Chapter 24: Hygiene in Processing

and Manufacturing
➢ Hygiene design in food manufacturing infrastructure, consists
of all physical requirements necessary to manufacture food
products.
❖ Factory site.
❖ Factory building
❖ Segregation
❖ Food defense, biovigilance and bioterrorism
❖ Process lines
❖ Ventilation and Air flows
❖ Equipment and utensils
❖ Services
❖ Waste disposal
❖ Medical screening
➢ Hygiene
Hygienic practices are necessary actions to maintain food
manufacturing infrastructure in hygienic manners.
o House keeping
o Maintenance
o Cleaning android disinfection
o CIP
o Pest Control
o Personal hygiene
HCCP small introduction…..
HCCP was introduced in 1960 by Pillsbury Company, United States
Army Laboratory and Administration in development of food safety
for America Space Program.
Later is usedin UK in 1980.
In 1993 published as international guidance by Codex.
HCCP is employed to identify and control all types of hazards.
Factory infrastructure, GMPs and GHPsare HCCP pre- requisites.
➢ Some principals of good hygiene are generic and some
are specific. For example, pre requisite program for I fant
formula factory may not be same but for coffee are same.
➢ Hazard analysis reduce the risk of contamination so it
should be done at early opportunity.
✓ Pre-requisit Management:
• HCCP improve food safety but food borne diseases
are still highly prevalent. e.g in North America and
Europe incident with Listeria in child producers and
Salmonella in dry RTE products.
• Post- process contamination for certain products
like RTE very important.
• PMP are of two types
i. Generic pre requisite
ii. Processing environment pre requisite
• ISO 2200 and retailer audits require no of essential
hygienic pre requisite in all manufacturing environment
according to factory infrastructure ( factory and
equipment design) and practices.
• After generic pre requisite, manufacturer have to focus on
management of any residual hazard that may contaminat
food during processing.
• PEP Assessment of hazards in food processing
environment, their risk, and how they can be controlled is
PMP.
• Factory Site: To minimize the challenge of external
hazard by minimizing no of pest harborage areas,
controlling pest access to waste material, reducing soil
and dust, and control of unauthorized public access.
• Factory Building Building envelope and air intake
give defense against external hazards. Building envelope
also segregate food production and non-food production
activities.
• Segregation Factory should be constructed as a
series of zones and berries depend upon the nature of
food products. Segregate the food- production areas from
non-food production areas( rest room, mechanical room
and medical room etc.)
• Food defense, Biovigilance and Bioterrorism
Site, production and storage areas should be secured
effectively to prevent unauthorized entry. At all stages of
production , processing and distribution of food must be
protected. Site see security should be reviewed and need
for facing that enclose site, close circuit television (
CCTV), night lighting and security guards should be
considered as part of a food defense programe
 • Process Lines Movement of raw material and
operatives and allow space for Maintenance and
cleaning.
Flow of ingredients and products is such that raw material enter at
one end of the factory and are dispatched at opposite end.

CIP ( clean in place)

Is a specific method of cleaning used in the food industry that allows for the sanitation of
important equipment without full disassembly.

This procedure is vital to ensure the equipment involved in the production, preparation and
storage of food is clean.

It’s also essential for enhancing efficiency by preventing the need to disassemble
equipment.

CIP Process:
Primary Ring:
The first step is a perminiarly rinse to ensure food particles
and any other debris are removed from quipments.
Preparation of cleaning solutions:
Next the cleaning solution is prepared based on the
manufacturers instructions .
Additionaly appropriate concentration of water cleaning
solution is mixed and applied.
Circulation of cleaning solutions:
The cleaning solution is then circulated through the equipment
via spray balls and pumps until all surfaces are cleaned and
sterilize
The solution should remain in circulation and contact with
equipment for 15 to 60 .
Doing so ensure sufficient time has passed to break down all
debris or contamination.
Additional Resin:
All the equipment is rinsed to remove any reaming material left
on the surface.this step can repeated multiple times .
A final may only use clean water for maximum sterilization and
assurance the equipment is full free The CIP process is important
in the food industry for many reasons that are both intuitive and,
for some, not so immediately apparent. This process is essential
for ensuring there is consistency across the food industry in
terms of cleanliness and sanitation so customers can feel
confident they are protected from the spread of fof
contamination.
Evaluation:
It is important to evaluate the work that Hass been done and to
verify that the equipment has been sanitized through a testing
method such as the adenosine triphosphate test.
For this test the presence of the energy molecule on the surface
of our equipment is an indication that not all contamination or
pathogens are completely removed.
Adenosine triphosphate is present in all Living organisms ,so it’s
presence on our equipment would be an indication that there is
some sort of microbial growth such as bacteria .
During this phase you will likely record any reading and not all
cleanings that have been implemented to comply with your
industry standard and regulation.
Importance of CIP in Food Industry..
The CIP process is important in the food industry for many
reasons that are both intuitive and, for some, not so
immediately apparent.
This process is essential for ensuring there is consistency across
the food industry in terms of cleanliness and sanitation so
customers can feel confident they are protected from the spread
of food-
Some pathogens found in foods can cause serious illness and
even death. Thus, it is vital that restaurants are clean and sterile
environments so your customers can be confident they are safe
in your business.
Properly cleaned and sanitized equipment also can prevent
cross-contamination, the transfer of bacteria from one object or
person to another.
 This issue commonly occurs when raw meat is stored with
cooked meat, but it also can occur when equipment is not
properly sterilized and cleaned regularly.
CIP can ultimately reduce costs associated with labor because it
is more time-efficient than manual cleaning methods and it
prevents the need to completely disassemble your restaurant
equipment.
Application of CIP
The standards and regulations that you must meet in regard to
cleanliness and sterilization will depend on your business type.
For example, businesses that process and manufacture food
have different standards than those that prepare and serve food
to customers.
Pest Control Method in Food Industry:
• store food properly .
• Maintain a clean faculty.
• Take out trash regularly .
• use trash cans and Dumpsters with secure lids.
• Ensure there is no litter outside .
• Don't leave water standing.
• install a floor drain system
• Perform inspection.
• Seal any gap or cracks
• Inspect all food delivers
Pest are attracted to food processing environment primarily
forfood ,water and shelter.
Pest can be environmental i.e can enter through external
environment or associated with raw materials often termed
stored product pest.
Pest control has to undertaken by the both food manufacturing
and the pest contractor .
As such it is commonly referred to as integrated pest
management (IPM)and comprises four key element .
Neighbouring activities
,the factory environmentraw
Materials quality control.
Pest management .

Contracts usually consist of two parts.

A practical parta consist of scope of a work and
A administrative parts consist of a logbook.
The scope of works include the pests covered the frequency of
the services offered , agreed method of capture or treatment
reporting structure reviews and trend analysis and contractual
warranties and insurance.
The logo book may contain general information ،materials and
resources applied monitoring devices and notification of pest
activity, report , advice and corrective actions.
All food manufactures should have in place ,for all employees ,
visitors and contractors entering food processing area, a person
hygiene policy.this should cover.
Medical screening .
ing areas .
A ssugested procedure is a follows;
Remove outer clothing and placed in personal locker .
Removes jewelery and watches in lines with personal hygiene
polucy and place in personal hygiene locker .
Put on hair net / snood .
Remove shoes and place in locker .
Step over a barrier into the food handling areas.
Wash and dry hand .put on clean ,
Dry f
ood handling area footwear.
Put on clean food handling area clothing .
Use a hand infestactant immediately before handling food.
Recommend Procedures for developing a Processing
Environment Plan:
• It is recognize that as a new additional components of food
safety ,proceesing Environment plan (PEP) is likely to
approaches with a degree of suspicon by the food factory
staff that have to practicaly implement it ,on top the
requirements of the HACCP plan
• To make this task easier to undertake, and from practical
experience in the factory ,two things have been recognized
that should facilitate implementation.
 • First and whenever possible ,the same terminology has
been used in the PEP and in HCCP plan .
second the ,PEP should generally only be Undertaken once to
econmpases the majority of food product manufactured.
The Undertaking of the PEP follows the 14 principles of the
HACCP plan as defined by Gaze ( 2009)and is recently proposed
food safety initiative ( hella et Al 2011- 2012).
Pathogenic microorganisms can enter in food processing area by
four routes.
The external environment .
Raw materials.
Infected food operatives and food visitors and laboratories
undertaken pathogens.
• Obtain Management commitment:
Senior Management must be committed to provide the
necessary resource for the study to be planned ,
undertaken implemented and periodically reviewed..
Senoir management should also apoint a manger and a team
leader to take responsibility for the plane development and
implementation.
• Defense the scope of term of reference
• Select the processing environment plan assessment(PEP)
team
• Detect the environment
• Identify intended products use
• Construct flow diagram
 • On-Site confirmation of flow diagram.
8. List all Potential Hazards, Conduct a Hazard Analysis and
Consider any Measures to Control the Identified Hazards
•Once within the processing environment, pathogens can be
sporadic visitors, being present until they lose viability or are
removed via cleaning and disinfection procedure or more
persistent, surviving in harborage sites or growth niches
•When product
Is transported via air, or when air is forced into the product
for cooling or drying purposes,
Microorganisms can enter the product via impingement in
addition to sedimentation
•Contamination usually occurs as a contamination event, in
which a number of vectors may be involved. For example,
entering a food product stream to help clear an obstructing
product may have vectors of the operator’s hand (or glove),
the operator’s sleeve, the tool to be used for cleaning away
product debris and the air
• The potential presence of pathogens in such harborage
sites and niches can be determined bymicrobiological
sampling and over prolonged periods an indication can be
gained as to the likelihood of pathogens being
Present in these sites. The observation of all potential
sources should be recorded as a record of the
environmental survey.
•When undertaking a process environment study, many
potential sources and contamination vectors could be
observed, though the degree of control necessary for each
 source and vector will depend on their potential risk to
food product contamination
•A risk assessment for a contamination transfer vector is a
little more complex as it
Involves three factors: the potential for a pathogen being
present on the product vector, the frequency of the vector
and the severity of the impact of the hazard to the
consumer of the productundertaking a risk analysis before
and after

