GRCA Practical Design Guide

Practical Design Guide
for
Glass Reinforced Concrete
using Limit State Theory
Version 1.0
Practical Design Guide
prepared by
International GRCA Technical Committee
Chairman Glyn Jones
Working Party
Glyn Jones
Iain D Peter
Ian Morrison
Professor Peter J M Bartos
Cliff Billington
DISCLAIMER
Whilst the GRCA does its best to ensure that any advice, recommendation
or information it gives is accurate, no liability or responsibility of any kind
(including liability for negligence) is accepted in this respect by the
Association, its servants or agents.
2
CONTENTS
1. Introduction 6
1.1 Scope 6
1.2 Terms and Definitions 7
1.3 Types of GRC 11
1.4 Selection of Production Method & Raw Materials 14 - 21
1.4.1 AR Glass Fibres 14
1.4.2 Cement 16
1.4.3 Sand 16
1.4.4 Sand/Aggregate Facing Mixes 17
1.4.5 Admixtures 17
1.4.6 Polymers 18
1.4.7 Water 18
1.4.8 Pozzolans 18
1.4.9 Pigments 18
1.4.10 Paints, Sealers and Adhesives 19
1.5 Applications and Uses 20 - 21
2. Physical Properties of GRC 22 - 31
2.1 Effects of Mix Composition and Fibre Content 22

2.2 Flexural Strengths 22
2.3 Tensile Strengths 23
2.4 Shear Strengths 24
2.5 Shrinkage and Creep 24
2.6 Impact Resistance 25
2.7 Density Water Absorption & Permeability 26
2.8 Fire Resistance 27
2.9 Sound Insulation 28
2.10 Thermal Insulation 29
2.11 Resistance to Carbonation 29
2.12 Thermal Expansion 30
2.13 Summary of Mechanical Properties 30
2.14 Time Dependent Properties 31
3. Types of Panel Construction 32 - 39
3.1 Single Skin Construction 32

3.1.1 Simple, Single Skin Panels 32
3.1.2 Ribbed, Single Skin Panels 33
3.2 Stud Frame Construction 34
3.3 Sandwich Panel Construction 38
4. Fixing Systems 40 - 43
4.1 Fixing Constraints 40

4.2 Encapsulated Fixings 40
4.3 Bonded Fixings 41
4.4 Face Fixings 41
4.5 Hidden Fixings 42
4.6 Secondary Fixings 42
4.7 Materials for Fixings 43
3
CONTENTS
5. Limit State Design of GRC Elements 44 - 53
5.1 Principles of Design 44

5.2 Partial Factors of Safety 45
5.3 Ultimate Limit State of Collapse 46
5.4 Serviceability Limit State 48
5.5 Shrinkage & Thermal Stresses 48
5.6 Bending & Shear 49 - 52
5.7 Direct Tension 53
5.8 Design Aids 54
5.8.1 SectRib 53
5.8.2 SectProp 58
5.9 Future Developments 59
6. Limit State Design of Fixings 60
6.1 Functions of Fixings 60

6.2 Overview of Design Principles 60
6.3 Types of Fixings 61
6.4 Ultimate Limit State 63
6.5 Serviceability Limit State 63
6.6 Gravity Anchors in Stud Frame Construction 64
6.7 Seismic Effects 65
7. Worked Examples 66 - 96
Included on CD
Specification for GRC
Section Properties Software (Shareware)
Rib Design Software (Shareware)
4
NOMENCLATURE
root mean square

x’ sample mean
Fd ultimate design load
Fk ultimate characteristic load
k ultimate partial factor of safety
fd ultimate design strength
fk ultimate characteristic strength
f’ ultimate partial load factor
tv ultimate partial factor to account for variations in thickness of GRC
b ultimate partial factor to account for differences in bending between test
coupons and full size sections
c ultimate partial factor to account for mode of collapse and consequences of
failure
Fsk serviceability characteristic load
Fsd serviceability design load
m serviceability global factor of safety
ss shrinkage stress
ts thermal stress
5
1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope
This Practical Design Guide has been prepared by the Technical Committee of the
Glassfibre Reinforced Concrete Association (GRCA) . The purpose of this publication is
to provide a useful reference for specifiers, designers, manufacturers and fixers of
glassfibre reinforced concrete (GRC) products and to encourage the use of good design
practices. It complements the other technical publications of the GRCA,
namely:
Guide to Fixings for GRC Cladding
Specification for the Manufacture, Curing and Testing of GRC products
Methods of Testing GRC Material
National and international standards relating to the testing of GRC and its constituent
materials are also available and further standards will become available in the future.
GRC is used extensively worldwide, both as a functional and decorative construction
material in building and civil engineering. This Guide discusses the relevance of good
design practice for typical products.
GRC is a composite material comprising a mixture of hydraulic cement, silica sand,
alkali resistant (AR) glass fibres and water. The glass fibres effectively reinforce the
mortar mix thereby improving its tensile and flexural characteristics. GRC is a
particularly attractive and durable cladding material. It can be moulded into a wide
variety of complex shapes and profiles and is ideally suited to the popular fast-track
approach of using lightweight, prefabricated cladding panels for the exteriors of modern
buildings. The main advantage of GRC panels over the corresponding precast
concrete alternatives is the considerable saving in weight. This results in significant
savings in the costs of transportation, handling and erection of the panels. If this weight
advantage is considered at the design stage, it should be possible to effect substantial
economies in the design of foundations and superstructures for high rise building
constructions. Other notable advantages of GRC cladding are its durability, chemical
resistance, non-combustibility and good sound/heat insulation properties.
GRC is used extensively in the architectural and civil engineering fields with the main
products being:
- cladding
- permanent formwork
- slates/roof features
- cornices
- coping units
- canopies
- porticos
- walkway roofs/walls
- sunscreens
- artificial rocks
- drainage channels
- street furniture
- planters
- arches
- balustrading
- box beams
- cable trays
- conservatory walling
- domed roofs
- door surrounds
- gutter units
- sound barriers
- string course features.
6
PRACTICAL DESIGN GUIDE FOR GLASS REINFORCED CONCRETE
The design elements of this publication are based on limit state theory whereby the
GRC product is designed to satisfy the limit states of collapse and serviceability using
appropriate partial factors of safety. Several worked examples are included to demon-
strate the use of these partial factors of safety.
1.2 Terms and Definitions
Admixture - A material added to modify the properties of mortar or cement slurry.
Air Permeability - The rate of flow of air through a material.
Alkali Resistant (AR) Glass Fibre - Fibre made from glass having a high zirconia
(minimum of 16%) content formulated to improve resistance to attack by aqueous alka-
line solutions.
Ambient Temperature - The temperature of the air surrounding an object.
Anchor - Devices for the attachment of the GRC skin to the stud framing system; this
includes gravity, flex and seismic anchors.
Artificial Ageing - A condition to which test specimens are subjected to to simulate

their exposure to natural weathering (using accelerated testing).
Backing Coat - The layer of GRC comprising fibre and cementitious slurry ,the thick-
ness of this layer must be equal or greater than the design thickness.
Bag and Bucket Tests - Very important methods for calibrating GRC spray equip-
ment.
Bonding Pad - An additional covering of “GRC” material to secure anchors to the main
element of “GRC” (typically cladding panels).
BOP - Bend over point (tensile), namely, the stress at which the stress/strain curve de-
viates from a straight line variation when a sample of GRC is tested in direct tension.
Carbonation - The reaction between carbon dioxide and a hydroxide or oxide to form a
carbonate, especially in cement paste or mortar; the reaction with calcium hydroxide to
produce calcium carbonate. GRC offers an extremely high resistance to carbonation.
Characteristic Property - The value of a property above which 95% of the population
of all possible measurements of that property are expected to lie.
Chopped Glass - Non-continuous multi-filament glass fibre strands; resulting from

chopping the roving in a spray process.
Cladding Panel - A lightweight non-structural GRC prefabricated building component

produced by a spray technique to form an exterior or interior wall/column panel.
Compaction - The process whereby the volume of the face mix or GRC backing is re-
duced to a minimum practical volume by the reduction of voids usually by vibrating,
tamping, rolling or some combination of these.
Composite - A material formed by combining two or more materials; but so intercon-

nected that the combined components act together as a single entity, eg GRC
7
Coupon - Specimen for testing.
Creep - The time dependant change in dimension or shape caused by a sustained load.
Curing - The process by which moisture is retained in the GRC product to allow full
hydration.
Dry Curing - A method of curing carried out by the addition of the appropriate quan-
tity of acrylic polymer to the GRC mix.
Dry density - The weight per unit volume of an oven dry specimen.
E-Glass Fibre - Borosilicate fibres widely used for the reinforcement of plastics, but not
recommended for use with portland cement.
Efflorescence - A deposit of salts, usually white, formed on the surface of the skin. It is
a substance that has emerged in solution from within the GRC backing or face mix and
deposited by evaporation.
Engineer - The person or authority responsible for the design of the GRC product.
Facing Coat - An initial layer without fibre but containing decorative aggregates and
often pigment.
Fibre - An individual glass filament with an average diameter of 13 to 20 microns and

not less than 9 microns in diameter.
Fibre Content - The ratio, usually expressed as a percentage, of the glass fibre to the
total composite; it can be by weight or volume.
Flex Anchor - A steel connection between the GRC panel and the supporting stud
frame in stud frame construction. It is usually designed to provide lateral restraint only
against the effects of wind forces and seismic loadings whilst allowing rotation perpen-
dicular to the GRC facing.
Glassfibre content by weight (WF) - The ratio (expressed as a percentage) of the

mass of glassfibre to the mass of GRC in the uncured state.
Gravity Anchor - A steel connection between the GRC panel and the supporting stud
frame in stud frame construction. It is usually designed to support the full weight of the
GRC panel and is positioned close to the bottom of the GRC panel.
GRC/GFRC Glass(Fibre) Reinforced Concrete.
GRCA - Glass Reinforced Concrete Association.
GRCA Approved Manufacturers Scheme AMS - The GRCA system of accreditation

by assessment of the ability of a manufacturers to provide the necessary resources and
equipment to meet the quality level required of GRC products.
High Shear Mixer - A mixer with a high shear action capable of the preparation of the
fine sand/cement slurries required for the spray process.
LOP - Limit of Proportionality (flexural) ie the point at which the stress/strain curve de-
viates from a straight line.
8
Matrix - The cement paste into which various amounts of aggregate particles and/or
glass fibres are incorporated.
MFFT - Minimum film formation temperature (for acrylic polymers).
Mist Coat - An initial cementitious sprayed coating without glass fibre.
MOR - Modulus of Rupture (flexural), the ultimate bending stress obtained from the
four point bend test.
Premix GRC - A method of manufacture in which pre-cut glass fibres and the cemen-
titious slurry are blended during the mixing.
Premix Mixer - A two stage mixer designed to prepare fine sand/cement slurries
(Stage 1) and to blend in chopped glass fibres (Stage 2).
Polymer-Modified GRC - GRC which has been modified by the addition of an acrylic
thermoplastic polymer dispersion either for ‘dry curing’ or for property enhancement.
Producer - The person or authority entering into a contract to manufacture a GRC

product.
Purchaser - The person or authority entering into a contract to buy a GRC product.
Roving - A group of parallel glass fibre strands wound as a bundle with a cylindrical
shaped package.
Roving Tex - The mass of “chopped” glass strands per kilometre length.
Sand/cement ratio - The ratio of the mass of the total dry sand to the mass of dry ce-
ment in the GRC
Sandwich Panel - A prefabricated panel which is a layered composite formed by

attaching two skins separated by an insulating core or cores.
Scrim - A manufactured fabric having open area construction of over 4mm using AR
glass fibre strands. It is laid up by hand to reinforce an area of the GRC backing.
Seismic Anchor - Bars or plates that transfer the seismic load on the skin back to the
stud frame.
Serviceability Limit State - The condition of the GRC panel during use ie when in
service. This usually refers mainly to allowable deflection limits when checking the
conformance of GRC to this limit state.
Slump Test - A test for measuring the consistency of the cementitious slurry.
Spray GRC - A method of manufacture in which the GRC is produced by

simultaneously spraying cementitious slurry and chopped glass fibre.
Stiffening Rib - A local thickening of the GRC skin to give the panel additional
stiffness and strength.
9
Stud Frame - A structural framework, usually steelwork, to support a GRC panel by

means of flex anchors and gravity anchors. This frame is attached directly to the
supporting structure.
Superplasticizer - A high range water reducer admixture producing a cement slurry of

significant higher slump without additional water.
Supplier - The person or authority entering into a contract to supply goods or services
to the producer..
Test Board - A sheet of GRC manufactured during production for the purpose of
assessing the quality of the GRC products being made. The test board should, if
possible, be a specimen of the product itself. If this is not possible the test board should
be made in the same way and at the same time as the GRC in the product so that it is
representative of the quality and thickness of the GRC.
Test Board Mean - The arithmetic mean value of a property calculated from individual
test results from one test board. For statistical analysis this mean is regarded as one
result.
Test Coupons - Specimens taken from a test board for determining a property.
Test sample - The total number of coupons taken from a test board and tested to
determine a property of that test board.
Tolerance - A specified permissible variation from stated requirements such as

dimensions and strength.
Trowelled Surface - The surface of a panel away from the formwork or mould made
by smoothing with a trowel.
Ultimate Limit State - The state of collapse. Conformance with this limit state is
checked using a number of partial factors of safety applied to both the GRC mix and the
applied loading.
Ultimate Tensile Strength - Stress at which GRC fails in pure tension.
Uncured state - The stage in manufacture of GRC when all the physical processes
that could alter the composition of the material are complete but the fibre can still be
separated from the matrix by the action of running water.
Water/cement ratio - The ratio of the mass of total water(including water contained in
the polymer and plasticiser) to the mass of dry cement.
10
1.3 Types of GRC

