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CONTENTS

A WORD OF WELCOME v

LEARNING UNIT 1: Defining social welfare policy 1

LEARNING UNIT 2: The process of social policy development and various role players 10

LEARNING UNIT 3: The characteristics and principles of social welfare policy 21

LEARNING UNIT 4: Contemporary trends and social issues to developmental social

welfare policy 26

LEARNING UNIT 5: Social welfare policy and social work practice in the South African
context 41
REFERENCES 48

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A WORD OF WELCOME

DEAR STUDENT
A warm welcome to the module BSW2603: Social Welfare Policy within the South
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African context.

The purpose of this module is to introduce students to policy development in the area of
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social welfare policy. Students will also be conversant with how policy informs social work
practice. Students who complete this module will be able to outline the process of policy
development and conduct a basic critical analysis of an existing policy.

It is very important for you to understand how to use the study guide correctly. You must
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realise at the outset that the study guide is not a summary of your prescribed tutorial matter.
It is merely a tool to guide and help you through your tutorial matter. Because the study
guide is no more than a guide or a tool, you will find little of the content of the module in it.
The study guide contains a scheme and/or an explanation that you should use to study the
prescribed tutorial matter. You will only be able to master this module if you start studying
it early in the year and if you study every day. For some learning units you will need only a
couple of days, while you will have to spend more time on others.

Please do not underestimate the scope of this module. You will see that the study guide is
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divided into five learning units. You will further notice that each learning unit defines its
purpose in such a way that it indicates in broad terms what you should be able to do when
you have completed that particular learning unit. The prescribed book for this module is:

19 Patel, L. 2015. Social welfare and social development. 2nd edition. Oxford University Press: USA.

The main part of each learning unit then consists of a discussion of the content of the unit.
20

This is a step-by-step guideline for studying the particular section of the work. The idea
is to guide you through the tutorial matter systematically. You will also notice that many
learning units contain activities. The aim of these activities is to teach you study skills.
Please do not think that the activities are examination questions. They bear no relationship
to the examination questions or the assignment questions; they merely serve to assist you in
acquiring the skills you need to pass this module. You will not be asked to do activities in the
examination; you will be required to answer questions. Any difficulties you experience with
the activities should be resolved by the feedback that is provided after every activity. The
feedback is usually not a model answer; it merely serves to indicate what you were required
to do in the activity and shows how you could have done this. At the end of each learning
unit you will find a summary of what you have learnt in the learning unit and what will be
dealt with in the next learning unit. If you use your study guide according to the key, you
should find studying Social Welfare Policy within the South African context a much easier task
than if you were to try and tackle the work without the assistance given by this study guide.

(v)
 SPECIFIC OUTCOMES AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA FOR
THE MODULE
21 Specific outcome 1

Outline the process of policy development and implementation within the developmental
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social welfare paradigm and explain how this process links to social work practice.

23 Assessment criteria

yy The concept of “social welfare policy” is defined.

yy The history of social policy and the process of policy development within the devel-
opmental social welfare paradigm are described.
yy The main characteristics and principles of social welfare policy are summarised.
yy The influence of developmental social welfare policy on social work practice is
explained.
yy The different role players involved in social policy development at various spheres
of government are identified and described.
yy The role of social workers in social policy development and implementation is
elucidated.

24 Specific outcome 2

25 Explain the significance of various social issues to developmental social welfare policy.

26 Assessment criteria

yy The role of human rights and social justice perspectives in developmental social
welfare policy is described.
yy The social exclusion perspective and its relevance to developmental social welfare
policy are explained.
yy The relevance of diversity, including gender equality, to developmental social welfare
policy is explained.
yy The relevance of policy issues related to poverty, inequality and unemployment
in communities is explained.
yy The critical role of community participation in policy formulation is described.

27 Specific outcome 3

Describe social welfare policy that underpins social work practice in the South African
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context.

29 Assessment criteria

yy The approaches and strategies contained in the frameworks for social welfare ser-
vices are identified.
yy Evidence of existence of different perspectives related to developmental paradigm
in the frameworks for social welfare services is identified.
yy The social work practice and its relevance to policy development are explained.

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yy The critical role of the association of social workers in policy making process is
explained.

30 Assessment plan

An integrated assessment system is used for this module. The final mark is based on both
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a formative assessment (40%) and a summative assessment (60%), which is venue based.
The year mark is based on the assignment marks. Assessments are done in various ways; for
example, through multiple-choice questions, essays and case studies. You must complete
and submit at least one assignment to obtain admission to the examination.

32 I hope that you will enjoy this module and have a rewarding year of study.

33 Best wishes

34 Keatlegile Mabelane

USE OF ICONS
The icons that will be used in this study guide are listed below, together with an explanation
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of what each means:

36 Icon 37Description
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Learning outcomes. The learning outcomes indicate what aspects of

the particular topic or learning unit you have to understand. You should
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be able to demonstrate your understanding.

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Key concepts. Attention is drawn to certain keywords or concepts that

you will come across in the topic or study unit.

Study. The Study icon indicates which sections of the prescribed book
you need to study (i.e. learn, understand and practise).
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Read. This icon will direct you to read through certain sections of the
44

prescribed book for background information.

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 36 Icon 37 Description
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Activity. This icon refers to activities that you must complete in order
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to develop a deeper understanding of the study material.

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Feedback. Feedback is provided on the self-assessment activities.

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Self-assessment. This icon requires you to reflect on the important

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issues or problems dealt with in the study unit and complete the activity
in your workbook.
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LEARNING UNIT 1
Defining social welfare policy

Learning outcomes

After you have completed this learning unit, you should be able to do the following:
−− Define the concept “social welfare policy”.
−− Explain the history of social policy and the process of policy development within the
developmental social welfare paradigm.

Key concepts

Social welfare, social services, social welfare programmes, developmental social welfare
and social welfare policy

1.1 INTRODUCTION
You may be asking yourself what this learning unit is all about, what is meant by “social
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welfare policy” and why it is important. Before we define social welfare policy, we will
briefly revisit the concepts that you studied in BSW1501 namely, social services, social
welfare programmes and developmental social welfare. It is important to revise these
concepts as they are closely linked to social welfare policy. This learning unit will focus
on defining and describing social welfare policy. It is important to understand social
welfare policy as it is the departing point for the entire module. In essence, social welfare
policy is meant to address social problems. It touches on so many areas of governance
and the role of government in addressing the needs of society. Social problems such
as homelessness, poverty, unemployment and crime are challenging and not easy to
solve. The social welfare policy is an instrument through which different parties such as
the non-governmental organisations, private sector and ordinary community members
work together towards identifying solutions for such problems. Therefore, social welfare
policies are formulated to address social issues in the society. Different examples of social
welfare policy documents will be discussed in this unit.

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This unit will also look at the history of social welfare in South Africa and how it has been
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fundamentally transformed. You will be given a brief chronological overview of the

development of social welfare in South Africa.

1.2 THE CONCEPT OF SOCIAL WELFARE

The concept “Social Welfare” was introduced to you in study guide BSW1501. To refresh
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your memory, let us look at the definition of social welfare again. The White Paper for
Social Welfare (1997:10) refers to social welfare as:

“an integrated and comprehensive system of social services, facilities, programmes

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and social security to promote social development, social justice and the social
functioning of people. Social security, social services and related social development
programmes are investments which lead to tangible economic gains and in turn
lead to economic growth.”

Zastrow (2010:03) broadly defines social welfare as a nation’s system of programmes,

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benefits and services that help people meet those social, economic, educational and
health needs that are fundamental to the maintenance of society. It is not only for meeting
needs, but it is also about the management of social problems or conditions and the
maximisation of opportunities.

From these definitions, it is clear that social welfare is an organised way in which society
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provides for the various and persistent needs of people. These definitions accommodate all
people in general, not just the needy and the disadvantaged. Moreover, the goal of social
welfare is to promote and to enhance the wellbeing of individuals and society at large.

1.3 THE CONCEPT OF SOCIAL WELFARE SERVICE

Social welfare services include services regarding general and specific needs, which are
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dealt with primarily by the traditional social work methods of casework, group work
and community work. This concept required an integrated and intersectoral approach
to welfare; on the one hand making provision for people to care for their families and, on
the other hand, making provision for a system that is accessible to all those with special
needs (Sevenhuijsen, Bozalek, Gouws & Minnaar-McDonald, 2003:305).

1.4 THE CONCEPT OF SOCIAL WELFARE PROGRAMME

The purpose of social welfare is to improve and promote the social functioning of individuals,
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groups or communities. Social welfare programmes are developed to guide and assist
individuals, groups and communities to attain satisfying standards of living, health and
constructive personal relationships that permit them to develop to their full potential and
to promote their well-being in harmony with the needs of their families, communities
and society in general (Thackeray, Farley & Skidmore, 1994:3).

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When considering the welfare of people in South Africa, we are confronted by scores of
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people living in poverty, without employment or homes. Many people are suffering from
serious medical conditions (non-communicable diseases), including tuberculosis (TB),
cancer and human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/
Aids), and communicable diseases such as hypertension and diabetes, many are victims
of crime and acts of violence, and there are large numbers of uneducated people.

1.5 THE CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENTAL SOCIAL WELFARE

The concept “developmental social welfare” refers to a welfare system designed to facilitate
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the development of human capacity and self-reliance within a caring and enabling socio-
economic environment. Its strategy is to “increase welfare coverage to previously not
reached sections of the population, to redistribute services and resources, and to achieve
a more just and equitable system of welfare provision” (Gray, 1998:23). The changes that
occurred in 1994, brought along a need for transformation on all levels of society. The
government instituted these changes with the purpose of improving service delivery
and making services more accessible and responsive to the needs of all South Africans,
especially the disadvantaged and vulnerable communities. The South African government
adopted a developmental approach to social welfare as part of its transformation.

The focus of developmental social welfare is social protection, maximisation of human

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potential and fostering self-reliance and participation in decision-making. Developmental

social welfare has a particular focus on the causes and effects of social vulnerability and
marginalisation, and the delivery of integrated services to communities, families and
persons affected by these phenomena.

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Figure 1.1: Demonstrates the link between the social welfare policy and the four
concepts
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Activity

(1) It has been noted that social welfare policies are implemented through programmes
and services to address basic human needs. Take a moment to reflect on this statement
and think about the programmes that you have observed in your community that
are aimed at meeting basic needs of the people.
(2) Now that you have identified the programmes, write a comment on how you think
the programmes came about. Where did it all start, why was it developed, whose idea
was it to initiate the programme and eventually reach your community.
To learn more about social welfare programmes, watch the following video clips:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=APjQwT5WitU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cbvX5hhpbGY
Discuss with a classmate what you have learnt. Please post your answers on the myUnisa
Discussion Forum.

1Feedback

Common examples of such programmes include the social assistance, health services and
free education received by the vulnerable groups of people. Developing policies starts by
thinking about people, events and problems. Policies do not simply fall from the sky and land
up in legal documents or regulations. We often look at or read advertisements that tell us
that product X will make us feel good or therapy A will solve our problems. We know that, in
reality, it is not that simple. Results in everyday life depend on what the consumer does with
product X or therapy A, and how they do it. We are proposing here a specific way to think
about policies, the people who make them and the social problems that trigger them. Social
policies are also the products of many processes through which people try to find answers to
problems such as poverty, unemployment, health issues and various kinds of injustices. Social
workers and other people in the helping professions are often the people who have to apply
these policies in practice.

1.6 DEFINING SOCIAL WELFARE POLICY

Study section 1.3 in the prescribed book.

