9 Transport in animals

Transport in animals

The blood, pumped by the heart, travels all around the body in blood vessels. It leaves the
heart in arteries and returns in veins. Valves, present in the heart and veins, ensure a one-
way flow for the blood. As blood enters an organ, the arteries divide into smaller arterioles,
which supply capillaries. In these vessels the blood moves much more slowly, allowing the
exchange of materials such as oxygen and glucose, carbon dioxide and other wastes. Blood
leaving an organ is collected in venules, which transfer it on to larger veins.

Single circulation of fish

Fish have the simplest circulatory system of all the vertebrates. A heart, consisting of one
blood- collecting chamber (the atrium) and one blood- ejection chamber (the ventricle),
sends blood to the gills where it is oxygenated. The blood then flows to all the parts of the
body before returning to the heart. This is known as a single circulation because the blood
goes through the heart once for each complete circulation of the body. However, as the
blood passes through capillaries in the gills, blood pressure is lost, but the blood still needs
to circulate through other organs of the body before returning to the heart to increase
blood pressure. This makes the fish circulatory system inefficient.

Double circulation of mammals

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The route of the circulation of blood in a mammal

The blood passes twice through the heart during one complete circuit: once on its way to
the body and again on its way to the lungs. The circulation through the lungs is called the
pulmonary circulation; the circulation around the rest of the body is called the systemic
circulation. On average, a red blood cell would go around the whole circulation in 45
seconds.

A double circulation has the advantage of maintaining a high blood pressure to all the major
organs of the body. The right side of the heart collects blood from the body, builds up the
blood pressure and sends it to the lungs to be oxygenated, but the pressure drops during
the process. The left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs, builds up
the blood pressure again and pumps the oxygenated blood to the body.

Heart
The heart pumps blood through the circulatory system to all the major organs of the body.

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If you study the Figure you will see that there are four chambers. The upper, thin-walled
chambers are the atria (singular = atrium) and each of these opens into a thick-walled
chamber, the ventricle, below. Blood enters the atria from large veins. The pulmonary vein
brings oxygenated blood from the lungs into the left atrium. The vena cava brings
deoxygenated blood from the body tissues into the right atrium. The blood passes from
each atrium to its corresponding ventricle, and the ventricle pumps it out into the arteries.
The left chambers are separated from the right chambers by a wall of muscle called a
septum.

The artery carrying oxygenated blood to the body from the left ventricle is the aorta. The
pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs.

In pumping the blood, the muscle in the walls of the atria and ventricles contracts and
relaxes. The walls of the atria contract first and force blood into the two ventricles. Then the
ventricles contract and send blood into the arteries. Valves prevent blood flowing
backwards during or after heart contractions. The heart muscle is supplied with food and
oxygen by the coronary arteries.

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There are a number of ways by which the activity of the heart can be monitored. These
include measuring pulse rate, listening to heart sounds and the use of electrocardiograms
(ECGs).

Pulse rate

The ripple of pressure that passes down an artery as a result of the heart beat can be felt as
a ‘pulse’ when the artery is near the surface of the body. You can feel the pulse in your
radial artery by pressing the fingertips of one hand on the wrist of the other. It is important
that the thumb is not used because it has its own pulse. There is also a detectable pulse in
the carotid artery in the neck. Digital pulse rate monitors are also available. These can be
applied to a finger, wrist or earlobe depending on the type and provide a very accurate
reading.

Heart sounds

These can be heard using a stethoscope. This instrument amplifies the sounds of the heart
valves opening and closing. A healthy heart produces a regular ‘lub-dub’ sound. The first
(‘lub’) sound is caused by the closure of the valves separating the atria from the ventricles.
The second (‘dub’) sound represents the closure of the valves at the entrance of the
pulmonary artery and aorta. Observation of irregular sounds may indicate an irregular

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heartbeat. If the ‘lub’ or ‘dub’ sounds are not clear then this may point to a problem with
faulty valves.

ECGs

An ECG is an electrocardiogram. To obtain an ECG, electrodes, attached to an ECG recording

machine, are stuck onto the surface of the skin on the arms, legs and chest. Electrical
activity associated with heartbeat is then monitored and viewed on a computer screen or
printed out (Figure 9.9). Any irregularity in the trace can be used to diagnose heart
problems.

Coronary heart disease

In the lining of the large and medium arteries, deposits of a fatty substance, called
atheroma, are laid down in patches. This happens to everyone and the patches get more
numerous and extensive with age, but until one of them actually blocks an important artery
the effects are not noticed. It is not known how or why the deposits form. Some doctors
think that fatty substances in the blood pass into the lining. Others believe that small blood
clots form on damaged areas of the lining and are covered over by the atheroma patches.
The patches may join up to form a continuous layer, which reduces the internal diameter of
the vessel.

