual stress on
the external surface is slightly larger than the internal surface. The comparison between the
simulation model and the experimental samples can further prove the reliability of the simulation
model, so the model can be used to predict the residual stress. The reasons for the errors are as
follows, for simulation errors: (i) The mesh size of the sheet, especially at the bending zone. More
layers and smaller size of the elements are needed to improve the simulation results. (ii) The assumed
errors: (i) Q235 is used as material parameters in the simulation model, but a layer of zinc is deposited
on the surface of the material, which is not reflected in the simulation model. The zinc coating may
interfere with the results of X-ray diffractometer measurement; (ii) there has a certain degree of
residual stress release of the measurement sample that is used in experiment because of the cutting.
To improve the measurement results, the sample can be measured by mechanical measurement
Materials 2018, 11, 1911 9 of 11
method, such as the hole-drilling method. However, it is a kind of destructive measurement method.

Figure 8. Comparison of the numerical and the experimental residual stress.

Figure 8. Comparison of the numerical and the experimental residual stress.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
(1) The forming quality of the bite zone is the worst in the whole cold roll forming process.
(1) The
The forming
analysis of quality of thedistribution
the layered bite zone isofthe worst
sheet in the
shows thatwhole cold roll
the external forming
layer process.
is mainly subjectThe
to
analysis of thewhile
tensile stress, layeredthedistribution
internal layerof issheet
mainlyshows that to
subject thecompressive
external layer is mainly
stress, and the subject to
internal
tensile stress, while
layer residual stress the internallarger
is slightly layerthan
is mainly subjectlayer.
the external to compressive stress, and
It offers a reference for the forming
internal
layer residual stress
of anisotropy is slightly
material and thelarger than
material the different
with external layer.
coatingsIt offers a reference
at internal for the surfaces.
and external forming
(2) ofTheanisotropy
equationsmaterial and the forming
for calculating material passes
with different
that are coatings
proposed atby
internal
many and external
scholars surfaces.
are based on
(2) The equations and
the materials for calculating
shapes of the forming
productspassesthey that are proposed
studied and lackby of many scholarsThey
universality. are based on
can only
the materials
predict and shapes
the number of thepasses
of forming products they and
roughly studied and by
verified lack of universality. They can only
experience.
(3) predict
In order the tonumber of forming
save costs, passespass
one forming roughlycan and verified
be used by experience.
to shaping the short edge of the target
(3) Inproduct (such as Section 1 in Figure 2a 3 mm short edge in this paper).short
order to save costs, one forming pass can be used to shaping the edge of
However, thethe target
forming
product (such as Section 1 in Figure 2a 3 mm short edge in this
shape and dimension accuracy are not very good. This design method is suitable for those paper). However, the forming
shape
products andthat dimension accuracy
do not require highare not very
quality at thegood.
shortThis design
edges. For themethod is suitable
high quality and for those
accuracy
products that do not require high quality at the short edges.
dimension products, more forming passes are needed for the short edge forming. For the high quality and accuracy
(4) dimension
For long edge products,
forming more forming
of the targetpasses
product are(such
needed as for the short
Section edge forming.
3 in Figure 2a 19 mm long edge),
(4) For long edge forming of the target product (such as Section
several forming passes (seven passes are used in this paper) are needed to avoid 3 in Figure 2a 19 mmthelong edge),
dangerous
several forming passes (seven passes are used in this paper) are
area and keep the dimension accuracy. An over bending pass is needed to compensate the needed to avoid the dangerous
area and springback,
material keep the dimension
especiallyaccuracy.
in the longAn edgeover bending pass is needed to compensate the
forming.
material springback, especially in the long edge forming.
(5) The forming process in this paper offers a reference for the forming pass design of U-channel and
(5) The forming
V-channel process in this paper offers a reference for the forming pass design of U-channel
steel.
and V-channel steel.
(6) Residual stress measurement of C-channel steel shows that the external surface of C-channel steel
(6) Residual stress measurement of C-channel steel shows that the external surface of C-channel
is mainly tensile stress, the internal surface is mainly compressive stress, and the residual stress
steel is mainly tensile stress, the internal surface is mainly compressive stress, and the residual
of flange is far greater than that of web zone, which hardly deforms during cold roll forming and
stress of flange is far greater than that of web zone, which hardly deforms during cold roll
residual stress is very small.
forming and residual stress is very small.
For future work, we want to find the relationship between the residual stress prediction values
and the dangerous level of the dangerous areas, and use the simulation model and measurement
equipment to predict and check whether the products meet the requirements. For this purpose,
conclusion (6) provides a theoretical basis.

Author Contributions: The study was conceived of and designed by X.H.; the mechanical analysis was performed
by X.W.; the review and editing were performed by X.H.
Materials 2018, 11, 1911 10 of 11

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank Yushuai Su and Yongwen Hu for their technical assistance.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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