Educational Research

What is Research?

 Research is seeking answers to a question. It is a series of inquiries. It is observing and

seeking questions.
 It is the systematic investigation into and study in order to establish facts and reach new
conclusions.
 Scientific Research is conducted in the manner of science or according to results of
investigation by science : practicing or using thorough or systematic methods.

How to Identify an Appropriate Research Problem

The research problem is the heart of a study. It is a clear, definite statement of the area of
concern or investigation and is backed by evidence (Bryman, 2017). It drives the research
questions and processes and provides the framework for understanding the research findings. To
begin, you will need to know where to look for your research problem and how to evaluate when
a research problem for success.

Where to Find a Research Problem

Ideas for a research problems tend to come from two sources: real life and the scholarly arena.
 First, identifying a research problem can be as simple as observing the complications and
issues in your local workplace. You may encounter ongoing issues on a daily basis in
your workplace or observe your colleagues struggle with major issues or questions in
your field. These ongoing obstacles and issues in the workplace can be the catalyst for
developing a research problem.
 Alternatively, research problems can be identified by reviewing recent literature, reports,
or databases in your field. Often the section of “recommendations for the future studies”
provided at the end of journal articles or doctoral dissertations suggest potential research
problems. In addition, major reports and databases in the field may reveal findings or
data-based facts that call for additional investigation or suggest potential issues to be
addressed. Looking at what theories need to be tested is another opportunity to develop a
research problem.
 Supported by the Literature
Your research problem should be relevant to the field and supported by a number of
recent peer-reviewed studies in the field. Even if you identify the problem based on the
recommendation of one journal article or dissertation, you will still need to conduct a
literature search and ensure that other researchers support the problem and need for
conducting research to further address the problem.
 Significant
Your research problem should have a positive impact on the field. The impact can be
practical, in the form of direct application of the results in the field, or conceptual, where
the work advances the field by filling a knowledge gap.
 Timely
Your research problem should be related to the current needs in the field and well-suited
for the present status of the issues in your field. Explore what topics are being covered in
current journals in the field. Look at calls from relevant disciplinary organizations.
Review your research center agenda and focused topics. For example, critical thinking,
social media and cultural competency, diversity,. Identifying a current question in the
 field and supporting the problem with the recent literature can justify the problem
timeliness.

 Specific and Clear

Your research problem should be specific enough to set the direction of the study, raise
research question(s), and determine an appropriate research method and design. Vague
research problems may not be useful to specify the direction of the study or develop
research questions.

Kinds of Research Variable

What are variables?

Variables are things you measure, manipulate and control in statistics and research. All
studies analyze a variable, which can describe a person, place, thing or idea. A variable's value
can change between groups or over time. For example, if the variable in an experiment is a
person's eye color, its value can change from brown to blue to green from person to person.

Types of variables
Researchers organize variables into a variety of categories, the most common of which include:

 Independent variables
An independent variable is a singular characteristic that the other variables in your
experiment cannot change. Age is an example of an independent variable. Where
someone lives, what they eat or how much they exercise are not going to change their
age. Independent variables can, however, change other variables. In studies, researchers
often try to find out whether an independent variable causes other variables to change and
in what way

 Dependent variables
A dependent variable relies on and can be changed by other components. A grade on an
exam is an example of a dependent variable because it depends on factors such as how
much sleep you got and how long you studied. Independent variables can influence
dependent variables, but dependent variables cannot influence independent variables. For
example, the time you spent studying (dependent) can affect the grade on your test
(independent) but the grade on your test does not affect the time you spent studying.
When analyzing relationships between study objects, researchers often try to determine
what makes the dependent variable change and how.

 Intervening variables
An intervening variable, sometimes called a mediator variable, is a theoretical variable
the researcher uses to explain a cause or connection between other study variables—
usually dependent and independent ones. They are associations instead of observations.
For example, if wealth is the independent variable, and a long life span is a dependent
variable, the researcher might hypothesize that access to quality healthcare is the
intervening variable that links wealth and life span.