The surface of a patch of atheroma sometimes becomes rough and causes fi brinogen in the
plasma to deposit fibrin on it, causing a blood clot (a thrombus). to form. If the blood clot
blocks the coronary artery, which supplies the muscles of the ventricles with blood, it
starves the muscles of oxygenated blood and the heart may stop beating. Thisis a severe

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heart attack from coronary thrombosis. A thrombus might form anywhere in the arterial
system, but its effects in the coronary artery and in parts of the brain (strokes) are the most
drastic. In the early stages of coronary heart disease, the atheroma may partially block the
coronary artery and reduce the blood supply to the heart. This can lead to angina, i.e. a pain
in the chest that occurs during exercise or exertion. This is a warning to the person that he
or she is at risk and should take precautions to avoid a heart attack.

Possible causes of coronary heart disease

Diet

The atheroma deposits contain cholesterol, which is present, combined with lipids and
proteins, in the blood. Cholesterol plays an essential part in our physiology, but it is known
that people with high levels of blood cholesterol are more likely to suffer from heart attacks
than people with low cholesterol levels.

Stress

Emotional stress often leads to raised blood pressure. High blood pressure may increase the
rate at which atheroma are formed in the arteries.

Smoking

Statistical studies suggest that smokers are two to three times more likely to die from a
heart attack than are non-smokers of a similar age. The carbon monoxide and other
chemicals in cigarette smoke may damage the lining of the arteries, allowing atheroma to
form, but there is very little direct evidence for this.

Genetic predisposition

Coronary heart disease appears to be passed from one generation to the next in some
families. This is not something we have any control over, but we can be aware of this risk
and reduce some of the other risk factors to compensate.

Age and gender

As we get older our risk of suffering from coronary heart disease increases. Males are more
at risk of a heart attack than females: it may be that males tend to have less healthy
lifestyles than females.

Lack of exercise

Heart muscle loses its tone and becomes less efficient at pumping blood when exercise is
not untaken. A sluggish blood flow, resulting from lack of exercise, may allow atheroma to
form in thearterial lining but, once again, the direct evidence for this is slim.

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Prevention of coronary heart disease

Maintaining a healthy, balanced diet will result in less chance of a person becoming obese.
There will also be a low intake of saturated fats, so the chances of atheroma and thrombus
formation are reduced. There is some evidence that regular, vigorous exercise reduces the
chances of a heart attack. This may be because it increases muscle tone – not only of
skeletal muscle, but also of cardiac muscle. Good heart muscle tone leads to an improved
coronary blood flow and the heart requires less effort to keep pumping.

Treatment of coronary heart disease

The simplest treatment for a patient who suffers from coronary heart disease is to be given
a regular dose of aspirin (salicylic acid). Aspirin prevents the formation of blood clots in the
arteries, which can lead to a heart attack. It has been found that long- term use of low-dose
aspirin also reduces the risk of coronary heart disease.

Methods of removing or treating atheroma and thrombus formations include the use of
angioplasty, a stent and, in the most severe cases, by-pass surgery.

Angioplasty and stent

Angioplasty involves the insertion of a long, thin tube called a catheter into the blocked or
narrowed blood vessel. A wire attached to a deflated balloon is then fed through the
catheter to the damaged artery. Once in place, the balloon is inflated to widen the artery
wall, effectively freeing the blockage. In some cases a stent is also applied. This is a wire-
mesh tube that can be expanded and left in place.

It then acts as scaffolding, keeping the blood vessel open and maintaining the free flow of
blood. Some stents are designed to give a slow release of chemicals to prevent further
blockage of the artery.

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By-pass surgery
The surgeon removes a section of blood vessel from a different part of the body, such as the
leg. The blood vessel is then attached around the blocked region of artery to by-pass it,
allowing blood to pass freely. This is a major, invasive operation because it involves open-
heart surgery.

Blood and lymphatic vessels

Arteries

These are fairly wide vessels which carry blood from the heart to the limbs and organs of
the body. The blood in the arteries, except for the pulmonary arteries, is oxygenated.
Arteries have elastic tissue and muscle fibres in their thick walls. The arteries divide into
smaller vessels called arterioles.

The arterioles divide repeatedly to form a branching

network of microscopic vessels passing between the cells of every living tissue. These fi nal
branches are called capillaries.

Capillaries
These are tiny vessels, often as little as 0.001 mm in diameter and with walls only one cell
thick. Although the blood as a whole cannot escape from the capillary, the thin capillary
walls allow some liquid to pass through, i.e. they are permeable. Blood pressure in the
capillaries forces part of the plasma out through the walls.

The capillary network is so dense that no living cell is far from a supply of oxygen and food.
The capillaries join up into larger vessels, called venules, which then combine to form veins.

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Veins

Veins return blood from the tissues to the heart. The blood pressure in them is steady and is
less than that in the arteries. They are wider and their walls are thinner, less elastic and less
muscular than those of the arteries. They also have valves in them similar to the semi-lunar
valves.

The blood in most veins is deoxygenated and contains less food but more carbon dioxide
than the blood in most arteries. This is because respiring cells have used the oxygen and
food and produced carbon dioxide. The pulmonary veins, which return blood from the lungs
to the heart, are an exception. They contain oxygenated blood and a reduced level of
carbon dioxide.