Recommended reading

• White Paper on Reconstruction and Development (1994). Available from

http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/governmentgazetteid16085.pdf
• White paper for Social Welfare (1997). Available from
https://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/White_Paper_on_Social_Welfare_0.pdf
• Government Gazette

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• White Paper on Families

• White paper on People with Disabilities

1.6.1 The concept of policy

Let us first define the concept policy. Policy determines how governments, communities
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and organisations are managed in a predictable, coordinated way (Kirst-Ashman, 2013:173–

174). Developing policies starts by thinking about people, events and problems. Policies
are developed for a number of reasons, like to help protect the staff and services users
from being hurt or compromised, but also to prevent unprofessional conduct from taking
place. The term policy leads us to the concept of social policy. You have learnt about this
concept in the BSW1501 module; read the study guide for BSW1501 again to refresh your
mind about what is meant by policy. You may also benefit from students’ views on social
policy by watching this video clip: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HKjFWLIwfnw.

1.6.2 Defining social welfare policy

Social welfare policy seeks to assist the society to address fundamental needs to ensure
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social justice and social functioning of the people. According to Blau and Abramovitz
(2010:21), social welfare policy refers to “the principles, activities, or framework for
action adopted by a government to ensure a socially defined level of individual, family,
and community well-being”.

Welfare policies are implemented through programmes and services attempted to address
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basic human needs. As indicated, in 1994 the South African government brought along
transformation to all levels of society to improve service delivery and making services more
accessible and responsive to the needs of South Africans. The South African government
adopted a developmental approach to social welfare as part of transformation. The next
section will elucidate more on how this transformation came about.

1.6.3 Social welfare and policy frameworks in South Africa

Did you know that the White Paper for Social Welfare is an example of a national policy
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framework that sets out the objectives of social welfare in South Africa? Social policies
are sometimes referred to as standard-setting documents. They define how societies
should address particular needs or promote social harmony. In addition, they may also
target specific groups and define what benefits citizens may receive and who qualifies
for particular benefits, like social grants.

Policy outcomes are “generally concerned with reducing a particular problem or condition
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and sometimes tend to focus on behavior change through HIV/Aids and substance
abuse education and prevention programmes” (Patel & Selipsky, 2010:58). It is important
that you know that some policies and legislation have implications to promote the well-
being of a particular target group such as the Children’s Act 38 of 2005, as amended in
2008. We will now discuss other key issues to the delivery of social welfare services.

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1.6.3.1 White Paper for Social Welfare
As you have learned in the BSW1501 module, the White Paper sets out the vision, goals,
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principles, guidelines and recommendations of developmental social welfare in South

Africa. It is based on the foundation for social welfare in a post-apartheid South Africa. The
policy was adopted a decade ago and its focus was on addressing national reconstruction
and development; however, it should be updated to reflect current policy changes as
well as the globalisation for national and regional developments (Patel & Selipsky, 2010).

1.6.3.2 National youth policy 2015–2020

The National Youth Policy (NYP) is informed by the South African Constitution, the United
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Nations World Programme of Action for Youth to the Year 2000 and Beyond (1995), the
African Youth Charter (2006), the National Development Plan (NDP) (2012) and various other
policies. The NDP is anchored on the Constitution’s vision of a prosperous, democratic,
non-sexist, non-racist and equal society.

By 2030, the plan seeks to create an inclusive society that builds the capability of its
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active citizenry. The NYP for 2015–2020 (NYP, 2020) is developed for all young people
in South Africa, with a focus on redressing the wrongs of the past and addressing the
specific challenges and immediate needs of the country’s youth. The policy outlines
interventions to enable the optimal development of young people, both as individuals
and as members of South African society, enhancing their capabilities to transform the
economy and the country. The integrated development strategy, which will articulate
in detail how the implementation of the interventions should be carried out, will be
developed in the months following government’s adoption of the policy. For the goals
of the policy to be realised, government will need to partner with all sections of society,
including the private sector.

The NYP 2020 proposes strategic policy interventions that will fill the gaps and failings
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of the previous policy and address the needs of the youth. It will:

yy define new interventions

yy consolidate the mainstreaming of youth development in programmes run by key
role players, particularly those in government
yy map the process through which progress on policy implementation will be assessed
yy specify the monitoring and evaluation mechanism for accountability and continuous
improvement of interventions.

1.6.3.3 White Paper on Families

The White Paper on Families (2012:8) views the family as a key development imperative
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and seeks to mainstream family issues into government-wide, policy-making initiatives to

foster positive family well-being and overall socio-economic development in the country.
The specific objectives are to:

yy Enhance the socialising, caring, nurturing and supporting capabilities of families so that
their members can contribute effectively to the overall development of the country.

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yy Empower families and their members by enabling them to identify, negotiate around,
and maximise economic, labour market, and other opportunities available in the
country.
yy Improve the capacities of families and their members to establish social interactions
to make a meaningful contribution towards a sense of community, social cohesion
and national solidarity.

77 The vision and mission of the White Paper on Families are as follows:

78 Vision: Well-functioning families which are loving, peaceful, safe, stable, and
economically self-sustaining, that also provides care and physical, emotional,
psychological, financial, spiritual, and intellectual support for their members.

79 Mission: To undertake activities, programmes, projects and plans to promote, support

and nourish well-functioning families that are loving, peaceful, safe, stable, and
economically self-sustaining that also provide care and physical, emotional,
psychological, financial, spiritual, and intellectual support for their members.

There are principles that are informed by the White Paper for families. Let us have a look
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at the principles as adopted from the White Paper.

81 Human rights

Human rights are first learnt in functional families. Through socialisation, the foundation
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is laid for children to be tolerant of views other than their own and become active and
responsible citizens in the future. Non-discrimination, mutual obligation and respect
for diversity will guide the government and other stakeholders in the manner that they
interact with families.

83 Family diversity

There are different types of families in South Africa, which are products of various cultures
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and social contexts. Therefore, the need exists to recognise the diverse nature of South
Africa’s families in all initiatives that address their plight. This principle will guide the
government and all stakeholders in their engagement with the family.

85 Family resilience

Families have inherent capacities and strengths that sustain them in times of prosperity,
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as well as adversity. It is important to recognise these qualities, so that any intervention

at family level will enhance these attributes.

87 Community participation

The family remains an integral part of South African society and its continued existence
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depends on vibrant and well-functioning communities. To this end, the government and
other actors will promote active participation of the community in actions that safeguard
and support the family.

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90 Promoting and strengthening marriages

Stable marital unions are essential for the stability of families and ultimately society’s well-
91

being. Where unions are flourishing, efforts will be made to promote them and where
they are under threat there will be a focus on strengthening them.

92 Promoting and strengthening responsible parenting

Family stability hinges on responsible parenting. Parents or caregivers will be encouraged

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to play their expected roles in the upbringing of their children. Where there is a case of
parental breakdown or its absence, means will be sought to strengthen this area.

94 Strategic partnerships

The delivery of services by the government and other role-players will be defined by
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mutual partnerships with the family. The family will play an active role in matters that
concern it.

1.7 THE HISTORY OF SOCIAL WELFARE IN SOUTH AFRICA

Study section 2.2 in the prescribed book.

South Africa is evolving from the years of apartheid devastation that resulted in large
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discrepancies between people based on race in relation to the provision of social welfare
services. The policies of the apartheid government ensured that the majority of the black
population remained poor and vulnerable. This section takes you back to where social
welfare emerged, how welfare services were distributed during the apartheid era and
the principles that shaped social welfare policy and practice.

1.8 CONCLUSION
Social policies are the products of many processes through which people try to find
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answers to problems such as poverty, unemployment, health issues and various kinds
of injustices. There are specific ways in which we should think about policies. The people
who make and formulate these policies identify and analyse the social problems that
trigger them. This learning unit looked at the different concepts and how they are linked
to social welfare policy. The White Paper on Families is an example of the end product
of a policy process. We also looked at the history of social welfare in South Africa. In the
past, social support from the government was available but excluded the majority of the
people because of racial segregations. The birth of democracy has brought about a new
way of formulating, implementing and distributing welfare policy. In the next learning
unit, we will discuss the process of developing social welfare policy.

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1 Self-assessment

(1) What did you learn about social welfare policy?

(2) Have you changed any ideas that you used to have about the concept “social welfare
policy”?
(3) In your own words, describe the purpose of the White Paper on Families?
(4) What do you think is the main goal of social welfare policy?
(5) In your own words, briefly describe the history of social welfare in South Africa.

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LEARNING UNIT 2
The process of social policy development
and various role players

Learning outcomes

After you have completed this learning unit, you should be able to do the following:
−− Explain the process of policy development within the developmental social welfare
paradigm.
−− Explain the different role players involved in social policy development at various
spheres of government.
−− Explain the role of social workers in social policy development and implementation.

Key concepts

Process, policy formulation, policy development, role players, government, values, ethics

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Policy formulation is a process, with values, ideology, and the interests of different
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groups taken into account. For example, there are many ways of defining poverty. The
policymakers who draw up a policy to address poverty may have specific ideas on the
meaning of being poor. Policy makers, interest groups, the public and similar parties
often hold opposing views on policy issues because their interests and values differ.
Developing policy on all levels includes various role players and should, preferably,
always start with the community or people affected by a particular situation. Remember
that policy should be drafted with the people and not for the people. In addition
to community members, organisational leaders such as church leaders, school principals,
heads of state departments in the area, representatives from NGOs, academic scholars
and politicians are among the persons who may contribute towards the process of
developing policy.

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2.2 THE STAGES OF POLICY DEVELOPMENT AND THE

DIFFERENT ROLE PLAYERS
A process suggests a continuous movement and not only a state of affairs. The
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development or formulation of policy is more dynamic and ongoing; hence, it is viewed

as a process. Keep in mind that a process can be cyclical (meaning that it repeats itself
in cycles) or linear (all developments are milestones on a straight line with a beginning
and an end; therefore, each event is new and unique). Though it is important to view
social policy in terms of a process, you should not understand it as a process consisting of
neatly demarcated and chronological stages. Policy development usually goes through
different stages (steps) and may involve different role players at each stage. A brief and
simplistic description of these stages are provided below. The stages may appear to
constitute a chronological evolution, but in reality, these stages are not neatly defined
and the sequence of stages may even change or be repeated in the same cycle of policy
formulation. You can also visit your study guide for BSW1501 to add knowledge about
the stages of policy development.

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Figure 2.1: The process of policy development

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104 Stage 1: Identification of the problem

The origin of the social welfare policy is the existence of an unmet need, social problem
105

or a gap in service delivery. Social welfare policy determines how, when and to whom the
allocations are made. Identifying needs and deciding which of them should be considered,
are important steps in the policy-making process. At this stage of our discussion, it is
already clear that not all needs can or will be addressed by policy. Therefore, even the
identification of needs or policy problems is a screening process. This gives rise to the
question: How does a policy decision-maker determine whether a matter is indeed a
social policy? In this instance, public opinion becomes very valuable. Public opinion is the
opinion of a substantial segment of the public on a particular issue. Sources of public union
include concerned groups, the media, academic papers, advocates of new programmes
and social work practitioners.

It is important to note that during this stage, continued dialogue with interested individuals
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and groups to become aware of their values, ideas and the meanings they ascribe to,
is perceived as their unmet need. Stage 1 implies a participatory process. A dialogue
will generate ideas on how to address the unmet need. Participation and dialogue is
necessary because the problems that we perceive is often experienced in a different way
by a community. As many individuals and groups as possible must be consulted within
the community. In doing this, certain shared experiences and perceptions will emerge.