Glass Reinforced Concrete (GRC) is a composite material consisting of a mortar of
The material properties,
hydraulic portland cement and fine aggregate reinforced with alkali resistant glass
component design and fibres. Within this broad definition, variations are possible in mix constituents and
method of manufacture of proportions, and manufacturing method, such as to produce materials with differing
GRC products are properties. The material properties, component design and method of manufacture of
interrelated
GRC products are interrelated.
The properties of GRC depend on a wide range of variables. These include method of
manufacture, mix formulation, fibre product type, length and orientation, admixtures
used, etc. A GRC material may therefore be tailored to meet the particular requirements
of a specific application. The information given in this guide mainly refers to GRC mate-
rials having an aggregate:cement ratio of up to 1:1, incorporating AR glassfibres in the
range 2 - 5% and made by the spray and premix processes. The GRC may contain ad-
ditional filler materials and admixtures. GRC materials have been widely used for a
number of years and their properties and characteristics studied extensively.
GRC is a family of composite materials that combine the high compressive strength
properties of cement mortars with significantly increased impact, flexural and tensile
strengths imparted by the fibre reinforcement. GRC is a composite with reinforcing
elements randomly distributed throughout the matrix, unlike reinforced concrete where
the reinforcing steel is placed primarily in tensile stress areas, at a predetermined
distance from the surface to give the steel protective cover. This means that for practical
purposes GRC is designed as a homogeneous material.
GRC products are safe, have good chemical resistance and will not rot or corrode. GRC
is made of inorganic materials, will not burn and has negligible smoke emissions. It gives
excellent stability and integrity resistance to fire. However, due to the thin nature of
panels, it requires additional material to satisfy insulation requirements. In some circum-
stances GRC is made containing polymer materials which may slightly affect some fire
performance properties.
GRC is normally of relatively thin cross section, with thickness commonly in the range
10mm to 15mm. This gives a low component weight which allows savings in handling,
storage, transportation, and installation compared with traditional concrete products.
There are two main methods of manufacturing GRC,
namely:
( i ) Spraying the fibre and slurry simultaneously onto a mould, by manual or mechanical
means, with subsequent compaction by roller and trowel. Typical products made using
the spray process include architectural cladding panels, channels, tanks, facade ele-
ments, ducting and permanent formwork.
Figure 1.1
Initial spraying mould with

a mist coat
11
Figure 1.2
Spraying GRC into mould
Figure 1.3
Compacting GRC using

serrated roller
Figure 1.4
Gauging thickness of GRC
12
(b)
Figure 1.5
(a)
( ii ) Premixing pre-chopped fibre in a mixer after thorough mixing of other

components and then processing the mixture by vibration casting in a mould, extrusion,
injection moulding etc, to produce the end product form (Figures 1.5(a) and (b). This
method of production is very versatile and is ideal for producing small items of
architectural product in short periods of time, by using multiple moulds.
13
1.4 Selection of Production Method & Raw Materials
The raw materials and mix design, and production method used, are decided according
to the particular product and are inter-related with the engineering design.
In choosing the mix design the following may be varied: fibre content and type;
sand/cement ratio; water/cement ratio; polymer content. By varying the composition of
the cementitious slurry and the percentage of fibre a range of materials with differing
mechanical and physical properties may be produced. These different mechanical and
physical properties must be considered by the designer and manufacturer and the ap-
propriate type of GRC selected for the application.
1.4.1 AR Glassfibre
AR (Alkali Resistant) glassfibre is specially formulated to have a high degree of resist-

ance to alkali attack and high durability in cement. Cement solution is highly alkaline
(typical pH12.9) which is a very aggressive environment for glass fibres. 'E' glass fi-
bres, as used in plastics reinforcement, are rapidly destroyed. The special formulation
of the 'AR' fibre , in particular the zirconia content, resists this aggressive environment.
Laboratory testing shows that at least 16% zirconia content is required for adequate
alkali resistance.
• AR Glassfibre
200 hours in saturated

Held at 80 Deg C for
As manufactured
cement solution
• E-Glass Fibre
Figure 1.6 - Comparison of Alkali Erosive Attack in AR and E Glass Fibre

AR fibres are originally produced as continuous filaments typically 13 –20 microns in
diameter and these filaments are gathered together to form strands. A coating or size is
used to bind the filaments together. The number of filaments forming the strand and the
type of size can be varied to produce a range of glass fibres to suit particular
applications.
Typical AR Fibre Properties
• Single filament tensile strength 3.0 - 3.5 GN/m2

• Strand tensile strength 1.3 - 1.7 GN/m2
• Young's Modulus of Elasticity 72 – 74 GN/m2
• Specific Gravity 2.60 - 2.70
• Strain at breaking point (strand) 2.0 - 2.5%
• Filament diameter 13 - 20µm
14
Table 1.1 - Typical Specification
Specification Frequency of
Property Method of Test
Value Testing
X-Ray Fluorescence
Zirconia Content 16% Minimum Monthly
Analysis
Density 2.7 +/- 0.3 G/cm3 ASTM D 3800 Yearly
Tensile Strength
1.0 - 1.7 GN/m2 ASTM D 2343 Strand Yearly
(Strand)
Filament Diameter 9 to 20 +/- um Each 20 Tonnes
+/- 10% from the
nominal value
Roving Tex ASTM D 861 Each 20 Tonnes
stated by the
Supplier
+/- 3mm from the
nominal value
Cut Length Each 20 Tonnes
stated by the
Supplier
+/- 20% from the

nominal value
End Count Physical Count Each 20 Tonnes
stated by the
Supplier
+/- 20% from the

nominal value
stated by the
Loss on Ignition Each 20 Tonnes
Supplier, or +/-
0.3%, whichever
is the greater
‘Method of Test for

Minimum value
Strength Retention of
330 N/mm2 after
Strength Retention Glass Fibre in Ce-
96+/-1 hour in Monthly
by Strand in Cement ments and Mortars’.
water at 80 deg C
GRCA SO104/0184,
(+/- 1 deg C)
Jan 1984
The above tests are carried out by the glassfibre manufacturer.
There are two main product forms used for GRC production. These are Chopped
Strands for use in premix GRC, and Rovings for use in the spray production.
Chopped Strands consist of continuous strands cut to uniform length while maintaining
the integrity of the original strand. The size or coating on Chopped Strand products are
designed to give resistance to mechanical damage in processing particularly during
mixing.
15
Rovings are groups of individual parallel strands wound as a bundle into a cylindrical
shaped package containing typically 18 to 20 kg of fibre. It may be:
1) chopped in a 'gun' and sprayed simultaneously with the cement matrix material onto
or into a mould.
2) chopped on-site for use in the premix process.
Nets, scrims, chopped strand mat, and sewn fibre products are also available for
applications where positioned or directional reinforcement is required.
1.4.2 Cement
The most widely used cements in GRC manufacture are Ordinary Portland Cement
(OPC) Rapid Hardening Portland Cement (RHPC) and White Portland Cement. They
should conform to the relevant National or International Standards. European
equivalents to British Standard cements (CEM I to CEM V) have been recently issued.
RHPC is chemically very similar to OPC but is more finely ground and, because of this,
develops strength more rapidly at early age.
White Portland cement is made from raw materials containing only a very small quantity
of iron. It is used in GRC where a white or light coloured finish is required. Other types
of cement, such as High Alumina Cement, Sulphate Resistant and Rapid Setting
Cements may be used in certain applications and should be to the relevant Standard.
Care should be taken that the choice of cement is appropriate to the product and
complies with statutory regulations.
It is important that cement is correctly stored . Cement must be kept dry, and damp air
can be as harmful as direct moisture. Cement stored in bulk in a silo will be satisfactory
up to about 3 months. Cement in normal 3-ply paper bags stored under good conditions
can lose about 20% of its strength after 4 to 6 weeks. Therefore, bagged cement should
be used soon after delivery and in order of age.
1.4.3 Sand
Fine aggregate or sand should be supplied washed and dried to remove soluble matter
and permit accurate control of the water/cement ratio. The particle shape should be
round or irregular and should have a smooth surface without honeycombing.
For spray GRC, the maximum particle size is generally limited to 1.2 mm; for premix
GRC, the maximum particle size may be 2.4 mm. In both cases the fine fraction, i.e.
sand passing a 150 micron sieve, is preferably less than 10% of the total weight of
sand.
Silica sands are widely used, a typical specification being:
Silica content > 96%

Moisture content < 2%
Soluble salts < 1%
Loss-on-ignition < 0.5 %
Sulphate ion maximum 4000 ppm
Chloride ion maximum 600 ppm
16
Sands with a higher moisture content may be used provided the moisture content is
known and the mix design is altered accordingly.
Sands other than silica sands may be used but the producer should provide evidence of
their suitability. Soft building sands must not be used as they may lead to inferior
mechanical properties. The silica content of the sand need not necessarily be as high
as 96%. There are good quality sands with much lower silica content that are suitable
for GRC manufacture.
The value for loss on ignition can be accepted up to 3%, providing the material is hard,
non crushable (to obtain optimum mechanical properties and to preserve grading as a
breakdown of particles would increase water demand), non-reactive and of similar
shape and grading to that described above.
1.4.4 Sand/aggregate facing mixes
When a facing mix is used to produce an architectural finish special aggregates and
sand may be required. The colour of the aggregate is particularly important as this con-
tributes to the overall appearance. The grading differs from the sand used in the GRC
mix with 0-3mm typically being used when the facing layer is sprayed and up to 10mm
when the facing layer is poured and vibrated. Mix design may differ from the GRC back-
ing layer but consideration should be given to potential differential shrinkage as a result
of different cement content. Crushed and graded hard rocks like limestone, granite,
spar, calcite or marble are particularly suitable.
1.4.5 Admixtures
The use of admixtures, such as plasticisers and superplasticisers, is encouraged as

they can enhance the properties of GRC.
Standard concrete admixtures or those specially formulated for GRC manufacture may
be used as appropriate. Admixtures are generally added to produce the following ef-
fects.
In the manufacture of GRC :
• increasing the workability without increasing the water/cement ratio

• improving the cohesion
• reducing segregation
• reducing bleeding
• retarding the setting (stiffening) process
• accelerating the setting (stiffening) process.
On the properties of hardened GRC :
• increasing the rate of early strength development

• increasing the strength
• decreasing the permeability
Admixtures are added to mixes in small amounts and care must be exercised to ensure
that only the correct dose as specified by the manufacturer is added.
Calcium chloride based accelerators must not be used if the GRC product contains any
steel components (or fixings) as there is a risk of corrosion of the metal.
17
1.4.6 Acrylic Polymers
Cementitious products should be moist cured to ensure that there is sufficient retained
moisture for complete hydration of the cement. This is particularly critical for thin skin
GRC products. The recommended curing regime is a wet cure at 95% relative humidity
for 7 days. In many cases this is not practical as insufficient factory space is available.
Acrylic Polymers are added to the GRC mix to allow for a subsequent dry cure and for
property enhancement, particularly the reduction of surface crazing.
When acrylic polymers are added to the mix at the recommended dosage a film is
formed within the matrix during the first few hours of curing. The formation of this film
significantly reduces the permeability and thus lessens the loss of water by evaporation
ensuring that sufficient water is available for complete hydration.
Table 1.2 - Typical Polymer Specification
Compound Type Aqueous thermoplastic polymer dispersion
Polymer Type Acrylic based
Minimum Film Formation Temperature 7 - 12 deg C
% Solids 45 - 55%
Appearance Milky white, creamy, free from lumps
Ultraviolet Resistance Good
Alkali Resistance Good
1.4.7 Water
Water should be clean and free from deleterious matter and should meet relevant
standards for water to be used to make concrete. Potable water is normally suitable.
1.4.8 Pozzolanic Materials
PFA ,GGBS, Metakaolin and Microsilica are a range of pozzolanic materials which have
been shown to have a beneficial effect on the properties of GRC. They work by reacting
with the free lime produced during the hydration process to form further hydration
products.
1.4.9 Pigments
Powder pigments or dispersions may be used to produce coloured GRC . The pigments
are normally iron oxide based and should conform to national or international
standards. It is normally found that less intense, pastel shades are more successful
and some variability is to be expected.
18
1.4.10 Paints, sealers and adhesives
Suitable paint coatings and adhesives may be used with GRC products. It is important
to select a coating product which is appropriate: normally a product that is designed for
use on concrete will perform adequately. As a general rule paint coatings used should
be permeable to moisture vapour. Manufacturers’ recommendations on the preparation
of the GRC surface, and priming procedures, should be followed strictly.
19
1.5 Applications and Uses
GRC has many applications in both the architectural and civil engineering sectors of the
construction industry, where both the functional and decorative qualities of the material
are used. It is a particularly attractive and durable cladding material. GRC can be
moulded into a variety of complex shapes and profiles, with a choice of attractive finish-
es, and is ideally suited to the popular fast-track approach of using lightweight, prefabri-
cated cladding panels for the exterior of modern buildings. The main advantage of
GRC panels over the corresponding precast alternatives is the considerable saving in
weight. This results in significant savings in the cost of transportation, handling and
erection of the panels. If this weight advantage is considered at the design stage, econ-
omies may be possible in the design of foundations and the superstructure of high rise
buildings. Other notable advantages of GRC cladding are its durability, chemical resist-
ance, good fire performance and good sound and heat insulation properties. A few ex-
amples can be illustrated as follows:
Figure 1.7 Figure 1.8 Figure 1.9

Architectural Cladding Industrial Cladding Architectural Features
Figure 1.10 Figure 1.11

Sunscreens Renders
In civil engineering, agriculture and landscaping, many of the same properties are uti-
lised, notably resistance to environmental conditions, adequate strength in thin section,
ease of handling, and maintenance-free performance throughout service life.

Artificial Rocks Noise Barriers
20

Ducts & Channels Permanent Formwork

Agricultural Products Street Furniture

Sewer Lining Utility Boxes
The qualities of GRC can therefore be summarised as:
• Attractive and Versatile - Can reproduce fine surface details and finishes to
complement any architectural style.
• Light Weight - Easier to transport and install
- Reduces structural and foundation costs
• Good Chemical Resistance
• Will not Rot or Corrode
• Low Maintenance
• Unaffected by UV light or Hot Dry Conditions
• Suitable for any climate
• Freeze/Thaw Resistant
21
2
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GRC
GRC is not a single material and its properties can be varied to suit the end use.
The design process should recognise this and specify the grade of GRC based
upon the required physical properties. The physical properties of GRC are
dependent on the composition of the cementitious slurry, the fibre content and
the method of manufacture and curing.
The GRCA classifies GRC into 3 grades of material based on the 28 day flexural strength.
These are Grade 18, Grade 10 and Grade 5 and there are significant differences between
them as illustrated by the following load deflection curves.
Various Grades of GRC Load/Deflection
700
600
Grade 18 Sprayed GRC
500
Load (N)
400
Grade 10 Prem ix
300
200
Grade 5 Premix
100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Deflection (mm)
Figure 2.1
The importance of selecting the appropriate grade consistent with the application
and the engineering design of the product cannot be over-emphasised.
2.1 Effects of Mix Composition and Fibre Content
The simplest mix design of GRC contains cement, sand, water, superplasticiser, and
alkali resistant glass fibre.
Variations such as the use of pozzolanic cement replacements (PFA, Pulverised Fuel
Ash) are common in a number of countries and acrylic polymer emulsions are widely
used to allow “dry curing”. Pigments can used to impart colour as with traditional concrete.
In terms of effect on strength properties, the quantity and form of AR glassfibre used in
the GRC is a significant factor, linked to the process by which it is introduced. Sprayed
GRC is the strongest material and typically incorporates 4-5% of glassfibres, of length
25 - 40mm. GRC manufactured by the premix (vibration casting) method typically
incorporates between 2% and 3.5% of glassfibres by weight, of usual length 12 - 13mm.
2.2 Flexural Strength.
General
Flexural strength is probably the most important physical property of GRC. It is the
property that is most frequently tested and is the property on which most designs are
based. Whereas concrete would be referred to in terms of its compressive strength e.g.
22
C40/50, GRC is categorised by its flexural strength. Grade 18 would mean a characteris-
Values cannot be assumed
and flexural testing should
tic flexural strength (Modulus of Rupture) of 18N/mm2 at 28 days.
be a part of a quality assur- The flexural strength depends on many factors, glass percentage, mix design, method of
ance programme for all manufacture and curing all being important. Values cannot be assumed and flexural
manufacturers. testing should be a part of a quality assurance programme for all manufacturers.
Test Method
The flexural strength of GRC is tested using a four point bending test. The test is
described in
“GRCA Methods of Testing Glass Fibre Reinforced Cement Material” and the following
standards:
BS EN 1170 PARTS 4 and 5
ASTM C947 MODIFIED
Table 2.1 - Test Values at 28 days
Type of GRC LOP (N/mm2) MOR (N/mm2)

