GEOGRAPHY FORM THREE SUBJECT NOTES

CHAPTER : 1 STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH.

TOPIC OBJECTIVES;

 The student should be able to:

 Identify concentric zones of the earth.

 Account for the variation in density and thickness

of the concentric zones of the earth’s crust.

 Describe the characteristics of the earth’s crust,

the mantle and the core

 Identify types of rocks of the earth’s crust,

 Explain the mode of formation for each type of

rocks and their economic importance.

 To describe the geological time scale.

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS.

 Earth- This is the planet supports

 Crust- This is the outer most layer of the earth

 SIAL- Layer of the earth that consists of silica and

aluminum

 SIMA-Layer of the crust that consist of silica and

Magnesium

 Mohorovic Discontinuity- This is layer between

crust and the mantle

 Gutenberg discontinuity-This is a layer which

separates between the mantle and the core.

 CONRAD-This is a layer that separated between

sial and sima

 TROPOPAUSE- This is a layer that separates

troposphere and stratosphere.

 STRATOPAUSE- This is a layer that separates

stratosphere and mesosphere
  MESOPAUSE-Is a layer that separates mesosphere
and thermosphere

The earth is the third planet in the solar system which is believed to support life.

PARTS OF THE EARTH

The earth consists of two parts;

a) Internal structure of the earth

b) External structure of the earth

A. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH.

The internal structure of the earth consists of different layers; these are

a) The crust

b) The mantle

c) The core.

A. THE CRUST

The crust is the outermost layer of the earth. It is referred to as LITHOSPHERE. Litho
means outer while sphere means layer or shell.

The crust is formed by two parts these are;

a) Upper layer

b) Inner layer
The minerals found in the earth’s crust are Silica, Aluminum and Magnesium.

The outer crust referred to as the SIAL while the inner crust is called the SIMA.

Parts of the Earth’s Crust.

a) SIAL- This is the outer most upper layer of the earth crust. It is composed of minerals
such as silica and alumina.

SIAL forms continental floor where human live.

b) SIMA: Is the inner part of the earth’s crust. It is composed of minerals such as silica and
magnesium.

Sima forms the floor where aquatic organism live like fish and crocodiles

NB;The layer which separates between the crust and the mantle is referred to
as Mohorovicic discontinuity.

The layer was discovered by a Yugoslavian geologist called Mohorovic in 1909.

B. THE MANTLE

The mantle is the interior part of the earth lying between the crust and the core.

The mantle is formed by two parts which are;

a) Upper layer and

b) Lower mantle.
The upper mantle is made up of dense igneous rocks of iron, silicon, magnesium and
alluminium

The layer which separate between the mantle and the core is called Gutenberg
Discontinuity

c) THE CORE.

The core is the central part of the earths interior. It consists of very dense rocks of nicke
and iron(NIFE)

The core is formed by two parts i) The outer layer ii) The inner core

The outer layer core is referred to as barysphere while the inner core is referred to as
centrospheres.

The layer that separates

between sial and sima is called CONRAD DISCONTINUITY

2. EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH.

The external structure of the earth comprises of three parts; These are as follows;

a) The earth’s surface

b)Hydrosphere

c) Atmosphere.

A. THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH.

The earth’s surface is composed of water bodies and land surface.

Water surface composed of different water bodies like ponds, lakes, river, oceansm sea,
wells, and ditches. Water bodies occupy 70.8% or 71% of all parts of the earth.
Land surface composed of different land forms like mountain plateaus, hills, valleys and
plains. These occupy about 29% of all parts of the earth.

B. HYDROSPHERE

Hydro means water

Sphere means layer or shell

So hydrosphere is the layer of the earth which is formed by different water bodies like
oceans, seas, lakes and rivers.

Hydrosphere covers about 71% of the earth. Hydrosphere is the home of different plants
and animals.

C. ATMOSPHERE

This is the layer of the earth’s surface which is composed of different gases like oxygen,
hydrogen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, argon and helium.

Atmosphere is very thin layer of gases that surround the earth.

LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere is divided into five layers as going to be explained below;

i. Troposphere
ii. Stratosphere
iii. Mesosphere
iv. Thermosphere
v. Exosphere
vi. Lonosphere.

i) TROPOSPHERE

This is the lowest layer of the atmosphere. It is found from 0 to 12 km and it contains 75%
of the gases of the in the atmosphere. In the troposphere is where we human beings live
and where weather ocuurs.

In the troposphere height increases with decrease of the atmosphere. The layer which
separates troposphere and stratosphere is called TROPOPAUSE.

At this layer called tropopause is where we find JETSREAM and the temperature remains
constantly fair.

Jet stream- are very strong winds that blow eastward

ii) STRATOSPHERE

This is the second layer in the atmosphere. It os found from 12km to 50km.
Stratosphere contains Ozone layer which is a layer in the atmosphere which acts as a shield
for the earth’s surface. Ozone layer absorbs ultra-violet radiation from the sun. This causes
the temperature to increase in the upper part of the layer.