The application of any controls can help identify whether

controls are necessary and/or
Whether current or intended controls are sufficient to
reduce the risk of the source or contamination event
•The removal, cleaning and insertion of the milk spray
nozzles occurred every day, while CIP cleaning was
undertaken every
3 weeks ,microorganisms entering the dryer during these
potential contamination

Events would not be subjected to a process control step

9. Determine Operational Prerequisites
•Control of food product contamination is a combination of
reducing the number of possible hazard harborage sites
and niches, controlling those that microbiological sampling
•The concept of a ranking system for prerequisites has
been addressed by ISO 22000 (Anon, 2005), which
differentiates operational prerequisites from prerequisites
and defines them as being identified by the hazard analysis
 as essential in order to control the likelihood of introducing
food safety hazards to and/or the contamination or
proliferation of food safety
Hazards in the product(s) or processing environment
•Other definitions of operational prerequisites exist,
however, for example Gaze (2009) defines operational
prerequisites as control measures associated with a
particular process step and which manage specific
significant hazards identified during hazard analysis but are
not otherwise managed by CCPs and with a frequency of
monitoring/checking of the control measure That is not
sufficient to enable immediate corrective action
•The control of the sources and vectors is thus critical to
the safety of the product and, based on this risk assessment
approach, such controls could be described as operational
prerequisites
10. Establish Control or Operating Limits
•In some cases there may be lower and upper control
limits, together with a target limit. In rare cases the control
limits may be critical limits as defined in HACCP (Gaze,
2009), though this would be unusual
•For example, in water treatment systems to allow water
reuse, disinfectant levels such as a minimal
Chlorine level of 0.5ppm may be deemed critical to the safe
disinfection of the water
•The specific control limits for each OP must be a
measurable
(e.g. ATP or protein levels
After cleaning, disinfectant levels, flow rates, pHs, temperatures,
pressures, contact times)
Or an observable parameter related to the control option
•The PEP team should record details of how the control
limit was determined, including relevant sources of
information or experimental/validation trial data.
11. Establish a Monitoring System
•Monitoring systems describe the methods by which the
food processor ensures that the ops are operating within
their defined control or operating limits and are thus “in
control” And, as a corollary of this, produces an accurate
performance record which can be used for process
verification
•Monitoring systems should ideally be on-line and could
include air and gas pressure humidity, temperature,
chemical concentration, redox, conductivity or pH probes;
UV intensity, flow rate; and rapid hygiene checks such as
ATP, allergen and protein tests
•Microbiological sampling of source and vector controls
would not be considered as a monitoring option as it may
take 24–48 hours to enumerate samples; too long a time to
maintain effective control.
•The PEP team should record the job title or name of the
individual(s) responsible for monitoring and ensure that
they have the knowledge, competence and authority to
take appropriate and stated corrective actions
•Other monitoring checks may be visible and could include
an assessment of cleanliness, an assessment of a personnel
clothing changing procedure or whether a procedure is
being followed.
12. Establish a Corrective Action Plan
•Practical and achievable corrective actions to be
undertaken when the results of monitoring at an OP detect
a situation where a control limit has not been met or when
a treatment system is drifting out of control should be
specified by the PEP team
•The relevant person(s) should have the authority to
undertake the stated corrective actions. For the example
;corrective actions would review the training of the staff
against removal and reinstallation procedures and the
effectiveness and validation of the tools and cleaning
equipment decontamination programs
•Any product that could have been contaminated through
any loss of control should be placed on hold following
company quarantine procedures to allow authorized
personnel to determine its fate. It is unlikely that a product
recall would be instigated as the frequency of monitoring of
the OP should be sufficient to prevent unsafe foodstuffs
reaching the consumer
13. Verification
•The verification stage is concerned with three activities:
validation, verification and Review. The objective of the
validation stage is to ensure that all sources and
contamination vectors for hazards that could be present in
the processing environment have been considered and that
the controls put in place to reduce or eliminate them are
technically sound and effective
•The first stage of the validation is a desktop activity to
review the identification, selection and/or exclusion of
hazards, the risk analysis of identified hazards, the
appropriateness of the selected controls, the designation of
controls as Ops, the suitability of their control limits and
monitoring/verification methods and the adequateness of
the corrective actions
•The second stage of the validation process is the validation
of the identified control actions, as appropriate. In the
example the efficacy of the tool and nozzle
Cleaning and disinfection process can be validated by
undertaking the cleaning exercise a number of times and
recording the level of cleanliness achieved as an ATP
relative light unit(RLU) count
•The average ATP
Value after these cleans is thus the minimum level that
could be obtained for these nozzles
and tools, following their particular use and using the
cleaning and disinfection method adopted. The target ATP
level to be reached on each occasion may thus be this value
plus a small margin for error verification of the PEP gathers
information from routine analytical tests that are used to
demonstrate the effectiveness of the hazard controls and
Ops in a timeframe beyond that of monitoring verification is
also a desktop and audit exercise to examine the entire PEP
and examples of such activities include: internal auditing of
Ops to establish, e.g., that personnel are following the
stated procedures/work instructions; external auditing
program in accordance with the general principles of food
 safety management, the safety of the environmental Plan
has to be reviewed on a regular basis and at least annually.
The review should demonstrate that the plan is still relevant
and that controls are working effectively.the review
includes;
o Change in the production process which affects its
management from the processing.
o Environment, e.g. transport flows, service routes.
o Change in factory environment, e.g. building work.
o Changes in cleaning and disinfection practices.
o Changes to production equipment and maintenance
schedule.
o Changes in legislation or codes of practice relating to,
e.g., control limits or methods of analysis.
14. Establish Documentation and Record Keeping
•Accurate and efficient record keeping is essential to the
successful application of the PEP.
Records should be accurate, timed and dated, include the actual
as well as any calculated results, and be signed by the individual
responsible for the assessment and by a delegated
supervisor/manager who reviews the results. All records should
be retained for at least the shelf-life of any foodstuffs and be
sufficient to enable records to be available to support a defense
of due diligence.
FUTURE STUDIES
•The concept of the PMP and the PEP, which contain the
identification of sources and vectors of contamination, their
 risk assessment to determine their necessary controls and
the
Management of operational prerequisites in a similar
fashion as critical control points, is a developing study
•By elevating the control of some contamination sources
and vectors to the level of operational prerequisites and
giving them the same management status as
CCPs, this concept has aided a number of pioneering food
manufacturers to focus their attention on the control of
what are thought to be the highest risked contamination
events the RTE product in their manufacturing process and
as such has enhanced their food safety
Management plans
• The PMP may be constructed as a separate document
with any procedures and work instructions integrated into
the company business management system (BMS) or as
part
Of the prerequisite section of the HACCP plan. What is
clear, however, is that appropriate
Attention has to be applied to the control and management
of the manufacturing process and the processing
environment, via the HACCP plan, PMP and BMS to ensure
that a combined food safety plan is truly effective
Chapter 28:
Personal Hygiene & Health
Hygiene: “Commutative group of procedures, processes methodologies throughout the food supply
chain.”
Health: “State without any injury or disease.
Foodborne disease happens due to commercial places such as restaurants.
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO OUTBREAKS
The most frequently reported factor associated with the involvement of the infected worker was bare
hand contact with the food, improper cleaning of hands, cross contamination, Temp abuse, improper
hygienic practices cause illness.

SOURCES OF PATHOGEN
Infection transmission from fecal, nasal skin. They are exposed to external cont. environment through air,
water, food & contact
→ Vomits, diarrhea
Transmitted pathogens from workers salmonella, S.typhi, HAV, NOV

Incubation Period
The more the incubation period, the more pathogens are secreted by infected person.

Fecal contamination of hand

Lack of hand hygiene practices can be reduced by using toilet. Non-enveloped viruses such as NoV,
rhinovirus and enterovirus are more stable on skin than are viruses with envelopes, such as the influenza
virus.

Spread of Pathogens in the Food Industry

• The major concerns focused on (1) hand washing, (2) sanitation of food contact surfaces, (3)
facility wide hygiene education and training, (4) incentives for workers to report their illnesses,
(5) surveillance of the work force by management, and (6) regular professional screening of
employees for illness, including nasal and stool samples obtained from staff returning from
overseas travel.
• Can be reduced by using food shields, utensils, protective clothing.
• Auxiliary factors contributing to the lack of proper hand washing were the lack of convenient
hand-washing facilities and/or supplies of hand cleanser/drying devices; temporary placement
of mobile equipment in front of a hand sink and the use of hand-washing facilities for other
purpose, avoidance of employees eating, drinking, smoking in food preparation areas, safe stool
disposable.
Steps of Washing Hands.
Main purpose is removal of oil, dirt and contamination
Most surface microorganisms are easily flushed off with washing, but some remains in cracks, crevices,
skin folds and nail regions.