107 Stage 2: Development of formal structured groups

At this stage, formal structured groups are formed, including those affected, lay people
108

and people representing government or non-governmental organisations. One of these

groups may eventually become an interim action committee and deliberate ways in which
the problem situation can be addressed.

109 Stage 3: Information gathering

During this stage, structured information is gathered on the nature, scope and characteristics
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of the need or social problem of affected groups. This can be achieved through systematic
research and gathering of statistics by the organisation concerned in collaboration with
academic sources. An appropriate example is an investigation into the needs of foster care
children by the Department of Social Work at Unisa in collaboration with the provincial
Department of Social Development. Collection of such data will lead to the development
of exploratory theories and theoretical orientations regarding the problem and findings
can be shared with various affected groups such as the public or concerned organisations.

111 Stage 4: Formulate an operational policy

Once the findings of the research in stage three are explored and discussed, the
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development of pertinent and acceptable proposed courses of action in addressing the

policy problems must follow. Policy formulation has to do with the development of clear
and acceptable methods of action to arrive at clearly defined proposals. This stage also
includes:

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yy Attention to workable possibilities within the social reality and the value context of
the community that is at stake
yy Considering objectives of a variety of associates that would offer support to the
social problem
yy Envisioning both the manifest and expected functions of the policy and the latent
functions or unintended consequences
yy Estimating the number, size and characteristics of the group on which policy will focus
yy Assessing the cost of alternative solutions and of coverage of different groups in the
need category

113 Stage 5: Lobby for action

This stage involves seeking out possible allies and garnering the help of general
114

institutional groups such as churches and NGO structures. Lobbying is a strategy through
which coalitions are developed in a coordinated manner to ensure that the demands of
the community are met.

115 Stage 6: Formulating an operational policy

116 This stage involves:

yy Setting up task forces to put policy into operation and to write provisions of the law
yy Narrowing strategies to a particular workable group, keeping in mind alternative
methods of provision and the cost of the programme
yy Shaping policy into operational guidelines, including the type of provision, the
method of provision, and degree of provision, organisational structure, financing
and allocation of responsibility among different administrative levels, such as the
state and local governments
yy Adding or deleting provisions, due to action of state legislature committees or reac-
tions of overall board of national professional organisations

Stage 7: Policy legitimation and formalisation

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This is the stage of the actual enactment of the programme where agreed upon final
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provisions are drafted and an agency or structure is set up to run the programme. Adopting
a policy involves official approval of policy proposals as expressed in policy objectives. The
policy adoption stage, according to Anderson (1997:134), is characterised by the following:

yy Final decision-making on actions to pursue the selected policy objectives; for exam-
ple, the policy objective to bring about socio-economic development through the
White Paper on Families
yy Final decision-making on the adoption, rejection or amendment of selected policy
objectives

The process of policy adoption is often intertwined with the policy formulation stage
119

because the role players who are involved in policy formulation are also involved in policy
adoption (Anderson, 1997:128).

The term legitimacy is difficult to define. Fox and Meyer (1995:73) define it as the “feeling”
120

among members of a community that the actions of the government and other role

13
players, as reflected in the political system (a system of government and political processes
applicable within a community) are morally right and acceptable.

Policy adoption involves the selection of a final policy from the available alternatives. Such
121

final choice is usually based on the belief that the policy will benefit the community. As
this decision is regarded as final and binding, it is essential that it satisfies the principle of
legitimacy. The question is how to ensure legitimacy when making a final policy decision
and adopting it as official policy?

To ensure the legitimacy of final policy choices and to meet the needs of society as far as
122

possible, officials and legislators should consider the following guidelines:

yy Careful consideration of reports received from interest groups, individuals, commit-

tees and officials
yy Continuous liaison and contact between policy makers and other interested parties
so that additional information may be considered before making final policy decisions

These two aspects are linked to the principles of openness and transparency and are
123

based on the assumption that involving the people will increase legitimacy.

124 Stage 8: Implementation of the programme

The policy-making process does not end once the policy is finally put into words and has
125

been officially adopted and approved. Formulated policy becomes of value only when it
is put into practice. Policy therefore needs to be implemented. The questions that arise
are: what is policy implementation and what should be considered to ensure that policy is
enforced and implemented? To find the answers, we focus on the complex nature of the
implementation phase and the conditions or requirements for successful implementation.

Anderson (2015:225) describes the implementation of policy as “what happens after a

126

bill becomes law”. Burch and Wood (1990:15) refer to the implementation of policy as
being the execution of policy, while Quade (1989:338) regards it as a process whereby
patterns of behaviour are changed and adapted to carry out policy decisions. Eyestone
(1984:271) describes the implementation phase as the development of techniques and
procedures for the realisation of policy in practice. Implementing policy is no simple task.
The complexity of this process becomes clear when considering statements such as the
following (Parsons, 1995:462):

What can be done to ensure effective implementation of policy? We have already

127

determined that policy implementation implies changes in patterns of behaviour and that
techniques and procedures should be developed to bring about policy implementation.
According to Parsons (1995:486), the following should also be considered to ensure
effective implementation of policy:

yy Proper planning, specifically for financial and human resources and infrastructure.
Good policies are frequently not implemented partly due to lack of resources and a
lack of clearly formulated objectives that can serve as guideline at a later stage for
evaluating implemented policy.

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yy Adequate theory on policy implementation to effect changes during policy

implementation.
yy Legitimate structures for policy implementation to promote cooperation between
implementers.
yy Dedicated and knowledgeable implementers who can use their own judgment to
bring about the realisation of policy objectives.
yy Changes in socio-economic conditions that do not counteract the support of interest
groups and other supporters of the particular policy and that do not undermine the
underlying theory and principles of the particular policy (which means that implement-
ers should continually stress the importance and necessity of the particular policy).

128 Stage 9: Policy evaluation

The final stage of policy-making involves the evaluation of policy. The outcome of a policy
129

is examined in more detail and its impact is analysed. This is an important phase in policy-
making because the evaluation is used to determine to what extent the particular policy
has been efficient, effective, fair and appropriate after being implemented in practice.

You should bear in mind that policy evaluation is not something that takes place only at
130

the end of the policy-making process (in other words after policy has been implemented).
Policy evaluation, as a functional activity, begins in a subtle way even while identifying
the problem and deciding on the agenda. Think of the choices that policy makers have
to make in placing problems on the policy agenda and ensuring that the “best” possible
choice is made between alternative policy objectives.

However, for this learning unit we regard policy evaluation as a systematic process that
131

takes place at the end of the policy-making process (and that involves the evaluation of
the execution and impact of policy). The overall question on the execution or enforcement
and the impact of policy is the following: What should be done to determine whether
a particular policy has had the desired response, impact or results? To find the answer,
we will look at the problems underlying the evaluation phase and then examine the
requirements for successful evaluation more closely.

yy Reasons for policy evaluation

Evaluation is expected to bring order to the untidy world of government (Schurink

132

& Schurink, 2009:51). Part of the war on poverty was an emphasis on (a) evaluation
of educational innovations (for example, the effectiveness of new curricula in schools);
(b) linking the evaluation with resources allocation (for example, through systems for
planning, programming and budgeting); and (c) evaluation of anti-poverty programmes.
However, evaluation studies reveal little improvement in service delivery despite the
billions of rand spent on programmes. Public scepticism consequently grew to such an
extent that people widely believed that “nothing works”. To counteract failed initiatives,
citizens demanded accountable intervention programmes. Subsequent movement led
the way for performance monitoring and a more rigorous evaluation of service delivery
programmes. Brynard (2009:24) therefore argues that all policies and programmes should
be evaluated.

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Cloete (2000:212) indicates that policy evaluation is typically undertaken for one or more
133

of the following reasons:

-- to measure the progress made in achieving policy objectives

-- to learn lessons from a particular project or programme for future policy review,
design and implementation
-- to test the viability of an assumption, principle, model, theory, proposal or strategy
-- to give expression to the notion of political and financial accountability
-- to defend and/or advance a particular matter of viewpoint
-- to enhance the public image of a functionary or institution

134 A well-considered and duly executed evaluation could have the following benefits:

-- It can provide an accurate assessment of the impact of the project, thereby assisting
planners to identify projects that will most likely offer the best returns based on the
resources invested.
-- It can indicate that the observable changes cannot be ascribed to the project itself
(but to the external environment), thus preventing investments in projects that will
probably not deliver the expected benefits.
-- The factors that have a significant impact on the project can be analysed, and in so
doing help the planners to improve the design of the project.
-- The groups that derive the least benefits from a particular project can be identified
and measures implemented to encourage these groups to participate.
-- An assessment of the period during which the impact will be most evident can be
made, improving the accuracy of project analysis procedures (Cloete, 2000:212).

yy Problems underlying the evaluation phase

Quade (1989:272) summarises the process of evaluation as a process whereby a value

135

judgment is made on the outcome and success of a policy. Such a value judgment is
fraught with potential problems. Parsons (1995:565–566) explains as follows:

“However, unlike the designer in engineering or architecture, the policy analyst

136

and policy maker confront a far more complex and messy world in which there
are many values and interests and little control.”

The first factor to be considered is the human factor. Officials with diverse value systems
137

and of various ranks are usually involved in such an evaluation. The question is to what
extent such evaluation is based on objective principles and to what extent officials are able
to distance themselves from subjective value judgments. Secondly, objective judgment
and evaluation of a policy may be influenced by its symbolic impact. The particular
policy may accommodate members of a particular group in the community and create a
sense that policy makers are looking after their interests, without such policy having any
truly measurable and tangible effect on them. Think of the policy introduced to prohibit
smoking in public places in South Africa. Thirdly, one of the main challenges confronting
policy evaluators is the fact that the environment within which evaluation takes place is
not static. The environment is subject to ongoing changes. As a result, policy that has to
be evaluated may become obsolete even as it is being evaluated. The question now is to
what extent evaluators are flexible enough to adapt to changing circumstances.

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The fourth consideration is that policy makers often ignore the results of evaluation,
138

while evaluators are accused of conducting unscientific evaluations that are not based
on exhaustive results shown in evaluation reports. The results of evaluation reports may
also prove that a particular policy is unsuccessful and that its disadvantages outweigh its
benefits. In such cases policy makers often prefer to simply ignore the results presented
by evaluators.

Activity

Read the following case study.

