Study

Unit

2
Intrinsic Motivation
HRM261 Intrinsic Motivation

Learning Outcomes
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Differentiate the types of motivation along the range of autonomous to

controlled motivation.
2. Explain the three universal human needs according to self-determination and
how they affect work motivation.
3. Demonstrate giving informational versus controlling feedback.
4. Explain the five factors outlined by the job characteristics model and their
importance.
5. Assess how jobs can be redesigned using the job characteristics model.
6. Apply the self-determination theory and job characteristics model to cultivate
intrinsic motivation at work.

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Overview
Intrinsic motivation is a powerful force that drives us from within, pushing us to
engage in activities purely for its own sake. Intrinsic motivation taps into your true
inner potential. In this unit, you will learn about the self-determination theory, which
can be applied across many situations to understand and generate intrinsic motivation.
You will also learn about the job characteristics model, which provides the theoretical
foundation for job design and enrichment. Together, these theories will help human
resource practitioners create intrinsically engaging workplaces.

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Chapter 1: The Self-Determination Theory

1.1 Introduction to Self-Determination Theory

Intrinsic motivation is a powerful force that drives us from within, pushing us to
engage in activities purely for its own sake. When activities are intrinsically motivated,
we do it out of passion, fun, and belief, requiring no reward and sometimes even
pushing against the barriers of hardship and stress. Intrinsic motivation taps into your
true inner potential. In this chapter, you will learn why we are intrinsically motivated
and how we might cultivate intrinsically motivating workplaces.

Reflect: To begin, reflect on areas where you are intrinsically

motivated. Note your responses to relate them to the chapter.

1. List some activities you will do without reward or coercion.

Consider hobbies, volunteering, faith-based activities, or even
academic pursuits.
2. Identify why you enjoy these activities. How do these
activities affect your feelings about your capabilities, beliefs,
and social circles?
The self-determination theory is a relatively encompassing theory of human
motivation, showing that intrinsically motivated activities generally yield more
positive performance and well-being outcomes than extrinsically motivated ones.
Importantly, its supporting research shows that satisfying a relatively small set of
three basic psychological needs can promote intrinsic motivation. Performance and
wellness subsequently follow. The fact that a small set of factors can robustly predict
positive outcomes over various situations makes the self-determination theory
attractive for applied practitioners.

The required reading below will overview the self-determination theory and how
workplace cultures can support these human needs to reap the beneficial effects of
intrinsic motivation for the organization and its workers' well-being. The remainder
of this chapter supports you through the reading with commentaries to illustrate its
more technical aspects.

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Required Reading: Deci, E. L., Olafsen, A. H., & Ryan, R. M. (2017).

Self-determination theory in work organizations: The state of a
science. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and
Organizational Behavior, 4, 19-43.

1.2 Autonomous versus Controlled Motivation

The self-determination theory distinguishes a range of different types of motivation.
Depending on the age of the literature, it may have been called the self-determination
continuum or perceived locus of causality (Gagné & Deci, 2005; Ryan & Deci, 2000). This
chapter describes this as autonomous and controlled motivation (following Deci et
al., 2017). Readers should be aware of the various names and may paraphrase to reflect
more recent terms in their writing. Deci and colleagues (2017) described this
continuum across pages 20-22. A visualization has been created for you in the figure
below.

Figure 2.1. Visualization of the range of controlled to autonomous motivation (Deci et

al., 2017).

The continuum captures more externally driven motivational states – controlled

motivation –on its left and more internally driven ones – autonomous motivation –
on the right. Beginning on the left, external regulation is almost purely driven by
external rewards and punishments. In the case of introjected regulation, where its
driving factors are experienced internally (e.g., guilt, social obligation, and approval),

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the sources of these feelings still stem from one's environment. As one progresses to
the figure's right, the motivational types shaded in blue reflect more autonomous
forms of motivation. In these types, the drivers of action stem from within an
individual. Nevertheless, because work often entails pay, the self-determination
theory assumes that even identified and integrated regulation still contains some
blend of extrinsic or controlled motivation.

Checkpoint: Before proceeding further, read Deci and colleagues

(2017), pages 19–21, to understand the range of autonomous and
controlled motivation.

On page 22, Deci and colleagues (2017) provide a technical review of whether the
continuum from controlled to autonomous motivation is a continuous (e.g., like a
ruler) or simplex (e.g., "stage-like") scale. This technical discussion typically only
concerns academics. In brief, studies find more support for a stage-like interpretation
of the continuum, with each type of motivation exhibiting different characteristics and
predicting different outcomes. Attempts to model these motivations as a
unidimensional continuum show mixed results (Chemolli & Gagné, 2014; Howard et
al., 2016).

That said, treating the range of autonomous to controlled motivation as a continuum

has little risk of misapplication in field practice. A simplex (stage-like) model implies
that someone in a particular stage will also likely exhibit characteristics of adjacent
stages. As you will learn in the remainder of the chapter, people's performance and
well-being outcomes are consistently positively linked to more autonomous
motivation. Furthermore, regardless of which stage people start from, the ways to
promote autonomous motivations are similar.