Sprayed 5 - 10 18 - 30
Premix 5 - 10 5 - 14
2.3 Tensile Strength
General
Historically it has proved difficult to achieve reproducibility from tensile testing results on
GRC samples and because of this the flexural test has assumed more importance.
Tensile testing is not normally carried out as part of routine quality control.
Test Method
There is no standardised test method although there are published research papers on
the subject.
Table 2.2 - Test Values
Type of GRC BOP (N/mm2) UTS (N/mm2)
Sprayed 4-6 8 - 12
Premix 3-5 3-6
23
2.4 Shear strengths
General
Testing for Shear strengths is not part of routine testing although for some products it can
be a significant factor in design. This is particularly the case with the bearing of perma-
nent formwork, in webs or ribs of single skin cladding and for fixings.
Test Method
No specific method for GRC
Table 2.3 - Test Values
Typical
Type ofValues
GRC at 28Punching
days are In Plane Interlaminar
Shear Shear Shear
(N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N/mm2)
Sprayed 25 - 35 7 - 12 2-4
SS
Premix 4-6 4-6 4-6
2.5 Shrinkage and Creep

General
Shrinkage
All cement based materials are susceptible to dimensional changes as they are wetted
and dried. After manufacture and cure, shrinkage from the original state occurs as drying
takes place. Re-wetting results in expansion but not to the extent of restoring the original
size: there is therefore an initial irreversible shrinkage, which will be followed in subse-
quent service conditions by a reversible dimensional movement dependent on the
moisture content of the cement. For GRC the irreversible shrinkage is one quarter to one
third of the total possible shrinkage: typical figures for a 1:1 sand:cement ratio GRC mix
are 0.03% irreversible shrinkage and a total ultimate shrinkage of about 0.12%. The
shrinkage and moisture movement behaviour are represented diagrammatically
Figure 2.2a - Diagrammatic representation of moisture movements.
24
It should be noted that the amplitude of reversible movement quoted above is between
fully-dried and fully-soaked conditions, as in the laboratory. In practice these extremes
may not be experienced in normal weathering conditions although there will be some
cyclic movement about a mean level which is effectively shrunk relative to initial manu-
factured dimensions.
The moisture content of the material is related to the relative humidity of the surround-
ings, so it is convenient to express the dimensional change in terms of relative humidity.
Figure 2.2 (a) shows the reversible shrinkage obtained when neat cement GRC is
completely dried from equilibrium with any value of relative humidity (based on published
data).
0.4
0.3
Dimensional Change (%)
0.2
0.1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Relative Humidity (%)
Figure 2.2(b)
Test Method
BS EN 1170 -7
Values
Total ultimate shrinkage up to 0.2% depending on mix design.
Design Values
An understanding of the magnitude of shrinkage and moisture movements is fundamen-

tal to the design process particularly with regard to the fixings. In general an allowance
of 1 to 1.5 mm per metre of product dimension must be allowed for in terms of joint design
and fixing movement.
2.6 Impact Resistance
General
GRC resists Impact loads very well and when damage does occur it is restricted to a
localised area. The presence of the fibres in GRC restricts the propagation of cracks
outside the zone of stressed material. This damage can often be repaired with no
detriment to the GRC products.
25
The impact strength of GRC is high when many long fibres fail by being pulled out of the
matrix, this process absorbing a great deal more energy than fibre breakage. The impact
strength of GRC is lower when few fibres are pulled out of the GRC. If the fibres have a
very short critical length the GRC may exhibit brittle characteristics under impact loads.
Test Method
Impact strength of GRC is normally measured using a modified Izod or Charpy test
machine, on samples 25-50 mm wide and 6-12 mm thick. The values obtained in such a
test are not readily used in any design calculation but are useful for the purpose of
comparison with samples of GRC and other materials subjected to the same test. Such
comparisons show the impact strength of GRC to be higher than that of many similar
materials.
Of more significance is testing done on actual products to simulate real conditions that
the product may have to face. These tests are product specific and often designed to
cover one set of circumstances with the impact load being supplied by either a dropping
or swinging weight.
Table 2.4 - Typical values obtained at 28 days
Type of GRC Charpy Impact Strength (N/mm/mm2)

SprayedSSSS
Sprayed 15 - 25
Premix 7 - 12
Design Values
Calculations are difficult and so are rarely performed. As above, Impact Strength of GRC
is good and is not normally a significant factor in design.
2.7 Density, Water Absorption and Permeability

General
3
The density of standard GRC materials is commonly around 2000 kg/m which is below
that of conventional dense concrete. GRC forms lightweight components by virtue of thin
section, rather than by lightness of the material; although low-density versions of the
material are possible.
The significance of density, however, goes beyond the simple concept of weight. Density
is a good indicator of material quality, a high density meaning slightly greater fibre volume
fraction but more significantly indicating well-compacted, well-made material of correct
water:cement ratio.
Water absorption and apparent porosity figures are higher than those for typical con-
crete, which would normally exhibit a water absorption less than 10%. This is a direct
result of the higher cement content in GRC. The permeability of GRC, is however
significantly lower than that of concrete.
GRC is a waterproof material and is used for water retaining structures. GRC cladding
panels withstand windblown rain under the severest of conditions.
26
Test Method
The Density, Water Absorption and Apparent Porosity are all determined in the same
test which is carried out as part of routine Quality Control testing .
“ GRCA Methods of Testing Glass Fibre Reinforced Cement Material” and the following
Standards.
BS EN 1170 PART 6
BS6432
ASTM C948
The water vapour permeability can be tested according to BS 3177 although this is by
no means a routing test.
Table 2.5 - Typical Values at 28 days
Type of GRC Dry Bulk Density Water Absorption Apparent Porosity

(Tonne/m3) (%) (%)
Sprayed 1.8 - 2.1 8 - 13 16 - 25
Premix 1.8 - 2.0 8 - 13 16 - 25
2.8 Fire Resistance
General
GRC is a fire-safe material. Many GRC mix designs do not contain any organic materi-
als other than very small amounts of superplasticiser and trace quantities of binder on
the glass fibres. These formulations comply with the Non-Combustibility criteria for na-
tional and EU test standards. GRC that contains acrylic polymer for curing purposes
also performs well, although not normally classified as Non-Combustible. When tested
for Ignitability, Fire Propagation and Surface Spread of Flame it achieves the highest
possible ratings and conforms to the requirements for Class O defined by the British
Building Regulations. In all cases the smoke emission is very low and the emission of
toxic fumes is minimal.
When GRC is used in a panel construction the Fire Resistance achieved depends on
the whole of the construction. Single layers of GRC do not have guaranteed Integrity in
the usual fire resistance tests unless the GRC mix design has been modified to allow
the GRC to release moisture vapour easily during the initial part of the test procedure.
Panels using GRC in conjunction with other materials have been designed and tested
to give Fire Resistance of up to 4 hours.
27
2.9 Sound Insulation
GRC obeys the Mass Law for sound transmission loss through a partition.
Below about half the critical frequency, sound transmission loss is generally only related
to the mass of a material or partition. Mass law helps quantify the sound transmission
loss at these frequencies. At these frequencies, doubling the mass per unit area of a
partition panel, or doubling the frequency for a given mass per unit area, increases the
sound transmission loss by 6 decibels in the frequencies controlled by mass law.
Figure 2.3
A significant reduction in sound transmission loss (i.e., a significant increase in

the transmission of sound) through a partition occurs at the critical frequency.
The critical frequency is the frequency at which the wavelength of sound in air
equals the flexural bending wavelength in the partition or material. The critical
frequency therefore depends on the fixing system used (Figure 2.3).
GRC is often used for Sound Barriers for roads and railways. The Mass Law
does not work for these barriers and there is little benefit in increasing the sur-
face mass above the minimum required for resistance to wind loading because
of diffraction. This is the distortion of a wavefront caused by the presence of
an obstacle (barrier) in the sound field. Above 12 kg/m2 there is no useful
improvement (Figure 2.4).
Figure 2.4
28
Since 20 kg/m2 is the surface mass of 10mm GRC, any GRC panel designed
to resist wind load will be heavy enough to give useful performance as a sound
barrier material.
GRC sound barriers can either be:
Absorptive where an open grille at the front is backed

up with sound absorbent material and a final layer of
GRC (Figure 2.5).
or Figure 2.5
Dispersive where the surface of the GRC sound

barrier panels is shaped such that the reflected
sound interferes with itself and is therefore reduced
in intensity (Figure 2.6).
Figure 2.6
2.10 Thermal Insulation
General
GRC with a typical density of 1900-2100 kg/m3 has a thermal conductivity in the range
of 0.5 to 1 W/mº C depending on moisture content. This means that GRC is not itself a
good thermal insulation material. However, the design of either single skin or stud
frame GRC cladding panels allows insulating materials to be incorporated without in-
creasing the overall panel thickness.
When a particular ‘U’ value is required, the calculations of thermal resistance should be
carried out by a specialist.
2.11 Resistance to Carbonation
General
Carbonation in GRC is not considered significant. GRC products do not normally

contain mild steel reinforcement and so cover to the steel is not an issue.
GRC has been shown to carbonate at a very slow rate when compared to concrete and
some studies have found no evidence of carbonation at all.
The low carbonation rate of GRC compared to normal concrete is due to the
comparatively high cement content and low permeability of GRC.
The data shown below is taken from work carried out by the British Cement Association
on the use of GRC as permanent formwork. In this application GRC has the benefit of
protecting the reinforcing steelwork from corrosion by protecting the concrete from
carbonation (Figure 2.7).
29
ACCELERATED CARBON TEST

ACCELERATED CARBONISATION TEST
12
10
Depth of Carbonation
8
Concrete
(mm)
6
GRC (10mm thk)
4
2 GRC < 1 mm carbonation
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Age (Mths)
Figure 2.7
2.12 Thermal Expansion
GRC has a thermal expansion of 10-20x10-6/ºC. The minimum values occur at high and
low Relative Humidities. The maximum values occur around 50-80% RH. This should
be considered along with moisture and shrinkage movements when designing GRC
products.
Table 2.6 - Summary of Mechanical Properties at 28 days
Description Hand Sprayed Premix

Modulus of Rupture (MOR28) in N/mm2 18 - 30 5 - 14
Limit of Proportionality (LOP28) in N/mm2 5 - 10 5 - 10

Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS28) in N/mm2 8 - 12 3-6
Bend Over Point (BOP28) in N/mm2 4-6 3-5
Interlaminar Shear in N/mm2 2-4 N/A
In-Plane Shear in N/mm2 7 - 12 4-6
Punching Shear in N/mm2 25 - 35 4-6
Charpy Impact Strength in N/mm/mm2 15 - 25 7 - 12
Dry Bulk Density in kg/m3 18 - 21 18 - 20
Water Absorption (%) 8 - 13 8 - 13
Apparent Porosity (%) 16 - 25 16 - 25
30
2.14 Long-Term Time Dependent Properties
The properties of GRC are stable in dry conditions but most GRC formulations lose a
proportion of their strength over extended periods in damp/wet conditions. This is well
documented. Properties such as Ultimate Bending/Tensile strength and Strain to Fail-
ure decline to stable levels. The design stresses used are less than the predicted long
term strengths and less than the matrix cracking strength (LOP).
The LOP tends to rise slightly with time because of continuing cement hydration (Figure
2.9).
GRC does not suffer from cyclic stress fatigue as long as the stresses are below the
LOP.
Some specialist GRC formulations exhibit very little property changes with time.
An important point in design and erection is to ensure that the fixing systems allow for
in-service moisture and thermal movements. If these small movements are restrained
the GRC may become over-stressed and cracking may occur.
The surface of GRC cladding panel or moulding may require cleaning depending on the
design and environment and should be regarded as being similar to concrete. Some
applied finishes have a limited lifetime and may require maintenance.
MOR28 Modulus of Rupture (MOR)
Flexural
Strength
LOP28
Limit of Proportionality (LOP)
0
28 days
Time
Figure 2.9
31
3
TYPES OF PANEL CONSTRUCTION
At an early stage the Designer must decide the basic form the GRC element will take to
satisfy the performance requirements. This choice is closely related to the production
method and materials, and to the fixing method ultimately to be used.
The simplest form of GRC panel is a single skin, typically between 10 to 15 mm thick.
However, design requirements or panel size may call for a thicker GRC skin, or the use
of stiffeners. The minimum design thickness of the GRC skin would not normally be less
than 10 mm for an architectural application.
Unless the panel has a shape which in itself contributes to the panel strength and
stiffness, GRC properties dictate the use of a design which increases the load-carrying
ability on panels of any appreciable size. Methods commonly used include:
Up-standing single skin edge returns formed on the back of the panel.
Integral ribs formed on the back of the panel by spraying over hidden rib formers,
such as expanded polystyrene strips.
Prefabricated, cold-formed steel studs or structural tubes (stud frame system).
A sandwich construction, where GRC surrounds a lightweight insulating core, such
as expanded polystyrene.
Each of these methods provide greater capacity, for example to span between supports
against wind loading, and provide a means to connect the panel to the supporting
structure.
3.1 Single Skin Construction
3.1.1. Simple Single Skin Panels
For relatively small panels, which have some degree of shape to give them stiffness and
strength, it is normal to use a single skin of GRC which is thickened in the vicinity of the
fixings. These panels would normally use edge returns around the perimeter to assist
jointing, and also to contribute to the panel’s strength. This is a simple and economic
method of construction for small or shaped panels (see Figure 3.1 ).
Flat Sheet Corrugated Sheet
Flanged
Shaped (Cornice Element)
Fig 3.1 - Types of Single Skin Panels
32
Figure 3.2 Flat single skin