Busisiwe is a social worker employed by a non-profit organisation in the rural community

of Boikhutsong. She is originally from Mpumalanga where she was born and bred.
She moved to the community of Boikhutsong after getting married to her beloved
husband whom she met while studying at university. Busisiwe has been working for
the organisation for the past three years. She notices from her case files that a number
of elderly persons have reported various forms of abuse from both their immediate
families and the community. She talks to her colleagues about her discovery and they
confirm that they have also been receiving reports of abuse and neglect of the elderly.
The discovery becomes a grave concern for Busisiwe and the entire organisation.
Busisiwe and her colleagues started a dialogue with various members of the community,
including the older citizens to determine the extent to which the identified problem is
an issue. They also visited the local clinic as well as the police station in the community
and found out that they are also aware of the increased reports of abuse of the older
persons. Busisiwe was invited to the local community radio station (Khutso FM) where
conversations were held about the phenomenon and a large number of residents
called in to share sentiments of the abuse of the elderly. A week later an article on
the matter appeared in the local newspaper, confirming the problem situation that
Busisiwe had first identified. The article included an invitation to all interested parties
to meet at a church hall in the community two weeks later; this meeting was to
be facilitated by Busisiwe and her colleagues. Busisiwe sent out e-mails and made
telephone calls to all the people they had contacted about this matter previously.
The turnout was astonishing. Representatives from various state and voluntary
organisations attended, as well as affected family members and lay people from
different religious organisations. Busisiwe explained her initial observations and gave
feedback on the meetings that they had so far. She then opened the floor by asking
people in the audience to share their experiences.
After about an hour of sharing, Busisiwe summarised the information and suggested
that a committee be formed to address the issues. Her suggestion was welcomed
and Sister Mokgabudi (head matron at the local clinic), Superintendent Maepa from
the local SAPS, Pastor Mashego (from the local church) and Gogo Mahlangu (retired
teacher) all agreed to serve on the committee, together with Busisiwe.
The purpose of the committee was to gather all possible information about the extent
of the problem locally and to ascertain the situation in neighbouring communities and
which policies were in place. They agreed that a representative from the Department
of Social Development would be co-opted. The also approached the Unisa Social
Work Department to assist with research and literature on the subject of community
development. The committee spent three months obtaining as much relevant
information.

17
 (1) Discuss the stages of policy development that are evident in the case study and post
your opinion on the Discussion Forum on myUnisa.
(2) Visit https://csd.wustl.edu/publications/documents/p14-23.pdf to read about the
process that was followed in drafting of the White Paper for Social Welfare. Identify the
stages in policy development and discuss them on the Discussion Forum on myUnisa.

2.3 THE ROLE PLAYERS INVOLVED IN SOCIAL POLICY

DEVELOPMENT
139The following are the role players at various spheres of government:

yy General public: People who are directly or indirectly affected by the project (women’s
groups, individuals and families, indigenous groups, religious groups).
yy Civil society organisations: Networks, national and international NGOs, grassroot
organisations, trade unions, policy development and research institutes, media, com-
munity-based organisations.
yy Private sector: Umbrella groups representing groups within the private sector,
professional associations, chambers of commerce. Donor and international financial
institutions: resource providers and development partners.
yy The local government: The local sphere of policy making in South Africa operates
at local government level for the provision of democratic and accountable govern-
ance, encouraging involvement of communities and community organisations. Local
government thus has a constitutional obligation to facilitate involvement of citizens
in policy-making.
yy The provincial government: Another level where the state plays a role in policy
through the legislature, which is the driving engine behind policy making at the
provincial level.
yy Parliament: Policy making in the national sphere of government is mostly concen-
trated in parliament, which is charged with facilitating public involvement in national
legislative processes through its two houses, namely the National Assembly (NA) and
the National Council of Provinces (NCOP), which must facilitate government by the
people. Constitutionally, parliament is obligated to ensure democratic and inclusive
public participation in various legislative and policy-making processes.

2.4 THE ROLE OF SOCIAL WORKERS IN POLICY DEVELOPMENT

AND IMPLEMENTATION

Study section 4.3.5 in the prescribed book.

Policy has historically been an important part of the social work profession (National
140

Association of Social Workers, 2008). The Code of Ethics specifically calls on social workers

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to be active in the policy arena. Social work has prided itself on being a values-based
profession (Biesman, 2004:115) and a key component of this has been to call attention to
social problems and to advocate for policy change that address these social problems
with the intent to improve the lives of individuals and families.

Policy practice refers to activities that are carried out by social workers as an integral
141

part of their professional work and that aim to influence the development, enactment,
implementation, modification or preservation of social policies, at organisational, local,
national, or international levels (Jansson, 2008). The goal of such activities is to further
policies that contribute to social justice and that better address service users’ problems
(Cummins, Byers & Pedrick, 2011; Ellis, 2008; Hoefer, 2012). Within the social work discourse,
there is an emerging consensus that policy practice cannot be limited to a small number
of social workers who are policy experts or engaged in macro practice. Rather it is relevant
to the ongoing practice of social workers engaged in diverse fields of practice and levels
of intervention. The social work profession is equipped to influence local, national and
international social policies, because it can contribute knowledge and understanding
of people’s needs arising from social work experience and the personal contact that it
involves; we can contribute information about the effects of social changes and how
people adjust to them, arising from our understanding of human behaviour and the
influence of environmental factors, and we can contribute knowledge about how to
involve people in cooperative action and understanding that will enable them to achieve
personal satisfaction, assume leadership and accept responsibility.

In essence, you will notice from all twelve roles listed in the prescribed reading that
142

social workers do everything from contributing to the development of social policies

and overseeing the administration of social programmes to working directly with the
recipients of assistance, ensuring that they meet qualifications and that they receive the
help they need and are entitled to. Without social workers’ in-depth knowledge of the
needs of individuals and communities, our social welfare system might cease functioning.
It takes the efforts of social workers in policy-making and programme administration to
adequately provide the assistance to those who are in need.

2.5 CONCLUSION
This learning unit addressed the process that unfolds when a social welfare policy is
143

developed and implemented. In South Africa, social welfare policy is formulated and
implemented against the backdrop of the developmental approach. As South Africa is a
fairly new democracy, the White Paper for Social Welfare was developed to address and
regulate social work action on both a macro and a micro level. In this learning unit, we have
identified and discussed the stages that unfolds when social welfare policy is developed.

We have also elucidated on the role that social workers play in the development and
144

undertaking of policy. Social welfare policy forms an integral part of social work. As social
workers, we are instrumental in developing and implementing policy among the people
we work with. Although some people may be under the impression that working with
policy is an administrative and theoretical function, the interaction with other policy
documents, people and communities makes working with social welfare policy an action

19
that regulates our conduct as professionals. Especially on a local or micro level, we are
confronted with enacting policy on a daily basis. The next learning unit focuses on the
characteristics and principles inherent in social welfare policy.

6Self-assessment

(1) Identify the various role players who are involved during the process of policy formulation.
(2) Why is community participation important in policy formulation?
(3) What is the role of social workers in policy formulation?
(4) In learning unit 1 we looked at the White Paper on Families. Can you link the stages of
policy formulation to this policy document?

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LEARNING UNIT 3
The characteristics and principles of
social welfare policy

Learning outcomes

After you have completed this learning unit, you should be able to do the following:
−− Identify the characteristics and principles of social welfare policy.
−− Discuss the influence of developmental social welfare policy on social work practice.

Key concepts

Rights based, welfare pluralism, investment, partnership

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this learning unit, we will explore the characteristics and principles of developmental
146

social welfare that has been adopted in South Africa. The new way of thinking about
social welfare promotes a holistic or integrated vision of development; it focuses on all
the different systems and processes in a community and how they interact as a whole.
What makes this approach different from others is that it moves away from a traditional
problem orientation, where so-called experts identify the needs of a community and
provide solutions to their problems.

3.2 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL WELFARE POLICY

Study section 3.3 in the prescribed book.

21
The changeover of the South African government in 1994 brought along a need for
147

transformation on all levels of society, including social welfare. As part of this transformation,
the South African government adopted the developmental approach to social welfare.
This bold step was an attempt to heal the divisions created by the apartheid laws and
build a united South Africa based on the ideals of the Constitution. Remember that the
Constitution was adopted to be the highest law of the country in 1996 and therefore, all
other laws and legislation must comply with the Constitution.

The core characteristics of developmental welfare policy are incorporated in the definition of
148

developmental social work in the study section. You were introduced to them elementarily
in the module BSW1501. In this section, all five of them are purposefully unpacked to
understand their core elements. The following table summarises these characteristics.
To comprehensively learn about them, study section 3.3 of the prescribed book.

CHARACTERISTIC WHAT IT IS ABOUT

Rights-based approach This element emphasises social justice, a minimum
standard of living, equitable access and equal opportunity
to services and benefits, and a commitment to meeting
the needs of all South Africans, particularly the most
disadvantaged. Everyone is entitled to economic, social
and cultural rights within the limits of the resources of
the state.
Harmonising social and economic Developmental social welfare is a pro-poor approach
policies that promotes people-centred development, social
investments in human capabilities and the building of
social capital. Economic and social policies are equally
important components of the development process.
Participation and democracy All South Africans should be afforded the opportunity to
play an active role in promoting their own well-being and
in contributing to their society’s growth and development.
Democracy and participation or participatory democracy
in social and economic development is a key premise of the
developmental approach to social welfare in South Africa.
Welfare pluralism/collaborative The successful implementation of developmental social
partnership welfare services depends on role players who bring expert
knowledge, skills, financial resources and commitment to
achieve the goals of the sector.
Bridging the micro-macro divide The framework promotes the enhancement and
empowerment of individuals, families, groups
and communities by intervening at different levels,
using multi-methods and community-based, integrated
generalist practice interventions.
149

Activity

(1) What are the core characteristics of developmental social welfare policy?
(2) Let us assume that the following excerpt is from a policy document regarding pension
grants:

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Old age or pension grants are paid to women from 60 years of age and men from
65 years. To get a grant, one has to apply at the nearest SASSA office and applicants
need to take along their identity or proof of citizenship. The grant is received once a
month and can be paid out at the Post Office, into the bank account, in cash by the
clerk or machine at a pay point or by cheque, and a receipt is provided. The pension
grant stops when one dies, or if a person does not collect the grant for three months;
however, this may be refunded if one gives a valid reason for not collecting, such as
a doctor‘s letter of disability.

Looking at the characteristics that you have just comprehended, which of them do you
think are not recognised by the excerpt in the policy.

2Feedback

(1) Developmental social welfare policy is rooted in a rights-based approach to develop-

ment, which includes the guarantee of a minimum standard of living, equitable access
and equal opportunity for every citizen to receive services and benefits. The focus is on
the disadvantaged. This means that all the citizens of this country, especially those who
were previously disadvantaged, will have access to all services.
yy It is concerned with harmonising economic and social policies. This means that it is
based on the idea that economic growth alone cannot bring about improvement;
there must also be social investments such as education, skills development and
healthcare in human capabilities.
yy It emphasises the idea of promoting participation in development, which includes
creating opportunities for citizens to be actively involved in promoting their own devel-
opment and the development of their communities. Previously, decisions were made
for people and communities, whereas they now have a right to self-determination.
yy It is based on the partnership model, which encourages collaboration between indi-
viduals, groups, communities, civil society, donors, development agencies and the
private and public sectors to promote development.
yy It attempts to overcome the divisions that existed historically between micro and
macro intervention strategies. All people are regarded as equal and individuals will
not only benefit from a better society, but also contribute to improve society.
(2) The excerpt states that women receive old age grant from the age of 60 years, while men
are only eligible for the old age grant from the age of 65 years. Therefore, the excerpt does
not recognise the rights-based approach preserved by developmental welfare policy that
is focused on ensuring that access to services occurs in a fair and equitable manner. The
policy must be amended to provide for age equalisation for state old age grants where
men and women are treated as equal and are afforded equal opportunities.