 Moderating variables
A moderating or moderator variable changes the relationship between dependent and
independent variables by strengthening or weakening the intervening variable's effect.
For example, in a study looking at the relationship between economic status (independent
variable) and how frequently people get physical exams from a doctor (dependent
 variable), age is a moderating variable. That relationship might be weaker in younger
individuals and stronger in older individuals.

 Control variables
Control or controlling variables are characteristics that are constant and do not change
during a study. They have no effect on other variables. Researchers might intentionally
keep a control variable the same throughout an experiment to prevent bias. For example,
in an experiment about plant development, control variables might include the amounts
of fertilizer and water each plant gets. These amounts are always the same so that they do
not affect the plants' growth.

A research design is a strategy for answering your research question using empirical data.
Creating a research design means making decisions about:

 Your overall aims and approach

 The type of research design you’ll use
 Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects
 Your data collection methods
 The procedures you’ll follow to collect data
 Your data analysis methods

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research aims and
that you use the right kind of analysis for your data.

Step 1: Consider your aims and approach

Before you can start designing your research, you should already have a clear idea of the
research question you want to investigate.

Research question example:

How can teachers adapt their lessons for effective remote learning?

There are many different ways you could go about answering this question. Your research design
choices should be driven by your aims and priorities—start by thinking carefully about what you
want to achieve.

The first choice you need to make is whether you’ll take a qualitative or quantitative approach.

Qualitative approach Quantitative approach

 Understand subjective experiences,  Measure variables and describe

beliefs, and concepts frequencies, averages, and correlations
 Gain in-depth knowledge of a specific  Test hypotheses about relationships
context or culture between variables
 Explore under-researched problems and  Test the effectiveness of a new
generate new ideas treatment, program or product

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible and inductive, allowing you to adjust your
approach based on what you find throughout the research process.

Qualitative research example:

If you want to generate new ideas for online teaching strategies, a qualitative approach would
make the most sense. You can use this type of research to explore exactly what teachers and
students struggle with in remote classes.

Quantitative research designs tend to be more fixed and deductive,

with variables and hypotheses clearly defined in advance of data collection.

Quantitative research example

If you want to test the effectiveness of an online teaching method, a quantitative approach is
most suitable. You can use this type of research to measure learning outcomes like grades and
test scores.

It’s also possible to use a mixed-methods design that integrates aspects of both approaches. By
combining qualitative and quantitative insights, you can gain a more complete picture of the
problem you’re studying and strengthen the credibility of your conclusions.

Practical considerations when designing research

As well as scientific considerations, you need to think practically when designing your research..

 How much time do you have to collect data and write up the research?
 Will you be able to gain access to the data you need (e.g. by travelling to a specific
location or contacting specific people)?
 Do you have the necessary research skills (e.g. statistical analysis or interview
techniques)?

At each stage of the research design process, make sure that your choices are practically feasible.

Step 2: Choose a type of research design

Within both qualitative and quantitative approaches, there are several types of research design to
choose from. Each type provides a framework for the overall shape of your research.

Types of quantitative research designs

Quantitative designs can be split into four main types. Experimental and quasi-
experimental designs allow you to test cause-and-effect relationships,
while descriptive and correlational designs allow you to measure variables and describe
relationships between them.

Type of design Purpose and characteristics

Experimental  Used to test causal relationships

 Involves manipulating an independent variable and measuring its effect on a dependent
variable
 Subjects are randomly assigned to groups
 Usually conducted in a controlled environment (e.g. a lab)
Type of design Purpose and characteristics

Quasi-  Used to test causal relationships

experimental  Similar to experimental design, but without random assignment
 Often involves comparing the outcomes of pre-existing groups
 Often conducted in a natural environment

Correlational  Used to test whether (and how strongly) variables are related
 Variables are measured without influencing them

Descriptive  Used to describe characteristics, averages, trends, etc

 Variables are measured without influencing them

With descriptive and correlational designs, you can get a clear picture of characteristics, trends
and relationships as they exist in the real world.

Correlational design example

You could use a correlational design to find out if the rise in online teaching in the past year
correlates with any change in test scores.

But this design can’t confirm a causal relationship between the two variables. Any change in test
scores could have been influenced by many other variables, such as increased stress and health
issues among students and teachers.