Figure 3.3 - Corrugated, single skin panel
panel.
3.1.2 Ribbed Single Skin Panels
For larger panels, if a steel stud frame is not being used, it will be necessary to build
stiffening ribs into the panels. The principal is to position GRC away from the neutral axis
of the panel, and into the regions of tensile and compressive stress. At the neutral axis,
the GRC gives little contribution to strength or stiffness of the panel, whereas in the
tensile and compressive regions, it is able to give a valuable contribution to the strength
and stiffness of the panel.
Figure 3.4 - Ribbed, Single Skin Panel
This principal is achieved by spraying GRC over rib-formers, which are normally be made
from polystyrene or preformed GRC section. These ribs would be positioned around the
perimeter of the GRC panel, where they will also give the panel sufficient depth to allow
jointing, and in some instances they will also run across the panel.
33
3.2 Stud Frame Construction
Instead of using GRC ribs and stiffeners it is possible to use a frame, most commonly in
steel. The stud frame provides support to the skin whilst permitting thermal and moisture
movements. This form of construction has gained popularity particularly when very large
and generally flat panels are to be made. The stud frame system allows panels of
10-20m2 to be manufactured, transported and erected.
A GRC stud frame cladding panel consists of a single skin of GRC attached to a
prefabricated frame, usually metal, by means of L shaped flexible anchors (termed flex
anchors) and support anchors (known as gravity anchors). Regular spacing of the flex
anchors ensures that the effects of wind loading are evenly distributed over large areas
of the panels. The flex anchors are for lateral support to the GRC facing whilst allowing
some degree of rotation and shrinkage/moisture movement of the GRC. The gravity
anchors are positioned along the bottom of the panels and support the self weight of the
GRC.
Consideration needs to be paid to the material of the frame to avoid risk of corrosion and
accordingly stainless steel or suitably treated and protected mild steel are used. This
selection may depend on local building regulations.
The wall construction is typically completed by an inner skin of gypsum plasterboard and
the space between the outer and inner skins filled with insulating material such as
rockwool to give thermal insulation and good fire resistance. Figure 3.5 shows a typical
arrangement of a stud frame for a rectangular GRC cladding panel.
Flex
FLEXAnchors
ANCHORS
FLEX
FlexANCHORS
Anchors
Gravity ANCHORS
GRAVITY Anchors
GRAVITY
GravityANCHORS
Anchors
Figure 3.5 - Typical Arrangement of GRC Stud Frame
34
Figure 3.6 - Stud Frame fabricated from Rectangular Hollow Sections
Figure 3.7 -
Typical Flex Anchor
showing Degrees of
Freedom
Figure 3.8 -
Typical Gravity Anchor
showing Load Paths
Figures 3.6 to 3.8 indicate how unbonded flex anchors and gravity anchors are
intended to perform. Note how they all point to the centre of the panel to alleviate
adverse shrinkage stresses.
35
Figure 3.9 -
GRC stud frame construction
used for Globe-shaped
Architectural Feature
Side unit chemically or mechanically

fixed into place after fixing RSA
frame to structure
Galvanised RSA frame
GRC Mock Corbel Unit
Outer face of
GRC unit
Figure 3.10 - Small Scale Stud Frame used for Mock Corbel
36
Figure 3.11 - Stud Frame Panels with Exposed Aggregate Finish
Figure 3.12 - Curved Stud Frame Panels for

Portico Construction
Stud Frame Construction
Figure 3.13 -
Stud Frame Construction
Car Showroom, Oman
37
Figure 3.14 - Large Stud Frame Panel, USA
Whilst each method of stiffening has advantages, the use of the steel stud frame is
often the most economical and preferred method for stiffening panels. In addition, the
stud frame provides a support for attaching additional elements making up the complete
wall construction (eg insulation, gypsum board and the window frame). Furthermore,
this system also provides a cavity for electrical, mechanical and telephone conduits.
Figures 3.9 to 3.14 illustrate several different applications for stud frame construction.
3.3 Sandwich Panel Construction
Sandwich panels are constructed with two outer skins of GRC separated by a lightweight
insulating core. The two GRC skins are normally connected around the edges of the
panels by a GRC edge return, and therefore the GRC completely encapsulates the
lightweight core. This is termed ‘box-type’ sandwich construction. Both the front and
back skins of GRC are typically between 10 to 15 mm thick (Figure 3.15).
Foam infill GRC skin
Box-type Sandwich Construction
Figure 3.15
Foam infill GRC skin
Bonded Sandwich Construction
Figure 3.16
38
Figure 3.17 - Sandwich Panel Construction, Spain
The core material may be very light-weight with excellent insulation properties such as
expanded polystyrene, polyurethane or isocyanurate foam, or somewhat heavier, as with
polystyrene bead aggregate concrete which gives excellent fire performance.
Much less common is the ‘bonded’ sandwich construction shown in Figure 3.16. Here,
the foam infill is much stiffer and becomes a structural element in that it is required to
transmit shear stresses between the external skins
Sandwich construction is very efficient in load capacity and stiffness, as the GRC is
positioned in the regions of maximum stress (in the tensile and compressive faces),
Sandwich construction is useful in specific circumstances but it is not widely used in
cladding panel construction. There is a potential for differential thermal and moisture
movement between the outer and inner faces of a sandwich panel which can give rise to
bowing, or high stresses if freedom of movement is not allowed by the shape and the
panel fixing. Figure 3.17 illustrates an impressive project that used sandwich panel
construction for the cladding.
Whilst some of the sandwich panels shown in

Figure 3.17 are gently curved, it is advisable to
only manufacture flat sandwich panels thereby
avoiding problems associated with
temperature gradients, moisture movements
and shrinkage stresses. Figure 3.18 shows
the shapes of panels that should not be used
in sandwich construction.
It is recommended that flat sandwich panels
should not have an area greater than 6.5 m2
eg 3.6m x 1.8m.
Figure 3.18
39
4
FIXING SYSTEMS
A major part of the design process is to decide how and to what a GRC product is to be
fixed.
4.1 Fixing Constraints
The main function of the fixing system is to secure the GRC component to the structure
for the life of the component/structure. At the same time it must to allow for thermal and
moisture movement of the component and any differential movement between the
structure and the component.
Fixing Systems must also:
Provide sufficient adjustment to accommodate normal construction inaccuracies in

combination with the anticipated movements.
Panel fixing points should Maintain integrity of support and restraint under all conditions of exposure by mini-
not be used for lifting
and/or handling. Additional
mising local concentrations of stress in the GRC
lifting points should be Ensure that forces transmitted through the fixings are distributed over as wide an
provided. area of GRC as possible.
Utilise the full strength properties of the GRC by providing supports at the base of
the panels and lateral restraints at both the top and bottom of panels.
The decision on how to fix The decision on how to fix a GRC component is a fundamental part of the design proc-
a GRC component is a fun- ess and should be taken as soon as possible normally during the tender stage. The
damental part of the design
process and should be
choice of which system to use is often dictated by imposed constraints particularly if the
taken as soon as possible, structure is existing. Ideally, the design of the GRC component and its fixing system
normally during the tender should proceed in parallel with the structural design.
stage.
Common fixing systems are described in the following sections.
4.2 Encapsulated Fixings - Fixings contained within a block of GRC.
Figure 4.1
Encapsulated fixings generally consist of internally threaded tubes with some form of
anchorage at the encapsulated end (cone shaped end or cross pin). Figure 4.1 shows
the cone shaped end version. These fixings are encapsulated in a solid block of GRC
with a length and width 10/15 times the bolt diameter. The minimum edge distance
should be 8/10 times the bolt diameter. M8 to M16 are the most common sockets used
with the choice dependent on the panel size.
40
It can be difficult to spray and compact the GRC around the socket and it is preferable
to use premix placed and compacted by hand. The socket should be located by a jig to
ensure accuracy of position and the encapsulation should take place as soon as possi-
ble after spraying. 5mm of the socket should protrude from the top of the GRC as this
will help to prevent over stressing during subsequent fixing.
This is a very versatile method of fixing allowing a wide range of brackets plates or
cramps to be bolted to the GRC panel and to the structure.
There are, however, some disadvantages. The large blocks of GRC can add signifi-
cantly to the weight of the panel and in some instances the outline of the block can be
seen on the face of the panel, a phenomenon known as ‘ghosting’.
4.3 Bonded fixings - Fixings attached to the GRC face by bonding pads.
Figure 4.2 - Flex Anchor Fixing
The most common fixings of this type are the flex and gravity anchors used in the stud
frame system but can also include brackets, bent plates and threaded connections.
The fixing is suspended slightly above the face skin of freshly sprayed GRC and is at-
tached using a bonding pad of GRC, which is normally premixed and placed by hand.
The design pull out loads The size and thickness of the bonding pad will vary depending upon the fixing but for 6 -
for embedded fixings 8mm diameter flex anchors the thickness should not be less than 12mm and the bond-
should be proved by load ing pad size a minimum of 1500 mm2. The bonding pad should be clear of the bend in
tests and flex anchor pull
of tests should be a part of the flex anchor, as shown in Figure 4.2, to avoid restricting the movement of the GRC.
regular QC testing. The time between the final roller compaction of the GRC skin and the application of the
bonding pads must be kept to a minimum to ensure monolithic bonding and eliminate
the possibility of subsequent de-bonding.
If the flex anchor or bracket is allowed to press into the face skin of GRC ghosting, as
previously described, can occur.
The design pull out loads for embedded fixings should be proved by load tests and flex
anchor pull of tests should be a part of regular QC testing.
4.4 Face fixings - Fixings secured through the face of the panel.
When access to the back of the component is restricted it can be necessary to face-fix
the panels.
A typical face fixing is illustrated below. The cast in washer is used to spread the load
and the neoprene pad and oversized hole (in relation to the bolt diameter) give
allowance for movement.
41
It is much easier to hide the The cover piece of GRC can be a tight fit and glued in
fixing if the GRC cover
piece is part of some sur-
place after final tightening of the bolt. It is, however,
face feature. always difficult to hide the fixing hole, particularly if the
component is not subsequently painted (Figure 4.3).
4.5 Hidden Fixings - when access is restricted
When face fixing is unacceptable and access to the

rear of the panel is restricted, it is necessary to use a
slot and dowel type system (Figure 4.4).
The bottom edge of the GRC panel or a corbel within
the panel is supported on a seating cleat or bracket. Figure 4.3 -
Lateral restraint is provided by a dowel or vertical plate Example of Face
attached to the cleat or bracket, which locates into an Fixing
oversized hole or slot in the GRC panel. Vertical
tolerance is achieved by the use of horseshoe shims
and lateral tolerance by shimming between the bracket
and the structure. There is some sideways tolerance by
using oversized holes and elongated slots.
The top restraint fixings are much simpler as the panel
above can hide these.
4.6 Secondary Fixings.
As well as fixings to secure the GRC panel, fixings are

also needed to attach components to the GRC panel .
Care must be taken to Typical examples being windows, flashings and
ensure that the secondary
fixing does not restrict the rainwater drain pipes (Figure 4.5). Plastic or hardwood
movement allowed for in blocks can be encapsulated into the GRC and a screw Figure 4.4 -
the primary fixing system. connection made to attach the component. Care must Example of
be taken to ensure that the secondary fixing does not HiddenFixing
restrict the movement allowed for in the primary fixing
system.
Encapsulated hardwood
timbers local to drainpipe clips
GRC Panel
Approved sealant
Drainpipe clips screwed
into hardwood timbers
SECTIONAL PLAN
Figure 4.5 - Example of Secondary Fixing
42
4.7 Materials for Fixings.
For a more detailed The choice of the correct materials for fixings is very important.
consideration of fixing Brackets, plates, bolts, nuts, washers and cast-in items, sockets etc. are generally
systems reference should
be made to:
made of steel. The choice of which grade of steel should be made after consideration of
‘Guide to Fixings for Glass local codes and regulations, clients requirements, environmental conditions, functional
Fibre Reinforced Cement life of the structure and the possibility for inspection and maintenance. Economic con-
Cladding’ published by the siderations initially appear to favour cheaper materials but when total life costing is con-
GRCA
sidered the benefits of a long life with zero maintenance and repair requirements can
more than compensate for initial higher material costs.
Spacers and packers should be made from durable non-compressible material, plastic,
GRC and stainless steel being widely used. Neoprene washers and packers are used
to allow movement.
43
5
LIMIT STATE DESIGN OF GRC ELEMENTS
5.1 Principles of Design
GRC is not required to fulfil GRC is mainly used to manufacture architectural and industrial products that are not
primary structural required to fulfil primary structural functions. These products should still be carefully
functions. designed to ensure that they do not become unfit for use during their specified design
life. The possible adverse effects of demoulding, handling, transporting and fixing should
be taken into account. Stresses induced by shrinkage/thermal movements, dead loads
and imposed loads must be calculated and combined to produce the most unfavourable
Loads must be estimated conditions for design purposes.
and combined to produce
the most unfavourable The design should also consider likely variations in the thickness of the GRC, differences
conditions for design in bending behaviour between test coupons and the full size section as well as the mode
purposes. of collapse and consequences of failure. It is logical to adopt a limit state design
approach so that each of these effects can be associated with a partial factor of safety.
Clearly, the designer should exercise sound and reasonable judgement in determining
the values of the partial factors to be used in design. This approach also allows
sensitivity analyses to be carried out using different values of the partial factors, thereby
giving more control over the design than hitherto using the ‘allowable stress’ approach.
Limit state design uses statistical techniques to determine the design loads and design
strength from the corresponding characteristic values to account for likely variations in
these design parameters during the design life of the GRC product.
Variations in both loading and material strength can be modelled by the distribution
given by the Gauss function, commonly known as the normal distribution. This distribu
tion is shown in Fig 5.1 where frequency density is plotted against the value of obser
vation.
Mean Value
Frequency
Density
Value of Observation
Figure 5.1
The estimated standard deviation ( ), ie the root mean square deviation, based on the
sample mean ( x’ ) of taking n samples or observations is given by
= [ ( xi - x’ )2 /(n - 1) ] 0.5 ... (5.1)
the summation being carried out with values of i = 1 to n.
In practice, a probability limit of 0.05 is adopted for both loading and material strength
implying a variation of 1.64 from the mean. Hence, the relationship between design load
(Fd) and characteristic load (Fk) is as shown in Figure 5.2
ie Design load Fd = f
. Fk ... (5.2)
where f
is a partial factor of safety.
44
1.64 o
Frequency
Density
Overload
Fm Fk FD
Loading
Figure 5.2
Similarly, the relationship between design strength (fd) and characteristic strength (fk) is
given by
fd = fk / m
...(5.3)
where m
is a partial factor of safety as represented in Figure 5.3.
1.64 o
Frequency
Density
Below
strength
fd f fm
k Loading
Figure 5.3
5.2 Partial Factors of Safety
The designer must check When using limit state theory to design GRC elements, the designer must check compli-
compliance with the limit ance with the limit states of collapse and serviceability. In other words, the GRC element
states of collapse and must not be allowed to collapse or become unserviceable during its design life. The
serviceability. partial factors of safety will be different for each limit state as described below.
45
5.3 Ultimate Limit State
Compliance with the ultimate limit state of collapse ( ULS ) is checked by
a) factoring up the characteristic load ( Fk ) to obtain the ultimate design

load ( Fd )
b) factoring down the characteristic strength of the GRC ( fk ) to obtain the

ultimate design strength
and
(c) analysing the behaviour of the GRC element using these factored
values.
We have, therefore, from Eqn (5.2)
Ultimate design load Fd = f