Hand Hygiene
Alcohols, antiseptic wipes, soaps used for proper hand washing. Hand washing removes dead skin cells,
sweat, sebaceous secretions, associated resident bacteria, transient microorganisms and any organic
material adhering to the hands.

Effect of friction
Due to friction micro flora (bacteria & other organisms) reduces.
 • Less Friction -- less cleanliness.
Artificial fingernails should not be used, nailbrush should be used, don't use nail paints.

Duration & Frequency of Hand Washing

15 - 30 sec by different agencies.

Hand Washing Water Temperature

38-42°C water temperature. It should be comfortable, preferably warm but not hot .

Double Hand Washing meant to address residual fecal finger contamination.

• Use nail brushes. Don’t use nailbrush more than 10 times, organic matter maybe collected there.
So don’t use frequently.
Issues At Hand-washing stations
• Automated hand-washing machines.
• Solution to prevent re-contamination, use of paper towel.
Drying of Hand.
➢ Single use paper towels than cloth towel.
➢ Foam sanitizers are more preferable than gel sanitizers.
Alcohol based antiseptic wipes
➢ Use alcohol paper towel, but more use causes cuts.
➢ Rinsing hand with running water
➢ Use alcohol antiseptic wipes, with vigorous wiping is most effective.
Barriers
❖ Physical
-Building walls and doors to minimize the flow of
outside part.
-Leaky roofs and wet floors cause contamination

❖ Chemical
-Include sanitation solutions.
-Proper Clothing.
-Food of workers if having pathogens cause
disease.
Effectiveness of gloves
Hospital and Food supplier must be conscious about hygiene.
(1) Protect from damage caused by foods.
(2) To prevent contamination.
(3) To verify hygiene practices

Food shields and utensils

They are used as barrier against contamination. Food shields are effective for protecting food from air
borne contaminants e. g., RTE .Unfortunately, these shields cannot protect food from aerosolized particles
such as viruses .Utensils such as spatula, tongs, spoons, weighing. & serving bakery items adequate for
dispensing food should use for mixing and handling contaminated foods such as ran meat. So hands of
food workers are less likely to become contaminated
These utensils not used again before sanitizing. Food workers should wear hair restraints Such as hats,
hair covering or nets, beard restraints se clothing that cover body hair. Proper clothing prevents
contamination. Working clothes used on work place. Install toilets with automatically sink faucets.
Separate sinks are installed for dish washing, hand washing and food preparation. Working uniforms not
holding foreign material as well as pens, Knives and repair tools as they could fall in food & contaminate
it. Washroom distance away from processing and preparation area. Proper inspection of employs
uniforms and prohibits jewelry, fingernails.
Cell phones should not allow using in processing and preparation area and making a policy for it.

Improving compliance
Lack of compliance for hygienic practices is notorious in both healthcare and food industries, particularly
washing and sanitizing hands. Hand hygiene practices carried out only 31% at required occasions and were
not even attempted of 55% of time.
Two main hand hygiene errors were identified:
1- Failure to use soap.
2- Failure to dry hand adequately.

Other Common (challenges).

- Lack of facilities providing sufficient warm water and hand dries.
- Employee motivation.
- Lack of education & training
- Lack of managerial remodel.
Hand hygiene occasions

1- After Visiting Washroom.

2- After caring and handling of animals.
3 After touching, bare human body parts.
4- After coughing and sneezing.
5- After handling soiled equipment and utensils.
6- Before donning gloves for working with food.
7- During food production, preparation and service.
8- After engaging in other activities that contaminate hand.

How to wash & Dry hands

1- Remove watches, bangles & all jewelry.

2- Rinse hands, wrist & arms.
3- Recommended amount of antiseptic.
4- Rub hand together for 10-15 sec.
5. Rinse visible soil under fingernails, fingers & back of hand & wrist
6. Rinse hand under clean and running water.
7. Thoroughly dry hands using single use disposable towels.
8. The whole hand hygiene operation take place about 40 - 60 sec.

Policies for food workers exclusion

. Enteric organism from fecal sources are excreted during an infection that remains over a limited time
period
. Many of these enteric pathogens are of concern to food worker.e.g: Salmonella, Shigella, HAV, NOV
. These infections contaminate hand
. Use of toilet paper not guarantee of preventing infection.
. There is no way for management to detect such a scenario so workers take precaution before returning
to work.
. Policies do exist in many jurisdictions but it is difficult to implement
. It is difficult to the exclusion of worker but it may be possible to identify individual showing symptoms
of frank enteric diseases like vomiting and diarrhea.
. Asymptomatic food workers excreting pathogens can be estimated from a study in Turkey where 16% of
307,954 in military food service were positive for enteric pathogen in stool specimen

Stool Testing

. Stool testing and exclusion of employee has been issues of decade's

. Typically, 3 negative stool specimens of employee are required to return back at work
. Employee with typhoid and paratyphoid infection can excrete pathogen for long period after the
recovery
. Workers with E.coli O157:H7 can exclude from work until bowel movements are normal and two negative
samples within 48 hours
. Employee with hepatitis would be excluded until they have medical release base on laboratory testing
. Best policy is to exclude those who signs of nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps and until they recover

Lack of health benefits

Unfortunately, although more people are employed in the food industry 15% than any sector in US.
Benefits are very limited to these workers, often at minimum wage level, this mean there is risk of ill
employee going to work.
. When effected person go to work also affect others.
. Paid sick leaves polices have been shown to reduce the rate of categories infection
. 79% of food system worker do not have a single paid sick day.

Chapter 25 :
Site Selection and Building Design
• Site selection influences the design of the building in order to cope with local conditions
that influences the food safety.
• FOR EXAMPLE: Quality of water and air and local pests and farms etc.
• Site is an area with more than average concentration airborne microorganism ,also
increases the chance of cross contamination.
• Site near waste treatment plants should cause severe diseases because waste water
contains some pathogenic bacteria like salmonella , vibrio and campylobacter etc
• Requirement is the quality of water available at a site.
• Not to have a factory near a sewage treatment plant.
• Microbes will change the factory air system.
• Site should be avoided near chemical industries. Otherwise site should be polluted.
• In the site, energy is required to operate a factory.
• Electricity should be required. For the process of cooling, freezing and for operation of
measuring ,controlling and registration equipment.
SITE LAYOUT:
1. Layout of the site prevent access of pests to the factory.
2. To keep animals at bay, develop fences to prevent dogs and cats from the entry in that
area.
3. Fences may prove helpful
Access to Production Areas:

• Restrooms not connected to production areas.

• Entrance of production areas must follow hand washing facilities.
• Using a change room where garments should be exchanged for special production, it
may reduces the risk of contamination.
• Processing and packaging areas should not be used as a passageways to canteens.
• Laboratories , workshops, chemical stores and offices are not connected to packaging
and production areas.
• Laboratories staff and directors must follow hand washing facilities.
BUILDING DESIGN:

• Ensure the supporting structure of the factory.

 • Floor should be at elevated level to reduce the risk of contamination by rain mud and
other stuff.
• Selecting material and finishes.
• Designing structural and engineering system.
• Incorporating mechanical electrical and plumbing system.
• Ensuring energy efficiency and sustainability.
• Meeting building codes and regulators.
• Creating external and internal space.

ENTRY AND EXIT POINTS:

▪ Entry points allow passage of personal and goods but prevent the entry of pests.
▪ Automatically closing doors should be required to prevent the entry of over small pests
or rodents.
▪ Doors and windows should be sealed properly.
LIGHTNING:
There should be enough light in factory for personnel to do their jobs efficiently and to detect
dust dirt or remains.
TEMPERATURE CONTROL:
▪ For the comfort of personnel, air conditioning may be needed where food is processed
under chilled conditions.
Listeria Mono cytogeny cause Listeriosis.
▪ It is a selective process because at a low temperature Listeria grows faster than other
microorganism.
NOISE CONTROL:

▪ Machine may produce more noise than is desirable.

▪ Noise absorbing panels may have been used on large scales.
FOOD STORAGE ROOMS:

• Food storage must be designed as the pests and insects can not reach the food even if
the food is packed.
• Must control humidity in food storage rooms.
• Temperature control and monitoring is also essential for storage of perishable products.
• Build the storage rooms at elevated level to control the entrance of insects and small
animals.

Chapter: 26
 Hygienic design and Maintenance of
Equipment
Introduction:
The global food industry is moving toward minimal processing and preservation to meet
consumer demand for fresh like, additive free food. However, this trend can shorten shelf
life and compromise food safety. Good hygienic engineering practices are essential to
reduce microbial, chemical, and physical contamination risk in food processing. Hygienic
design helps to prevent product hold ups in equipment, which can lead to quility issues.
Good hygienic design prevent cross contamination between batches minimizing downtime
for cleaning and increasing production time.

Legislation:
Legislation in many countries require food production to utilize process equipment that
minimize the contamination risk and is easily cleanable.

