TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS

Animals need transport systems for the following reasons:

 To transport dissolved food substances from the intestines to the tissue cells.
 To transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissue cells.
 To transport hormones from endocrine (ductless) glands to target organs.
 To carry metabolic wastes from tissue cells to excretory organs.

The transport systems of mammals are:

 The blood circulatory system (cardio-vascular system).

 The lymphatic system.

The Blood Circulatory System

This system is made of the heart, blood vessels and the blood.

a)The Heart

This is a muscular organ that pumps blood around the body through blood vessels. The type
of muscle found in the wall of the heart is known as cardiac muscle.

The heart is divided into left and right side by a middle wall called the septum. Each side has
an upper chamber known as an atrium (plural:atria) and a lower chamber known as a
ventricle. The atria receive blood form the veins which they pump to the ventricles. The
ventricles receive blood from the atria and pump it out of the heart through the arteries.
The heart receives blood from blood vessels called veins. These include the venacava(which
carries blood from the rest of the body to the right atrium) and the pulmonary vein (which
carries blood from the lungs to the left atrium). The heart pumps blood out through blood
vessels called arteries. These include the aorta (which carries blood from the left ventricle
to the rest of the body) and the pulmonary artery (which carries blood from the right
ventricle to the lungs). The wall of the heart receives from the coronary artery which
branches from the aorta.

The heart also contains valves which are responsible for keeping blood flowing in one
direction by preventing back flow. The valves found between the atria and ventricles are
called atrio-ventricular valves. The one on the right side is called the tricuspid valve while
the one on the left is called the bicuspid (mitral) valve. Those found between the ventricles
and arteries are called semi lunar valves. The semi-lunar valve found at the beginning of
theaortais called the aortic semi lunar valve while the one found at the beginning of the
pulmonaryarteryis known as the pulmonary semi lunar valve.

Diagram of the Mammalian Heart

Functioning of the heart

The wall of the heart is made of a type of muscle called cardiac muscle which has the
following characteristics, among others:

 It is myogenic (it is self-stimulating, meaning that the stimulus for its contraction
comes from the muscle itself). The stimulus for contraction originates from a special
patch of cardiac muscle called the pacemaker or sinoatrial node (SAN) found in the
right atrium.
 It does not develop fatigue
 Its cells are branched and have a single nucleus each.
Contraction of cardiac muscle is called systole while relaxation of cardiac muscle is called
diastole. The sequence of events that occur during a single heart beat are called the cardiac
cycle. The events of the cardiac cycle are summarised as follows:

 Atrial Systole (contraction of the walls of the atria)

 Pause
 Ventricular Systole (contraction of the walls of the ventricles)
  Diastole (relaxation of the walls of the entire heart)
Note that there is a pause between atrial systole and ventricular systole.

The following table gives the details of each event of the cardiac cycle:

Event Atria Ventricles Bicuspid and Semi Blood flow

lunar
Tricuspid Valves
Valve

Atrial Contract Relax Open Close From the atria to the

Systole ventricles

Ventricular Relax Contract Close Open From the ventricles

Systole to the arteries

Diastole Relax Relax Open Close From veins into the

atria

Double Circulation (Dual Circulation)

This is a type of circulation where blood passes through the heart twice during one
circulation around the body. It involves two types of circulation, namely the pulmonary
circulation and systemic circulation.

(i) Pulmonary Circulation

This is the flow of blood from the right ventricle to the lungs through the pulmonary artery
and from the lungs to the left atrium through the pulmonary vein. In this circulation, blood is
pumped over a short distance and at a low pressure. As a result, the walls of the right
ventricle are relatively thin compared to those of the left ventricles. The purpose of this
circulation is to oxygenate the blood and to remove carbon dioxide from the blood in the
lungs.

(ii) Systemic Circulation

This is the flow of blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body through the aorta and
from the rest of the body to the right atrium through the venacava. In this circulation, blood is
pumped over a long distance and at a high pressure. As a result, the walls of the left ventricle
are relatively thick compared to those of the right ventricles. The purpose of this circulation is
to distribute oxygen around the body and to collect carbon dioxide from the body tissues.

The following diagram summarises double circulation.