In practice, one can use the categorical stages to recognize where an employee might
stand on the continuum. From there, practitioners are mainly concerned about
promoting autonomous work motivation through cultivating a more needs-
supportive work environment.

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1.3 Basic Psychological Needs

The SDT adopts an organismic perspective, which assumes that all living organisms,
including humans, have evolved to seek proactive growth and wellness through being
inherently curious, physically active, and deeply social beings (Deci et al., 2017). By
extension, this assumes that we naturally approach life and the world with intrinsic
motivation, including in the areas of work.

That said, it would not take too much effort to recall human behaviors that are
materialistic, greedy, selfish, lazy, unkind, or even cruel. This brings us to the concept
of needs satisfaction. According to the SDT, our human nature to be good and
intrinsically motivated manifests only when supported by "good enough"
environments – those that support basic psychological needs. Humans thrive when
these psychological needs are met, but they can quickly turn defensive, selfish, and
amotivated when our environments frustrate our basic psychological needs (Deci et
al., 2017).

One beauty of SDT and its research findings is the demonstration that humans have a
relatively small set of three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and
relatedness. The SDT also specifically focuses on universal needs essential for people
of all ages and cultures and in various aspects of life. Autonomy reflects the need to
experience choice, volition, and self-congruence in what we do rather than feeling
pressured to take actions that conflict with our self-beliefs. Competence reflects the
need to feel effective and masterful, to have causal control over objects and events in
our environment. Relatedness reflects our need to feel socially connected, both in
being cared for and belonging to others and in our ability to contribute significantly
towards others (Deci et al., 2017).

At work, the ability of the work environment to satisfy this relatively small set of three
needs has been demonstrated to lead to a wide range of performance and wellness
outcomes (Deci et al., 2017). You will learn this from reading the remainder of the
assigned reading.

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Checkpoint: With the above understanding, you should be able to

understand the remainder of Deci and colleagues’ (2017) paper from
pages 22 onwards. Pay special attention to these sections (and their
subsections):

• Research on the Self-Determination Theory Model in Work

Organizations (pp. 24-28).
• The Role of Pay in the Workplace (pp. 32-37).

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Chapter 2: Job Characteristics Model and Job Design

2.1 Job Characteristics Model

The job characteristics model (Hackman & Oldham, 1976) is classified as an exogenous
cause theory because of its focus on the influence of external environments on workers
(Grant & Shin, 2012). More specifically, it emphasizes five job aspects of job design
that boost intrinsic motivation, job satisfaction, and performance (Hackman &
Oldham, 1976). Meta-analyses of nearly 200 studies found general support for this
model (Fried & Ferris, 1987). These job characteristics are:

1. Skill variety— the extent to which a job requires a range of abilities and
skills, which enable the job to be viewed as challenging and meaningful.
2. Task identity— the extent to which the job requires workers to complete
an entire task (rather than a component) so that they can see the product
as a result of their input.
3. Task significance— the extent to which a job substantially impacts other
people, within or outside the organization.
4. Autonomy— the extent to which a job gives workers the freedom and
independence to schedule and execute tasks.
5. Feedback—the extent to which a job allows workers to receive direct and
clear information about their effectiveness.

2.2 Critical Psychological States as the Motivating Mechanisms

According to the job characteristics model, these factors are important for fostering
three critical psychological states. The achievement of these psychological states is
hypothesized as the motivating reason behind each job factor. The factors (1) skill
variety, (2) task identity, and (3) task significance contribute to (A) experienced
meaningfulness. While one can design jobs with all three, the presence of at least one
is sufficient to be motivating. Secondly, jobs should provide (4) autonomy, which is
assumed to invoke (B) responsibility for outcomes. Thirdly, (5) feedback provides
employees (C) knowledge of results. These three critical psychological states promote
intrinsic motivation, job satisfaction, and performance (Hackman & Oldham, 1976).

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However, critical psychological states have rarely been tested in research until
recently, which only partially supports the original model. Two studies conducted by
Renn and Vanderberg (1995) and a meta-analysis by Behson and colleagues (2000)
similarly concluded that critical psychological states contribute a partial role.
However, the direct relationship between job factors and outcomes was often stronger
than those mediated through critical psychological states. Others found that
experienced meaningfulness played an encompassing role, responsible for the effect
of all five job characteristics on job outcomes (Humphrey et al., 2007; Johns et al., 1992).

2.3 Integrating the Job Characteristics Model and the Self-

Determination Theory
The limited support surrounding the critical psychological states put Hackman and
Oldham’s (1976) original conceptualization into question. Recently, Gagné and
Panaccio (2014) have proposed the integration of JCM with SDT, given the close
relationships between both theories and how early work on the JCM is used to
emphasize the role of needs satisfaction (e.g., Hackman & Lawler, 1971).

