WHAT ARE LIFE PROCESSES?

All the processes like nutrition ,respiration, transportation & excretion which
together keep the living organisms alive and perform the job of body
maintenance are called life processes.
 NCERT INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Why is diffusion insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of multicellular
organisms like humans?
Ans.In multi-cellular organisms, all the cells may not be in direct contact with the
surrounding environment. Diffusion is insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of
large multicellular organisms like humans.
This is because of the large number of cells and the huge size of the body, oxygen cannot
diffuse into all the cells of the human body quickly and oxygen will have to travel large
distances to reach each and every cell of the body.
 NCERT INTEXT QUESTIONS
If diffusion were to move oxygen in our body, it is estimated that it would take
3 years for a molecule of oxygen to get to our toes from our lungs. Aren’t you
glad that we have haemoglobin?
 NCERT INTEXT QUESTIONS
2. What criteria do we use to decide whether something is alive?
Ans. Any visible movement such as walking, breathing, or growing is generally used to
decide whether something is alive or not. However, a living organism can also have
movements, which are not visible to the naked eye. Therefore, the presence of life
processes is a fundamental criterion that can be used to decide whether something is alive
or not.
 NCERT INTEXT QUESTIONS
3. What are outside raw materials used for by an organism?
Ans.Outside raw materials used for by an organism are:-
• Food- Food like plants and other animals as a source of supplying energy and
materials.
• Water- For proper digestion of food and other functions inside the body.
• Oxygen- For the breakdown of food to obtain energy.
 NCERT INTEXT QUESTIONS
4. What processes would you consider essential for maintaining life?
Ans.Processes like, nutrition, respiration , transportation and excretion, are considered
essential for maintaining life as these processes are necessary to maintain the overall
functioning of the body.
NUTRITION
Nutrition is the mode of taking food by an organism and its utilisation by the
body.
 Modes of Nutrition

Autotrophic Heterotrophic
auto = self; trophos = nourishment) heterotrophs (heteros = other)
• Kind of nutrition in which organisms • Kind of nutrition in which organisms do
synthesize their own food from the simple not possess the ability to synthesize
inorganic materials such as water, carbon their own food.
dioxide and mineral salts in the presence of • They depend on autotrophs for their
sunlight. food supply directly or indirectly.
 Autotrophic Nutrition:
Autotrophic nutrition is the mode of nutrition in which autotrophs take in CO2
and H2O and convert these into carbohydrates in the presence of chlorophyll,
sunlight (Photosynthesis)
Use Convert
Autotrophs Use Simple inorganic material complex high energy molecules
Into (Carbohydrates)

• The organisms which carry out autotrophic nutrition are called autotrophs
(green plants).
Site of Photosynthesis

Chloroplast in the leaf, chloroplast contain

chlorophyll (green pigment).
 Raw Materials for Photosynthesis:
• Sunlight → Absorbed by the chlorophyll and other green parts of the plant.
• Chlorophyll → Present in the green dot like cell organelles inside the leaves.
• CO2 → Plants get CO2 from atmosphere through stomata.
• Water → Water + dissolved minerals like nitrogen, phosphorus etc. are
taken up by the roots of the soil.
Reaction taking place during Photosynthesis:

sunlight
6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
Carbon water Sugars water Oxygen
dioxide
Chlorophyll
 Main Events of Photosynthesis:
(i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
(ii) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen.
(iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.

sunlight
6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
Carbon water Sugars water Oxygen
dioxide
Chlorophyll

• These steps need not take place one after the other immediately.
• For example, desert plants take up carbon dioxide at night and prepare an
intermediate which is acted upon by the energy absorbed by the chlorophyll during
the day.
 Stomata
Tiny pores present on the surface of the leaves.
Functions:
• Massive amounts of gaseous exchange takes place in the leaves through these
pores for the purpose of photosynthesis.
• Large amounts of water can also be lost through these stomata
(Transpiration)
Cross Section of a Leaf
 Activity 5.1
 Take a potted plant with variegated leaves – for example, money plant or crotons.
 Keep the plant in a dark room for three days so that all the starch gets used up.
 Now keep the plant in sunlight for about six hours.
 Pluck a leaf from the plant. Mark the green areas in it and trace them
on a sheet of paper.
 Dip the leaf in boiling water for a few minutes.
 After this, immerse it in a beaker containing alcohol.
 Carefully place the above beaker in a water-bath and heat till the alcohol begins to boil.
 What happens to the color of the leaf? What is the color of the solution?
 Activity 5.1
 Now dip the leaf in a dilute solution of iodine for a few minutes.
 Take out the leaf and rinse off the iodine solution.
 Observe the color of the leaf and compare this with the tracing of the leaf done in the
beginning (Fig. 6.2).
 What can you conclude about the presence of starch in various areas of the leaf?
Iodine test for the Presence of Starch
 To show that Chlorophyll is necessary for Photosynthesis