NB: The layer which separates between stratosphere and mesosphere is

called STRATOPAUSE.

iii) MESOSPHERE.

Mesosphere lies above stratosphere. It lies from 50km to 80km in the lower part of the
atmosphere.

Mesosphere protects the earth from meteoroids

Meteoroids are the heavenly bodies which are larger pieces of rocks or metals that fall from
space to the earth.

The layer which separates mesosphere and thermosphere is called mesopause.

iv) THERMOSPHERE

Is the layer above the atmosphere. It lies from 80km to 500km. the thermosphere means
heat and sphere layer hence temperature is very high at this temperature.

The layer which separates thermosphere and the ionsphere is called Thermopause.

Thermosphere contains ionosphere which is the lower part of the atmosphere.

Classification of rocks

A rock is any naturally occurring consolidation of minerals particles that forms the earth’s
crust giving it a solid nature.

The earth is formed by rocks in which some are hard while others are soft.

Rocks can be classified according to the following;

i) Mode of formation

ii) Their age or physical and chemical characteristics.

Classification of rocks according to their mode of formation.

According to the mode of formation, rocks can be classified into three classes;

a) Igneous rocks,

b) Metamorphic rocks

c) Sedimentary rocks

i) Igneous Rocks

The word igneous is derived from the Greek word Ignus meaning fire. Igneous rocks are
rocks formed by cooling and classification of molten materials from the interior of the
earth.

When the temperature increase inside the earth’s crust, the materials in it melt hence the
materials are forced out by high pressure. The molten materials inside the earth are called
magma. When magma penetrates and reaches the earth’s surface, it is called Lava.

Types of igneous rocks

i) Intrusive igneous rocks

ii) Extrusive igneous rocks

i) INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS

These are found below/inside the earth’s surface. They are formed when molten materials
called magma solidify inside the earth’s crust e.g granite.

Intrusive igneous rocks are further divided into two categories; that is;

a) Plutonic rocks

b) Hypabyssal rocks

a) Plutonic rocks

Are rocks formed by the magma that cools more rapidly on or near the surface of the earth
and produces fine textile igneous rocks e.g basal. Other examples of plutonic rocks are
granite, diorite and gabbro.

b) Hypabysal rocks

These are formed when magma is mixed with other rocks

These rocks occur vertically forms called dykes or horizontally called sill. Hypabysal rocks
are finer than plutonic rocks e.g dolerite and pophyre.

ii) EXTRUSSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS

These are rocks which are formed when the magma reaches the earth’s surface in form of
lava. It occurs when there is volcanic eruption hence lava cools outside the earth’s surface.

Note that volcanic rocks are formed in two ways;

a) When lava flows to the surface before cooling and solidifying e.g basalt, andesite,
rhyolite and absidian.

b) When lava is ejected during volcanic eruptions, e.g pumice

Summary

CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS BY THEIR CHEMICAL COMBINATION

According to the chemical composition, igneous rocks can be classified as follows;

A. Felsic (ACID) Igneous rocks

Are igneous rocks which contain great amount of silica and feldspar with very little or no
any other metallic element. E.g granite, granophyres, rhyolite and absidian.

B. MAFIC(BASIC) Igneous rocks.

These are rocks which consists of large amount of magnesium, iron and other minerals like
alluminium.

C. ULTRA-MAFIC ROCKS

These are igneous rocks which consists o very large amount of metallic elements like iron,
magnesium and little amount of silica. Example is polidolite.

D.INTERMEDIATE IGNEOUS ROCKS

Are igneous rocks which contain silica content between basic and acidic degree. That is
both basic and acidic properties in equal proportions.

Examples includes,dionite, poryphaces, and andesite.

CHARACTERISTICS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

 Are very hard and not stratified

 Are formed by cooling and magnification of

magma

 Can be acidic or basic or intermediate depending

on silica amount

 They are crystallined in nature

 May undergo metarmophisms to form

metamorphic rocks

 Contain minerals like iron and magnesium

 May undergo weathering process and

sedimentation to form sedimentary rocks

 They don’t have fossils, that is, they do not contain

fossils of animals remains.

 Igneous rocks are called mother rocks because

other rocks originates from them.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS.

These are rocks which are formed by the process of sedimentation. Especially during
weathering.

Sedimentation is the deposition and accumulation and lithification of sediments of some

weathered rocks and other materials.

Particles or sediments are deposited by the following agents;

a) Moving air

b) Moving water

c) Ice

The materials are deposited in large strata to form sedimentary rocks.

Ways in which sedimentary rocks are formed;

They are formed in three ways;

i) Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks

are rocks formed by compaction and comentation of sediments which have been laid down
on land or sea floor.

Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks are also called plastic rocks because they consists
of fragments of rocks and rock minerals. Examples are;

i) Argillaceous rocks; they contain small amount and fine particles of silt e.g shale and
mudstone.

ii) Auencieous rocks- These are rocks composed of medium sized particles like sand eg.
Sand stone and grit.

iii) Rudaceous rocks; composed of large particles such as conglomerate (round shaped
pebbles breccias) builder clay gravel and scree.