First, the job characteristic of job autonomy, the extent to which a job offers discretion
in execution and scheduling, is closely related to SDT’s need for autonomy and the
desire to experience volition in one’s behavior (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Second, increasing task identity, feedback, and skill variety can support competence
and the desire to master one’s environment (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Task identity affords
greater recognition of work, while feedback provides the necessary information to
evaluate performance. Both are key ingredients to appraise one’s competence.
Increasing skill variety challenges employees to develop a broader skill set, nurturing
their need for competence (Gagné & Panaccio, 2014).

Lastly, enhancing task significance, or the extent to which one impacts other people,
contributes meaningfully towards fulfilling the need for relatedness, which is our
desire to feel connected to others. This link is well supported by research and
addresses a major criticism that the JCM neglects the important role of interpersonal
relationships in enriching one’s job (Gagné & Panaccio, 2014; Grant & Parker, 2009).

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2.4 JCM in practice: Job Enrichment

Today, the JCM remains a prominent theory to inform strategies around job redesign.
In particular, it supports the strategy referred to as job enrichment, which involves
providing workers with greater responsibility in the planning, execution, and
evaluation of their work. It is important to distinguish this from job enlargement.
Whereas job enrichment raises the responsibility a worker feels on the job, job
enlargement only expands the breadth of job activities that one undertakes. When job
enrichment is used as a motivational strategy, workers may take on some of the tasks
that were previously performed by higher-level supervisors, such as allocating work
tasks, appraising their own work performance, setting output quotas, and making
their own personnel decisions (including hiring, firing, giving raises, and the like).
These programs typically include the following elements (Riggio, 2015):

• Increasing the level of responsibility associated with jobs, as well as the

workers’ sense of freedom and independence.
• Wherever possible, allowing workers to complete an entire task or function.
• Providing feedback so that workers can learn to improve their own
performance.
• Encouraging workers to learn on the job by taking on additional, more
challenging tasks and improving their expertise in their jobs.

2.5 Conclusion
This unit discussed two important theories about intrinsic motivation at work. The
SDT identified three basic psychological needs that, if supported by work
environments, promote intrinsic motivation and self-actualizing tendencies. The
theory also acknowledges that work is a blend of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation
through the autonomous-controlled motivation continuum.

To complement the SDT, you have learned about the JCM, which highlights five
factors HR practitioners can examine to redesign and enrich jobs. We discussed
questions surrounding its mediators and how the SDT may provide a reconciling
perspective.

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Self-Reflection: To consolidate your understanding of this chapter,

use the reflection exercise below to apply SDT and JCM to yourself.

1. How do you feel about your level of competence, autonomy,

and relatedness at work? Which aspects are well-fulfilled
and which are lacking?
2. What activities outside of work support or thwart your sense
of competence, autonomy, and relatedness?
3. If given a chance, how would you redesign your job
differently? Use the factors identified by JCM to guide your
ideas.

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Image Acknowledgements
Book, Thought, and Message icons designed by Smashicons from Flaticon. All icons
from Flaticons are used under Flaticon Free License (with attribution).

References
Behson, S. J., Eddy, E. R., & Lorenzet, S. J. (2000). The importance of the critical
psychological states in the job characteristics model: A meta-analytic and
structural equations modeling examination. Current Research in Social
Psychology, 5(12), 170–189.

Chemolli, E., & Gagné, M. (2014). Evidence against the continuum structure
underlying motivation measures derived from self-determination theory.
Psychological Assessment, 26(2), 575–585. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036212

Deci, E. L., Olafsen, A. H., & Ryan, R. M. (2017). Self-determination theory in work
organizations: The state of a science. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology
and Organizational Behavior, 4, 19–43.

Fried, Y., & Ferris, G. R. (1987). The validity of the job characteristics model: A review
and meta‐analysis. Personnel Psychology, 40(2), 287–322.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1987.tb00605.x

Gagné, M., & Deci, E. L. (2005). Self‐determination theory and work motivation.
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Gagné, M., & Panaccio, A. (2014). The motivational power of job design. In P. E.
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determination theory (pp. 165–180). Oxford University Press.

Grant, A. M., & Parker, S. K. (2009). 7 redesigning work design theories: The rise of
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375. https://doi.org/10.5465/19416520903047327

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Grant, A. M., & Shin, J. (2012). Work motivation: Directing, energizing, and
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Hackman, J. R., & Lawler, E. E. (1971). Employee reactions to job characteristics.

Journal of Applied Psychology, 55(3), 259–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0031152

Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1976). Motivation through the design of work: Test
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Howard, J., Gagné, M., Morin, A. J. S., & Van Den Broeck, A. (2016). Motivation
profiles at work: A self-determination theory approach. Journal of Vocational
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Humphrey, S. E., Nahrgang, J. D., & Morgeson, F. P. (2007). Integrating motivational,

social, and contextual work design features: A meta-analytic summary and
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Renn, R., & Vandenberg, R. J. (1995). The critical psychological states: An

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