UG 1 SEMESTER

ST

ZOOLOGY HONOURS
CORE-I
PROJECT ON CORAL REEFS
NAME- SHANTA KUMARI PANDA
ROLL NO- BS22-342

I
 Table of Contents

01 02-05 06-09
INTRODUCTION TYPES OF STRUCTURE,FORM-ATION
AND TYPES
CORAL REEFS

09-11 12-14 15
THEORIES ON ECONOMIC CONCLUSION
FORMATION OF IMPORTANCE AND
CORAL REEFS AND THREATS RESOURCES
INTRODUCTION
A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals.
Reefs are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate
.Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, whose polyps cluster in groups.

Coral colonies grow continuously in size by budding of polyps and often form
extensive masses. Known as coral reefs.

According to T. Wayland Vaughan (1917) , a coral reef is a ridge mound of

limestone . The upper surface of which is near the surface of sea and which is
formed chiefly of Calcium Carbonate secreted by coral polyps. Principal builders of
coral reefs are stony corals ( Madreporaria) .

Coral belongs to the class Anthozoa in the animal phylum Cnidaria, which includes
sea anemones and jellyfish. Unlike sea anemones, corals secrete hard carbonate
exoskeletons that support and protect the coral. Most reefs grow best in clear, sunny
and agitated, warm shallow waters (normally abouve 20°C) .Coral reefs first
appeared 485 million years ago, at the dawn of the Early Ordovician, displacing the
microbial and sponge reefs of the Cambrian.

Coral reefs flourish in ocean waters that provide few nutrients. They are most
commonly found at shallow depths in tropical waters, but deep Water and cold water
coral reefs exist on smaller scales in other areas.

Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services for tourism, fisheries and shoreline
protection. The annual global economic value of coral reefs has been estimated at
anywhere from US$30–375 billion (1997 and 2003 estimates) to US$2.7 trillion (a
2020 estimate)] to US$9.9 trillion (a 2014 estimate).
 FORMATION
Most coral reefs were formed after the Last Glacial Period when melting ice
caused sea level to rise and flood continental shelves. Most coral reefs are less than
10,000 years old. As communities established themselves, the reefs grew upwards,
pacing rising sea levels. Reefs that rose too slowly could become drowned, without
sufficient light. Coral reefs are also found in the deep sea away from continental
shelves, around oceanic islands and atolls. The majority of these islands
are volcanic in origin. Others have tectonic origins where plate movements lifted the
deep ocean floor.

TYPES
Thomas lists "Four major forms of large-scale coral reefs" – the fringing reef, barrier
reef, atoll and table reef based on Stoddart, D.R. (1969). Spalding et al. list four
main reef types that can be clearly illustrated – the fringing reef, barrier reef, atoll,
and "bank or platform reef" -- and notes that many other structures exist which do
not conform easily to strict definitions, including the "patch reef".

1. Fringing reef
A fringing reef, also called a shore reef,is directly attached to a shore, or borders it
with an intervening narrow, shallow channel or lagoon. It is the most common reef
type.[Fringing reefs follow coastlines and can extend for many kilometres. They are
usually less than 100 metres wide, but some are hundreds of metres wide. Fringing
reefs are initially formed on the shore at the low water level and expand seawards
as they grow in size. It is largely composed of coral sand, mud, dead and living coral
colonies and other animals.
2.Barrier reef
Barrier reefs are separated from a mainland or island shore by a deep channel
or lagoon. They resemble the later stages of a fringing reef with its lagoon but differ
from the latter mainly in size and origin. Their lagoons can be several kilometres
wide and 30 to 70 metres deep.

The best known and largest example of a barrier reef is the Australian Great Barrier
Reef. Other major examples are the Belize Barrier Reef and the New Caledonian
Barrier Reef
3. Platform reef

Platform reefs, variously called bank or table reefs, can form on the continental
shelf, as well as in the open ocean, in fact anywhere where the seabed rises close
enough to the surface of the ocean to enable the growth of zooxanthemic, reef-
forming corals. Platform reefs are found in the southern Great Barrier Reef, the
Swain and Capricorn Group on the continental shelf, about 100–200 km from the
coast.
 4.Atoll
Atolls or atoll reefs are amore or less circular or continuous barrier reef that
extends all the wayaround lagoon without a central island they are usually formed
from finging reefs around volcanic island. Over time, the island erodes away and
sinks below sea level .atolls may also be form ed by the sinking of the seabed or
rising of the sea level .aring of reefs results ,which encolse a lagoon.