. Fk
where Fk = characteristic load
Partial factor of safety f

is given by
f
= ’f . tv
. b
. c ...
(5.4)
where
’f = load factor given in Table 5.1 below (values extracted from
Table 2.1 of BS 8110)
Table 5.1 - Suggested values of ’f for the ULS
Load Type
Load Earth
Dead (DL) Imposed (LL)
Combination &
Wind
Water
Adverse Beneficial Adverse Beneficial Pressure
DL + LL
(and earth & 1.4 1.0 1.6 0 1.4 -
water pressure)
DL + Wind
(and earth & 1.4 1.0 - - 1.4 1.4
water pressure)
DL + LL + Wind
(and earth & 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
water pressure)
46
tv
= factor to account for variations in thickness of GRC
b
= factor to allow for differences in bending behaviour between test
coupon and full size section
c
= factor to account for mode of collapse and consequences of failure
Suggested values of tv
and b
are given in Tables 5.2 and 5.3 respectively.
Table 5.2 - Typical Values of tv for the ULS (with good quality control)
Single Skin Sandwich Construction

Process
Plain Moulded Plain Moulded
Hand Spray † 1.05 1.1 1.1 1.2
Machine Spray ¶ 1.0 1.05 1.05 1.1
† 10mm minimum thickness

¶ 6mm minimum thickness
Table 5.3 - Typical Values of b for the ULS (with good quality control)
Overall Thickness (mm)
Single Skin Sandwich Construction †
6 - 10 12 - 16 20 40 60 100 200 300
1.0 1.05 1.08 1.15 1.20 1.25 1.37 1.50
† For open sandwich or box sections take b = 1.5 irrespective of depth
Normally, c is taken as 1.0 but values in the range 1.0 to 1.5 may be appropriate for
certain applications
47
Eqn (5.3) gives the design strength (fd) as
fd = fk / m .. (5.5)
where fk = characteristic strength and m = partial factor of safety.
Typical values for m for the ultimate limit state are given in Table 5.4 below.
Table 5.4 - Typical Values of m for the Ultimate Limit State
Exposure (Long term)

Handling
Mix 28 to 90 days
Natural weather As stored (Short term)
- external - internal
Standard GRC with

sand/cmt ratio of 3 to 3.5 2.5 to 3 1.7 to 2.2
1:1
5.4 Serviceability Limit State
Compliance with the serviceability limit state (SLS) is checked by
a) determining the characteristic load Fk (= service design load Fsd)

ie load factor f = 1
b) factoring down the characteristic strength of the GRC (fk) by a global factor of
m = 1.8 for long term loading or m = 1.4 for short term loading to obtain the
serviceability design strength
c) analysing the behaviour of the GRC element using these values
d) check the serviceability limit state of deflection using Fk and f = 1and an

appropriate value of Young’s Modulus (E). An estimate of the deflection due to
thermal and/or moisture bowing should be added to the calculation elastic
deflection (ye) to obtain a total value for deflections. Long-term deflections
should be limited to span/350 whilst deflections under short-term test loads
should be limited to span/625. The Highway Agency in UK limit deflections to
span/300 for wet concrete only.
5.5 Shrinkage & Thermal Stresses
Restrained shrinkage and It should noted that restrained shrinkage and thermal movements can induce very high
thermal movements can stresses into the GRC product. GRC has a relatively high shrinkage rate of about
induce very high stresses 0.15% for complete drying of a ‘standard’ mix. The assessment of appropriate values
into the GRC product.
for induced shrinkage stresses should carefully consider the environment in which the
GRC product will be used. Dry conditions will generally cause higher shrinkage
stresses than wet conditions. A surface coating may reduce the adverse effects of wet-
ting and drying.
The factors influencing stresses induced by thermal movements are the coefficient of
expansion, the modulus of elasticity, strains resulting from a temperature differential
and the effects of creep/relaxation.
48
In terms of making simple but conservative allowances for shrinkage and thermal
stresses, approximate values of shrinkage stress (sss) and thermal stress ( ts) given in
Tables 5.5 and 5.6 respectively may be used for design at the limit state of collapse and
serviceability using the appropriate partial factors of safety.
Table 5.5 - Suggested Values of Shrinkage Stress ( ss) in N/mm2
Full Restraint Short-Term Full-Term
Internal 1.3 to 1.8 0.7 to 0.9
External 1.0 to 1.5 0.5 to 0.8
Table 5.6 - Suggested Values of Thermal Stress ( ts) in N/mm2
Temperature Gradient
Condition Tension Face ts
(deg C)
5 0.4 to 0.8
Winter Damp 10 0.9 to 1.7
15 1.4 to 2.5
5 0.2 to 0.5
10 0.4 to 0.9
Summer Dry
15 0.6 to 1.3
20 0.8 to 1.8
5.6 Bending & Shear After 28 days Aged
Bending tensile
stress
MOR
MOR
LOP LOP
0 0
Strain (%)
Figure 5.4
49
MOR28 Modulus of Rupture (MOR)
Flexural
Strength
LOP28
Limit of Proportionality (LOP)
0
28 days
Time
Figure 5.5
Flexural tests on GRC coupons are carried out using a four point bending test (see
Section 2.2). Typical plots of stress against strains are shown in Figure 5.4. The limit of
proportionality (LOP) marks the end of the linear variation between stress and strain.
Thereafter, the strain increases faster than the stress terminating in failure at the
so-called modulus of rupture (MOR). Early LOP and MOR strengths are both affected
primarily by glass fibre content, fibre length/orientation, polymer content and composite
Bending is usually the most density. As GRC ages, the LOP may increase slightly in value whilst the MOR decreases.
critical and predominant Over a long period of time, the two values converge almost to the same value as
loading condition to be indicated in Figure 5.5.
considered in the design of
GRC elements.
Bending is usually the most critical and predominant loading condition to be considered
in the design of GRC elements. In designing GRC elements subjected purely to bending
and shear, the characteristic strength at the ultimate limit state is taken as the MOR at 28
days (MOR28). The characteristic strength at the serviceability limit state is taken as the
LOP at 28 days (LOP28). The worked examples that follow demonstrate the use of these
characteristic strengths in design.
Shear seldom controls the design of GRC elements. The three basic types of shear are
illustrated in Fig 5.6. Principle tensile stresses resulting from the action of shear should
be limited to 0.4 x ultimate flexural strength of the GRC. Interlaminar shear is usually the
most critical of all the shear conditions. A characteristic value of 3.5 N/mm2 is a
reasonable design value to take for well made, properly compacted and cured ‘standard’
GRC. A value of m = 1.7 is considered to be representative, hence the ultimate
interlaminar shear strength = 3.5/1.7 = 2 N/mm2 say. Typical value of fk and m to be used
for in-plane shear design of ‘standard’ GRC components are fk = 9 N/mm2 and m = 2,
hence ultimate in-plane design shear strength = 9/2 = 4.5 N/mm2.
a. Interlaminar shear b. In-plane Shear c. Punching Shear
Figure 5.6
50
Ultimate punching shear values vary between 20 N/mm2 and 45 N/mm2 for non-dewa
tered material. Ageing has little effect. Due to the significant influence of test methods,
it is proposed to conservatively base punching shear calculations on the same value as
that used for in-plane shear.
The design check for compliance with the ULS and SLS for members subjected to
bending and shear is shown in the form of flowcharts in Figures 5.7 and 5.8 respectively
for easy reference.
Figure 5.7 - Characteristic Load

Ultimate Limit State Fk
(Bending & Shear)
Check vu <= v Partial Factors

f’, tv, b & c
Allowable shear stress Load Factor f

=v f = f’ x tv x b x c
Calculate ultimate shear Ultimate Design Load Fd

stress vu Fd = f x Fk
Calculate ultimate shear Section Properties of GRC

force Vu component
Required MOR28 = Calculate ultimate bending

m x ( u + ss + ts ) stress u
Estimate shrinkage &

Determine m for ULS thermal stresses for
design ( ss & ts resp)
51
Service Load
Fs
Figure 5.8 -
Serviceability Limit State Global Factor of Safety
g ( = 1.8 )
(Bending & Shear)
Section Properties of GRC

component
Calculate service bending

stress s
Estimate shrinkage &

thermal stresses for design
( ss & ts resp)
Deflection Check Required LOP28 =

( if necessary ) g x ( s + ss + ts )
The limit state design process for members subjected to bending & shear can be
briefly summarised as follows:
Summary - Bending & Shear
Ultimate Limit State (ULS)
Ultimate bending stress = ub, shrinkage stress = ss and thermal Stress = ts
hence, MOR28 >= m ( ub + ss + ts)
Ultimate interlaminar shear stress = vu, so m x vu <= 0.4 x LOP28
Serviceability Limit State (SLS)
Service bending stress = sb, hence LOP28 >= g ( sb + ss + ts)

g = 1.8 for long term loading
g = 1.4 for short term loading
52
5.7 Direct Tension
Logically, the ultimate limit state of direct tension is related to the characteristic
ultimate tensile stress at 28 days. The serviceability check is correspondingly
related to the characteristic bend over point stress (BOP) at 28 days.
Hence, the ultimate direct design strength = UTS28 / m ... (5.5)
and
Serviceability direct tensile design = BOP28 / 1.8 ...(5.6)
The UTS28 is usually limited to 40% of MOR28 whilst the BOP28 can be taken
as LOP28/1.5.
Design procedures for checking compliance with the ultimate and
serviceability limit states follow much the same logic set out in Figures 5.7 and
5.8
5.8 Design Aids
Two very useful software packages are provided with this design manual to
assist the designer in ( a) calculating the section properties of complex cross-
sections and (b) determining the type, size, number and disposition of stiffening
ribs should these be required. Details of these design aids are as follows:
a. SectRib - a shareware Windows program with an intuitive graphical

user interface and easy entry of data for obtaining section properties of
flat, ribbed panels, corrugated panels and any other general sections
and
b. SectProp - a shareware version of a program that runs inside

AutoCAD (not AutoCAD LT) and produces more comprehensive output
than the one provided in AutoCAD. It easily deals with circular, curved
boundaries.
5.8.1 Sectrib
SectRib runs in the Windows environment and greatly simplifies input for flat,
ribbed panels. There is no need to calculate and enter cartesian coordinates
for the boundary nodes for ribbed panels because this is done automatically. It
is an easy matter to edit/change data and numerous data checks ensure that
invalid data cannot be entered. The comprehensive output is customisable
with respect to Company logos. This software also allows rotation of the
section in order to investigate different stress conditions.
A very useful feature of SectRib is the auto-calculation of the
minimum projection of ribs to satisfy stress calculations. Clearly, the type and
number of internal and external ribs must first be specified together with the
required section modulus.
SectRib also includes a transformation utility for transforming a box rib panel
section into a corrugated one, like those used for permanent formwork. The
software also has a ‘mirror’ facility that expedites the input of data for
symmetrical sections.
53
+y +y
9 7
10 8
4
6
3 ,8 1 , 6 , 13
11 9
4,7 2,5
5 3
12 10
11
1 , 13 12
2
0 0
+x +x
Figure 5.9
Whilst being intended for use in designing flat ribbed panels, SectRib can also be used
to calculated the section properties of any irregular section bounded by straight lines,
with or without internal boundaries.
Basically, both internal and external boundaries are defined by nodes joined by a series
of straight lines. Nodes defining the outer boundary must be numbered in an anti-
clockwise direction whilst the nodes of internal boundaries must be numbered in the
opposite clockwise direction as indicated below. Both the numbering examples shown
in Figure 5.9 are accept able and will yield the same answers. In the case of general
sections, SectRib requires the user to input POSITIVE values of x and y for each node,
the first node being entered at least twice to effectively close the cross-section.
The software comes with the usual load, save, print and help file facilities.
Entry of co-ordinate data is much easier if relative co-ordinates are

entered using the ‘relative co-ordinate’ keypad shown opposite. All
relative co-ordinates are entered as positive values as demonstrated in
the simple example shown in Figure 5.10.
y Co-ord ‘ Key ’ Values (mm)

No
20 220 80 60 x y
1 - 230 50
5 4 50
2 150 120
There is no need to enter 110 3
the last co-ordinate to’
close’ the section because
75 3 60 75
6 2
the program does o
60 4 0 50
automatically. 7
120
75 5 80 0
8 9,1
50 50 6 220 110
0 7 0 60
160
x
50 150
8 50 75
9 160 0
Figure 5.10
54
Figure 5.11
Figure 5.12
The software comes with the usual load, save, print and help file facilities. Screenshots
of the software are shown in Figures 5.11 and 5.12.
55
The main features of this basic but very useful software can be summarised as follows:
• Intuitive graphical user interface (GUI) running in the Microsoft Windows

environment for easy entry and editing of input data
• Numerous error checks to validate data
• AutoCalc button to determine the minimum projection of the ribs given all other
necessary data
• Allows mixture of single and box type ribs
• Easy insertion / removal of ribs
• ‘Corrugated’ section feature to facilitate easy specification of sections for

permanent formwork and corrugated roof sheeting
• ‘Mirror’ facility for symmetrical sections
• Outputs area, position of centroid, second moments of area and section

modulii about orthogonal and principal axes
• Production of DXF files for use in detailing with AutoCAD or other compatible
software
• Section properties of any irregular section, with or without internal boundaries,

can be easily calculated.
Figure 5.12 - shows a

typical print-out from
SectRib listing the
required section
56
Figure 5.12 illustrates the logic of the program in the form of a flowchart. The program is
supplied with an on-line help file.
New Section
Input x & y co-ordinates
for general section
Ribbed
Section Press
? No
Yes
Yes
Auto
Input Length, Thk (mm) Calculation
? Specify:
Types of edge / internal ribs
Number of ribs
No Required section modulus
Enter data for first rib on LHS
No Corrugated Flowchart Press

Section
? for
SectRib
Yes
Auto-Calculation of
Rib Projection
Press Section Properties
Symmetrical No
Enter data for next rib
Section
?
Yes
Press
Enter data for next rib on LH Last rib

half ?
No
Yes
Last Yes Calculate Save as:

Symmetrical Section .dxf file (if reqd)
No rib on LH half ? Properties .sp file
Figure 5.12
57
5.8.2 SectProp
SectProp is very easy to install and use. Once installed inside AutoCAD the software is
activated by typing ‘SECTPROP’ on the Command line. Both external and internal
boundaries must then be defined as polylines (not regions). A screenshot of the output
is shown in Figure 5.13. Clearly, this package is easier to use than SectRib particularly
when the section is bounded partly or fully by circular arcs.
Figure 5.13
The main features of SectProp are as follows:
• Numerous error checks to validate data
• Complex cross-sections easily drawn in AutoCAD with external and internal

boundaries specified as polylines
• Nodes do not require numbering - SectProp automatically does this to relieve

user of difficulties and tedium of entering co-ordinates
• Easy editing of cross-sections using AutoCAD’s powerful editing features
• Rotation of axes easily accomplished in SectProp using AutoCAD’s rotation tool
• Results can be included in drawing alongside section under consideration
• Accuracy of calculation when boundaries contain circular arcs can be easily

specified by user. Extremely high degrees of accuracy are possible.
SectRib and SectProp complement each other and offer the designer two very useful,
time-saving tools. It is the intention of the GRCA International to refine these software
packages further and develop others for the benefit of the end user. The GRCA website
will post the latest versions of these two packages and announce others as and when
they become available..
58
A shareware (evaluation version) of SectProp is provided on the CD and on the GRCA

website http://www.grca.org.uk. Members of the GRCA will receive a substantial
discount should they decide to purchase a copy of SectProp.
5.9 Future Developments
This Practical Design Guide will be reviewed and updated at regular intervals. It is a
‘live’ document that will develop with time.
The GRCA is committed to further testing of GRC elements, especially with the help of
manufacturers and academic Institutions. Interpreted results of tests will be reported in
revisions to this Guide as will the development of new software and CAD add-ons eg
parametric utilities to improve the efficiency and accuracy of detailing GRC products,
fixings and support systems.
Regular references should be made to the GRCA website http://www.grca.org.uk to
update the content of your Design Guide.
Constructive feedback and ‘wish lists’ will be gratefully received and carefully
considered.
Structural Engineers involved in the design of steel GRC stud frame systems will be
please to learn of a very powerful, freeware structural engineering package from which
they can benefit . . . .
Integrated Structural Software are pleased to announce that they will providing much
of their “ROBOT Millennium” software free of charge in the future. Engineers in the UK,
Ireland and North America may register for their “ROBOT Freeware” software via the
internet on www.issrobot.co.uk.
FREEWARE structural
engineering package Registration is a simple process after which ISS will send the user a password to use
available on the web - the software. ROBOT Freeware will be an “indefinite” licence and does not require any
extremely useful for commitment from the user at any time towards ISS. Key features of ROBOT Freeware
designing steel, GRC stud
frame projects
are:
2d frame, truss and grillage analysis of up to 3000 nodes

3d frame and truss analysis of up to 3000 nodes
Section libraries and section property calculator for any arbitrary section shape
Parameterised library structures (trusses, frames etc)
FE plate and shell analysis with auto meshing – up to 50 finite elements
Linear analysis and 1st mode dynamic analysis
In fact ROBOT Freeware will provide a solution for the engineer to carry out the vast
majority of their everyday analysis work.
59
6
LIMIT STATE DESIGN OF FIXINGS
6.1 Functions of Fixings
The main functions of fixings for GRC cladding panels are as follows:
a. to secure the cladding panels to the building for the life of the panels and/or
building.
b. to allow translational and rotational movements to occur between individual

panels and between the panel(s) and supporting structure whilst maintaining
waterproofing at the joints.
c. to provide sufficient adjustment to accommodate normal constructional

Properly designed lifting inaccuracies in combination with the anticipated movements referred to in (b)
points are also required.
Permanent fixings should above.
not be used for lifting.
d. to maintain integrity of support and restraint under all conditions of
exposure (impact, vibration, wind, fire, etc) by minimising local concentrations
of stress in the GRC.
e. to ensure that forces transmitted through the fixings are distributed over as wide
an area of GRC as possible.
f. to utilise the full strength properties of the GRC by providing supports at the
base of the panels and lateral restraints at both the top and bottom of the
panels.
The movements in (b) above can be difficult to quantify. However, it should be possible
to make conservative estimates of the magnitudes and directions of these movements
for the purposes of designing the fixings and joint sealants.
6.2 Overview of Design Principles
In order to produce a safe, efficient and economic fixing system, it is necessary to

understand the basic design principles and criteria.
The designer should first identify any constraints which might be imposed by conditions
on site. Such constraints, if any, may have a significant influence on the choice and
detailed design of the fixings. Typical examples of these constraints are problems
associated with access, conflict with fixings for other elements, excessive
misalignments of support elements and conformance to a demanding programme of
works.
GRC panels should not be ‘over-fixed’ to the structure as this will inhibit moisture and
thermal movements and is likely to result in detrimental cracking of the panels. Fixings
are usually provided at each of the four corner points of the panels.
GRC panels should not be The structural behaviour of the GRC panels under load should be carefully examined. It
‘over-fixed’ to the structure is advisable to avoid long horizontal panels (with span/depth ratio >4) as bending can
as this will inhibit moisture cause distress of the GRC in the vicinity of the fixings due to rotational and/or
and thermal movements
and is likely to result in
translational movements.
detrimental cracking of the Fixings should also be positioned so as to minimise any permanent stresses which
panels. might be induced into the panels. Forces transmitted through the fixings should be
distributed over as wide an area of GRC as possible. Adequate bearing areas must
also be provided for the GRC on the supports at the base of the panels to avoid distress
to the GRC.
60
Important information about tolerances and inaccuracies which should be considered in

the design of the fixings are given in BS 8110 for insitu concrete, BS 8297 for cladding
and the National Steelwork Standard for steel frames. Adequate tolerances must be
incorporated into the fixing system if it is to perform functions (b) and (c) listed in
Section 6.1. Ideally, all fixings should be easily accessibly for adjustment although this
is not always possible.
It is important to remember that galvanised fixing components have a finite life which is
directly proportional to the thickness of the zinc coating. As a general rule, stainless
As a general rule, stainless
steel fixings should be used
steel fixings should be used whenever possible because of their high resistance to
whenever possible because corrosion. Stainless steel is an obvious choice of material for fixings which are
of their high resistance to unavoidably inaccessible (positioned out of sight).
6.3 Types of Fixings
This design guide is only concerned with those fixings that are in direct contact with the
GRC panel as opposed to those securing the panel to the supporting structure. The four
types of commonly used direct fixings considered here are cast-in sockets, bonded
fixings, dowels and face fixings (Figure 6.1).
(a) Cast-in Socket (b) Bonded Fixing
(c) Dowel Connection (d) Face Fixing
Figure 6.1
Failure mechanisms of all these types of fixings can be complex and so calculations are
usually based on the results of representative ultimate load tests.
Failure of cast-in sockets is affected by edge distances, length of cast-in socket, type of
It is very important that anchorage (cross-pin, nut tapered end) and nature of loading (pure
cast-in sockets are tension/compression, combined loading, eg tension and shear). It is very important that
encapsulated in an
adequate volume of GRC cast-in sockets are encapsulated in an adequate volume of GRC with ‘good’ fibre
with ‘good’ fibre distribution around them. The ends of these sockets should be left slightly proud of the
distribution around them. GRC to avoid the possible adverse effects of overtightening against the face of the
GRC during fixing.
61
>= L O/A length of O/A length of

cast-in socket = L cast-in socket = L
>= L >= L
T T
T >= 1.71 L
T >= 1.71 L
T T
(a) (b)
>= L
O/A length of
cast-in socket = L
>= L
T T >= L T
C C C
T >= 1.71 L T >= 1.71 L

T C C >= 2 (1.71 L - T) C L C C >= 2 (1.71 L - T)
(c) (d)
Figure 6.2
The actual performance and minimum edge distance of cast-in sockets will be specified
by the manufacturer. However, as a general rule, the socket should not be placed any
nearer to the edge of the GRC than the overall length of the socket as indicated in
Figure 6.2. It should be noted that dimension T is the minimum width of the box rib. As
far as stress concentrations in the GRC are concerned, it is good design practice to
adopt the chamfered details shown in Figure 6.2 c and d.
Bonding pads are usually deposited over the steel anchor bar or flat by hand and
kneaded into the GRC backing. This is followed by final compaction using a serrated
roller to ensure adequate bonding between bonding pad and backing.
Figure 6.3 indicates the minimum sizes of bonding pads. The ultimate strengths of
encapsulated fixings and bonding pads should be determined from representative tests
to destruction.
Effective length L Effective width W
>= t >= t
t t
W x L >= 16000 (mm units) & W > 12t
Figure 6.3
62
6.4 Ultimate Limit State of Fixings
When an encapsulated or bonded fixing to GRC fails it is likely to do so suddenly and

without warning, albeit after a redistribution of load to one or more of the other fixings.
It is proposed that for the purposes of conservatism and expediency, the following
partial load factors are used for Grade 18 sprayed GRC in checking compliance with the
ULS:
st = 1.1, tv = 1.1 and c = 2.30
A partial material factor of m = 2.20 is considered to be adequate for taking account of

See ‘GRC and buildings’ by
M W Fordyce & R G any fibre discontinuities in the GRC.
Wodehouse published by
Butterworths in 1983. 6.5 Serviceability Limit State of Fixings
The main serviceability limit state to be satisfied by fixing assemblies is durability. . This
is threatened by cracking of the GRC close to the connection. GRC bonding pads
should be sufficiently thick and extensive to ensure that fire regulations are met and that
corrosion of the metallic elements is prevented. Basically, the following types of metals
should be used : stainless steel, phosphor bronze, aluminium bronze and silicon
aluminium bronze. Metallic elements of fixing assemblies should be kept dry and
isolated to avoid electro-chemical attack.
6.6 Gravity Anchors in Stud Frame Construction
Gravity anchors are intrinsically more difficult to design than flex anchors because the
failure mechanism of the bonding pad is due to a critical combination of vertical and
horizontal loading (Figure 6.4). The vertical loads are normally just a proportion of the
self-weight of the panel whilst the horizontal loads may be induced by wind and/or
seismic effects.
Hs
(wind)
Vs
(SW panel)
Figure 6.4
63
6.7 Seismic Effects
Figure 6.5 ( a) and (b) show elevations on a rectangular, flat ribbed panel that is not
required to resist seismic effects. Shrinkage and thermal movements are
accommodated by three of the fixings, as shown in Figure 6.5 ( a), thereby avoiding
distress to the panel. The self weight of the panel (W) is supported equally at the two
fixings at the base of the panel (Figure 6.5 (b)) whilst lateral wind loads, acting
perpendicular to the face of the panel, are resisted by all four fixings .
In simple terms, the effect of seismic loading is to impose a horizontal load (S) at the
centre of gravity of the panel due to horizontal accelerations of the ground beneath
(Figure 6.5 ( c)). This force can act in the plane of the panel or perpendicular to the
panel. The former case of seismic loading is the one considered here.
Assuming the upper two fixings cannot offer any resistance to the seismic load, the
overturning moment ( = S x h ) causes a redistribution of the vertical reactions at the
base of the panel to 0.5 W + (S.h/L) and 0.5 W - (S.h/L) respectively. In addition, a
horizontal reaction (S) is developed at the ‘fixed’ fixing at the base of the panel (Figure
6.5 ( c)).
Allowable
movements
Fixed
(a)
Seismic load (S)
SW of panel h SW of panel
(W) Horizontal reaction (S)
(W)
due to seismic effects
0.5 W 0.5 W L
Vertical reactions due to Vertical reactions due to
SW of panel SW of panel & seismic
overturning effects
(b) (c)
Seismic load (S)

Additional fixing at C of G of panel
to resist seismic load but allow
SW of panel vertical movements
(W)
(d)
0.5 W 0.5 W
Vertical reactions due to Figure 6.5
SW of panel
64
Clearly, if an additional fixing allowing only vertical movement were to be introduced at

the centre of gravity of the panel, as shown in Figure 6.5 (d), the seismic loading would
be fully resisted by this fixing and so the fixings at the base of the panel would only be
required to support the self weight of the panel as normal.
Figure 6.6
The same principles apply to stud frame construction in that a fabricated T-fixing, like
that shown in Figure 6.6, could be bonded at the centre of gravity of the panel and
65
7
WORKED
PRACTICAL DESIGN GUIDE FOR GLASS EXAMPLES
REINFORCED CONCRETE
The following worked examples are only intended to demonstrate the use of the
partial factors of safety in practical design. However, the GRCA International
does not accept any liability whatsoever for any direct, indirect, consequential or
incidental loss or damage resulting from the use of this Practical Design Guide,
the included software, the worked examples and partial factors of safety supplied
or used in this Design Guide.
Further examples and errata (if necessary) will be posted on the GRCA website
http://www.grca.org.uk for free downloading by registered individuals or Companies.
The worked examples are as follows:
Example 1 Simple Cladding Panel

Example 2 Permanent Formwork
Example 3 Permanent Formwork
Example 4 Planter (ribbed panels)
Example 5 Portico Roof (Stud Frame Construction)
Example 6 Circular Planter
Example 7 String Course Feature
Example 8 Coping Unit
Example 9 Cable Duct (in ground)
Example 10 Sunscreen
Example 11 Flex Anchor
Example 12 Gravity Anchor
In each of these worked examples a grade of GRC is specified. Reference should be

made to the International GRCA Publication ‘Specification for the Manufacture, Curing
and Testing of GRC Products’ for detailed information about the grading of GRC mixes.
In all of the above worked examples, the grade of the GRC mixes is specified in the
format: Grade(X/Y), where X = Characteristic LOP at 28 days and Y = Characteristic
MOR at 28 days.
When a GRC product is mainly subjected to direct tension, it is appropriate to use the
ultimate direct design strength at 28 days when checking conformance to the ultimate
limit state (ULS). This strength can be taken as 0.4 x MOR28 for design purposes. The
serviceability direct tensile design is usually taken as BOP28/1.8, where BOP28 is the
characteristic bend over point at 28 days. This is usually taken as BOP28 = LOP28/ m,
where the global factor of safety m equals 1.8. Worked Example 6 shows how the
above estimates are used in a practical design.
66
Title: Drg Ref

worked example - for demonstration purposes only Design Examples - Example No 1
- Simple Cladding Panel
P roject No By Checked Date Sheet No Rev
Ex1 A R Glass A l Ways Oct-03 1 of 3
REF CALCUL ATIONS OUTPUT
Cladding Panel - Grade (8/18)

Cladding Panel - Grade (8/18/0.4)
750
f ' = 1.40
tv = 1.00
= 1.02
120 0
c = 1.10
Bending:
m = 3 (UL S)
m
= 1.8 (SLS)
Inte rlaminar She ar:
m = 1.7 (ULS)
16 16 16
16
75
Check vertical bending

U ltimate L imit State
f = 1.4 x 1 x 1.02 x 1.10 = 1.57
2
Wind loading = 1.5 kN/m , hence
M u = 1.57 x 1.5 x 0.75 x 1.2 x 1.2 / 8 = 0.32 kNm
4 3
Sect Prop Min Z = 7.1852 x 10 mm
Program U ltimate bending stress = u
(see Sh 3) = 0.32 x 10 6 / 7.1852 x 10 4

= 4.45 N/mm 2
A llow for shrinkage stress ss
of 0.6 N/mm 2 and
thermal stress ts
of 0.4 N/mm 2 , hence
MOR required @ 28 days = 3 x ( 4.45 + 0.6 + 0.4 )
2
= 16.35 N/mm MO R @
2
< 18 N/mm OK 28 days =
18 N/sqr mm
Check interlaminar shear resistance
V u = 1.57 x 1.5 x 0.75 x 1.2 / 2 = 1.06 kN
Hence,
v u = (1.5 x 1.06 x 1000) / (3 x 75 x 16) = 0.44 N/mm 2
67
Title: Drg Ref

Characteristic interlminar shear strength require d at

2
28 days = 1.7 x 0.44 = 0.75 N/mm < 2 N/mm2
and < 0.4 x LOP = 0.4 x 8 = 3.2 N/mm 2 OK
Serviceability Limit State