Basic Hygienic Requirements:

Following hygienic requirements are as follows.

●Equipment material must be compatible with food, environment, cleaning, agent and
method.

●Smooth surface on product contact areas aid in easy cleaning.

●Design should prevent bacterial issues and allow for effective cleaning over the
equipments life span.

●Welding or continous bonding are preferred over fastenings.

●To make permanent pipe joints, welding is preferred for joining.

●In design construction and maintenance hollow areas should be sealed.

●Avoid dead areas that trap food and habor contamination

●Eliminate areas where product can accumulate.

●Use well rounded internal angles and corner for easier cleaning.

●Design non product contact surfaces to prevent contamination and facilitate cleaning.
●Ensure self draining pipeline and equipment surface in the product zone.

●Prevent condensate formation that may contaminate productor surface.

●Instruments not only hygienicaly design but also hygienicaly installed.

●Use food grade oil and prevent oil leakage on to food product.

Material of construction:
General recommendation:
●Choose material meeting high hygienic standards for product contact surface in food
processing equipment.

●Components in non food contact areas can use lower lower grade material.

●Ensure materials are chemically resistant, durable and easy to maintain for food safety
compliance.

1.Use of metals and alloy:

●Avoid using steel carbon in food contact areas due to corrosion sensitivity especially to
salt and chlorine containing bleach.

●Consider using stainless steel for food processing equipment to minimize corrosion risk
and ensure trouble free operation.

●Avoid direct food contact with copper utensils due to potential organoleptic effect.

●Alloy for food contact may only contain aluminum, Cr, Cu, gold, iron, Mg, magnase, Mo,
Ni, Si, Zn, Co, C, etc.

2.Use of plastic:
●Choose plastic material that are odourless, non porous and resistant to heat and
chemicals for various applications in food processing equipment to prevent contamination
and ensure durability under a wide range of tempreture and chemical exposures.

3.Use of rubber:
●Select elastomers that are chemically resistant non reactive to tempreture changes and
abrasion resistant for use in applications requiring durability and surface integrity in food
processing equipment.
●Choose elastomer like natural rubber, silicon, neoprene, nitrile, for seals in food
processing equipment to prevent contamination and corrision risks and ensuring easy
removal for maintenance.

4.Other Materials:
●Avoid wood and certain insulation in direct contact areas.

●While glass can be use, its prone to breakage and use durable alternatives for safety and
longevity.

●Ceramics are durable but brittle, ensure food safe surfaces are smooth and lead free.

●Nano material in food require risk assessment due to potential health risks.

Surface finish:
To ensure easy cleaning product contact surface must have a smooth finish without cracks
or pits. Different tecniques likes glass blasting or electro polishing can achieve the required
surface roughness of Ra<0.8m but the surface structure may vary, affecting cleaning
effectiveness.

Permanent Joints:
●For effective hygiene, opt for permanent welded joints ove dismountable ones to avoid
potential contamination risk from crevice, and defect, ensure continous welds with proper
protection and polishing to maintain a smooth surface finish and prevent microbiological
issues.

●To ensure easy cleaning and permanent soil retention, avoid sharp corners, opt for
radiused corners, and use compatible adhasive for parmanent joints to maintain
mechanical integrity and prevent separation from base material.

Dismountable Joints:
●To maintain hygiene, avoid using fasteners in product zone opt for welded butt joints over
dismountable joints and ensure effective sealing with metal backed elastomer gaskets for
hygienic bolt heads.

●To ensure hygienic, seal crevices in dismountable joints with elastomers, avoid metal to
metal contact and use appropriate fastening like stainless steel or dull nickle plated ones
with sufficient space for cleaning around them.

Hygienic Designs of Process Vessels, Containers, Bins:

●Pivoting bottom for full discharge and cleanability.

●Design top rims to prevent product lodging, with rounded, slopedand sealed features.

●Use detachable or sloped lids for vessels with hinge designed to prevent contamination.
Prefer domed lid that collect less dirt.

●Use seals with correct dimension and materials to ensure adequate compression,
consider thermal expension variation for effective sealing.

●Grooves with O-ring created uncleanable gaps due to thermal expension differences,
allowing microorganism entrapment and contamination risks in food processing
equipment.

Minimize contamination: Avoid shaft seals in open vessels by top-mounting agitators

whenever possible.

Protect product integrity: Top-mounting reduces the risk of contamination from leaking
lubricant, dirt, and microorganisms.

Permanently mounted agitators in closed vessels:

1. Mounting: Top entering agitators are mounted on a vessel using a flanged or hygienic
clamp connection, sealed with hygienic O-rings or gaskets. The design should support the
agitator's weight and create a proper seal.

2. Cleaning: The upstand for top mounting should be short because a long upstand
makes it difficult to clean the annular space (the space between the shaft and nozzle). This
space ideally should have a ratio of length (L) to area (A) of no more than 2:1 for easy
cleaning. A minimum 25mm gap is also required for proper CIP spray coverage.

3. Motor Lubrication: Agitator motors should preferably have permanently lubricated

bearings. If lubrication is needed, the design must prevent lubricant leakage into the
product zone.

4. Shaft Seals: Self-lubricating agitator shaft seals are ideal and should be designed
for easy adjustment to prevent leakage.

Double seals are necessary to prevent microorganisms from entering the product zone. A
single seal is not sufficient because rotating shafts can cause some axial mobility.

The space between the seals needs to be wide enough for proper cleaning and drainage. A
narrow space makes cleaning difficult and can trap foreign material.
A sterile barrier fluid, such as steam or disinfectant solution, is used between the seals to
maintain sterility. The choice of fluid depends on the product and process.

Foot bearings are generally discouraged but may be necessary for long agitator shafts. If
used, they must be packless and mounted clear of the base for easy cleaning and drainage.

Foot bearings require design features to ensure cleanability. This can include drain holes,
spray balls, increased cleaning flow, or operating the bearing submerged in cleaning fluid.

Sealed bearings are not allowed due to hygiene risks. If unavoidable, their lubricants must
be specifically approved for food contact.

Hygienic design of agitators:

Smooth and Cleanable Surfaces: All agitator parts, especially those in contact with the
product, must be smooth and designed for easy cleaning. This includes using methods like
spraying, directed flow, immersion, or Clean-In-Place (CIP).

Minimize Crevices and Dead Zones: The design should avoid crevices, gaps, and areas
where product can pool and become difficult to clean. Any unavoidable spaces should be
sealed to prevent product buildup.

Minimize crevices and avoid exposed threads: Metal-to-metal contact points should be
welded or sealed with approved methods (gaskets, O-rings) to eliminate crevices where
product can accumulate. Screw threads and bolted directly to the shaft or hub to avoid
these issues.

Smooth and cleanable welds and transitions: All welds used in the assembly must be
ground smooth and polished to prevent product build-up. Corners and transitions between
surfaces should be curved with a radius of at least 3mm to facilitate cleaning and drainage.

Minimize crevices and ensure cleanability: Prefer welded connections for agitator shafts
and components. If threaded connections are unavoidable, use O-rings or gaskets for
sealing and ensure proper cleaning methods (drain holes, spraying) are in place for flat
surfaces that may trap product.

Smooth and accessible connections: Use smooth, cleanable fasteners like hex-head cap
screws and avoid features that trap debris. Locate fasteners on the underside of couplings
for easy access during cleaning.
Good insulation practices:

1. Use non-fibrous and sealed insulation: Avoid fiberglass batting and choose
materials like rockwool for vessels, and rigid foam like Styrofoam for pipes. Properly seal
the exterior to prevent moisture, dust, and microbial growth.

2. Prioritize cleanability and minimize food contact: Keep insulated lines high and
avoid insulating pipes that frequently touch food products or need disassembly.

Equipment framework:

Minimize crevices and use open profiles: Use the fewest support elements possible while
maintaining stability. Design cross-bracings in a diamond pattern and favor solid members
over hollown sections. When using hollow sections, prioritize open profiles for easy
cleaning and drainage. Seal any closed sections completely and avoid penetrating them
with fasteners.

Consider vibration and cleaning: For equipment exposed to vibration, use open profiles to
prevent fatigue cracks and moisture ingress. For vertical supports, design with open
profiles that fold outward for cleaning, or use completely sealed pipes.

Feet: Here are the 6 important points on hygienic design of equipment feet:

1. Minimize number and maximize cleanability: Use as few feet as possible for support
while ensuring stability. Feet should be designed for easy cleaning and avoid features that
trap dirt or liquids.

2. Match floor contact area to load: The contact area with the floor should be sufficient
to handle the weight of the equipment but minimized for easier cleaning. Heavy equipment
may require pads distributed on the floor.

3. Floor fastening: Chemical anchors are preferred over bolting the equipment to the
floor. If bolting is necessary, seal the pads or bases to the floor.

4. Foot design: Fixed feet should be curved and free of crevices. Sloped foot bases are
recommended over flat ones. Ball feet are not recommended.

5. Vibration and leveling: For equipment prone to vibration, consider articulated feet
that can distribute the load better. Adjustable feet should have enclosed threads to prevent
dirt accumulation.

6. Rubber foot pads: Rubber pads can dampen vibrations and prevent slipping. The
rubber should be soft enough to create a good seal with the floor.