Heart Rate and Pulse Rate

The term heart rate refers to the number of heart beats per minute. It can be measured
using an instrument called the stethoscope. The heart rate of a normal adult human being at
rest is about 72 beats /minute. Factors that affect and modify the normal resting heart rate are
sleeping, emotional excitement, illness (e.g. fever) and physical exercise, as illustrated in the
following table:

Factor Heart Rate (beats per minute)

Rest 72

Sleeping

Fever

Emotional Excitement

Physical Exercise

Reference: Environmental Science Grade 8

A pulse is a wave of pressure created in the arteries by a heart beat. The number of pulses per
minute is called the pulse rate. Measuring the pulse rate is an indirect way of measuring the
heart rate. A pulse can be located using the index and middle fingers on any part of the body
where arteries are very close to the skin surface such as

 on the wrist just near the base of the thumb

 on the sides of the head just next to the ears
 on the neck just below the jaws
Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)

This is the occlusion (blockage) of coronary arteries with fatty material, mainly cholesterol.
There are several conditions associated with coronary heart disease. Some of them are:

 Atheroma This is an accumulation of fatty material in the walls of the coronary

arteries.
 Sclerosis This is the hardening of the walls of coronary arteries due to the presence of
fatty material
 Thrombosis this is the blockage of the coronary arteries by a mixture of blood clots,
fatty material and fibres. A blood clot within the blood vessels is called a thrombus.
 Angina This is a sharp pain experienced in the heart and left arm after exertion due to
the presence of an atheroma or thrombus in the coronary artery.
 Embolus This is a moving clot that results when a thrombus is pushed out of place by
heart beat. If it reaches the brain, it may cause bursting of blood vessels, resulting in
stroke. An embolus in the lungs leads to pulmonary embolism which is characterized
by sharp pains in the lungs.
 Heart Failure (myocardial infarction)This is a condition where the heart fails to
pump blood due to a limited supply of blood caused by blockage of the coronary
arteries. The patient may black-out, collapse and die.
Causes of Coronary Heart Disease

Factors that increase the risk of coronary heart disease include the following:

 Excessive intake of fatty foods. Fatty foods are easily converted to cholesterol which
in turn blocks the coronary arteries.
  Smoking. Cigarette smoke contains a stimulant called nicotine which tends to
promote the accumulation of cholesterol in the blood.
 Emotional stress. The body secretes high levels of adrenaline during emotional
stress. This also tends to promote accumulation of cholesterol in the blood stream.
 Lack of exercise

Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease

 Avoid excessive intake of fatty foods

 Avoid smoking
 Avoid emotional stress
 Exercise regularly

(b) Blood Vessels

These are tubes through which blood moves around the body. There are three types of blood
vessels. These are Arteries, veins and capillaries.

(i) Arteries

These are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart to other parts of the body. They
have the following characteristics:

 They carry blood away from the heart

 They carry blood at high pressure
 They have thick walls and narrow lumens. The thick walls help them withstand the
pressure from the heart.
 They have no valves since the pressure from the heart is enough to keep blood
moving in one direction.
 They all carry oxygenated blood except the pulmonary artery.
 They appear round in cross-section
 They are located deeper under the skin than the veins.
(ii) Veins

These are blood vessels that carry blood towards the heart from other parts of the body. The
have the following characteristics:

 They carry blood towards the heart.

 They carry blood at low pressure
 They have thin walls and wide lumens.
 They have valves to keep blood moving in one direction by preventing back flow.
 They all carry deoxygenated blood except the pulmonary vein.
 They appear irregular in cross-section
 They are located nearer to the skin surface than the arteries.
The following diagram illustrates the structure of an artery and a vein.

(iii) Capillaries

These are the smallest blood vessels. They form a link between arteries and veins. As
arteries approach the organs of the body, they branch into smaller arteries called arterioles.
The arterioles keep on subdividing until they form the capillaries. The capillaries have direct
contact with the tissue cells. This makes it possible for substances to be exchanged between
the blood and tissue cells. In addition, the walls of the capillaries are very thin (just one cell
thick) for easy diffusion of materials between the blood and the tissue cells. The network of
capillaries in the tissue cells is called the capillary bed. The following diagram illustrates the
structure of a capillary.

The exchange of materials between blood and the tissue cells is illustrated by the following
diagram of the capillary bed.

Diagram of Capillary bed

When blood from the arterioles reaches the capillary bed, the plasma is filtered out of the
capillaries into the spaces around the tissue cells. The fluid around the tissue cells is called
tissue fluid. Tissue fluid has the following functions:

 Bathing the tissue cells

 Thermoregulation of the tissue cells
 Facilitating exchange of materials between the blood and tissue cells. Dissolved food
and oxygen diffuse from the tissue fluid into the tissue cells while carbon dioxide and
urea diffuse from the tissue cells into the tissue fluid.
The formation of tissue fluid from blood is caused by the following factors:

 The pressure of blood coming from the arterioles is higher than the pressure in the
venule.
 The walls of the capillaries are very thin (one cell thick)
Red blood cells are not filtered out of the capillaries because they are large and rigid.
However, phagocytes are able to change shape and squeeze out of the capillaries.