2. Chemically formed sedimentary rocks-

Others are formed chemically/ mixture of different minerals eg carbonates like traventure
found in form of stalagmites and stalactaties. Due to precipitation of calcium carbonate.

Sulphates as a result of dessification and evaporation of rocks like gypsum in which

hydrated calcium carbonate may be formed.

Characteristics of sedimentary rocks.

1. They are stratified and young rocks layer

overlying the old rock layers.

2. They are non-crystallined which means they are

not in form of crystals

3. They contain fossils as a result of accumulation of

skeletons and shells of once living organisms

4. They may undergo changes to form metamorphic

rocks

5. Consists of some fragments which were once

connected and deposited from rocks.

Sedimentary rocks are formed by deposition of clastic sediments organic matter or

chemical precipitates, evaporates followed by compaction of particulate matter and
comentation during diagenesis. Sedimentary rocks form near surface of the earth.

B. Organically formed sedimentary rocks-

Are formed by remains of once living organisms examples calcareous rocks like lime stone
and skeleton.
These are also carbonaceous rocks formed from remains buried thousands of years under
high pressure and temperature.

3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Metamorphic means change in appearance. They are rocks formed when one type of rocks-
igneous or sedimentary change its form after being subjected to either intense heat
pressure or both.

Any rock may undergo changes to form metamorphic rocks as shown below;

a) sedimentary rocks to metamorphic rocks,

e.g; Sandstone to quartize

Limestone to marble

Coal to granite

Mudstone to slate

Clay to Slate

b) Metamorphic rocks to metamorphic rocks

eg, Slate to schist

c) Igneous to metamorphic rock

e.g Augite to horn Blende

Granite to Igneous

Metamorphism is the process by which rocks of the earths surface change their appearance
from one type to another type of a rock.

Types of metamorphic rocks.

i) Contact metamorphosis

It occurs when magma comes into contact with the existing rocks. It can be caused by
movement of ocean waves or currents which comes into contact with the rock and
eventually the rock breaks down.

The collision with other agents of erosion causes the following breaking down of rocks.

ii) Dynamic metamorphism

It is associated with fault planes. It is caused by the frictional heat generated by fault
movements. This is due to crushing and grinding of rocks.

iii) Regional metamorphism.

Is the one which takes place in the large areas especially mountains ranges. It occurs due to
the collisison of two continental plates hence high temperature and pressure lead to the
disintegration of rocks from existing ones.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF ROCKS.

1. Rocks provides building materials such as gravel,

sand

2. Some rocks creates employment opportunities to

the people

3. Rocks provides precious minerals like gold and

diamond

4. Some rocks provide energy which later used at

home and in industries.

5. Some rocks provide underground water

6. Rocks are sources of soil for agricultural activities

7. Some rocks attract tourists in the country bring

foreign currencies.

THE GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

This is a scheme or a chart that indicates age classification of rocks and associated geo-
morphological and biological events.

Division of Geological time time scale.

Geological time scale is divided into eras, period, epochs and ages.

Geological time scale extends about 600 million years and is divided into three eras;

a) Palaezonic Era

b)Mesozonic Era

c) Cainozoic Era

Among the above, eras, palaezonic is the oldest while cainozoic is the youngest.

The eras are subdivided into periods.

a) The geological time scale is divided into ERAS

b) The eras are further divided into PERIODS

c) The periods are then divided into EPOCHES

d) The epochs are eventually divided into AGES
CHAPTER SUMMARY.

1. Earth is the third planet in the solar system which

is meant to support life.

2. The earth consists of two parts; internal and

external part.

3. The earth has three parts; crust, mantle and core.

4. Earth crust consists of SIAL and SIMA

5. The core consists of outer core and inner core

6. The external structure of the earth consists of

earth’s surface, hydrosphere and atmosphere.

7. The atmosphere is divided into five layers,

examples are troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere and
ionosphere.

8. A rock is naturally occurring consolidation of

mineral particles that forms earth’s crust giving a
solid nature.

9. Rocks can be igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks

and sedimentary rocks.

10. The igneous rocks is divided into two types

which are extrusive and intrusive igneous rocks.

11. The igneous rocks are called mother of all rocks

12. Sedimentary rocks are formed by the process of

sedimentation.

13. Sedimentary rocks can be chemically formed or

mechanically formed.

14. Metamorphic rocks are formed when a rock

changes its form.

15. Metamorphic rocks can be by contact

metamorphism, dynamic metamorphism, or
regional metamorphism.

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 END OF CHAPTER QUESTION.

1. Give a comprehensive division of the earth crust

2. Describe the concentric zones of the earth

3. Mention the three types of rocks and explain how

they are formed

4. Why igneous rock is called the mother of all

rocks?

5. Describe the economic importance of rocks

6. Explain the characteristics of sedimentary rocks

7. What are metamorphic rocks? Give examples

8. Explain why the earth is unique from other

planets

9. Describe the layers of earth’s atmosphere

10. What mineral elements make up the core?