Castors:
1. Material Selection:

• Avoid cast iron (prone to corrosion) and zinc-plated mild steel (coating wears off).

• Stainless steel with PTFE bushings is best (corrosion resistant, self-lubricating).

• Thermosetting plastics (e.g., phenolic) are good for high temperatures and loads but
can be damaged by poor floors.

• Thermoplastics are impact resistant but not good for high temperatures (don't need
bearings).

• High-temperature rubber wheels are good for uneven floors but can be damaged by
chemicals.

2. Size and Maneuverability: Larger wheels are better for heavy loads, rolling over
obstacles, and floor clearance during cleaning.

3. Lubrication: Regularly lubricate castors with swivel bearings and wheel axles
(except stainless steel with PTFE).

4. Mounting: Securely mount swivel castors to a rigid frame for proper function. Rigid
castors should be aligned and welded or sealed. Minimize horizontal flat surfaces for easy
cleaning.

Here are 5 important points on hygienic design of castor mounting and components:

1. Minimize crevices and promote cleanability: Mounting holes and the horn assembly
should avoid pockets and concave surfaces. Kingpin assemblies should have capped
ends, and wheels should have smooth surfaces with a minimum clearance from the horn.

2. cleaning and inspection.

3. Wheel design: Wheels should be solid, smooth-sided, and have a flat tread. Rubber
wheels should avoid features that trap debris. Bolted axles should have flush ends covered
with dome nuts. Cotter pins and castellated nuts are not allowed.

4. Bearings: Roller bearings handle heavy loads, ball bearings roll easier but handle
lighter loads. Both should be sealed or self-lubricating (PTFE bushing) to minimize crevices
and cleaning needs. Lubricate regularly if not sealed/self-lubricating.

5. Bearing seals: Sealed bearings are preferred but require regular inspection and
replacement at defined intervals. Open bearings must be cleanable and disinfectable for
re-packing with food-grade grease.

Belt conveyer:
Here are 5 important points on hygienic design of conveyor frames:

1. Open structure and easy-to-clean guards: Minimize hidden areas and use easy-to-
disassemble guards for drive stations, pulleys, rollers, and belts that pose safety risks.

2. Solid or sealed hollow sections: Prefer solid cross-members for support, but sealed
hollow sections are better than open profiles to minimize crevices. Seal all hollow sections
completely.

3. Minimize support surfaces: Use the minimum amount of surface area needed to
support the conveyor belt. Avoid solid plates and opt for rollers or removable line supports
for better cleaning.

4. Cleanable belt support and cover design:

o Don't run the belt under overhanging belt edges or pivoted covers that hinder
cleaning.

o Use fixed hinges sparingly due to difficulty cleaning between segments.

5. Removable side cladding with integral belt guides:

o Design the frame with upturned belt sides for guiding.

o Make removable cladding for additional cleaning access.

Motor location and protection:

• Avoid placing the motor over the product flow to prevent lubricant contamination.

• If below the product flow, use a drip tray, enclosed housing, or cleanable wash-
down motor.

Chain guards: While necessary for safety, minimize gaps that trap product and promote
microbial growth.

Preferred motor types:

• Sealed and cleanable motors (wash-down) are ideal.

• Drum motors (fully enclosed with internal lubrication) are excellent if applicable.

Roller, pulley, and sprocket design:

• Avoid cavities and use welded construction over sealed designs whenever possible.
Covers and guards:
• Motors, gearboxes,lubricated chains,sprocket wheels and for any moving part of the
equipment, covers and guards are recommended.
• But,totally removable guards.cladding or housing may not be put back or are
damaged which puts food product at risk.
• Bars, perforated/ punched sheet and weld mesh, stainless steel guards with a 40-
50% open area give protection against moving parts of equipment.
• For good drainability,covers should have an angle without panel joints.
• Hinged covers and guards pivoted outboard are used.(Continuous and piano hinge
are not recommended.block and pin can be used but they should have removable
pins or lift off pins.
• Exterior is easy to clean when internal hinges are used.
Maintenance Enclosures:
• Maintenance enclosures (electric control panels, junction boxes) must be designed
to ensure that water or product liquid does not penetrate.
• Electric control cabinets mounted on exterior of equipment shall be watertight and
sealed (silicon seal) and minimum 20mm spaced with respect to supporting
member for cleaning.
• Can also be sealed to wall with 30mm spacing.
• Space b/w cabinet and floor should be no less than 0.3m.
• Top roof should be inclined with minimum 30 degrees to allow water to run off.
• All connections (cable ladders) to cabinet be made via bottom side and must be
sealed.
• For control devices or indicator lights food grade plastics,polyamide (PA),
polycarbonate (PC), silicone or ABS ( acrylonitrile butadiene styrene)
• Seals should fill the gaps b/w fixed and moving device parts ( hermetic seal is
required)
• An IP67 and IP67k ingress protection rating is required for control panels.
• Alternatives for hygienic design used are membrane panels with > or equal 2%
inclination or touch displays.
HYGIENIC DESIGN FOR CLOSED EQUIPMENT FOR LIQUID FOOD:
1- PROCESS AND UTILITY LINES:
• 3% sloped piping runs should be used in the direction of flow.
 • Blanked off tees and A dead space where liquid becomes stagnant should be
avoided.
• Long T-legs can cause contamination.
• If sensors are installed,should be on a bend shortened tee so that cleaning fluid flow
into the tee
• The flow of liquid should be directed into dead leg.
• Eccentric reducers should be used for horizontal pipes which prevents dead leg
formation and no dairy accumulation occurs.
HYGIENIC INTEGRATION UTILITY PIPES:
• Welding can cause stress on pipes.
• Hangers and supports should move (slide or roll) with pipe.
• Exterior surfaces should be designed in a way that they can be cleaned easily.
• Vertical entrance of pipe into the equipment is more hygienic.
HOSES:
• Hoses can cause leakage if they are not maintained.
• Braided (woven wire) should not be used on hoses.
• Hoses attached to stainless steel should be clamped at very end of the pipe which
avoids dead space.
• Length should not exceed 3m
PIPE JOINTS:
WELDED PIPE JOINTS:
• Welding is preferred if done correctly.
• Piping with correct interior diameter should be used.
• Misalignment occurs due to incorrect fitting.Misalignment tolerance limit is less tha
20% of wall thickness.
• Pipes should be roughened up 25mm from either side of weld.
• Then it is cleaned with a solvent.
• Weld debris should be removed by alkaline detergent solution and rinsed with
chlorinated water to 2ppm a available chlorine maximum.
• Welds should be polished from outside and inside.Leakage should be monitored
after polishing.
• Endoscopy or dye penetrate test is done to detect any discoloration or surface
breaking.
DETACHABLE PIPE JOINTS:
• O ring groves are not recommended.
• 3-4 coupling gasket seat is suitable for CIP and handling.
• IPF coupling ISO2853 with L- gasket is suitable for CIP.
HYGIENIC DESIGN OF PUMPS:
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS:
• If it is in horizontal position then drainage should be through outlet port.
• If in Vertical position, drainage should be through suction port.
ROTATORY LOBE PUMPS:
• Metal to Metal joints should be removed.
• O rings should be used.
• Sharp corners should be rounded to minimum radius of 3mm.
• Inlet and Outlet ports should be arranged in Vertical position to facilitate draining.

Personal hygiene practices during maintenance

operation in food industry:
Personal hygiene practices are crucial during maintenance
operations in the food industry to prevent contamination and
ensure food safety. Here are some essential practices to follow:

1. Hand hygiene: Wash hands frequently with soap and warm

water for at least 20 seconds, especially before entering food
handling areas.
2. Clean uniforms and protective clothing: Wear clean uniforms,
hats, and protective clothing like gloves and masks.
3. Hair restraint: Keep hair tied back and wear a hairnet or cap.
4. Jewelry and accessories: Avoid wearing jewelry and
accessories that could fall into food.
5. Nail care: Keep fingernails short and clean, and avoid using
nail polish.
6. Health and wellness: Report any illness or infection to
supervisors before starting work.
7. Clean tools and equipment: Regularly clean and sanitize tools
and equipment.
8. Cleaning and disinfection: Follow proper cleaning and
disinfection procedures for surfaces and equipment.
9. Personal hygiene facilities: Ensure access to clean personal
hygiene facilities, including toilets and handwashing stations.
10. Training and supervision: Provide regular training and
supervision to ensure maintenance personnel follow personal
hygiene practices.

Remember, maintaining good personal hygiene is essential to

prevent contamination and ensure food safety in the food
industry .

Hygiene practices before maintenance and repair

operation

some essential hygiene practices to follow before maintenance and

repair operations in the food industry:
1. Hand washing: Wash hands thoroughly with soap and warm water
for at least 20 seconds.
2. Glove use: Wear clean, disposable gloves to prevent direct
contact with equipment and food.
3. Hair and beard coverage: Ensure hair and beards are covered with
a hairnet, cap, or beard snood.
4. Uniform and protective clothing: Wear clean, designated
uniforms and protective clothing like aprons, sleeves, and masks.
5. Footwear: Wear clean, closed-toe shoes and ensure they are free
from contamination.
6. Tool cleaning: Clean and sanitize tools before use.
7. Equipment isolation: Isolate equipment to prevent cross-
contamination during maintenance.
8. Cleaning and disinfection: Clean and disinfect surfaces and
equipment before starting maintenance work.
9. Personal hygiene checks: Conduct regular personal hygiene
checks before starting work.
10. Training and supervision: Ensure maintenance personnel receive
training on hygiene practices and are supervised to ensure
compliance.
By following these hygiene practices, you can minimize the risk of
contamination and ensure food safety during maintenance and
repair operations in the food industry.