Experiments are the strongest way to test cause-and-effect relationships without the risk of other
variables influencing the results. However, their controlled conditions may not always reflect
how things work in the real world. They’re often also more difficult and expensive to implement.

Experimental design example

In an experimental design, you could gather a sample of students and then randomly assign half
of them to be taught online and the other half to be taught in person, while controlling all other
relevant variables.
By comparing their outcomes in test scores, you can be more confident that it was the method of
teaching (and not other variables) that caused any change in scores.

Types of qualitative research designs

Qualitative designs are less strictly defined. This approach is about gaining a rich, detailed
understanding of a specific context or phenomenon, and you can often be more creative and
flexible in designing your research.

The table below shows some common types of qualitative design. They often have similar
approaches in terms of data collection, but focus on different aspects when analyzing the data.
Type of design Purpose and characteristics

Case study  Detailed study of a specific subject (e.g. a place, event, organization, etc).
 Data can be collected using a variety of sources and methods.
 Focuses on gaining a holistic understanding of the case.

Ethnography  Detailed study of the culture of a specific community or group.

 Data is collected by extended immersion and close observation.
 Focuses on describing and interpreting beliefs, conventions, social dynamics, etc.

Grounded  Aims to develop a theory inductively by systematically analyzing qualitative data.

theory
Phenomenology  Aims to understand a phenomenon or event by describing participants’ lived
experiences.

Step 3: Identify your population and sampling method

Your research design should clearly define who or what your research will focus on, and how
you’ll go about choosing your participants or subjects.

In research, a population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about, while
a sample is the smaller group of individuals you’ll actually collect data from.

Defining the population

A population can be made up of anything you want to study, it most often refers to a group of
people.

For example, will you focus on people from a specific demographic, region or background? Are
you interested in people with a certain job or medical condition, or users of a particular product?

The more precisely you define your population, the easier it will be to gather a representative
sample.

Population example
If you’re studying the effectiveness of online teaching in the US, it would be very difficult to get
a sample that’s representative of all high school students in the country.
To make the research more manageable, and to draw more precise conclusions, you could focus
on a narrower population—for example, 9th-grade students in low-income areas of New York.

Sampling methods
Even with a narrowly defined population, it’s rarely possible to collect data from every
individual. Instead, you’ll collect data from a sample.

To select a sample, there are two main approaches: probability sampling and non-probability
sampling. The sampling method you use affects how confidently you can generalize your results
to the population as a whole.
Probability sampling Non-probability sampling

 Sample is selected using random methods  Sample selected in a non-random way

 Mainly used in quantitative research  Used in both qualitative and quantitative research
 Allows you to make strong statistical inferences  Easier to achieve, but more risk of bias
about the population

Probability sampling is the most statistically valid option, but it’s often difficult to achieve unless
you’re dealing with a very small and accessible population.

Step 4: Choose your data collection methods

Data collection methods are ways of directly measuring variables and gathering information.
They allow you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem.

You can choose just one data collection method, or use several methods in the same study.

Survey methods
Surveys allow you to collect data about opinions, behaviours, experiences, and characteristics by
asking people directly. There are two main survey methods to choose from: questionnaires and
interviews.

Questionnaires Interviews

 More common in quantitative research  More common in qualitative research

 May be distributed online, by phone, by mail or  Conducted by researcher in person, by phone or
in person online
 Usually offer closed questions with limited  Usually allow participants to answer in their
options own words
 Consistent data can be collected from many  Ideas can be explored in-depth with a smaller
people group

Observation methods
Observations allow you to collect data unobtrusively, observing characteristics, behaviours or
social interactions without relying on self-reporting.

Observations may be conducted in real time, taking notes as you observe, or you might make
audiovisual recordings for later analysis. They can be qualitative or quantitative.

Quantitative observation Qualitative observation

 Systematically counting or measuring  Taking detailed notes and writing rich

 Categories and criteria determined in advance descriptions
 All relevant observations can be recorded

Secondary data
If you don’t have the time or resources to collect data from the population you’re interested in,
you can also choose to use secondary data that other researchers already collected—for example,
datasets from government surveys or previous studies on your topic.