3.3 THE PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL WELFARE POLICY

There are a number of important elements that are regarded as key foundational principles
150

for a sound developmental approach in the South African context. The developmental
approach to welfare is based on the principles enshrined in the White Paper for Social

23
Welfare. Let us unpack the principles to have a broader understanding of what social
welfare policy entails.

yy Participation: People should be fully engaged in their own process of learning,

growth and change, starting from where they are and moving at their own pace.
yy Self-reliance: People should be connected to one another and their environment in
ways that make them more effective in their individual and collective efforts towards
a better life, including development of leadership, decision-making and planning
abilities.
yy Empowerment: Power relations should be shifted towards people achieving greater
control and influence over decisions and resources that affect the quality of their
lives through increasingly interdependent relationships.
yy Universal access: Social development services are available to all vulnerable groups.
No individual or group is denied access, either because of a lack of resources or a
lack of knowledge of how to access services.
yy Equity: Equity refers to processes that are based on justice and fairness. The distri-
bution of resources in social development, as well as the development processes
themselves, should be based on needs, priorities and historical imbalances.
yy Transparency: Transparent means easy to see through, understand or recognise.
Transparency, with regard to social development, means that a climate should be
facilitated in which there is access to information and an openness of administra-
tive and management procedures. There should thus be a free flow of information.
Everyone has the right to know what is going on. A context of transparency cannot
be created by withholding information and trying to manipulate facts.
yy Appropriateness: Development should be responsive to social, economic, cultural,
indigenous and political conditions.
yy Accountability: This refers to the ability to take responsibility for our actions, that
is, to be able to answer questions on why certain actions have been taken in the
developmental process. In practice, it means that we should comply with all legisla-
tive, policy and financial regulations.
yy Accessibility: Access refers to strategies, procedures and processes that we put in
place to make resources available to diverse groups in a variety of contexts. We should
thus ensure that physical and geographical conditions, language and the needs of
people are considered in developmental processes.
yy Efficiency and effectiveness: We should ensure that objectives are achieved in a
cost-effective manner.
yy Partnership: This refers to the collective responsibility of government, civil society
and the private or business sector to deliver services.
yy Social integration: This refers to policies and programmes that promote social justice.
yy Sustainability: This refers to the long-term maintenance of desired goals.

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3.4 THE INFLUENCE OF DEVELOPMENTAL SOCIAL WELFARE

POLICY ON SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

Study sections 4.3 and 4.3.1 in the prescribed book.

This section brings us to the idea of how the developmental welfare policy informs social
151

work practice. It is important that you first understand what developmental social work is
and how it came into existence. From this definition flows the impact that this approach
has on social work practice. As we have seen in learning unit 1, social welfare in South Africa
has gone through the process of evolution to what it is today. South Africa adopted the
developmental approach to social work, which essentially means that social work practice
executes its core services according to the values, principles and beliefs of the approach.

152 As you study the prescribed section, take note that developmental social work:

yy promotes a welfare system that facilitates the development of human capacity and
self-reliance within a caring and enabling socio-economic environment.
yy departs from a strengths-based perspective that recognises the inherent strengths,
abilities and potential of the people. The strengths-based perspective helps social
workers to learn a new language of strengths and positive human qualities that are
often unrecognised, unnamed, and unacknowledged.
yy fosters an environment of participation and collaboration where all stakeholders, in-
cluding individuals, groups and communities are actively involved in issues affecting
them. Participating in formulating the fundamental goals as well as in planning and
carrying out an activity that empowers stakeholders and nurture a sense of ownership.

3.5 CONCLUSION
In this learning unit, we have discussed the core characteristics of the developmental
153

welfare policy as well as the guiding principles such as equity, participation and partnership.
The influence of the developmental approach on social work practice was also elaborated
upon. There is a clear relationship between developmental social work and developmental
social welfare approach. In the next learning unit, we cast our focus on trends and social
issues pertaining to developmental social welfare policy.

5Self-assessment

(1) List the principles inherent in the developmental social welfare policy.
(2) What is the influence of the developmental approach on social work practice?
(3) Which principles do you think are easy to implement in the current South African situation?
(4) Which principles do you think are challenging and difficult in the current South Africa
social welfare situation?
(5) Do you think that developmental social work is practiced in your community? Write a
paragraph to describe the positive and negative of what you observe in your community
about social work practice.

25
LEARNING UNIT 4
Contemporary trends and social issues to
developmental social welfare policy

Learning outcomes

After you have completed this learning unit, you should be able to do the following:
−− Explain the role of human rights and social justice perspectives in developmental
social welfare policy.
−− Elucidate on social exclusion and its relevance to developmental social welfare policy.
−− Explain the relevance of diversity, including gender equality, to developmental social
welfare policy.
−− Explain the relevance of policy issues related to poverty, inequality and unemploy-
ment in communities.

Key concepts

Human rights, social justice, social exclusion, diversity, gender equality, poverty,
unemployment

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The changing environments and new trends continue to pose challenges to social work and
154

social welfare policy. The birth rate, natural disasters such as floods or droughts, growing
or failing economies, health and diseases, and many other factors affect individuals,
groups, communities, societies and countries, requiring governments, non-governmental
organisations, private sector and society to keep adapting to changing environments.
As people adapt and attempt to deal with these changes, social work as a practice and
profession is compelled to adapt to these changes and continue to play a relevant and
meaningful role in assisting those in need. Remember that the South African government
adopted a developmental approach to social welfare. One of the core themes that emerge
from the developmental approach to social welfare is the rights-based approach that
emphasises social justice, a minimum standard of living, equitable access and equal
opportunity to services and benefits, and a commitment to meeting the needs of all South

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Africans, particularly the most disadvantaged. The characteristics of the developmental

social welfare were comprehensively discussed in learning unit three. Everyone is entitled
to economic, social and cultural rights within the limits of the resources of the state.
Therefore, services in South Africa are delivered from a right-based perspective. Rights-
based services include interventions such as the protection of rights of populations at risk
of oppression and marginalisation, the promotion of rights through education, challenging
policies and social systems that compromise the rights and advocacy for needs and rights.

In this learning unit we will reflect and look at the role of human rights and social justice
155

in developmental welfare policy as well as the significance of poverty, unemployment,

social exclusion, and inequality in the daily lives of South Africans, especially the
vulnerable communities. Lastly, we will reflect on the relevance of diversity in developmental
social welfare policy.

4.2 HUMAN RIGHTS AND SOCIAL JUSTICE IN

DEVELOPMENTAL SOCIAL WELFARE
South Africa has a well-developed and structured constitution. Countries worldwide have
156

reflected and commented on the South Africa Constitution as one of the best constitutions
in the world. Chapter 2 in the South African Constitution covers the Bill of Rights, which
addresses the human rights of all South Africans who live in the country. The purpose of
this chapter is to ensure that all South Africans honour and respect the rights of all who
lives in it. The preamble of the Constitution clearly indicates that South Africa belongs to all
who live in it. As a young democracy, South Africa has many challenges in implementing
the Bill of Rights. This section of the learning unit looks at the human rights and how it
is implemented in different sectors and sections of the country by different role players.

4.2.1 Human Rights

Human rights are commonly understood as being those rights that are inherent to the
157

human being. The concept of human rights acknowledges that every single human
being is entitled to enjoy his or her human rights without distinction as to race, colour,
sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth
or other status.

Most people in South Africa were excluded from decision-making ever since the country
158

was first colonised by the Dutch and later by the British. This situation reached its peak
with the system of apartheid, which segregated the non-white population of this country
politically for 46 years. The apartheid system drafted and enforced laws and policies that
violated the human rights of most people at a time when other colonies were becoming
independent. These laws and policies curtailed their freedom of choice, regulated their
movement and where they could live, work and attend school, as well as whom they
could marry, and so forth; thus, segregating the different peoples of South Africa racially,
politically and socially.

During this period, mainstream social work in South Africa was isolated from international
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social work for decades because of sanctions and boycotts of this country. Furthermore,

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many – if not most – social workers worked for government departments and organisations
that accepted – or were forced to uphold – the norm of separate development, or
apartheid. This created an abnormal and extremely frustrating situation in which social
workers tried to help people, while simultaneously being employed in unjust systems
that were contributing to much of the distress and suffering of those very same people
they were trying to help.

Social workers and people in other helping professions thus found themselves in the middle
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of a situation where, on the one hand, they were committed to helping disadvantaged
groups, but on the other hand, they themselves were being regulated by policies and
systems that undermined the values of social work. With the dismantling of apartheid in
the early 1990s, a new constitution was drawn up for South Africa, which included many
of the rights found in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The new Constitution,
together with the role played by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in dealing
with the human rights violations during the apartheid era, served as an effective means
for acknowledging the role of social welfare and human rights and bringing together
South Africans of all races. Since then, a human rights culture has been promoted and
is enshrined in the Constitution, thereby allowing social workers to work actively and
consciously in advancing the cause of fundamental rights for all.

The following are some of the most important characteristics of human rights:
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yy Human rights are founded on respect for the dignity and worth of each person.
yy Human rights are universal, meaning that they are applied equally and without
discrimination to all people.
yy Human rights are inalienable, in that no one can have his or her human rights taken
away other than in specific situations; for example, the right to liberty can be restricted
if a person is found guilty of a crime by a court of law.
yy Human rights are indivisible, interrelated and interdependent, because it is insuf-
ficient to respect some human rights and not others.

In practice, the violation of one right will often affect the respect of several other rights.
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All human rights should therefore be seen as having equal importance and of being
equally essential to respect for the dignity and worth of every person.

4.2.1.1 The violation of human rights

We often read in the newspapers and hear on the news that women and girls are raped or
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forced into prostitution through trafficking. More than often the international community
fails to address the problem of sexual violence particularly during armed conflict.

Sexual offensives, which involve sexual mutilation, sexual humiliation, and forced
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pregnancy, are quite common in everyday life and even more so in times of war. Such
crimes are often prompted by the long-held views that women are the pleasures of war
to which soldiers are entitled, and these actions are hardly ever perceived as a violation
of the human rights of women.

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The trafficking of women and girls, a form of sexual slavery, in which women are
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transported across national borders and marketed for prostitution, is another gross
violation of human rights. However, sexual violence is used to silence women who are
politically active, and often it is used as a ploy to inflict terror upon the population at
large. In the 1990s, the media reported that “rape and other sexual atrocities were a
deliberate and systematic part of the Bosnian Serb campaign as a reward for victory in
the war” (the former Yugoslavia).

Torture of any person is a physical or psychological humiliation or annihilation of the

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dignity of another person, which is another violation of human rights. Physical torture
varies from mutilation, beatings and electric shocks to psychological torture where people
are deprived of food and water for long periods, kept standing upright for hours, deprived
of sleep, or tormented by high-level noise.

The abduction of persons, such as the girls in Nigeria by Boko Haram in April 2014, is
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a typical form of the violation of human rights. Individuals who pose a threat to those
in power, such as in Zimbabwe, or do not share the political views of leaders, are often
arbitrarily imprisoned or never even brought to trial. The denial of people to vote or being
excluded from all forms of political participation is also a violation of rights as well as the
deprivation of people’s freedom of movement, which may be enforced as was the case
of black people during the apartheid regime in South Africa.

Political oppression, like in South Africa, took the form of discrimination based on the
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colour of people’s skins. In such cases, basic human rights are denied, which is often also
the case relating to religion, ethnicity, race or gender. Apartheid, which denied political
rights based on race, was perhaps one of the most severe forms of discrimination since
it was legalised.

Racial segregation. The system of apartheid in South Africa institutionalised extreme

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racial segregation that involved laws against interracial marriage or sexual relations and
forced people of different races to live in separate territorial areas. Certain people were
regarded as inferior by definition and were not perceived as full human beings under the
law. The apartheid system aimed to enforce social control and brought about a society
divided along racial or colour lines, which was characterised by a systematic disregard
for human rights. Women in some regions (Africa and Asia, for example) suffer greater
poverty than men and are denied political influence, education, and even job training.