Global material safety factor = 1.8
M s = 1.5 x 0.75 x 1.2 x 1.2 / 8 = 0.2 kNm
Sect Prop Service be nding stre ss = s
= 0.2 x 10 6 / 7.1852 x 10 4
Program = 2.78 N/mm2
(see Sh 3) L OP required @ 28 days = 1.8 x (2.78 + 0.6 + 0.4) LO P @
2
= 6.80 N/mm 28 days =
2
< 8 N/mm OK 8 N/sqr mm
Check deflection
2
Assum e E s = 10 kN/m m
y s = (5 x 1.5 x 1.2 x 0.75 x 12003 ) / (384 x 10 x 4.2996 x 10 6)
= 0.71 mm negligible
Check 16mm thk skin

I dealise sk in as a two span beam with equal spans of 375mm
M u = 0.625 x 1.57 x 1.5 x 0.375 2 = 0.21 kNm
Z = 1000 x 16 2 / 6 = 4.27 x 10 4 mm3
U ltimate bending stress = u
= 0.21 x 10 6 / 4.27 x 10 4
= 4.92 N/mm 2
MOR required @ 28 days = 3 x ( 4.92 + 0.6 + 0.4 ) MO R @
= 17.8 N/mm 2 28 days =

18 N/sqr mm
M s = 0.625 x 1.5 x 0.375 2 = 0.13 kNm
Service be nding stre ss = s
= 0.13 x 10 6 / 4.27 x 10 4
= 3.05 N/mm2
L OP required @ 28 days = 1.8 x (3.05 + 0.6 + 0.4)
2
= 7.29 N/mm LO P @
2
< 8 N/mm OK 28 days =
8 N/sqr mm
Shear/de flection not critical
68
Title: Drg Ref

Ex1 A R Glass Al Ways Oct-02 3 of 3
REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT
SECTPROP Results
69
Title: Drg Ref

- Permanent Formwork
Permanent- Formwork
Permanent Formwork Flat sheet- Flat sheet Grade (9/18)
(9/18/0.4)
58 0 mm sp a n
20 0 m m thk s lab
4 0 mm bear ing
f ' = 1.40 (DL)

f
' = 1.60 (LL)
tv = 1.00
b = 1.00
= 1.20
Try 18mm thk flat sheet c
Bending:
m
= 1.7 (ULS)
Try 18mm thk flat sheet m = 1.5(SL S)
Inte rlaminar She ar:
m = 1.7 (ULS)
Concrete 0.2 x 24 = 4.8 kN/m 2
L ive load = 1.5 k N/m 2 (construction load)
SW 0.018 x 20 = 0.36 kN/m 2
say 0.45 kN/m 2 (25% overspray)
U ltimate load / sqr m = 1.4 ( 0.45 + 4.8 ) + ( 1.6 x 1.5 )
2
= 9.75 kN/m
U ltimate design load = 1.0 x 1.0 x 1.2 x 9.75
= 11.7 kN/m2
Mu = 11.7 x 0.62 x 0.62 / 8 = 0.56 kNm
4 3
Z = 1000 x 18 x 18 / 6 = 5.4 x 10 mm
U ltimate bending stress = u
= 0.56 x 10 6 / 5.4 x 10 4
= 10.37 N/mm2
MOR required @ 28 days = 1.7 x 10.37 MO R @
2
= 17.6 N/mm 28 days =
2
< 18 N/mm OK 18 N/sqr mm
V u = 1 1.7 x 1 x 0.62 / 2 = 3.63 kN
v u = (1.5 x 3.63 x 10 3) / (1000 x 18) = 0.3 N/mm 2
28 days = 1.7 x 0.3 = 0.51 N/mm2
< 0.4 x LOP = 0.4 x 7 = 2.8 N/mm 2 OK
70
Title: Drg Ref


Global factor of safety = 1.5 (temporary work s)
M s = ( 4.8 + 1.5 + 0.45 ) x 0.62 x 0.62 / 8 = 0.32 kNm
Service bending stress = s
= ( 0.32 x 10 6 ) / 5.4 x 10 4
= 5.93N/sqr mm
LOP required @ 28 days = 1.5 x 5.93 = 8.9 N/sqr mm LOP @
< 9 N/sqr mm OK 28 days =
9 N/sqr mm
D eflection not critical
71
Title: Drg Ref

Permanent Formwork - Flat sheet Grade (9/18)

9
Permanent Formwork - Corrugated Sheet (8/18/0.4)
f
' = 1.40 (DL)
f' = 1.60 (LL)
tv
= 1.00
b
= 1.00
c = 1.20
Bending:
m
m
== 1.7(ULS)
1.7(ULS)
m
m == 1.4
1.4(SLS)
(SLS)
Interlaminar Shear:
Interlaminar Shear:
mm
== 1.7
1.7(ULS)
(ULS)
Try
Try corrugated
corrugated sheet
sheet with
with 300300
mm mm module:
module :
300
60 30 1 20 30 60
30 9
8
89
7 m2
Area = 0.0024 Z = 2.7935 x 104 mm3
Sectprop Area = 0.0024 m 2 Z = 2.7935 4
( t & b)x 10 mm
3
Sectprop
Program ( t & b)
(see Sh 3) Loadings
Concrete kN/m
D eck 0.15 x 0.3 x 24 = 1.08
Trough 0.15 x 0.03 x 24 = 0.11
SW formwork 0.0027 x 20= 0.054 kN/m

say 0.06 kN/m (25% overspray)
Live load (construction) @ 1.5 kN/m2
= 0.45
Ultimate Limit state
Ultimate DL Factor = 1.4 x 1 x 1 x 1.2 = 1.68
Ultimate LL Factor = 1.6 x 1 x 1 x 1.2 = 1.92
72
Title: Drg Ref

Ultimate design load = 1.68 x (1.08 + 0.11 + 0.06)

+ (1.92 x 0.45)
= 2.96 k N/m
Mu = 2.96 x 0.89 x 0.89 / 8 = 0.29 kNm
Ultimate bending stress s = 0.29 x 106 / 2.7935 x 104
62 4
0=.29
= 10.38
x 10N/mm
/ 2.7935 x 10
10.38 N/mm2
MOR required at 28 days = 1.7 x 10.38
2
= 17.65 N/mm 2
17.65N/mm
=
< 18 N/mm 2 OK
Assume thk of edge = 8 mm
Vu = 2.96x 0.89 / 2 = 1.32 kN
3 2
Hence, v u = 1.5 x 1.32 x 10 / (300 x 8) = 0.83 N/mm
Characteristic interlminar shear strength required at
28 days = 1.7 x 0.83 = 1.41 N/mm2 < 2 N/mm2
2
and < 0.4 x LOP = 0.4 x 8 = 3.2 N/mm OK

Global factor of safety = 1.4 (temporary work s)
M s = ( 1.08 + 0.11 + 0.06 + 0.45 ) x 0.89 x 0.89 / 8

= 0.17 kNm
6 4
= ( 0.17 x 10 ) / 2.7935 x 10
= 6.09 N/sqr mm
LOP required @ 28 days = 1.4 x 6.09 = 8.53 N/sqr mm LO P @
9 N/sqr mm
73
Title: Drg Ref

SECTPROP Results
74
worked example - for demonstration purposes only

Title: Drg Ref
Design Examples - Example No 4
- Planter
1000
100 10 0
Soil
15 t hk
th rou ghou t
GR C side pan els span nin g

10 00
horizont all y a nd simply

80 s upported a t 2m c rs
Spl ay s a t
2 10
4 5 deg
40
Dr ain a ge thr ou gh ba se
of pl a nter
GRC Planter Units - Grade

GRC (7/18/0.4)
Planter Units - Grade (7/18)
Assume soil density = 18 kN/m 3 (no water pressure)

Soil friction angle f = 30 deg.
f ' = 1.40
tv = 1.05
b = 1.05
c = 1.00
Bending:
m = 2.7 (ULS)
m
= 1.8 (SLS)
Interlaminar Shear:
m = 1.7 (ULS)
Ka = (1 - sin f) / (1 + sin f) = 0.33

Soil pressure at base of planter = 0.33 x 18 x 1
= 6 kN/m2
Design panel as simply supported over span of 2m
carrying an average UDL of 2 x 7.4 / 3 = 4 kN/m 2
(conservative)
75

Title: Drg Ref
- Plante r
Ultim ate Lim it State

f = 1.4 x 1.05 x 1.05 x 1 = 1.54
2
Mu = 1.54 x 4 x 1 x 2 /8 = 3.08 k Nm
5 3
SECTPROP Z for oute r face = 8.0649 x 10 mm
6 5
Program U ltimate bending stress s u = 3.08 x 10 / 8.0649 x 10
2
(see Sh 3) = 3.82 N/mm (tension)
A llow for shrinkage stress ss

of 0.5 N/mm 2 and
thermal stress ts
of 0.2 N/mm 2 , hence
MOR required @ 28 days = 2.7x (3.82 + 0.5 + 0.2) MO R @
2 2
= 12.20 N/mm < 18 N/mm 28 days =
OK 18 N/sqr mm
V u = 1.54 x 4 x 1 x 2 / 2 = 6.16 kN
Hence,
v u = (1.5 x 6.16 x 10 3 ) / (5 x 15 x 100 )
= 1.23 N/mm 2
28 days = 1.7 x 1.23 = 2.09 N/mm2
< 0.4 x LOP = 0.4 x 7 = 2.8 N/mm 2 OK

2
Ms = 4 x 1 x 2 / 8 = 2 kNm
Service be nding stre ss = ss
= 2 x 10 6 / 8.0649 x 10 5
= 2.48 N/mm 2
L OP required @ 28 days = 1.8 x (2.48 + 0.5 + 0.2) LO P @
2 2
= 5.72 N/mm < 7 N/mm OK 28 days =
7 N/sqr mm
D efle ction not critical
Provide a vertical ,ce ntral box rib to obviate any vertical

bending effects as shown below.
2000
960 80 960
1 5 min t hk 45 d eg splays
t h roughout
76

Title: Drg Ref
- Planter
SECTPROP Results
77
Title: Drg Ref

- Portico Roof
Curved Fascia Panel (Studframe) - Grade (7/18/0.4)

Curved Fascia Panel (Studframe) - Grade (7/18)
f ' = 1.40 Bending:

tv
= 1.00 m
= 3 (ULS)
b
= 1.02 m
= 1.8 (SLS)
c
= 1.10 Interlaminar Shear:
m = 1.7 (ULS)
Spacings of flex/gravity anchors:

Vertical 500mm
Horizontal 600mm (approx)
Try GRC thickness of 15mm (min)
Ultimate Limit State

f
= 1.4 x 1 x 1.02 x 1.10 = 1.57
Wind loading = 1.5 kN/m 2 , hence
M u = 1.57 x 1.5 x 0.5 x 0.6 x 0.6 / 8
= 0.05 kNm
Z = 500 x 15 2 / 6 = 1.875 x 10 4 mm3
Ultimate bending stress = u
= 0.05 x 10 6 / 1.875 x 10 4
= 2.67 N/mm 2
78

Title: Drg Ref
- Portico Roof
A R Glass A l Ways Oct-03 2 of 2
2
A llow for shrinkage stress ss of 0.7 N/mm and
2
thermal stress ts of 0.9 N/mm , hence
MOR required @ 28 days = 3 x ( 2.67 + 0.7 + 0.9 )
2
= 12.81 N/mm MO R @
Check interlaminar shear resistance 18 N/sqr mm
V u = 1.57 x 0.5 x 0.6 x 1.5 / 2 = 0.35 kN
Hence,
v u = (1.5 x 0.35 x 10 3 ) / (12 x 500 ) = 0.09 N/sqr mm
Negligible OK

M s = 1.5 x 0.50 x 0.6 x 0.6 / 8 = 0.04 kNm
= 0.04 x 106 / 1.875 x 10 4
= 2.13 N/sqr mm
LOP required @ 28 days = 1.8 x (2.13 + 0.7 + 0.9) LO P @
2
= 6.72 N/mm 28 days =
< 7 N/sqr mm OK 7 N/sqr mm
D eflection not critical
79

Title: Drg Ref
- Circular Planter
Circular GRC Planter - Grade (7/18)

Circular GRC Planter - Grade (7/18/0.4)
3
Assume soil density = 18 kN/m (no water pressure)
Coefficient of active pressure = 0.33.
f ' = 1.40
2
tv = 1.05 UTS 28 = 0.4 x 18 = 7.2 N/mm
b = 1.05
2
c = 1.00 BOP 28 = 7/1.5 = 4.7 N/mm
D irect tension:
m = 3 (ULS)
m = 1.8 (SLS)
Interlaminar Shear:
Not critical
f = 1.4 x 1.05 x 1.05 x 1 = 1.54
Pressure p E arth pressure at base of planter = 0.33 x 18 x 0.75

2
= 4.5 kN/m
= pr/t Ultimate ring tension = 1.54 x 4.5 x 800 / 12 x 10 3
= 0.46 N/mm2
Allow for shrinkage stress ss
of 0.5 N/mm 2 and
thermal stress ts of 1.2 N/mm 2 , hence
UTS required at 28 days = 3 x (0.46 + 0.5 + 1.2) MO R @
2 2
= 6.5 N/mm < 7.2 N/mm OK 28 days =
18 N/sqr mm
80
Title: Drg Ref

- Circular Planter

3
Serviceability ring tension = 4.5 x 800 / 12 x 10
2
= 0.30 N/mm
B OP required at 28 days = 1.8 x (0.30 + 0.5 + 1.2) LOP @
2
= 3.60 N/mm < 4.7 N/mm2 OK 28 days =
7 N/sqr mm
81

Title: Drg Ref
- Stringcourse
40
Min thk 12m m

thro ugh out
4 00
7 0 x 70 cha mf er
40
200
GRC Stringcourse Unit - Grade (7/18)

GRC Stringcourse Unit - Grade (7/18/0.4)
f ' = 1.40
tv
= 1.10
b
= 1.02
c = 1.00 Span = 1.80m
B ending: (simply supported)
m = 3 (ULS)
2
m = 1.8 (SLS) Wind loading: 2 kN/m
Interlaminar Shear:
m = 1.7 (ULS)

f = 1.4 x 11 x 1.052 x 1.1 = 1.73
Self Wt = 0.0102 x 20 x 1.8 = 0.37 kN
say 0.46 kN (25% overspray)
M ux = 1.73 x 0.46 x 1.8 / 8 = 0.18 kNm
M uy = 1.73 x 2 x 4 x 1.8 2 / 8 = 0.56 kNm
SECTPROP M uu = 0.18 cos(13.476) + 0.56 sin(13.476) = 0.31 kNm
Program M vv = 0.18 sin(13.476) + 0.56 cos(13.476) = 0.59 kNm
(see Sh 3) Combined ultimate bending stress s u =
(0.31 x 106 )/(1.181 x 10 6 ) + (0.59 x 10 6)/(1.6477 x 10 5 )
2
= 3.84 N/mm
(zuu for btm fibres calculated from Iuu )
82
Title: Drg Ref