Step 5: Plan your data collection procedures

As well as deciding on your methods, you need to plan exactly how you’ll use these methods to
collect data that’s consistent, accurate, and unbiased.

Planning systematic procedures is especially important in quantitative research, where you need
to precisely define your variables and ensure your measurements are reliable and valid.

Operationalization
Some variables, like height or age, are easily measured. But often you’ll be dealing with more
abstract concepts, like satisfaction, anxiety, or competence. Operationalization means turning
these fuzzy ideas into measurable indicators.

If you’re using observations, which events or actions will you count?

Example

To measure student participation in an online course, you could record the number of times
students ask and answer questions. If you’re using surveys, which questions will you ask and
what range of responses will be offered?

Example
To measure teachers’ satisfaction with online learning tools, you could create a questionnaire
with a 5-point rating scale.
You may also choose to use or adapt existing materials designed to measure the concept you’re
interested in—for example, questionnaires or inventories whose reliability and validity has
already been established.

Sampling procedures
As well as choosing an appropriate sampling method, you need a concrete plan for how you’ll
actually contact and recruit your selected sample.

That means making decisions about things like:

 How many participants do you need for an adequate sample size?

 What inclusion and exclusion criteria will you use to identify eligible participants?
 How will you contact your sample—by mail, online, by phone, or in person?

If you’re using a probability sampling method, it’s important that everyone who is randomly
selected actually participates in the study. How will you ensure a high response rate?

If you’re using a non-probability method, how will you avoid bias and ensure a representative
sample?

Data management
It’s also important to create a data management plan for organizing and storing your data.
Will you need to transcribe interviews or perform data entry for observations? You should
anonymize and safeguard any sensitive data, and make sure it’s backed up regularly.

Keeping your data well-organized will save time when it comes to analyzing it. It can also help
other researchers validate and add to your findings.

Step 6: Decide on your data analysis strategies

On its own, raw data can’t answer your research question. The last step of designing your
research is planning how you’ll analyze the data.

Quantitative data analysis

In quantitative research, you’ll most likely use some form of statistical analysis. With statistics,
you can summarize your sample data, make estimates, and test hypotheses.

Using descriptive statistics, you can summarize your sample data in terms of:

 The distribution of the data (e.g. the frequency of each score on a test)
 The central tendency of the data (e.g. the mean to describe the average score)
 The variability of the data (e.g. the standard deviation to describe how spread out the
scores are)

The specific calculations you can do depend on the level of measurement of your variables.

Using inferential statistics, you can:

 Make estimates about the population based on your sample data.

 Test hypotheses about a relationship between variables.

Regression and correlation tests look for associations between two or more variables, while
comparison tests (such as t-tests and ANOVAs) look for differences in the outcomes of different
groups.

Your choice of statistical test depends on various aspects of your research design, including the
types of variables you’re dealing with and the distribution of your data.

Qualitative data analysis

In qualitative research, your data will usually be very dense with information and ideas. Instead
of summing it up in numbers, you’ll need to comb through the data in detail, interpret its
meanings, identify patterns, and extract the parts that are most relevant to your research question.

Two of the most common approaches to doing this are thematic analysis and discourse analysis.

Approach Characteristics

Thematic  Focuses on the content of the data

analysis  Involves coding and organizing the data to identify key
themes

Discourse  Focuses on putting the data in context

Approach Characteristics

analysis  Involves analyzing different levels of communication

(language, structure, tone, etc)

Characteristics of Research

Empirical - based on observations and experimentation on theories.

Systematic - follows orderly and sequential procedure.
Controlled - all variables except those that are tested/experimented upon are kept constant.
Employs hypothesis - guides the investigation process
Analytical - There is critical analysis of all data used so that there is no error in their interpretation
Objective, Unbiased, & Logical - all findings are logically based on empirical
Employs quantitative or statistical methods - data are transformed into numerical measures and are treated
statistically.

Kendal, Simon; Creen, Malcolm (2006-10-04). An Introduction to Knowledge Engineering. ISBN 978-1-
84628-475-5.