Entrenched discrimination against women is prevalent in many parts of the world and is
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expressed in various forms of political and social oppression. This includes strict dress codes
that impose severe limitations on women’s basic liberties. It had been noticed all over the
world that there exists a strong interdependence between human rights violations and
persistent conflict or war. The abuse of human rights often leads to conflict, and conflict
typically results in human rights violations. It is a vicious circle and it is not surprising, then,
that human right abuses are often at the centre of wars and that protection of human
rights is central to conflict resolution.

Economic and political rights. When the economic and political rights of people are
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violated, when the rights to adequate food, housing, employment and cultural life are

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denied, and when large groups of people are excluded from the society’s decision-making
processes, there is likely to be great social unrest. Such conditions often give rise to
justice conflicts, in which parties demand that their basic needs be met. Many conflicts
are sparked or spread by violations of human rights. For example, massacres or torture
may inflame hatred and strengthen an opponent’s determination to continue fighting.

Violations may also lead to further violence and can contribute to a conflict spiralling out
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of control. In cases where extreme violations of human rights have occurred, reconciliation
and peace building become much more difficult. Unresolved human rights issues can
also serve as obstacles to peace negotiations. This is because it is difficult for parties to
move toward conflict transformation and forgiveness when memories of severe violence
and atrocity are still primary in their minds. Therefore, South Africa embarked upon the
“Truth and Reconciliation Commission”.

4.2.1.2 The South African Human Right Commission (SAHRC)

The South African Parliament passed the Human Rights Commission Act 54 of 1994,
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which confirms South Africa’s commitment to human rights. The Act determines that a
Human Rights Commission should be set up as one of the watchdogs for human rights.
The task of this Commission is to promote and monitor human rights in South Africa.
Other important state institutions that share this role are the Public Protector and the
Commission for Gender Equality. There are also a number of non-state institutions and
non-governmental organisations that protect human rights.

If you have access to a computer and the internet, you can discover more about the work
174

of the SAHRC by visiting www.sahrc.org.za. The following information is provided by the

South African Human Rights Commission.

The SAHRC is the national institution established to entrench constitutional democracy. It

175

is committed to promote respect for, observance of, and the protection of human rights
for everyone without fear or favour. The mission statement of the SAHRC reads as follows:

SAHRC is an independent national institution created by the Constitution of South Africa in 1994.
It has the task to help South Africans to develop a culture of human rights and the observance of
human rights as enshrined in the Bill of Rights. The Preamble to the Human Rights Commission
Act states its purpose as follows:
yy to promote the observance of fundamental rights
yy to promote respect for fundamental rights
yy to promote the protection of fundamental rights
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The SAHRC has certain legal powers of investigation. It can subpoena (summon) witnesses
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and has powers of search and seizure. There are many examples of how human rights
have been protected through the intervention of the SAHRC. Many of their interventions
follow on complaints about race and/or gender discrimination, or human rights violations
by institutions like the SAPS and Correctional Services. They also investigate a range of
other cases as the following example illustrates.

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An example of a case solved by the SAHRC

The SAHRC investigated initiation practices at a college after a complaint had been received. It
found that there had been violations of human rights and that the signed declarations of students
of their willingness to participate were unconstitutional – rights cannot be signed away. The
Commission recommended a strategy to prevent future initiation practices and to transform the
practice of initiation into orientation. For a comprehensive report on this investigation, visit www.
sahrc.org.za.

4.2.2 Social Justice

The human rights perspective is closely related to the idea of social justice that requires
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certain kinds of attitude and behaviour from all humans, social institutions and the social
work profession in particular. The Social Work Dictionary defines social justice as “an
ideal condition in which all members of a society have the same basic rights, protection,
opportunities, obligations, and social benefits” (Barker, 2003:404–5). Social justice is also
about ensuring that resources are equitably distributed. As key social work value, social
justice entails advocacy to confront discrimination, oppression and institutional inequities.
Operationalisation of this concept into practice falls far short of the ideal, but it challenges
social workers to strive to create environments that meet Karger and Stoesz’s (1998:486)
definition that “social justice connotes equity and fairness in all areas of social, political,
and economic life, as well as the provision of basic necessities to all without regard to
their participation in the market, an objective of liberals and progressives”. Heffernan,
Shuttlesworth and Ambrosino (2001:78) suggest that social and economic justice includes
fairness and equity regarding basic civil and human rights, protections, resources and
opportunities and social benefits.

4.2.3 Code of Ethics in Social Work, Human Rights and Social Justice
In 1996, the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) clarified its goals in a rewriting
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of its code of ethics and the focus of the profession was expanded to include helping
vulnerable and oppressed people; emphasising respect for ethnic diversity globally; and
promoting social justice and social change. NASW (2003:211) has taken a decisive step
towards moving the profession forward by endorsing a human rights framework for
social work and in defining human rights as transcending ‘civil and political customs, in
consideration of the basic life-sustaining needs of all human beings, without distinction’.
Therefore, social workers have a responsibility to advocate for human rights and social
justice and to question exploitative structures by addressing the urgent need for economic
security, social equality and better social services and programmes. In holding the state
accountable for the social protection of the population and the human rights standards,
the effectiveness of the social work mission will be enhanced.

Human rights and social justice are the cornerstone of social development. Human rights
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have a long tradition in social work theory and practice. The more recent documents
of the scientific and professional community relating explicitly to human rights include
the International Definition of the Social Work Profession and the ethics in social work.
Social work is a profession that is built on the professional code of ethics. Two of the key
values and principles found in the professional code of ethics are human dignity and

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worth, and social justice. Human dignity and worth means that social workers respect
the inherent dignity and worth of every person and respect the human rights expressed
in the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Social justice encompasses
the satisfaction of basic needs; fair access to services and benefits to achieve human
potential; and recognition of individual and community rights.

These values and principles in the code of ethics already establish the foundations
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for human rights-based social work practice. They readily acknowledge human rights
principles, explicitly the Universal Declaration.

Activity

Read the following case study.

Boikanyo Senogi is 25 years old and is visually impaired. During the 2014 general
elections, she walked to her local voting station to cast her vote. Boikanyo is unable
to complete her ballot paper by herself. Boikanyo lives alone and, although she has
in the past asked friends or family to accompany her to the voting station, on this
occasion she attended alone. She spoke with the voting officer who identified himself
as Tshepo. Upon identifying herself and explaining her situation to Tshepo, there was
a period during which Boikanyo was aware of numerous people being involved in
discussions regarding her vote, none of whom identified themselves to her or spoke
directly to her. Eventually, Tshepo said “come with me, I will help you to vote.” Tshepo
accompanied Boikanyo, who proceeded to ask Boikanyo what her preferences were
on the ballot paper. Boikanyo had obtained information about the candidates in
advance, so was able to quickly tell Tshepo her order of preferences. Tshepo said
“are you really going to waste your vote on that nutcase?” Boikanyo said “yes, that is
the vote I wish to cast.” Tshepo then said to Boikanyo “I’ll put these papers into the
ballot box for you” and escorted Boikanyo to the door. Boikanyo approaches you
as a social worker and indicates that she was unhappy with this experience. Firstly,
Boikanyo tells you that she was denied a secret ballot. None of the options available
to Boikanyo permit her to vote without telling another person her vote; and, as it
turns out, she had to read aloud her preferences to Tshepo in the middle of a busy
voting station where not only Tshepo but many other people voting could hear her
vote. Secondly, Boikanyo says that she has no way of knowing what Tshepo wrote
on the ballot paper. This is particularly concerning given that Boikanyo’s choice was
publicly ridiculed by Tshepo, and Boikanyo cannot help but wonder whether Tshepo
had in fact voted for his own choice of party.

(1) Given the narrative, it is clear that Boikanyo’s human rights were violated. Which
human rights were violated?
(2) On what basis was Boikanyo denied access to her human rights?
(3) Write your thoughts and post them on myUnisa to have a discussion with your fellow
students.

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4.3 POVERTY AND INEQUALITY

Study section 1.2.2.1 in the prescribed book.

Although related, poverty and inequality are distinct concepts, centred on deprivation (for
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poverty) and disadvantage (for inequality). Poverty describes a state in which individuals
or households show significant deficits in wellbeing (Plagerson & Ulriksen, 2016:184).
Inequality, on the other hand, is a situation of disadvantage among others. While poverty
focuses on those whose standard of living falls below a threshold, inequality is related
to variations in living standards across a whole population. Both concepts operate with
narrow definitions that focus on a singular measure of deprivation or disadvantage
(usually income) and broad definitions, which include a wider range of aspects considered
important to capture fully the experience of being poor or disadvantaged.

According to May (2016:4), some of the causes of poverty and inequality in the South
185

African context include:

yy The impact of apartheid stripped people of their assets, especially land, distorted
economic markets and social institutions through racial discrimination, and resulted
in violence and destabilisation.
yy Undermining the asset base of individuals, households and communities through ill
health, overcrowding, environmental degradation, the mismatch of resources and
opportunities, race and gender discrimination and social isolation.
yy The impact of a disabling state, which included the behaviour and attitudes of gov-
ernment officials, the absence of information concerning rights, roles and responsi-
bilities, and the lack of accountability by all levels of government.

These triggers have shaped the nature of poverty in South Africa, and importantly, they
186

have the potential to ensure the persistence of poverty even though many other aspects
of the South African political economy are being transformed

To deal with these issues, new policies had to be developed when our new democratically
187

elected government was established in 1994. During the period of transition towards
full democracy, there were distinct factors that influenced the drafting of new policies,
including a new welfare policy, in South Africa. These factors included a combination of
needs and expectations of the citizens, socio-economic and politico-legal circumstances
and a number of international factors at that time. These factors led to the development
of three key documents, namely, the Constitution, the Reconstruction and Development
Programme (RDP) and the White Paper for Social Welfare.

The Constitution may be regarded as the most important policy document in South
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Africa. It is important to note that the equality clause in the Constitution specifically
allows for redressing past disadvantages and informs all policy-making, including welfare
policy. The RDP was aimed at strengthening public ownership, redistributing wealth and
regulating the economy. However, it became what Marais (1998:192) referred to as a “social

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containment programme that acts as a quasi-welfare cushion in an open economy”. Its
tendency towards neoliberalism did, however, set the scene for the development of the
White Paper for Social Welfare. From the outset, the White Paper for Social Welfare adopted
the developmental approach to social welfare. It was drafted in a time of economic decline
and increasing poverty; the implication was that more people would become dependent
on welfare due to a lack of income, but there would be fewer resources to assist them. At
the same time, issues of inequity and accessibility of services needed to be addressed.

According to Patel and Hochfeld (2012:691), the social development approach would be
189

the ideal way to address these issues, because it is “explicitly redistributive and inclusive”,
managing to synchronise economic and social policies on both macro and micro levels.

If we take a closer look at the White Paper, we find a strong indication of neoliberal trends
190

owing to its emphasis on self-reliance and development of human capital and human
rights. In addition, there is an equally strong emphasis on socio-democratic values,
including a focus on the needs of people, equity and basic welfare rights.

Accordingly, social welfare is perceived to consist of two pillars, namely, social security
191

and social welfare services. Social security includes public cash transfers in the form of
pensions and grants; for example, old age pensions, disability grants and children’s grants.
Social welfare services include services regarding general and specific needs, which are
dealt with primarily by the traditional social work methods of casework, group work
and community work. This concept required an integrated and intersectoral approach
to welfare, on the one hand, making provision for people to care for their families and,
on the other hand, making provision for a system that is accessible to all persons with
special needs (Sevenhuijsen, Bozalek, Gouws & Minnaar-McDonald, 2003:305).