Hygiene practices during maintenance and

repair operation:
some essential hygiene practices to follow during maintenance
operations in the food industry:

1. Wear disposable gloves to prevent direct contact with equipment

and food.
2. Use tools and equipment that are cleaned and sanitized regularly.
3. Cover openings and holes with plastic bags or tape to prevent
contamination.
4. Use a designated cleaning solution and water to clean equipment
and surfaces.
5. Avoid touching food contact surfaces with bare hands.
6. Use a sanitizing solution on tools and equipment before storing
them.
7. Keep maintenance areas clean and tidy to prevent attracting
pests.
8. Prevent dust and debris from spreading to food areas.
9. Use a vacuum cleaner with a HEPA filter to minimize dust and
allergens.
10. Regularly wash hands and change gloves to prevent cross-
contamination.
11. Use a 'clean-as-you-go' approach to prevent accumulation of
contaminants.
12. Ensure all maintenance activities are recorded and
documented.

By following these hygiene practices during maintenance

operations, you can minimize the risk of contamination and ensure
food safety in the food industry.

Hygiene practices after maintenance and

repair operation :
some essential hygiene practices to follow after maintenance
operations in the food industry:

1. Clean and sanitize tools and equipment before storing them.

2. Dispose of any waste, including disposable gloves and
cleaning materials.
3. Wash hands thoroughly with soap and warm water for at least
20 seconds.
4. Change into clean uniforms and protective clothing.
5. Clean and sanitize the maintenance area, including floors and
surfaces.
6. Remove any temporary covers or plastic bags used during
maintenance.
7. Inspect equipment and surfaces for any damage or
contamination.
8. Perform a final sanitizing step on equipment and surfaces.
9. Document maintenance activities, including cleaning and
sanitizing procedures.
10. Verify that all equipment is functioning correctly and safely.
11. Notify quality control or supervision that maintenance is
complete.
12. Ensure all personnel involved in maintenance operations
follow good hygiene practices.

By following these hygiene practices after maintenance

operations, you can ensure that the food production area is safe,
clean, and ready for production, min

Personal Hygiene & Health

Hygiene: “Commutative group of procedures, processes methodologies throughout the food supply
chain.”
Health: “State without any injury or disease.
Foodborne disease happens due to commercial places such as restaurants.

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO OUTBREAKS

The most frequently reported factor associated with the involvement of the infected worker was bare
hand contact with the food, improper cleaning of hands, cross contamination, Temp abuse, improper
hygienic practices cause illness.

SOURCES OF PATHOGEN
Infection transmission from fecal, nasal skin. They are exposed to external cont. environment through air,
water, food & contact
→ Vomits, diarrhea
Transmitted pathogens from workers salmonella, S.typhi, HAV, NOV

Incubation Period
The more the incubation period, the more pathogens are secreted by infected person.

Fecal contamination of hand

Lack of hand hygiene practices can be reduced by using toilet. Non-enveloped viruses such as NoV,
rhinovirus and enterovirus are more stable on skin than are viruses with envelopes, such as the influenza
virus.

Spread of Pathogens in the Food Industry

• The major concerns focused on (1) hand washing, (2) sanitation of food contact surfaces, (3)
facility wide hygiene education and training, (4) incentives for workers to report their illnesses,
(5) surveillance of the work force by management, and (6) regular professional screening of
employees for illness, including nasal and stool samples obtained from staff returning from
overseas travel.
• Can be reduced by using food shields, utensils, protective clothing.
• Auxiliary factors contributing to the lack of proper hand washing were the lack of convenient
hand-washing facilities and/or supplies of hand cleanser/drying devices; temporary placement
of mobile equipment in front of a hand sink and the use of hand-washing facilities for other
purpose, avoidance of employees eating, drinking, smoking in food preparation areas, safe stool
disposable.
Steps of Washing Hands.
Main purpose is removal of oil, dirt and contamination
Most surface microorganisms are easily flushed off with washing, but some remains in cracks, crevices,
skin folds and nail regions.

Hand Hygiene
Alcohols, antiseptic wipes, soaps used for proper hand washing. Hand washing removes dead skin cells,
sweat, sebaceous secretions, associated resident bacteria, transient microorganisms and any organic
material adhering to the hands.

Effect of friction
Due to friction micro flora (bacteria & other organisms) reduces.

• Less Friction -- less cleanliness.

Artificial fingernails should not be used, nailbrush should be used, don't use nail paints.

Duration & Frequency of Hand Washing

15 - 30 sec by different agencies.
Hand Washing Water Temperature
38-42°C water temperature. It should be comfortable, preferably warm but not hot .

Double Hand Washing meant to address residual fecal finger contamination.

• Use nail brushes. Don’t use nailbrush more than 10 times, organic matter maybe collected there.
So don’t use frequently.
Issues At Hand-washing stations
• Automated hand-washing machines.
• Solution to prevent re-contamination, use of paper towel.
Drying of Hand.
➢ Single use paper towels than cloth towel.
➢ Foam sanitizers are more preferable than gel sanitizers.
Alcohol based antiseptic wipes
➢ Use alcohol paper towel, but more use causes cuts.
➢ Rinsing hand with running water
➢ Use alcohol antiseptic wipes, with vigorous wiping is most effective.
Barriers
❖ Physical
-Building walls and doors to minimize the flow of
outside part.
-Leaky roofs and wet floors cause contamination

❖ Chemical
-Include sanitation solutions.
-Proper Clothing.
-Food of workers if having pathogens cause
disease.
Effectiveness of gloves
Hospital and Food supplier must be conscious about hygiene.
(1) Protect from damage caused by foods.
(2) To prevent contamination.
(3) To verify hygiene practices

Food shields and utensils

They are used as barrier against contamination. Food shields are effective for protecting food from air
borne contaminants e. g., RTE .Unfortunately, these shields cannot protect food from aerosolized particles
such as viruses .Utensils such as spatula, tongs, spoons, weighing. & serving bakery items adequate for
dispensing food should use for mixing and handling contaminated foods such as ran meat. So hands of
food workers are less likely to become contaminated
These utensils not used again before sanitizing. Food workers should wear hair restraints Such as hats,
hair covering or nets, beard restraints se clothing that cover body hair. Proper clothing prevents
contamination. Working clothes used on work place. Install toilets with automatically sink faucets.
Separate sinks are installed for dish washing, hand washing and food preparation. Working uniforms not
holding foreign material as well as pens, Knives and repair tools as they could fall in food & contaminate
it. Washroom distance away from processing and preparation area. Proper inspection of employs
uniforms and prohibits jewelry, fingernails.
Cell phones should not allow using in processing and preparation area and making a policy for it.

Improving compliance
Lack of compliance for hygienic practices is notorious in both healthcare and food industries, particularly
washing and sanitizing hands. Hand hygiene practices carried out only 31% at required occasions and were
not even attempted of 55% of time.
Two main hand hygiene errors were identified:
1- Failure to use soap.
2- Failure to dry hand adequately.

Other Common (challenges).

- Lack of facilities providing sufficient warm water and hand dries.
- Employee motivation.
- Lack of education & training
- Lack of managerial remodel.
Hand hygiene occasions

1- After Visiting Washroom.

2- After caring and handling of animals.
3 After touching, bare human body parts.
4- After coughing and sneezing.
5- After handling soiled equipment and utensils.
6- Before donning gloves for working with food.
7- During food production, preparation and service.
8- After engaging in other activities that contaminate hand.

How to wash & Dry hands

1- Remove watches, bangles & all jewelry.

2- Rinse hands, wrist & arms.
3- Recommended amount of antiseptic.
4- Rub hand together for 10-15 sec.
5. Rinse visible soil under fingernails, fingers & back of hand & wrist
6. Rinse hand under clean and running water.
7. Thoroughly dry hands using single use disposable towels.
8. The whole hand hygiene operation take place about 40 - 60 sec.

Policies for food workers exclusion

. Enteric organism from fecal sources are excreted during an infection that remains over a limited time
period
. Many of these enteric pathogens are of concern to food worker.e.g: Salmonella, Shigella, HAV, NOV
. These infections contaminate hand
. Use of toilet paper not guarantee of preventing infection.
. There is no way for management to detect such a scenario so workers take precaution before returning
to work.
. Policies do exist in many jurisdictions but it is difficult to implement
. It is difficult to the exclusion of worker but it may be possible to identify individual showing symptoms
of frank enteric diseases like vomiting and diarrhea.
. Asymptomatic food workers excreting pathogens can be estimated from a study in Turkey where 16% of
307,954 in military food service were positive for enteric pathogen in stool specimen

Stool Testing

. Stool testing and exclusion of employee has been issues of decade's

. Typically, 3 negative stool specimens of employee are required to return back at work
. Employee with typhoid and paratyphoid infection can excrete pathogen for long period after the
recovery
. Workers with E.coli O157:H7 can exclude from work until bowel movements are normal and two negative
samples within 48 hours
. Employee with hepatitis would be excluded until they have medical release base on laboratory testing
. Best policy is to exclude those who signs of nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps and until they recover

Lack of health benefits

Unfortunately, although more people are employed in the food industry 15% than any sector in US.
Benefits are very limited to these workers, often at minimum wage level, this mean there is risk of ill
employee going to work.
. When effected person go to work also affect others.
. Paid sick leaves polices have been shown to reduce the rate of categories infection
. 79% of food system worker do not have a single paid sick day.