Blood pressure

The pumping action of the heart produces a pressure that drives blood around the
circulatory system. In the arteries, the pressure fluctuates with the heartbeat, and the
pressure wave can be felt as a pulse. The millions of tiny capillaries offer resistance to the
blood flow and, by the time the blood enters the veins, the surges due to the heartbeat are
lost and the blood pressure is greatly reduced.

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Page 10 of 13
The lymphatic system
Not all the tissue fluid returns to the capillaries. Some of it enters blind-ended, thin-walled
vessels called lymphatics. The lymphatics from all parts of the body join up to make two
large vessels, which empty their contents into the blood system. The lacteals from the villi in
the small intestine join up with the lymphatic system, so most of the fats absorbed in the
intestine reach the circulation by this route. The fluid in the lymphatic vessels is called lymph
and is similar in composition to tissue fluid. Some of the larger lymphatics can contract, but
most of the lymph flow results from the vessels being compressed from time to time when
the body muscles contract in movements such as walking or breathing. There are valves in
the lymphatics like those in the veins and the pulmonary artery, so that when the
lymphatics are squashed, the fluid in them is forced in one direction only: towards the heart.

At certain points in the lymphatic vessels there are swellings called lymph nodes.
Lymphocytes are stored in the lymph nodes and released into the lymph to eventually reach
the blood system. There are also phagocytes in the lymph nodes. If bacteria enter a wound
and are not ingested by the white cells of the blood or lymph, they will be carried in the
lymph to a lymph node and white cells there will ingest them. The lymph nodes thus form
part of the body’s defence system against infection.

Blood
Blood consists of red cells, white cells and platelets floating in a liquid called plasma. There
are between 5 and 6 litres of blood in the body of an adult, and each cubic centimetre
contains about 5 billion red cells.

Red cells

These are tiny, disc-like cells which do not have nuclei. They are made of spongy cytoplasm
enclosed in an elastic cell membrane. In their cytoplasm is the red pigment haemoglobin, a
protein combined with iron. Haemoglobin combines with oxygen in places where there is a
high concentration of oxygen, to form oxyhaemoglobin. Oxyhaemoglobin is an unstable
compound. It breaks down and releases its oxygen in places where the oxygen
concentration is low. This makes haemoglobin very useful in carrying oxygen from the lungs
to the tissues. Blood that contains mainly oxyhaemoglobin is said to be oxygenated. Blood
with little oxyhaemoglobin is deoxygenated. Each red cell lives for about 4 months, after
which it breaks down. The red haemoglobin changes to a yellow pigment, bilirubin, which is
excreted in the bile. The iron from the haemoglobin is stored in the liver. About 200 000
million red cells wear out and are replaced each day. This is about 1% of the total. Red cells
are made by the red bone marrow of certain bones in the skeleton – in the ribs, vertebrae
and breastbone.

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White cells

There are several different kinds of white cell. Most are larger than the red cells and they all
have a nucleus. There is one white cell to every 600 red cells and they are made in the same
bone marrow that makes red cells. Many of them undergo a process of maturation and
development in the thymus gland, lymph nodes or spleen. White blood cells are involved
with phagocytosis and antibody production.

Platelets

These are pieces of special blood cells budded off in

the red bone marrow. They help to clot the blood at

wounds and so stop the bleeding.

Plasma

The liquid part of the blood is called plasma. It is water with a large number of substances
dissolved in it. The ions of sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride and hydrogen carbonate,
for example, are present. Proteins such as fibrinogen, albumin and globulins make up an
important part of the plasma. Fibrinogen is needed for clotting, and the globulin proteins
include antibodies, which combat bacteria and other foreign matter. The plasma will also
contain varying amounts of food substances such as amino acids, glucose and lipids (fats).
There may also be hormone present, depending on the activities taking place in the body.

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The excretory product, urea, is dissolved in the plasma, along with carbon dioxide. The liver
and kidneys keep the composition of the plasma more or less constant, but the amount of
digested food, salts and water will vary within narrow limits according to food intake and
body activities.

White blood cells

The two most numerous types of white cells are phagocytes and lymphocytes. The
phagocytes can move about by a flowing action of their cytoplasm and can escape from the
blood capillaries into the tissues by squeezing between the cells of the capillary walls. They
collect at the site of a infection, engulfing (ingesting) and digesting harmful bacteria and cell
debris – a process called phagocytosis . In this way they prevent the spread of infection
through the body. One of the functions of lymphocytes is to produce antibodies.

The transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid

The fluid that escapes from capillaries is not blood, nor plasma, but tissue fluid. Tissue fluid
is similar to plasma but contains less protein, because protein molecules are too large to
pass through the walls of the capillaries. This fluid bathes all the living cells of the body and,
since it contains dissolved food and oxygen from the blood, it supplies the cells with their
needs. Some of the tissue fluid eventually seeps back into the capillaries, having given up its
oxygen and dissolved food to the cells, but it has now received the waste products of the
cells, such as carbon dioxide, which are carried away by the bloodstream. The tissue fl uid
that doesn’t return to the capillaries joins the lymphatic system.

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