Conclusion:-
This experiment proves that only chlorophyll containing areas i.e., green parts of the leaf
produce starch which is a product of photosynthesis. Thus, chlorophyll is essential for
photosynthesis.
 Activity 5.2
Take two healthy potted plants which are nearly the same size.
 Keep them in a dark room for three days.
 Now place each plant on separate glass plates. Place a watch-glass containing potassium
hydroxide by the side of one of the plants. The potassium hydroxide is used to absorb carbon
dioxide.
 Cover both plants with separate bell-jars as shown in Fig. 5.4.
 Use vaseline to seal the bottom of the jars to the glass plates so that the set-up is air-tight.
 Keep the plants in sunlight for about two hours.
 Activity 5.2
 Pluck a leaf from each plant and check for the presence of starch as in the above activity.
 Do both the leaves show the presence of the same amount of starch?
 What can you conclude from this activity?
 Activity 5.2

Observation:-
Leaf of plant kept without potassium hydroxide turn blue with iodine solution. The plant
with potassium hydroxide does not turn blue.

Conclusion:-
This experiment shows that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis and starch
formation.
Do you know ?
Based on the two activities performed above, can we design an experiment to
demonstrate that sunlight is essential for photosynthesis?
Points to know
• So far, we have talked about how autotrophs meet their energy requirements. But
they also need other raw materials for building their body.
• Water used in photosynthesis is taken up from the soil by the roots in terrestrial
plants.
• Other materials like nitrogen, phosphorus, iron and magnesium are taken up from
the soil. Nitrogen is an essential element used in the synthesis of proteins and other
compounds.
• This is taken up in the form of inorganic nitrates or nitrites. Or it is taken up as
organic compounds which have been prepared by bacteria from atmospheric
nitrogen.
 Heterotrophic Nutrition:
• Kind of nutrition in which organisms do not possess the ability to synthesize their own
food.
• They depend on autotrophs for their food supply directly or indirectly.
There is a range of strategies by which the food is taken in and used by the organism

 Some organisms break-down the food material outside the body and then absorb it.
Examples are fungi like bread moulds, yeast and mushrooms.
 Some organisms take in whole material and break it down inside their bodies.
Examples are Amoeba and Human beings.
 Some other organisms derive nutrition from plants or animals without killing them.
Examples are cuscuta (amar-bel), ticks, lice, leeches and tape-worms
Heterotrophic Nutrition:

Heterotrophic Nutrition:

Saprotrophic Holozoic Parasitic

In the saprotrophic In the holozoic mode In the parasitic mode
mode organisms feed organisms take in solid organisms derive nutrition
on dead, decaying food and breakdown of from plants or
matter break- down food takes place inside animals(host) without
the food material the body. E.g., Amoeba, killing them. E.g., Cuscuta
outside the body and animals. (plant parasites), Lice etc.
then absorb it E.g.,
bread moulds,
mushroom
NUTRITION IN AMOEBA

Food vacuole
NUTRITION IN AMOEBA

In AMOEBA Pseudopodia
Extension of cell
membrane
Capture food

Taken in food vacuole

Diffusion of
simple substances Digestion of food
in cytoplasm in food vacuole

Undigested food

Move to surface of cell

and is thrown out
NUTRITION IN AMOEBA

NUTRITION

Ingestion Digestion Absorption Assimilation Egestion

(Process of (Breakdown of (Movement of (Utilization of (Removal of
taking food complex digested food food for undigested
inside body) material into to body part) growth, repair food from the
simple ones) of making body)
of cells)
Nutrition in Paramoecium
Paramoecium, which is also a unicellular organism, the cell has a definite shape and food
is taken in at a specific spot. Food is moved to this spot by the movement of cilia which
cover the entire surface of the cell
 Nutrition in Human Beings
• The process of nutrition takes place through an alimentary canal(about 9 meters
long)(digestive tract ) which is a long tube extending from the mouth to the anus.