Names of Selected Blood Vessels

Name of Organ Names of Blood Vessels

Heart Coronary artery

Lungs Pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein

Liver Hepatic artery, hepatic vein and hepatic

portal vein

Kidneys Renal artery and renal vein

(c) Blood

This is a tissue made of red blood cells, white blood cells, plasma and platelets.
Red blood cell (Erythrocytes)

These are biconcave discs responsible for transportation of oxygen and small amounts of
carbon dioxide. They are made in the bone marrow in adults but can also be made by the liver
in babies. One milliliter of blood contains 5 to 6 million red blood cells. They have a lifespan
of about 120 days and are destroyed by the liver. They are adapted for transportation of
oxygen in the following ways:

 Biconcave disc shape to increase the surface area for diffusion of oxygen.
 Presence of a red pigment called haemoglobin which has a high affinity (attraction)
for oxygen. Haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin when
oxygen concentrations are high (e.g. in the lungs). When oxygen concentrations are
low e.g. in the muscles, oxyhaemoglobin dissociates forming haemoglobin and
oxygen.

 Absence of nucleus makes more room for haemoglobin

White Blood Cells (Leucocytes)

These are cells that defend the body against infection (diseases) and are made in the bone
marrow, lymphoid tissue, lymph nodes, tonsils, thymus and spleen. Two examples of white
blood cells are phagocytes and lymphocytes.
Phagocytes

Functions

 These defend the body against infection by engulfing and digesting germs (foreign
bodies).
Adaptations

 Lobed nucleus which makes engulfing of germs easy.

 Amoeboid movement which makes it possible for them to move towards germs.
 They have no fixed shape but can change their shapes, making engulfing of foreign
bodies possible.

Cell membrane

Cytoplasm

Lobed Nucleus

Lymphocytes

Functions

 To defend the body against infection by producing antibodies and antitoxins.

Antibodies are proteins that destroy germs/foreign bodies while antitoxins are proteins
that neutralize poisons from germs.
Adaptations

 Presence of a large nucleus and thin cytoplasm.

Cell membrane

Thin Cytoplasm

Nucleus
Platelets (Thrombocytes)

These are fragments formed during the manufacture of red blood cells. They are important
for blood clotting. The steps involved in blood clotting are described below:

 When platelets are exposed to damaged/injured body tissues, they release an enzyme
called thromboplastin/(thrombokinase).
 Thromboplastin acts on a plasma protein called prothrombin changing it to an active
form called thrombin.
 Thrombin acts on another plasma protein called fibrinogen changing it into an
insoluble form called fibrin. This reaction occurs in the presence of calcium ions. The
fibrin forms a mesh (net) over the wound. This mesh traps red and white blood cells,
leading to the formation of a clot over the wound.
The following diagram summarizes the mechanism of blood clotting.

Blood clotting is important in the following ways:

 It prevents excessive loss of blood

 It prevents entry of germs into the body
 It is the first step in the healing of wounds. The clot eventually hardens, forming a
scab. The scab eventually falls off, leaving behind a scar.

Blood Plasma

This is the liquid part of blood. It is made of water and dissolved substances. The dissolved
substances include the following:

 dissolved food (monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol, vitamins and
mineral salts)

 dissolved metabolic wastes (urea and carbon dioxide in form of hydrogen carbonate
ions)

 dissolved chemical substances such as hormones, antibodies, antitoxins and plasma

proteins)

Plasma proteins include prothrombin, fibrinogen and albumin. The roles of plasma proteins
include maintaining blood viscosity, causing blood clotting, maintaining a constant blood PH,
maintaining osmotic balance e.t.c. The functions of blood plasma are:
  Transportation of dissolved food
 Transportation of metabolic wastes
 Transportation of hormones, antibodies and antitoxins
 Distribution of heat around the body. Most of the body heat is generated by the liver
and muscles.
Note: The functions of blood may be summarised as transport and defence.

Blood Groups

The type of blood group in a human being is determined by the type of antigen present in the
cell membrane of the red blood cell. There are two antigens, namely IAandIB, while the
absence of either antigen is represented as IO. This is called the ABO blood group system.
There are four possible blood groups, namely group A, group B, group AB and group O. The
lymphocytes in each type of blood produce antibodies against non-self antigens(antigens that
are not present in the cell membranes of their red blood cells). These antibodies are released
into the blood plasma. The following table shows the antigens and antibodies present in each
of the four blood groups:

Blood Groups Type of antigen(s) present Type of antibody present

in the cell membranes of in the blood plasma
red blood cells

Group A antigen A (IA) Anti B

Group B Antigen B (IB) Anti A

GroupAB Both antigens A and B (IA None

and IB)

Group O None Anti A and anti B

Blood Transfusion

This refers to the transfer of blood from one individual called the donor to another one called
the recipient. For a blood transfusion to be successful the blood of the donor has to be
compatible with the blood of the recipient. Blood compatibility refers to the capacity of a
blood recipient to receive the donor’s blood without leading to agglutination or clumping of
the blood received. Agglutination occurs when antibodies in the recipient’s blood attack non-
self antigens present in the donor’s blood causing the red blood cells from the donor to stick
together. This may cause blockage of blood vessels, kidney failure and stroke. Therefore, any
blood groups that have different antigens are incompatible.