- Stringcourse
Ex7
2
2
MOR required @ 28 days = 3x (3.84 + 0.6 + 0.4) MO R @
2 2
= 14.52 N/mm < 18 N/mm 28 days =
OK 18 N/sqr mm
V u = 1.73 x 2 x 0.4 x 1.8 / 2 = 1.25 kN
Hence,
v u = (1.5 x 1.25 x 10 3 ) / (200 x 12 )
= 0.78 N/mm 2
2
28 days = 1.7 x 0.78 = 1.33 N/mm
< 0.4 x LOP = 0.4 x 7 = 2.8 N/mm 2 OK

M sx = 0.46 x 1.8 / 8 = 0.10 kNm
2
M sy = 2 x 4 x 1.8 / 8 = 0.32 kNm
M uu = 0.10 cos(13.476) + 0.32 sin(13.476) = 0.18 kNm
Mvv = 0.18 sin(13.476) + 0.32 cos(13.476) = 0.34 kNm
Combine d service bending stress ss =
( 0.18 x 106 )/(1.181 x 10 6 ) + (0.34x 10 6 )/(1.6477 x 10 5)
2
= 2.21 N/mm
( zuu for btm fibres calculate d from Iuu )
L OP required @ 28 days = 1.8 x (2.21 + 0.6 + 0.4) LO P @
= 5.80 N/mm 2 < 7 N/mm 2 OK 28 days =

7 N/sqr mm
D efle ction not critical
83
Title: Drg Ref

- Stringcourse
SECTPROP Results
84

Title: Drg Ref
- Coping Unit
Coping
Coping U nit - Grade Unit - Grade (7/18)
(7/18/0.4)
340
1 70 170
20
100
30
30 15
f ' = 1.4 (wind) Bending:

f ' = 1.6 (access load) m = 3.2 (ULS)
tv = 1.00 m = 1.8 (SLS)
b = 1.00 Inte rlaminar She ar:
c = 1.20 m = 1.7 (ULS)
Try min thk of 12mm and span = 1800mm
Sect Prop SW = 0.007068 x 20 = 0.14 kN/m
Program A llow 25% ove rspray, SW = 0.18 kN/m
2 2
(see Sh 3) A ssume wind load of 1.5 kN/m & access l oad of 1.5 k N/m
A ccess load governs, he nce
f = 1.6 x 1 x 1 x 1.2 = 1.92
A ccess loading = 1.5 kN/m 2, so
M u = 1.92 x 1.82 x ( (1.5 x 0.34) + 0.18)/8 = 0.54 kNm
Sect Prop
Program Z b = 1.32 x 10 5 mm 3
(see Sh 3) U ltimate bending stress = u
= 0.54 x 10 6 / 1.32 x 10 5
= 4.1 N/mm2
2
2
MOR required @ 28 days = 3.2 x ( 4.1 + 0.6 + 0.5 ) MO R @
2
= 16.64 N/mm 28 days =
< 18 N/mm 2 OK 18 N/sqr mm

V u = 1.92 x 1.8 x ((1.5 x 0.34) + 0.18) / 2 = 1.19 kN
Hence,
v u = (1.5 x 1.19 x 1000) / (2 x 100 x 12) = 0.74 N/mm 2
85

Title: Drg Ref
- Coping Unit

2
28 days = 1.7 x 0.74 = 1.26 N/mm
< 0.4 x LOP 28 = 0.4x 7 = 2.8 N/mm2 OK

2
M s = 1.8 x((1.5 x 0.34) + 0.18)/8 = 0.28 k Nm
6 5
SectProp Service be nding stre ss = s = 0.28 x 10 / 1.32 x 10
2
Program = 2.12 N/mm
(see Sh 3) LOP required @ 28 days = 1.8 x (2.12 + 0.6 + 0.5) LO P @
2
= 5.8 N/mm 28 days =
< 7 N/mm 2 OK 7 N/sqr mm
Deflection not critical
86
Title: Drg Ref

- Coping Unit
Ex1Ex8 A R Glass Al Ways Oct-03 3 of 3
SECTPROP Results
87
Title: Drg Ref

- Cable D uct
P remix GR C
Ca bl e D uc t
40 0
28
GRC CableGRC Cable

Duct Duct -(6/10/0.1)
- Grade Grade (6/10) - Premix
- Premix
Assume soil density = 18 kN/m 3 (no water pressure)

Soil friction angle f = 30 deg.
f ' = 1.40
tv
= 1.05
b
= 1.05
c = 1.00
B ending:
m = 3 (ULS)
m = 1.8 (SLS)
Interlaminar Shear:
m = 1.7 (ULS)
Ka =
(1 - sin f) / (1 + sin f ) = 0.33
Soil pressure at base of duct = 0.33 x 18 x 0.4
= 2.4 kN/m 2
Allow surcharge of 5 kN/m2
hence,
lateral surcharge pressure
= 0.33 x 5
0 .6 7 k N/m
400
2
= 1.67 kN/m
0 .4 8 kN /m
2 .4 kN /m 2 1 .6 7 kN /m
2
88
Drg Ref

- Cable Duct
Planter
Ex4

f = 1.4 x 1.05 x 1.05 x 1 = 1.54
Mu = 1.54 x ( (0.48 x 0.4 /3 ) + ( 0.67 x 0.4 / 2 ))
= 0.3 kNm/m
Z for outer face = 1000 x 282 / 6 = 1.31 x 105 mm 3
Ultimate bending stress s u = 0.3 x 106 / 1.31 x 105
= 2.29 N/mm 2 (tension)
2
Allow for shrinkage stress ss of 0.5 N/mm and
2
MOR required @ 28 days = 3 x (2.29 + 0.5 + 0.4) MOR @
2 2
= 9.57 N/mm < 10 N/mm 28 days =
OK 10 N/sqr mm
Shear not critical

Ms = (0.48 x 0.4 /3 ) + ( 0.67 x 0.4 / 2 ) = 0.2 kNm/m
Service bending stress = ss
= 0.2 x 106 / 1.31 x 105
= 1.53 N/mm 2
LOP required @ 28 days = 1.8 x (1.53 + 0.5 + 0.4) LOP @
= 4.4 N/mm 2 < 6 N/mm 2 OK 28 days =

6 N/sqr mm
89
Title: Drg Ref

- Sunscreen
160 0 50
184
35
42 approx
1240
90
GRCSunscreen
GRC Sunscreen- -Grade
Grade (6/10/0.1)
(6/10) - Premix- Premix
f ' = 1.40
tv
= 1.05
b = 1.05
c = 1.00
B ending:
m
= 3 (ULS) Wind loading (sheltered)
m = 1.8 (SLS) - assume 0.8 kN/m2
Interlaminar Shear:
m = 1.7 (ULS) Panel is approx 62% solid

f = 1.4 x 1.05 x 1.05 x 1 = 1.54
Consider whole unit spanning horizontally
Mu = 1.54 x 0.62 x 0.8 x 1.24 x 1.6 2 / 8
= 0.3 kNm
5 3
AutoSECT Z for whole unit = 1.0056 x 10 mm
6 5
Output Ultimate bending stress s u = 0.3 x 10 / 1.0056 x 10
2
(Sh 3) = 3 N/mm (tension)
Shrinkage and temperature stresses not restrained by
method of fixing, hence
MOR required @ 28 days = 3 x 3
= 9 N/mm2 < 10 N/mm2 MO R @
OK 28 days =
10 N/sqr mm
90

Drg Ref
- Sunscreen

V u / edge = 1.54 x 0.62 x 0.8 x 1.24 x 0.8 / 2
= 0.38 kN
3
v u / edge = 1.5 x 0.38 x 10 / (90 x 50)
= 0.13 N/mm2 low

2
M s = 0.62 x 0.8 x 1.24 x 1.6 / 8 = 0.2 kNm/m
= 0.2 x 10 6 / 1.0056 x 10 5
= 2 N/mm2
LOP required @ 28 days = 1.8 x 2 LOP @
= 3.6 N/mm 2 < 6 N/mm 2 OK 28 days =
6 N/sqr mm
Check integrity of ornate, central panel spanning vertically
(shorter span)

f = 1.4 x 1.05 x 1.05 x 1 = 1.54
Consider width of 184mm (see illustration on Sh 1)
2
Mu = 1.54 x 0.62 x 0.8 x 0.184 x 1.06 / 8
= 0.02 kNm
2 3
Z = 42 x 35 / 6 = 8575 mm
6
Ultimate bending stress s u = 0.02 x 10 / 8575
2
= 2.33 N/mm (tension)
< 10/3 so OK
Shear not critical

M s = 0.62 x 0.8 x 0.184 x 1.06 2 / 8 = 0.013 kNm/m
= 0.013 x 10 6 / 8575
= 1.49 N/mm 2
< 6/1.8 so OK
91
Title: Drg Ref

- Sunscreen
AutoSECT Results
92

Title: Drg Ref
- Flex Anchor
GradeGrade (7/18) GRC

(7/18/0.4) GRC Panel
Panel/ /Bonding
BondingPadpad
f ' = 1.40 Characteristic pull-off

tv = 1.10 strength of bonding pad
b = 1.10 = 3.25 kN (from tests)
c = 2.30
m = 2.20 (ULS)
Wind loading = 1.5 kN/m 2

f
= 1.4 x 1.1 x 1.1 x 2.3 = 3.90
(a) Negative Wind Pressure

Assuming flex anchors are at 500mm crs in both directions
Ultimate load/flex anchor = 3.9 x 1.5 x 0.5 x0.5
= 1.46 kN
Design strength of bonding pad = 3.25/2.2 = 1.48 kN
> 1.46 kN OK
(b) Positive Wind Pressure
93

Drg Ref
- Flex Anchor
Project No By Checked Date Sheet No Rev
Check that flex anchor will not punch through facing
Ultimate punching shear stress vc =

3
(1.46 x 10 ) / (2 x (8 + 110) x 12)
= 0.32 N/mm2
(Very conservative)
Ultimate design stress for punching shear = 5/2.2
= 2.3 N/mm 2
2
> 0.32 N/mm OK
This condition is not likely to be critical - unless the front
GRC cover (12mm in this case) is compromised by
poor manufacture.
NOTE
Clearly, the adequacy of the flex anchor itself should be
checked for resisting 1.46 kN tension & compression
without detremental effects.
Serviceability Limit State is deeme to have been satisfied.
94
Title: Drg Ref

- Gravity Anchor
GRC pane l
15 th k &
23 0 0 h igh
at 5 0 0 crs vertically &

F lex & gravity anch ors
h orizontally
100
Bond ing pad approx

2 0 0 lg x 12 0 wi de
Grade (7/18/0.4) GRCGRC

Grade (7/18) Panel / Bonding
Panel / Bondingpad
Pad
f' = 1.40 Characteristic pull-off

tv = 1.10 strength of bonding pad
b = 1.10 = 3.5 kN (from tests)
c
= 2.30 Characteristic vert load
m = 2.20 (ULS) strength of bonding pad
= 9.4 kN (from tests)
Wind loading = 2 kN/m 2

f
= 1.4 x 1.1 x 1.1 x 2.3 = 3.90
(a) Negative Wind Pressure
Gravity anchors are at 500mm crs in horiz direction
Ultimate pull-off load/gravity anchor =
3.9 x 2 x 0.5 x 0.35
= 1.37 kN
> 1.37 kN OK
(b) Positive Wind Pressure
Not critical (see flex anchor example)
(c ) Vertical Loading (Self Wt)

Ultimate vert load/gravity anchor =
3.9 x 0.5 x 2.3 x 0.015 x 20 x 1.40
= 1.88 kN
(1.4 factor is 40% allowance for edge ribs and overspray)
95
Drg Ref

- Gravity Anchor
Project No By Checked Date Sheet No Rev

> 1.88 kN OK
Serviceability Limit State is deemed to have been satisfied.
NOTE
When combined effects of SW and lateral wind loading
are large, it may be necessary to adopt a tee bar type of
gravity anchor made out of welded flats.
96
97
GRCA International
c/o The Concrete Society
Riverside House • 4 Meadows Business Park • Station Approach • Blackwater
Camberley • Surrey GU16 9AB
Email : enquiries@grca.org.uk
Tele: 0870 350 5607
98

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Practical Design Guide

using Limit State Theory

International GRCA Technical Committee

Chairman Glyn Jones

2. Physical Properties of GRC 22 - 31

2.1 Effects of Mix Composition and Fibre Content 22

3. Types of Panel Construction 32 - 39

3.1 Single Skin Construction 32

4.1 Fixing Constraints 40

5. Limit State Design of GRC Elements 44 - 53

5.1 Principles of Design 44

6. Limit State Design of Fixings 60

6.1 Functions of Fixings 60

root mean square

1.2 Terms and Definitions

Admixture - A material added to modify the properties of mortar or cement slurry.

Air Permeability - The rate of flow of air through a material.

Ambient Temperature - The temperature of the air surrounding an object.

Artificial Ageing - A condition to which test specimens are subjected to to simulate

Chopped Glass - Non-continuous multi-filament glass fibre strands; resulting from

Cladding Panel - A lightweight non-structural GRC prefabricated building component

Composite - A material formed by combining two or more materials; but so intercon-

Coupon - Specimen for testing.

Fibre - An individual glass filament with an average diameter of 13 to 20 microns and

Glassfibre content by weight (WF) - The ratio (expressed as a percentage) of the

GRC/GFRC Glass(Fibre) Reinforced Concrete.

GRCA - Glass Reinforced Concrete Association.

GRCA Approved Manufacturers Scheme AMS - The GRCA system of accreditation

MFFT - Minimum film formation temperature (for acrylic polymers).

Mist Coat - An initial cementitious sprayed coating without glass fibre.

Producer - The person or authority entering into a contract to manufacture a GRC

Sandwich Panel - A prefabricated panel which is a layered composite formed by

Spray GRC - A method of manufacture in which the GRC is produced by

Stud Frame - A structural framework, usually steelwork, to support a GRC panel by

Superplasticizer - A high range water reducer admixture producing a cement slurry of

Tolerance - A specified permissible variation from stated requirements such as

Ultimate Tensile Strength - Stress at which GRC fails in pure tension.

1.3 Types of GRC

Initial spraying mould with

Spraying GRC into mould

Compacting GRC using

Gauging thickness of GRC

( ii ) Premixing pre-chopped fibre in a mixer after thorough mixing of other

1.4 Selection of Production Method & Raw Materials

AR (Alkali Resistant) glassfibre is specially formulated to have a high degree of resist-

200 hours in saturated

Figure 1.6 - Comparison of Alkali Erosive Attack in AR and E Glass Fibre

Typical AR Fibre Properties

• Single filament tensile strength 3.0 - 3.5 GN/m2

Table 1.1 - Typical Specification

+/- 20% from the

+/- 20% from the

‘Method of Test for

The above tests are carried out by the glassfibre manufacturer.

Silica sands are widely used, a typical specification being:

Silica content > 96%

1.4.4 Sand/aggregate facing mixes

The use of admixtures, such as plasticisers and superplasticisers, is encouraged as

In the manufacture of GRC :

• increasing the workability without increasing the water/cement ratio