The White Paper was accepted as a policy document in 1996 and was adopted by
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Parliament in 1997. While Professor Patel was presenting a paper at the George Warren
Brown School of Social Work in Washington in 2014, she gave an overview and a brief
assessment of the White Paper since its inception. She expressed the view that the social
security aspect of welfare can be regarded as “South Africa’s greatest achievement in the
implementation of developmental welfare” (Patel, 2014:5).

She indicated that the implementation of the welfare services was negatively affected
193

by a lack of funding, although funding was provided to expand social security, and the
underfunding of non-profit organisations. In addition, she stated that the transition
from a social treatment approach to a social development approach never took place.
She pointed out that one of the lessons learnt throughout the process was that “we
can develop the most visionary policies, but if insufficient attention is paid to policy
implementation, the policy will never become more than a good idea”. She also pointed
out that there is limited knowledge and skills in “evidence-based” policymaking and the
monitoring thereof, something which should strongly be considered in the training of
social workers (Patel, 2014:6).

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4.4 UNEMPLOYMENT

Study section 1.2.2.2 in the prescribed book.

The social work profession is committed to the advancement of social and economic
194

justice. The world of work forms an integral part of the human environment in which
the social worker operates. Though most people usually consider employment purely in
economic terms, social workers recognise that employment involves basic values, both
for the human society and the individual.

Unemployment results in economic deprivation, emotional and psychological stress,

195

social and family problems. Social workers in South Africa have been exposed to these
problems for decades, but have been largely ineffectual because of structural conditions,
racial inequality and a general sense of powerlessness (Triegaardt, 1993:296). Despite the
government’s recent commitment to the optimum development of the total workforce
irrespective of race, colour or gender, racial inequality permeates the workforce in terms
of hiring practice, job promotion, job creation and training opportunities for improvement
of the level of skills.

Unemployment remains alarmingly high in South Africa. The South African government
196

has produced quite a number of policies that address the unemployment situation. These
policies do not exist in a vacuum, but they relate to each other and to related issues like
poverty. A rather broad plan is the Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative of South Africa
(AsgiSA). The Black Economic Empowerment initiative is another policy that focuses on
employment. The employment policies are supposed to mesh well with other policies in
the field of incentives to employment creation. The expanded public works programme
(EPWP) is another South African policy to address unemployment. The appeal of such
programmes is obvious, and it could be located where rural unemployment is severe.
The public works programme can potentially employ large numbers of poorly educated
and otherwise unemployed workers.

4.5 SOCIAL EXCLUSION

Study section 1.2.2.4 in the prescribed book.

Social exclusion suggests an isolation that is not necessarily connected to financial hardship.
197

Those who are, for example gay, female, older, or who have disabilities or are from a
different ethnic group can be excluded by individual prejudices and by the stigmatising
policies and structures of the wider society. Nevertheless, poverty is the great excluder
for many people because poverty is concerned not only with lack of income, but with

35
the lack of choice and opportunities that wealthier people, however otherwise excluded,
still enjoy. Poverty adds a crucial dimension to any form of social exclusion.

Social exclusion further involves the lack of or denial of resources, rights, goods and
198

services, and the inability to participate in the normal relationships and activities, available
to most people in a society. This section provides various factors that contribute or give
rise to social exclusion and how they can be mitigated. The reverse of social exclusion is
social inclusion. Social inclusion refers to a process by which efforts are made to ensure
equal opportunities for all, regardless of their background, to enable full and active
participation in all aspects of life, including civic, social, economic, and political activities,
as well as participation in decision-making processes. Therefore, an inclusive society is a
society that overrides differences of race, gender, class, generation and geography, and
ensures inclusion, equality of opportunity as well as capability of all members of the
society to determine an agreed set of social institutions that govern social interaction.
There are numerous ways to promote social inclusion and remove impeding obstacles,
including protection and empowerment of the vulnerable and marginalised, proclaiming
the right to differ, and eliminating discrimination based on attributes, such as gender,
age and ethnicity.

4.6 GENDER EQUALITY

Gender equality is one of the ideals enshrined in the South Africa Bill of Rights of the
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Constitution, 1996. Gender is defined as culturally acceptable attitudes, behaviour,

responsibilities, opportunities and constraints of females and males (World Health
Organization, 2012). Gender also refers to an array of socially constructed roles and
relationships, personality traits, values, relative power and influence that society ascribes
to the two sexes on a differential basis (Kaithuru, 2015:604). Patriarchy was a key feature
employed during colonialism and the apartheid era that shaped all areas of the social
life of the South African society. According to Kim (2010:37), women were defined to be
inferior to men and were assigned the positions of minors in both the public and private
spheres of life. In the private sphere, women were less likely to participate in decision-
making and in most interpersonal relationships men had more power than women. It is
important for social welfare policy to consider issues of gender equality. Therefore, social
workers need to have a good understanding of gender equality to ensure that all people
are treated in a fair and equitable way within a genuinely inclusive environment. This can
be quite challenging as the process of examining or re-examining your own thoughts
may cause you to question some of your preconceived ideas.

Activity

(1) Do you think that males and females should behave in any particular way?
(2) Write down some words that you think apply to girls/women and to boys/men.

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As adapted from United Nations Women’s Gender mainstreaming: Strategy for promoting
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gender equality (2001), gender equality can be described as follows:

The equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities of women and men and
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girls and boys. Gender equality implies that the interests, needs and priorities of
both women and men are considered by recognising the diversity of different
groups of women and men. Gender equality is both a human rights principle
and a precondition for sustainable, people-centred development.

Although gender equality is acknowledged as significant to the development of nations

203

across the world, gender-based discrimination and inequality such as violence against
women and girls, socioeconomic disparities, health inequities, and other destructive
traditions continue to be pervasive and persistent.

Challenging traditional notions of gender, which is defined as behavioural, cultural, and

204

social characteristics that are linked to womanhood or manhood, are the basis for achieving
gender equality by attending to how these characteristics govern the relationship between
women and men and the power differences that impact choices and agency to choose.

Twenty-four years into democracy, South Africa has made great strides in reforming laws
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and policies that prohibited women’s full participation in all social, economic and political
spheres. These range from the development of a constitution that articulates equality for
all persons to the establishment of Chapter Nine institutions that serve to guard against
historical injustices and promote human rights for all in the country. The Constitution
enshrines the right to equality, equal protection and benefit before the law and to non-
discrimination. South Africa is also signatory to a number of international conventions,
declarations, regional charters and protocols that aim to address inequalities and ultimately
achieve gender equality, and that the state is obliged to implement. Notwithstanding the
plethora of legislation, women have not advanced as rapidly in terms of socio-economic
empowerment and gender equality and the National Development Plan (NDP, 2030),
identifies women as the most affected by inequality, poverty and unemployment.

4.6.1 The Commission of Gender Equality

The Commission on Gender Equality (CGE) is one of the state institutions supporting
206

gender mainstreaming. Gender mainstreaming is the practice of assessing gender roles

of any planned action, including legislation, policies or programmes in all areas and at
all stages (Thobejane, Mogorosi & Okere, 2017:8913). The aim of the Commission, as set
out in section 187 of the Constitution, is to promote gender equality and to advise and
make recommendations to Parliament or any other legislature regarding any laws or
proposed legislation that affects gender equality and the status of women. The CGE
is committed to creating a society free from gender discrimination, and any other form
of oppression, a society where all people will have the opportunity and means to realise
their potential, regardless of gender, race, class, religion, sexual orientation, disability or
geographic location. To achieve its vision, the CGE will strive for the transformation of

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society through exposing gender discrimination in laws, policies and practices; advocating
changes in sexist attitudes and gender stereotypes; and instilling respect for women’s
rights as human rights.

4.6.2 Department of Women in the President’s Office

The mission of the Department of Women is to accelerate socio-economic transformation
207

and implementation of women’s empowerment and participation through oversight,

monitoring, evaluation and influencing policy. This department aims to ensure that
women’s socio-economic empowerment and women’s rights are mainstreamed across
all sectors of society through:

yy monitoring the extent to which the social and economic circumstances of women
are significantly improved.
yy promoting, advocating for and monitoring women’s empowerment and gender
equality.
yy promoting the understanding of different circumstances of women and men in soci-
ety, and the impact of seemingly neutral decisions, plans, laws, policies and practices
on either gender through capacity building on gender mainstreaming.
yy responsive gender budgeting and facilitating and monitoring capacity building and
skills development for women to participate meaningfully in all areas of the economy
and the workplace.

EXAMPLE
It is important to note that gender inequality does not only have negative consequences for
women. It cuts across both ways. Men too are affected by gender discriminations. Let us take a
closer look at the following excerpt again:

Old age or pension grants are paid to women from 60 years of age and men from 65 years.
To get a grant, one has to apply at the nearest SASSA office and applicants need to take
along their identity or proof of citizenship. The grant is received once a month and can be
paid out at the Post Office, into the bank account, in cash by the clerk or machine at a pay
point or by cheque, and a receipt is provided. The pension grant stops when one dies, or if
a person does not collect the grant for three months; however, this may be refunded if one
gives a valid reason for not collecting, such as a doctor ‘s letter of disability.

4.7 DIVERSITY
The concept of diversity encompasses acceptance and respect. It means understanding
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that each individual is unique and recognising our individual differences. These can
be along the dimensions of race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, socio-economic
status, age, physical abilities, religious beliefs, political beliefs or other ideologies. It is
the exploration of these differences in a safe, positive and nurturing environment. It is
about understanding each other and moving beyond simple tolerance to embracing and
celebrating the rich dimensions of diversity contained within each individual.

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Recognising and respecting diversity is the cornerstone of social work practice. Social
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work is based on a set of basic value orientations, norms and ethical principles. The
preamble of the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) Code of Ethics states that:
“The primary mission of the social work profession is to enhance human well-being and
help meet the basic human needs of all people, with particular attention to the needs
and empowerment of people who are vulnerable, oppressed, and living in poverty”
(NASW 1999). The mission of social work is operationalised as humane and effective social
services to individuals, families, groups, communities, and society to improve people’s
social functioning and quality of life.

Diversity is measured by specific personal characteristics such as race, culture, gender, age,
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disability and sexual orientation. The social work profession has quantified cultural and
social diversity in their code of ethics by stating that we should “seek to understand the
nature of social diversity and oppression with respect to race, ethnicity, national origin,
color, sex, sexual orientation, age, marital status, political belief, religion, and mental or
physical disability” (NASW, 1999)

Therefore, social workers must develop a sensitive, yet informed approach when working
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with people from different social and cultural groups. In many aspects of life, people
are marginalised, ignored, stigmatised or discriminated against because of one or more
aspects of their identity such as age, sexual orientation, faith or belief, gender, race or
ethnicity, social class or disability.

Social workers are met with varying problems, people and personalities daily. Improving
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the well-being of members of the community means social workers need to interact with
people from different backgrounds, with varying economic statuses and myriad religious
beliefs. Social workers have the unique ability to understand both the difficulties faced by
different groups of people and how the inequalities of our current social systems can have a
negative effect on lives – whether it is people of colour, members of the LGBTQ community
or people facing mental health disorders. Culturally competent social workers are vital to
the well-being of the community and the people they serve. They identify problematic
situations and unfair societal boundaries, transcend language barriers and understand the
nuance of family dynamics across ethnicities. They are sensitive to the rights of the elderly,
people with disabilities and LGBTQ+ individuals. Cultural competency is an invaluable
aspect of social work and a trait of all exemplary social workers.