Atolls are found in the Indian Ocean, for example, in the Maldives, the Chagos
Islands, the Seychelles and around Cocos Island. The entire Maldives consist of 26
atolls.

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As Coral reefs are made up of corals so we will discuss some concepts about
corals.

Coral
When alive, corals are colonies of small animals embedded in calcium
carbonate shells. Coral heads consist of accumulations of individual animals
called polyps, arranged in diverse shapes. Polyps are usually tiny, but they can
range in size from a pinhead to 12 inches (30 cm) across.

Reef-building or hermatypic corals live only in the photic zone (above 70 m), the
depth to which sufficient sunlight penetrates the water.

Diagram of a coral polyp anatomy

Zooxanthellae
Coral polyps do not photosynthesize, but have a symbiotic relationship with
microscopic algae (dinoflagellates) of the genus Symbiodinium,, commonly referred
to as zooxanthellae. These organisms live within the polyps' tissues and provide
organic
nic nutrients that nourish the polyp in the form of glucose, glycerol and amino
acids. Because of this relationship, coral reefs grow much faster in clear water,
which admits more sunlight. Without their symbionts, coral growth would be too slow
to form significant
gnificant reef structures. Corals get up to 90% of their nutrients from their
symbionts. In return, as an example of mutualism, the corals shelter the
zooxanthellae, averaging one million for every cubic centimeter of coral, and provide
a constant supply of the carbon dioxide they need for photosynthesis.
Structure of coral polyp

A typical coral polyp from a colony is a small organism about 10mm long and 1 to 3
mm in diameter. Solitary coral polyp are much larger reaching upto 25cm in
diameter. A basal disc is absent because the basal region of polyp is surrounded by
a calcareous exoskeleton. Oral disc bears numerous tentacles, in several rows
around an elongated, oval or circular mouth. Pharynx is short and without
siphonoglyphs. Mesenteries are restricted to the upper part of coelenteron and
mesenterial filaments contain only one glandular lobe bearing nematocysts.
Bodywall is without cinclides and nematocyst bearing structures (acontia) . Muscles
are poorly developed while little is known about nervous system.

Living polyps found only on surface layers of coral masses. They feed at night
both by raptorial and suspension feeding. When no feeding they withdraw into cup
like cavities of skeleton.

Coral skeleton

1 - Structure of coral skeleton

Skeleton of a solitary coral is known as Corallite. It is a calcareous exoskeleton

secreted by epidermis. In a colonial coral, Corallites of individual polyp fuse together
to form a skeletal mass, called corallum. Each corallite is like a stony cup with a
basal part or basal plate, and a cup wall or theca, enclosing the aboral portion of
polyp. Cavity of cup contains a number of vertical radiating ridges called
sclerosepta, proceeding from theca towards the centre of cup . Inner ends of
sclerosepta are fused to form an irregular central skeleton mass or columella.
2 - Formation of coral skeleton

In coral polyp, sexual reproduction takes place by fusion of gametes. Zygote

develops into a free-swimming ciliated planula larva which settles down and
metamorphoses into a young coral polyp. There is no medusa stage. By asexual
budding, single polyp becomes the parent of all other members of the colony. The
coral polyp begins to secrete a skeletal rudimemt or prototheca. It is secreted by
ectoderm, first as a basal plate. Following it, radial folds develop which secrete
sclerosepta. At the same time, a rim is built up as a thecal wall around the polyp,
lying at the top. Meanwhile further skeletal material is added into the gaps between
sclerosepta of skeleton which usually alternates with mesenteries of the polyp.

