Theory of EMF

(22EL SEC 1&2)

Dr. Abdul Hakeem Memon

Associate Professor
Electrical Engineering,
MUET, Jamshoro
1
 Fair Use Notice

The material used in this presentation i.e., pictures/graphs/text, etc. is solely

intended for educational/teaching purpose, offered free of cost to the students for
use under special circumstances of Online Education due to COVID-19 Lockdown
situation and may include copyrighted material - the use of which may not have
been specifically authorised by Copyright Owners. It’s application constitutes Fair
Use of any such copyrighted material as provided in globally accepted law of many
countries. The contents of presentations are intended only for the attendees of the
class being conducted by the presenter.
 MAXWELL EQUATIONS

3
4
Maxwell’s Theory
 Electricity and magnetism were originally thought to be unrelated

 Maxwell’s theory showed a close relationship between all electric and magnetic
phenomena and proved that electric and magnetic fields play symmetric roles in
nature

 Maxwell hypothesized that a changing electric field would produce a magnetic

field

• He calculated the speed of light – 3x108 m/s – and concluded

that light and other electromagnetic waves consist of
fluctuating electric and magnetic fields
Maxwell’s Theory
 Stationary charges produce only electric fields
 Charges in uniform motion (constant velocity) produce electric and
magnetic fields

 Charges that are accelerated produce electric and magnetic fields and
electromagnetic waves
 A changing magnetic field produces an electric field

• A changing electric field produces a magnetic

field

• These fields are in phase and, at any point,

they both reach their maximum value at the
same time
 Maxwell’s Equations
 In his unified theory of electromagnetism, Maxwell showed that the
fundamental laws are expressed in these four equations:
Integral Form Differential Form
Integral Form Differential Form
  q
 
 B  dA = 0  E  dA =  0
Gauss’ Law of Magnetism
Gauss’ Law of Electrostatics
Differential Form Integral Form Integral Form Differential Form

Ampere-Maxwell Law
Faraday’s Law
Proof/Derivation of Maxwell’s Equations
 1st equation statement:  Proof:
 Gauss’ Law relates an electric field  By G.D Theorem,
to the charge distribution that  Divergence of vector field describes the
creates it degree to which it is expanding (spread
out) or contracting (converges) at a
 The total electric flux through any given point. If the divergence has
closed surface equals the net charge positive value it represents source of
spread of the field.
inside that surface divided by o

  q
 E  d A =
0
 Proof/Derivation of Maxwell’s Equations
 2nd equation statement :  Proof:
 Gauss’ Law in magnetism: the net magnetic flux  By G.D Theorem,
through a closed surface is zero  Since the net magnetic flux through a
 The number of magnetic field lines that enter a closed surface is zero it means that
closed volume must equal the number that leave there are no sources or sinks for
that volume magnetic field.
 If this wasn’t true, there would be magnetic  Gauss’ law in magnetism describes zero
monopoles found in nature divergence for magnetic field.
 
 B  d A = 0
In simpler words it can be said that no magnetic point exist alone.
If we have a magnet having north and south pole and we break that
magnet, each broken part will have two poles individually.
It is not possible for a point source of magnetic field to exist.
 Proof/Derivation of Maxwell’s Equations
Proof:
 Induced emf is the voltage about a specific closed path.

 3rd equation statement :

 Faraday’s Law of Induction describes the creation
of an electric field by a time-varying magnetic
field

 The emf (the line integral of the electric field

around any closed path) equals the rate of change
of the magnetic flux through any surface bounded
by that path

Here ds = dl
 Proof/Derivation of Maxwell’s Equations
 3rd equation Proof continued… b c

Since B is varying w.r.t time “t”, Partial derivative can be used instead of
ordinary derivative
 Proof/Derivation of Maxwell’s Equations
 4th equation statement :  Proof:
 Ampère-Maxwell Law describes the creation of a  By stroke’s theorem, it is known that
magnetic field by a changing electric field and by
electric current
 Occurance of R.H.S of the equation
 The line integral of the magnetic field around any (4) is discussed in displacement
closed path is the sum of mo times the net current current (next).
through that path and omo times the rate of change
of electric flux through any surface bounded by that
path
 
 B  ds = m 0 I (4)
 Displacement current
 Displacement current, in electromagnetism, a phenomenon analogous to an ordinary electric
current, posited to explain magnetic fields that are produced by changing electric fields.
 Ordinary electric currents, called conduction currents, whether steady or varying, produce
a magnetic field in the vicinity of the current.
 The British physicist James Clerk Maxwell in the 19th century predicted that a magnetic field
must also be associated with a changing electric field even in the absence of a conduction
current, a theory that was subsequently verified experimentally.
 As magnetic fields had long been associated with currents, the Maxwell suggested that the
predicted magnetic field was due to a theoretical current.

13
 Displacement current
 Maxwell gave it the name displacement current, which was proportional to the
rate of change of the electric field that kept arising naturally in his theoretical
formulations.
 As electric charges do not flow through the insulation from one plate of
a capacitor to the other, there is no conduction current; instead, a displacement
current is said to be present to account for the continuity of the magnetic effects.
 Displacement current is no real current (because dielectric can not conduct) but a
theoretical concept to define the magnetism suggested by ampere’s law.

14
 Modifications to Ampère’s Law
 Ampère’s Law is used to analyze magnetic fields created by currents

 
 B  ds = m 0 I
This law can also be stated as the line integral of magnetic field (B) around
any closed path bound by the curve/line is equal to absolute permeability
times the enclosed current that produce the magnetic field.

Applying Ampère’s law to a circuit with a changing current results in

an ambiguity
Maxwell’s Modifications to Ampère’s Law
 Maxwell used this ambiguity, along with symmetry considerations,
to conclude that a changing electric field, in addition to current,
should be a source of magnetic field

 Maxwell modified the equation to include time-varying electric

fields and added another term, called the displacement current, Id

 This showed that magnetic fields are produced both by conduction

currents and by time-varying electric fields

  d E d E
 B  d s = m 0 I + m 0 0 dt Id  0
dt
Numerical 1: Consider a parallel plate capacitor which is maintained at potential
of 200 V. If the separation distance between the plates of the capacitor is 1 mm
and area of the plates is 20 cm2. Calculate the displacement current in 1µs.
Solution:
Potential difference between the plates of the capacitor, V = 200 V
The distance between the plates, d = 1 mm = 1 × 10-3 m
Area of the plates of the capacitor,
A = 20 cm2 = 20 × 10-4 m2
Time is given in micro-second, dt = 10-6 s
Displacement current,

But electric field, E = V/d

Therefore,
Numerical 2: A 500V is applied across a parallel plate capacitor having area of
cross section as 5cm2, Determine the displacement current in the insulation
medium if the plates of the parallel plates is 0.8mm for the time interval of 10µs

Solution:
Potential difference between the plates of the capacitor, V = 500 V
The distance between the plates, d = 0.8 mm = 0.8 × 10-3 m
Area of the plates of the capacitor,
A = 5 cm2 = 5 × 10-4 m2
Time is given in micro-second, dt = 10-5 s
Displacement current,

But electric field, E = V/d

Therefore,
8.85 𝑥 10−12 𝑥 500 𝑥 5 𝑥 10−4 −4
−5 −3
= 2.76 𝑥10 𝐴
10 𝑥 0.8 𝑥 10