4.8 CONCLUSION
In any country, including South Africa, the experiences and wellbeing of the individual
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citizens and society as a whole are largely influenced by decisions made by the government.
This directly affects the welfare of a country and determines the response required by the
social work profession. In this learning unit, we have explored the trends that affect social
welfare in South Africa. These trends require social workers to become more reflective
and adaptable both in their thinking and practice.

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 6Self-assessment

(1) Define human rights and social justice.

(2) Explain how human rights and social justice relate to social welfare policy.
(3) List the factors that contributed to poverty and inequality in the South Africa.
(4) Explain social exclusion and how it can be mitigated to build an inclusive society.

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LEARNING UNIT 5
Social welfare policy and social work
practice in the South African context

Learning outcomes

After you have completed this study unit, you should be able to do the following:
yy Explain the existence of different perspectives related to developmental paradigm
in the frameworks for social welfare services.
yy Identify and discuss the approaches and strategies contained in the frameworks for
social welfare services.

Key concepts

Residual, institutional, social development, integrated service delivery model

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Social welfare developed naturally when caring people, religious and other organisations as
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well as communities reached out to people around them who were in need. Initially these
efforts were generally well intended but were neither organised nor based on scientific
knowledge. Problems such as poverty, abuse and the circumstances of marginalised
groups, for example, children, less-abled people and older persons, required constant
attention in one form or another. These situations affected not only those directly involved,
but often also the whole family or even the community as whole. Today, there are several
social welfare systems in the world. You may recall that various social welfare systems
were introduced in the module ‘Introduction to Social Welfare and Social Work’ (BSW1501).
Each system is determined by the socio-economic, political and cultural circumstances
of the specific country. Professional persons often manage these systems and a country
may have different or adapted welfare systems. As the needs of the people and the
circumstances in a country change and as people’s knowledge on how to deal with these
various situations increases, the process of handling welfare evolves.

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In this learning unit, we are going to look at the different approaches to social welfare.
217

Although these approaches aim to improve the wellbeing of individuals, families and the
society at large, each one has a different point of departure of how it meets the needs
of the people. We will discuss the fundamental change from the treatment model to
the developmental welfare model as well as the framework for social welfare services
developed by the Department of Social Development.

5.2 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON SOCIAL WELFARE

This section introduces the dominant approaches to social welfare. It examines the
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theoretical approaches such as social philanthropy, institutional, residual, social investment,

social development as well as critical approaches, with special reference to the feminist,
neo-Marxist, postmodern and social justice theories. These approaches differ in terms
of the understanding of human needs, the cause of the need, the goals of social workers
and other practitioners in addressing the need, the methods used to respond to the
need and the values that underpin practices, policies and institutions (Hugman, 2016:67).
The residual and institutional approaches were the two prominent approaches to social
welfare in South Africa prior to the adoption of the White Paper for Social Welfare in 1997,
which is embedded in a developmental approach.

5.2.1 Social philanthropy

Study section 1.4.1 in your prescribed book.

Social philanthropy can be defined as the voluntary effort to increase the well-being
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of humankind. It includes the giving of money, time, or other resources to charitable

organisations. The profession of social work has its roots in the development of a more
scientific approach to philanthropy. Social philanthropy seeks to promote social welfare
through encouraging the provision of private goods and services to needy people. While
the systematic promotion of social philanthropy is a relatively recent development,
philanthropy has ancient roots. For most of human history, social welfare has been provided
by private citizens in the form of charity and, as noted in your prescribed reading, acts
of charity were often prescribed and motivated by religious beliefs. In early Christianity,
churchgoers were required to give tithes to help the poor. Of course, these practices are
still required today, and religious charity remains a major means of helping those in need.

Activity 5.1

Identify philanthropists that you know locally and internationally. How do they provide
goods and services?
Share your answers in the Discussion Forum on myUnisa.

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EXAMPLE OF SOCIAL PHILANTHROPY

A local church in the community of Mamelodi notices the increasing number of
members falling sick and suddenly passing away due to HIV/AIDS. Upon further
investigations by a committee on social welfare within the church, it emerged that
many children can no longer attend Sunday school services as they have to help
care for their ailing parents and are left destitute after the death of their parents. Mrs
Moloko is one of the committee members working as a nurse at the local clinic. She
suggested that the committee tables a proposal to the board of the church that will
assist families in the community who are affected and infected by HIV/AIDS.
The church members showed great enthusiasm. They volunteered their time to care
for the terminally ill. They started a programme to assist with cooking, bathing and
ensuring that the infected adhere to their treatment regimens. The church liaised
with the local clinic where Mrs Moloko works. The clinic trained 20 members of the
church in home-based care. Through donations from various organisations, the church
managed to distribute food parcels to disadvantaged people and conducted TB, HIV
and AIDS awareness workshops.
yy Can you identify the characteristics of social philanthropy from the case study?
yy The project was a voluntary action for the good of the church and the community.
yy It was aimed at humanitarian relief, promoting human rights and
advancing community development.
yy While the church relied on private donations and support from government, it
operated fairly independent in offering their services.

5.2.2 Institutional approach

Study section 1.4.2 in your prescribed book.

The word “institutional” means to be “formally arranged” or “organised”. In the context of

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social work, it refers to society being functional in that everything is organised in a certain
way. The institutional approach departs from the premise that difficulties experienced
by people are caused by circumstances beyond their control. Consequently, it perceives
people’s needs as a normal part of life and the provision of social welfare services as a
right (Kirst-Ashman, 2013:7). This approach is non-discriminatory and promotes universal
access to services by all members of society, irrespective of status.

According to this approach, when an individual or community experiences problems, the

221

focus falls on the interactions that take place between the individual, the community and
the environment. Welfare activities are seen as an attempt to make the environment in
which individuals function more accessible to them and to improve this environment so
that individuals can function more effectively. For example, a person may be unemployed
due to a scarcity of employment opportunities or as a result of economic conditions that
force companies to reduce staff numbers. Welfare activities could then include training
or re-training the unemployed and implementing supportive events to assist the families

43
involved. Other examples of welfare activities include social institutional services such as
day-care facilities, and services offered by family-planning clinics and community centres.

This approach is more positive and dynamic than the residual approach. But having said
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that, it can also easily create a situation where people become dependent on the state and
less motivated to take responsibility for their own personal growth or society’s wellbeing.

5.2.3 Residual approach

Study section 1.4.3 in your prescribed book.

In the context of social welfare, the term “residual” means “outstanding” or “to be added
223

on to”. The residual approach can be translated literally as an approach that adds on to
something that is insufficient. This approach deals with needs as they come; it attends
to visible needs that cannot be addressed by other societal means. As a prerequisite, the
residual approach first ensures that all other efforts and measures (support from family
and other structures in the community) that have been depleted before social welfare
services are provided. It is short term in the sense that it is withdrawn when the person
in need of aid becomes independent from the system. By implication, this means that
when people struggle or fail to meet their own needs, they are regarded as inadequate or
dysfunctional. In other words, it is their own fault if they require outside help. Unfortunately,
this approach implies that individuals are held accountable for circumstances that they
(alone) do not have control over.

This approach is generally selective, of a short-term nature and indirectly and unintentionally
224

stigmatising. Furthermore, it fails to acknowledge and to cater meaningfully for people

with longer-term health, social and material needs.

Activity 5.2

In a table, distinguish between the residual and the institution approaches. Post your
answer on the myUnisa Discussion Forum.

Residuals Examples Institutional Examples

approach from your approach from your
local community local community

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5.2.4 Social investment approach

Study section 1.4.4 in your prescribed book.

The social investment approach holds the promise for current economic and political
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realities by transcending traditional consumption-based social services and cash transfers.

It emphasises the need for policies and programmes to enhance people’s capabilities
to participate fully in the productive economy and realise their potential. This approach
encourages employment, self-employment and asset accumulation, as well as long-
term investments in human and social capital, to generate positive rates of return to the
economy. Unlike the neoliberal critics of the traditional welfare state, its advocates do
not seek to nullify government responsibility for social welfare but argue instead for a
reconfiguration of social spending that promotes social investments that produce positive
economic returns and foster economic development.

5.2.5 Critical approach

Study section 1.4.5 in your prescribed book.

The critical approach seeks to address social injustices, as opposed to focusing on the
226

individual needs of people. The critical approach is influenced by different schools of thoughts
and departs from the premise that social problems arise from various forms of oppression
and injustice. The goals and principles of this approach are discussed comprehensively
in the prescribed book.

5.2.6 Social development

Study section 1.4.6 in your prescribed book.

It is important that you fully comprehend the definition of the terms “development”
227

and “social development” and how they relate to developmental social welfare. It is also
crucial to take note of the relationship between the social development approach and
the social investment approach discussed in section 6.2.4. Pay attention to the principles
of the social development approach outlined, that is, people-centredness, participation
and partnerships (welfare pluralism). The social development approach is not without its
critics and has been criticised for its theory and practice, flexibility and lack of strategies
or models for practice.

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 Activity 5.3

Select two approaches that you can apply to assist and facilitate change in your
local community. Explain why you think these two approaches can work in your
particular community.
To which target group will it apply (women/men, children/disabled/families)?

5.3 A PARADIGM SHIFT: FROM A PATHOLOGY PERSPECTIVE

TO A DEVELOPMENTAL WELFARE MODEL

Study sections 6.2 and 6.3.

In learning unit 2, we looked at the evolution of social welfare from colonialism to a

228

democratic society. The manner in which services are delivered to the people has also
evolved. During the apartheid years, the state departed from the premise of the treatment
model, which focused on pathology and deficit. Provision of welfare services excluded
many based on their skin colour and gender. Section 6.2 in the prescribed book outlines
the key features of the social treatment model.

The dawn of democracy brought about the developmental model to social services, which
229

is rooted in a rights-based approach. Do you still remember the five themes that emerge
from the developmental social welfare? What is the approach of service from the point
of view of promotion and protection of human rights? Another important feature of the
developmental model of welfare services is the appreciation of the emergence of new
forms of family systems and design of welfare programmes to respond to the changing
family patterns. The developmental model of welfare services is also entrenched in the
conviction that families exist within a community and that strong social ties are necessary
to hold together a social system.

5.4 FRAMEWORK ON SOCIAL WELFARE SERVICES

Study section 6.4 in the prescribed book.

The Department of Social Development developed a framework for social welfare services
230

called the Integrated Service Delivery Model (ISDM) to give effect to the developmental
approach. The purpose of this framework is to promote service integration, which it
contends strongly that it is achieved by means of three key strategies, namely social
security, social welfare services and community development. Five categories of core

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services are prioritised in this framework. These are (1) treatment, rehabilitation and
reintegration of services; (2) early intervention; (3) prevention; (4) promotion; and (5)
development. Refer to the module BSW2602 for a detailed explanation of the ISDM.

5.5 CONCLUSION
This learning unit provided an overview of the approaches that are relevant to understanding
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social welfare policy. Social welfare policy in South Africa has evolved and attempted to
address pressing social problems, meet human needs and promote the social wellbeing
of the population as a whole. Social workers deliver services to different client systems
and work at different levels of intervention to promote human welfare in a society. The
ISDM provides guidelines that clearly sets out the nature, scope, extent and level of social
services, and form the basis for the development of appropriate norms and standards
for service delivery.

5Self-assessment

(1) Discuss the differences between the social treatment model and the developmental model.
(2) What is the point of departure of the ISDM?
(3) Identify the key strategies contained in the ISDM.
(4) Discuss the five categories of core services embedded in the ISDM.

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