Coral colony grows in size continuously by budding of new polyps, particularly

along the margins and on surface layers of coral masses. Variety in form of
compound coral results due to various patterns of budding.

Types of corals in different groups -

1 - Hydrozoan Corals

Order Hyderocorallina includes few genera, like millepora, stylaster and

Distichopora, which are colonial and secrete massive branched calcareous
exoskeletons. These are found in coral reefs with other corals. Skeleton is secreted
by a modified epidermis, called calicoblastic layer. Living within the skeleton occur
two types of polyps a large feeding, large feeding gastrozooids and defensive
dactylozooids.

2 - Octacorallian Corals

Order Alcyonacea includes marine, colonial and soft corals. A well-known genus
is Alcyonium nh, popular as 'dead man's fingers' because of it's resemblance to a
human hand. It has an endoskeleton of separate calcareous spicules embedded in a
massive mesogloea or coenenchyme.

3 - Hexacorallian Corals

Order madrepora includes stony corals or true corals, which are the principal
builders of coral reefs. While some of them are solitary, most are colonial, assuming
a great variety of forms.

(a) Solitary corals

Fungia, flabellum, Caryophylla, etc are the solitary corals or cup corals. The
corallite is disc like , cup like or mushroom shaped in form and measures 5
mm to 25 cm across. It is often without a theca.
 (b) Colonial corals

Most of the stony corals are colonial with plate like, cup like, spherical, or
vase-shaped skeleton (coralium) . Polyps live at the surface of the calcareous
skeleton. Typical examples of colonial madreporarian corals are Acropora,
Oculima, Favia, Madrepora, Meandrina, etc. Some of the colonies are
branched. In stag-horn coral, Acropors, there is always s primary polyp at the
top of colony with lateral branches on either side.

Formation of Coral reefs :-

Many theories have been advanced to explain Coral reef formation, but
none are entirely satisfactory. Two theories seem to be of some
convincing importance.
1- Subsidence theory by Darwin :-
According to this theory, as put forth by Darwin (1831), fringing reef was
first formed on the sloping shore of an island. Subsidence of sea floor
then commenced in the regions of reef followed by upward and outward
growth of Coral. Thus the fringing reef became barrier Reef. By gradual
sinking the island ultimately vanished and the barrier Reef became a
Coral atoll with a central lagoon. In time it acquired a growth of
vegetation.
In The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs, Darwin described how coral reefs
were found in some tropical areas but not others, with no obvious cause. The largest
and strongest corals grew in parts of the reef exposed to the most violent surf and
corals were weakened or absent where loose sediment accumulated.

One reason for the unusual clarity of tropical waters is their nutrient deficiency and
drifting plankton. Further, the sun shines year-round in the tropics, warming the
surface layer, making it less dense than subsurface layers. The warmer water is
separated from deeper, cooler water by a stable thermocline, where the temperature
makes a rapid change. This keeps the warm surface waters floating above the
cooler deeper waters. In most parts of the ocean, there is little exchange between
these layers. Organisms that die in aquatic environments generally sink to the
bottom, where they decompose, which releases nutrients in the form
of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). These nutrients are necessary
for plant growth, but in the tropics, they do not directly return to the surface.
Explanations

Around coral reefs, lagoons fill in with material eroded from the reef and the island.
They become havens for marine life, providing protection from waves and storms.

Most importantly, reefs recycle nutrients, which happens much less in the open
ocean. In coral reefs and lagoons, producers include phytoplankton, as well as
seaweed and coralline algae, especially small types called turf algae, which pass
nutrients to corals. The phytoplankton form the base of the food chain and are eaten
by fish and crustaceans. Recycling reduces the nutrient inputs needed overall to
support the community.

Corals also absorb nutrients, including inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus, directly
from water. Many corals extend their tentacles at night to catch zooplankton that
pass near. Zooplankton provide the polyp with nitrogen, and the polyp shares some
of the nitrogen with the zooxanthe
2- Glacial theory by Daly :-

Another theory as propounded by daly, accounts for the lowering of thr ocean level
by the withdrawal of water for glacial formation. This resulted in the exposing of
several flat platforms cut out by the action of waves. When the glaciers melted and
the temperature become favourable, corals began to grow on these platforms, build
it highier as the ocean level rise.