The following points must be noted when carrying out a blood transfusion:

 Blood group O can be given to any blood group because it has no antigens that can be
attacked by antibodies in the recipient’s blood. For this reason, blood group O is
called the universal donor. However, blood group O can not receive blood from any
other blood group.
 Blood groupAB can receive blood from all other blood groups because it has no
antibodies to attack the antigens in the donor’s blood. For this reason, it is called the
universal recipient. However, blood group AB can not give blood to any other blood
group.
  A person can receive blood from another person of the same blood group without
complications arising.
 Before a donor’s blood is given to a recipient, it has to be screened. Blood screening
is the testing of blood in order to determine the following: the blood group, the rhesus
status and to check for infections such as hepatitis and HIV.

Rhesus Factor

This is a blood antigen first discovered in monkeys of the genus called Rhesus. A person
whose blood has this antigen is said to be rhesus positive (Rh+ or Rh positive), while a
person whose blood does not have this antigen is said to be rhesus negative (Rh- or Rh
negative). The rhesus status of a child depends on the status of its two parents as described
below:

 If both parents are Rh+, all their children will be Rh+.

 If one parent is Rh+ and the other is Rh- all children will be Rh+.
 If both parents are Rh-, all their children will be Rh-.
Having a rhesus negative mother and a rhesus positive father can cause serious complications
in a foetus or baby. If some of the blood of the foetus enters the mother’s blood stream during
pregnancy or birth, the mother’s blood begins making the anti-rhesus antigens. If the
woman conceives another rhesus positive foetus, these antibodies will cross the placenta and
attack the blood of the foetus. At the time of birth, the baby will suffer from haemolytic
disease (erythroblastosisfoetalis), which leads to death if the baby does not receive a
comprehensive blood transfusion soon after birth. Any subsequent pregnancies are miscarried
and fail to thrive up to the time of birth.

Blood Disorders

Examples of blood disorders in humans include sickle cell anaemia, haemophilia and
leukemia.

Sickle Cell Anaemia: This is an inherited disease where a person has abnormal haemoglobin.
As a result, the red blood cells become sickle-shaped, especially when oxygen levels are low
in the body. The disease reduces the capacity of the body to transport oxygen.

Haemophilia: This is an inherited disease where a person bleeds for longer periods than
normal due to poor clotting of blood. It is caused by absence of blood clotting proteins
known as factor VIII and factor IX.
Leukemia: This is defined as cancer of the white blood cells. The patient makes an
abnormally high number of immature white blood cells.

The lymphatic System

This is a transport and defence system made of the following components:

 Lymphatic vessels (a network of vessels that have blind ends in the tissue cells)
 A fluid called lymph (derived from tissue fluid but having more glycerol, fatty acids,
white blood cells, antibodies and antitoxins than tissue fluid)
 Glands and organs such as the spleen, adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph nodes and
appendix. The largest organ of the lymphatic organ is the spleen. The thymus is a gland
located on top of the heart and is large in infants but keeps getting smaller and eventually
degenerates during early childhood.
The smallest vessels of the lymphatic system are called lymphatic capillaries and lacteals
(in the villi of the small intestines). These small vessels join up to form bigger vessels called
the lymphaticsor lymphatic vessels. The lymphatics join up repeatedly to make bigger
lymphatic vessels. The biggest lymphatic vessels are called thoracic ducts. Each thoracic
duct drains lymph into a subclavian vein near the junction of the neck and the arm.

Two prominent features found along lymph vessels are valves and lymph nodes. Valves
keep the lymph flowing in one direction by preventing backflow. The flow of lymph is
assisted by contraction of muscles and breathing movements of the thorax and abdomen.
Lymph nodes are important in the following ways:

 They produce and store lymphocytes which are added to the lymph as it passes through
on its way to the subclavian vein.
 They filter foreign bodies, bacteria and dead tissue from the lymph before it joins the
blood.
 They become very active when the body is invaded by foreign bodies, becoming swollen
and tender in the process.
The functions of the lymphatic system may be summarised as follows:

 It drains excess tissue fluid and takes it back to the blood

 It adds lymphocytes to the blood
 It absorbs and transports cholesterol, fatty acids and glycerol to the blood.