Chapter:29
PEST MANAGEMENT
• Competitors not only consume the product but also
contaminate the product with feces , hairs etc.
• They alter the physical properties of product by increasing
temperature and moisture content.
• Acting as vector of parasites.
• Importance of effective pest-management starts after
discovery of live insects , fragments , hairs in product.
• In food production , there is a constant threat of pests
becoming part of food .
• The rish they impose:
• Any place where food is manufacture is an attraction for
rodents , birds , insects.
• All food handlers throughout food supply chain need to
take precautions to prevent insects.
• Problems from vertebrate pest can largely addressed.
• Incoming supplies are primarily source of these pests.
• VERTEBRATE PESTS:
• Rats , mice ,sparrows are major source of contamination.
• Act as a vector of salmonella , shigella , various viruses ,
rickettsiae causing Q fever.
• Weil’s disease pickled by contact with rat excreta can be
fatal
• Rodents also damage building.
• For birds , netting of openings , needle matting of surfaces
are well-established.
• Problem still occur where continual assess for transport is
needed or weathering of building provides in accessible
areas of roofing where birds can gain assess.
• There is a need to focus on drainage system as well as
roofing eaves because rodents will ascend drainpipes and
gain access in building via heating ducts.
• Screens and barriers should be in place and regularly
monitored.
• Use of rodenticide for rat controls require involvement of
trained staff.
• Resistance have developed against co-agulants now
second generation compounds are in wide-spread use for
use in door and out-door.
• Formulation and mixture of food is of importance as baits
are readily rejected.
• Anti-coagulant have always been less effective.
• Anti-coagulant have always less effective against mice .
• BEETLE PESTS:
• Refers to various species of beetles that cause damage to
plants, food and other materials.
• there
• Common examples:
• Japanese beetle
• Grain beetle
• Flour beetle
• Leaf beetle
• Cause damage in various ways:
• Feeding on plants leaves, stems
• Contaminating grains and food
• Spreading disease
• Structural damage to building
• To manage beetles integrated pest management strategies
can be employed:
• CULTURAL CONTROL
• BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
• CHEMICAL CONTROL
• PHYSICAL CONTROL
• It is essential to know beetle species , its life cycle , habits
,habitats to effectively manage and control pest
population.
• MOTHS:
• ●Belong to family pyralidae
• ●Damage is caused by larva
• ●It has heavily sclerotized head with elongated flexible
body
• ●Moth larva produce silk from glands
• ●Oviposition in pyralid moths occur from dusk onwards.
• ●Egg stage lasts 7 days at 25°C
• ●Pupal stage lasts about twice the duration of egg.
Females lay 200 to 300 eggs in 3 days
• ●Rice moth is in hot damp climates. Tropical warehouse
or almond moth is common pest of food processing
facilities. Mediterranean flour moth is moth of flour mills.
Warehouse moth can survive at temperature of -10°C too.
• ●Indian meal moth is most versatile of all pyralid species.
• OTHER INSECTS:
• ●Cockroaches, ants, flies and psocids cause problems in
food processing.
• ●Principal cockroaches belong to genera Periplaneta,
Blatta or blatella.
• ●Eggs are produced in capsules with upto 40 eggs per egg
case and nymphs can mature to adults within 12 weeks.
• ●Most species hiding in refuges with access to food
residues
• ●House flies, blow flies, fruit flies are hygiene threat
• ●UV light trap is measure to control flies in bakeries
• ●Ants leave a Chemical trail from food source hence ants
number increase in that area as all of them follow the same
path.
• ●Psocids feed mainly on molds and decayed vegetables in
damp situations
• ●The smallest opening in food package can provide space
for minute nymphal stages (temp above 20°C and high
humidity are needed for egg production)
• MITES:
• ●Closely related to spiders are in moderate temperatures
and high humidity
• ●Most important family related to food spoilage is
acaridae
• ●Life cycle includes brief larval stage followed by 3
nymphal stages. 14 days are needed for development
• ●Single female produces 555 to 600 eggs which are cold
tolerant
• ●Mold mite is cosmopolitan present in food with high fat
or protein content
• ●Many mites are allergenic.
• *MINIMIZING PEST OCCURRENCE IN FOOD
PREMISES:*
• ●Low temperature, low humidity, absence of accessible
food sources are optimum requirements to avoid pests
• ●None of these parameters are maintained
• ●ERH above 65% in food ingredients are vulnerable to
pests
• ●Buildings need to be precision fitted specially doors and
windows
• ●Wall surfaces should be smooth
• ●External drain pipes provides route for rodents
• ●Machinery should include pest preventive design
• ●Removal of accumulated waste and washing avoid pests
• ●Care should be taken to avoid stacking products in
corners which Create access for pests
• ●Packaging should be good like card, paper, cellophane
are least resistant while polycarbonate, polyester are more
resistant
• ●Higher level of protection is provided by form-fill-seal
machines
• ●There is need to detect pests in early stage before they
cause damage
• Pest management strategies:
• Vital part of pest management program is the early
detection of pests
• System of trapping:
• Sticky papers and tapes
• Thin lines of Grease
• Food grade mineral oil around processing machinery or
other valnerable areas
• Baited traps of various kind
•
• Present focus for trapping is on the use of pheromones
• Pheromones:
• The volatile chemicals released by the fest insect
themselves that function as means of communication
between individuals
• It is important for insect reproduction both in long range
attraction of the opposite sex and short range made
location
•
• Types:
• Sex Pheromones :
• Sex pheromones emitted by female to attract male for
mating
• They have been reported from many moths and certain
families of beetles
• There activity may be exclusive to single species but
commonly may be shared between several related species
• Aggregation Pheromone:
• It is produced by males and attract both sexes to suitable
habitats and food sources where mating can then proceed
• It may involve mixture of materials and related species
may share a common pheromone
• They have also been reported from mites
• Food Volatiles:
• Wide range of volatiles and aromas emitted from food
materials are attractive to stored product insects notably
pthose from groundnuts and crobs and even plane water is
effective in attracting moth species in dry conditions
• Pheromones act as best management tools for detection
and monitoring of best populations
• Best control strategies:
• Chemical control methods:
• Until recently chemicals were the mainstay for pest
control in the food and agricultural industry but there has
been a steady move away from reliance on biocides as a
succession of adverse side effects for one compound or
another have come to light
• Insect growth regulator:
• In this area chemicals that act by disrupting insect life
cycles have been developed. Insect growth regulators
have come into use for the protection of many stored
products such as grain
• Methoprene and hydroprene are commercially available
juvenile hormone agonists, which cause the terminal
disruption of insect development but have little or no
mammalian toxicity
• A second group of insect growth regulators act by
interfering with the molting hormone Ecdysone with
consequent prevention of normal metamorphosis and
these are effective against Lepidoptera
• A third group, effective against cockroaches, act by
inhibiting the synthesis of chitin which also prevents
normal molting of immature stages.
• Insecticides and Repellents:
• The use of insecticidal sprays and dusts has been a routine
measure for spot treatment of localized infestations and
surface application to areas of high risk
• More recent addition, the bacterial metabolite-based
product, spinosad is also available as a dust formulation
• The field of insect repellency is one still under
investigation, a non-toxic, non-specific insect and mite
repellent being the goal
• Fumigants:
• Fumigants for many years fumigants have been relied
upon for the whole site treatment option when infestation
problems get out of control. Flour mills and chocolate
factories would typically have an annual fumigation by a
licensed company to have a fresh start.
• It was extremely effective when used in a well-sealed
structure, being an excellent penetrant of voids containing
food residues and highly toxic to all pests, achieving
control within 24 hours
• The only other fumigant widely registered at the start of
this century was phosphine, which is an excellent
fumigant for commodities in store where the longer
residence times permit Strategies the long exposure
periods (up to 3 weeks at 15°C) required for effective
control of pests. Best results are obtained by using a
double layer of polythene sheets for packaged materials
and treatments may only be carried by registered pest
control operators who apply the aluminum or magnesium
phosphide gas releasing formulations and dispose of the
residues remaining at the end of the treatment according
to established procedures.
Physical control methods for pest management in the food
service industry include:

1. Traps: Glue traps, sticky traps, and bait traps to capture

and remove pests like cockroaches, rodents, and flies.

2. Sealing entry points: Caulking cracks and crevices to

prevent pest entry.

3. Removing food and water sources: Proper storage,

cleaning, and disposal to eliminate attractants.

4. Heat treatment: Using heat to kill pests like bed bugs

and cockroaches.

5. Cold treatment: Using cold temperatures to kill pests

like insects and rodents.

6. Physical barriers: Using door sweeps, screens, and

mesh to prevent pest entry.