Most reefs grew at the rate of 10 to 200 mm each year. Most of the existing
reefs could have formed with in a period of 15,000 to 30,000 years.
Economic Importance of Coral reefs :-

Biodiversity
Coral reefs form some of the world's most productive ecosystems, providing
complex and varied marine habitats that support a wide range of other
organisms. Fringing reefs just below low tide level have a mutually beneficial
relationship with mangrove forests at high tide level and sea grass meadows in
between: the reefs protect the mangroves and seagrass from strong currents and
waves that would damage them or erode the sediments in which they are rooted,
while the mangroves and sea grass protect the coral from large influxes of silt, fresh
water and pollutants. This level of variety in the environment benefits many coral
reef animals, which, for example, may feed in the sea grass and use the reefs for
protection or breeding.
Ecosystem services
Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism, fisheries and coastline protection.
The global economic value of coral reefs has been estimated to be between
US$29.8 billion and $375 billion per year. About 500 million people benefit from
ecosystem services provided by coral reefs.
The economic cost over a 25-year period of destroying one square kilometer of coral
reef has been estimated to be somewhere between $137,000 and $1,200,000. To
improve the management of coastal coral reefs, the World Resources
Institute (WRI) developed and published tools for calculating the value of coral reef-
related tourism, shoreline protection and fisheries, partnering with five Caribbean
countries. As of April 2011, published working papers covered St.
Lucia, Tobago, Belize, and the Dominican Republic. The WRI was "making sure that
the study results support improved coastal policies and management planning". The
Belize study estimated the value of reef and mangrove services at $395–559 million
annually

Shoreline protection
Coral reefs protect shorelines by absorbing wave energy, and many small islands
would not exist without reefs. Coral reefs can reduce wave energy by 97%, helping
to prevent loss of life and property damage. Coastlines protected by coral reefs are
also more stable in terms of erosion than those without. Reefs can attenuate waves
as well as or better than artificial structures designed for coastal defence such as
breakwaters. An estimated 197 million people who live both below 10 m elevation
and within 50 km of a reef consequently may receive risk reduction benefits from
reefs. Restoring reefs is significantly cheaper than building artificial breakwaters in
tropical environments. Expected damages from flooding would double, and costs
from frequent storms would triple without the topmost meter of reefs. For 100-year
storm events, flood damages would increase by 91% to $US 272 billion without the
top meter.

Fisheries
About six million tons of fish are taken each year from coral reefs. Well-managed
reefs have an average annual yield of 15 tons of seafood per square kilometer.
Southeast Asia's coral reef fisheries alone yield about $2.4 billion annually from
seafood.
Other economic importance of Coral reefs :-
1. Coral reef species are providing new medical compounds and
technology to treat serious diseases. Most of the cancer drug
reaserches are focusing on marine animal.
2. Coral reef attracts millions of tourists every year bringing important
income to coral reef communities.
3. Coral reefs are are used as ornaments. Some precious stones are very
expensive.
4. Source of nitrogen and other nutrients essential for the food chain.

Threats

Human activities that threaten coral include

coral mining, bottom trawling, and the digging
of canals and accesses into islands and bays,
all of which can damage marine ecosystems if
not done sustainably. Other localized threats
include blast fishing, overfishing, coral
overmining, and marine pollution, including
use of the banned anti-
fouling biocide tributyltin; although absent in developed countries, these activities
continue in places with few environmental protections or poor regulatory
enforcement. Chemicals in sunscreens may awaken latent viral infections in
zooxanthellae and impact reproduction. However, concentrating tourism activities
via offshore platforms has been shown to limit the spread of coral disease by
tourists.
 CONCLUSION
Coral reefs provide an important ecosystem for life
under water ,protect coastal areas by reducing the
power of waves hitting the coast and provide a
crucial source of income for millions of people.

RESOURCES
-Google
-Modern text book of zoology by R.L.Kotpal
-wikipedia