7. Hand removal: Physically removing pests like flies,

spiders, and rodents.
8. Vacuuming: Using vacuum cleaners with proper filters
to remove pests and eggs.

9. Trapping using CO2: Using carbon dioxide traps to

capture and remove pests like rodents.

10. Ultrasonic devices: Using high-frequency sound

waves to repel pests like rodents and insects

Biological control methods for pest management in the

food service industry include:

1. Natural predators: Encouraging natural predators like

lady beetles, lacewings, and praying mantis to control pest
populations.

2. Parasitoids: Using parasitic wasps, flies, and beetles to

control pests like aphids, whiteflies, and moths.

3. Pathogens: Applying microorganisms like bacteria,

fungi, and viruses to control pests like insects and rodents.
4. Insect growth regulators (IGRs): Disrupting pest life
cycles to prevent reproduction and growth.

5. Biological insecticides: Using natural substances like

neem oil, pyrethrin, and spinosad to control pests.

6. Microbial control: Using microorganisms like Bacillus

thuringiensis (Bt) to control insect pests.

7. Biological traps: Using pheromone traps to capture and

remove pests like flies and moths.

8. Beneficial nematodes: Using microscopic worms to

control pests like grubs and caterpillars.

9. Diatomaceous earth: Using natural sediment to

dehydrate and kill pests like insects and rodents.

10. Biological repellents: Using natural substances like

citronella, lemongrass, and peppermint to repel pests.

Chemical control methods for pest management in the

food service industry include:
1. Insecticides: Using synthetic or natural chemicals to kill
or repel insects, such as pyrethrin, permethrin, and
cyfluthrin.

2. Rodenticides: Using baits or traps with toxic substances

like warfarin, bromadiolone, and zinc phosphide to
control rodents.

3. Fumigants: Using gases like sulfuryl fluoride, methyl

bromide, and phosphine to control pests in food storage
and processing areas.

4. Disinfectants: Using chemicals like bleach, quaternary

ammonium compounds, and phenolic compounds to kill
microorganisms and pests.

5. Sanitizers: Using chemicals like chlorine, iodine, and

quaternary ammonium compounds to reduce
microorganism populations.

6. Repellents: Using chemicals like pyrethrin, permethrin,

and DEET to repel pests like insects and rodents.
 7. Attractants: Using pheromones and other chemicals to
lure pests into traps or away from food.

8. Adjuvants: Using chemicals like surfactants and

stickers to enhance the effectiveness of pesticides.

9. Insect growth regulators (IGRs): Using chemicals like

methoprene and pyriproxyfen to disrupt pest life cycles.

10. Rodent control baits: Using baits like anticoagulants

and neurotoxins to control rodent population.
CHAPTER.No.34
Management of Chemical Contaminants
➢ Introduction:
Some hazards may be present naturally, or they may occur as a result of contamination or processing.
Sometimes, chemicals are also added for malicious reasons, e.g. economic fraud, tampering, or terrorism.
The HACCP system, a risk-based approach to food safety assurance, can also be used for the management
of chemical contaminants.

➢ Nature of chemical hazards:

● Environmental contaminants: originate from the environment (soil, air, water), either naturally or
because of anthropogenic activity. Examples are toxic metals (cadmium, lead, mercury, arsenic, and
aluminum).

● Naturally occurring toxins: are produced naturally by plants, algae, fungi, or marine organisms.
Examples include plant toxicants (e.g. solanine in potatoes), and mycotoxins (e.g. aflatoxins).

● Processing contaminants ● Packaging contaminants ● Food additives ● Agrochemicals ● Accidental

contamination

HEALTH CONSEQUENCES

The health consequences of chemical hazards depend on three factors

1. Nature of the agent.

2. Amount present in the food and the intake of consumers.

3. Vulnerability of consumers.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE OCCURRENCE OF CHEMICAL HAZARDS:

● Agronomical (Diseases in animals/plants., Nature of soil.)

● Climatic (Stress caused by drought or excessive rain increases the risk of pre-harvest mold growth.)

● Environmental (Industrial activity and pollution can lead to contamination of soil, atmosphere, and
water with chemical hazards such as heavy metals.)

● Suppliers’ practices ● Legislation ● Enforcement

REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS AND CHALLENGES:

To protect consumers’ health and ensure the safety of the food supply, public health authorities establish
maximum limits for various contaminants, maximum levels of use for food additives and maximum
residues limits (MRLs) for obligation to abide by these standards. With respect to chemical hazards,
exceeding these standards must be seen as a violation of food safety.

At the international level, the World Health Organization (WHO) and the food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) sponsor the Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives and
Contaminants (JECFA) and the Joint Meeting on Pesticide Residues (JMPR), which carry out risk
assessment of chemical contaminants, food additives, veterinary drugs and pesticides, respectively. Based
on these risks assessments, the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) establishes
international standards for food.

REGULATORY COMPLIANCE:

The food industry has an obligation to comply with all the laws and regulations of the country in which
they market the food. Considering that some countries may have different standards. Where national or
international food is not established, the food industry still has the obligation to produce safe food.

MANAGEMENT OF CHEMICALS IN INDUSTRY

Prerequisites:

Which are generally referred to as prerequisites. The term is used to emphasize that the HACCP system is
not a stand-alone system and that its successful implementation depends on several programs embedded
in the food safety management system such as

1. Good agricultural practice (GAP), good animal husbandry practice (GAHP) or good
manufacturing practice (GMP)
2. Supplier or vendor confidence level and
3. Personnel training
There are other measures which are not usually referred to as prerequisites, these are:

1. Scientific Knowledge (e.g. understanding the mechanism of formation of processing

contaminants, conditions for growth of molds, impact of control measures, etc.).
 2. Legislation (e.g. norms, codes of practices)
Supplier Management:

Many chemical hazards are introduced into products through the raw material, the importance of supplier
management cannot be overemphasized. Supplier management starts by selecting the supplier.

Specifications:

A specification is a description of a material’s properties and values (e.g. physical, chemical, sensorial,
microbiological, as well as transportation and storage requirements). One may differentiate between
purchasing specifications and finish product specifications.

Critical limit:

The second principle of HACCP is the decision on the critical limit.

1. Distinguish between safe and unsafe

2. separates acceptability from unacceptability
CCP Monitoring:

Monitoring: is a planned sequence of measurements or observations to ensure the product or process is in

control.

1. personnel must be well trained about CCP's (aware of their responsibility)

2. Where raw material is considered as a critical control point, the chemical hazard must be tested
on every batch
3. correct and valid sampling is extremely important
4. Any processing or storage step which is identified as CCP must be monitored.
5. Frequency of monitoring must be set for timely application of corrective action.
6. violation of acceptable levels of any agent should lead to the rejection of raw material.
Verification:

1. Verification procedures must be established to confirm that control measures (preventive

measures) are adequately implemented, and the HACCP system is working effectively.
2. Audit of the supplier.
3. Factory audit.
4. Verification of identity of the raw material upon receipt in the factory (e.g. visual
inspection) to confirm that the right variety is selected.
5. Testing of the finished products.

Monitoring Plans

Principles in Setting a Monitoring Plan:

1. Schedule monitoring during periods of highest risk, such as certain seasons or climatic
conditions, to effectively detect contaminants like aflatoxin in cereals or nitrate in vegetables.
2. Collect samples upon the arrival of raw materials to ensure their quality and safety from the start.
3. Require a certificate of analysis from an accredited laboratory for incoming materials, and
periodically perform internal verifications to maintain the integrity of the monitoring process.
Corrective Action:

1. Reject materials that don't meet standards, advise suppliers, and consider increasing monitoring
frequency or terminating contracts, especially in cases of fraud.
2. Hold back finished products that fail to comply with standards until issues are resolved.
3. Immediately investigate any deviations from standard practices and ensure follow-up actions are
taken to address issues.
4. If chemical hazards arise due to processing or storage, reformulate the product or alter
processing/storage conditions to meet safety standards.
Validation:

1. Review non-significant hazards and the effectiveness of control measures like supplier practices
and monitoring.
2. Define clear safety and quality limits and specifications.
3. Set up a consistent sampling scheme and use recognized analytical methods.
4. Determine the appropriate frequency for monitoring activities.
5. Ensure all staff, from operators to lab analysts, are trained and competent.
Maintenance of the HACCP Plan:

1. Respond to internal or external alerts, surveys by authorities, and reports of past incidents.
2. Incorporate new scientific developments and changes in regulatory requirements.
3. Adjust for changes in suppliers or their practices, marketing countries, intended product use,
preparation methods, target consumers, and product formulation.
4. Address changes that affect hazard occurrence, such as environmental contamination or climatic
conditions, which can influence risks like mold growth or increase in animal infections.
Types of data that should be considered:

1. Review results from in-house monitoring, including any deviations from the norm.
2. Incorporate findings from surveys or monitoring by authorities and third parties.
3. Ensure the verification of certificates of analysis.
4. Keep updated with information on emerging chemicals.
5. Review reports on the competencies of laboratories involved in testing.
The result of analysis:

1. Enhance existing prevention strategies to mitigate risks.

2. Set up new monitoring activities or surveys to better assess risks.
3. Communicate with regulatory bodies about the feasibility and practicality of legislation.
4. Enhance supplier management through audits, adjustments in monitoring frequency, or issuing
warnings based on performance.