alimentary canal + associated glands

Mouth or Buccal Cavity:

Mouth Intake of whole food

Teeth Chewing/grinding of food

Tongue Rolling of food+

Tasting of food+
Swallowing/pushing down of the food

Salivary Glands Secrete saliva + Mucus

 Activity 5.3
 Take 1 mL starch solution (1%) in two test tubes (A and B).
 Add 1 mL saliva to test tube A and leave both test tubes undisturbed for 20-30 minutes.
 Now add a few drops of dilute iodine solution to the test tubes.
 In which test tube do you observe a color change?
 What does this indicate about the presence or absence of starch in the two test tubes?
 What does this tell us about the action of saliva on starch?

Starch + water +
Starch + saliva +
iodine solution
iodine solution

A B
 Activity 5.3
Observation:-

Starch + water +
Starch + saliva +
iodine solution
iodine solution

Blue-black
No blue-black
colour
colour
A B

Conclusion:-
The saliva contains an enzyme called salivary amylase that breaks down starch which
is a complex molecule to give simple sugar.
Oesophagus
Oesophagus The lining of canal has muscles that contract rhythmically
in order to push the food forward. These peristaltic
movements occur all along the gut.
Stomach
The stomach is a large organ which expands when food enters it. The muscular walls of
the stomach help in mixing the food thoroughly with more digestive juices.

Secrete
Stomach Gastric glands Gastric juice
(wall of the
stomach) Gastric juice

PEPSIN HCI MUCUS

(Enzyme that The hydrochloric acid
(Protects inner
breaks down creates an acidic
lining of the
proteins) medium which
stomach)
facilitates the action
of the enzyme pepsin
Stomach
The exit of food from the stomach is regulated by a sphincter muscle which releases it in
small amounts into the small intestine. From the stomach, the food now enters the small
intestine.
Small intestine
• This is the longest part (7.5 meters in length )of the alimentary canal which is
fitted into a compact space because of extensive coiling.
• The small intestine is the site of the complete digestion of carbohydrates,
proteins and fats.
• It receives the secretions of the liver and pancreas for this purpose.
 More to know
• The length of the small intestine differs in various animals depending on the
food they eat.
• Herbivores eating grass need a longer small intestine to allow the cellulose
to be digested.
• Meat is easier to digest, hence carnivores like tigers have a shorter small
intestine
 Liver (Associated glands)
• Liver is the largest gland of the body weighing about 1.2 to 1.5 kg in an adult
human.
• The food coming from the stomach is acidic and has to be made alkaline for the
pancreatic enzymes to act.
• Bile juice from the liver accomplishes this in addition to acting on fats.
• Fats are present in the intestine in the form of large globules which makes it
difficult for enzymes to act on them.
• Bile salts break them down into smaller globules increasing the efficiency of
enzyme action
 Pancreas
• The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains the enzymes pancreatic
amylase for breaking down starch, trypsin for digesting proteins and lipase for
breaking down emulsified fats
 Small intestine
The walls of the small intestine contain glands which secrete intestinal juice.

Small Intestine (a) Intestinal enzyme

convert

Carbohydrate Fats Proteins

Glucose Fatty acid + Glycerol Amino acids

 Small intestine
• Digested food is taken up by the walls of the intestine.
• The inner lining of the small intestine has numerous finger-like projections
called villi which increase the surface area for absorption.
• The villi are richly supplied with blood vessels which take the absorbed food
to each and every cell of the body, where it is utilized for obtaining energy,
building up new tissues and the repair of old tissues(assimilation )
 Large intestine
 The unabsorbed food is sent into the large intestine where its wall absorb more
water from this material.
 The rest of the material is removed from the body via the anus. The exit of this
waste material is regulated by the anal sphincter.
More to know
 NCERT INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What are the differences between autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic
nutrition?
Modes of Nutrition

Autotrophic Heterotrophic
• Kind of nutrition in which organisms • Kind of nutrition in which organisms do
synthesize their own food from the not possess the ability to synthesize
simple inorganic materials such as their own food.
water, carbon dioxide and mineral • They depend on autotrophs for their
salts in the presence of sunlight. food supply directly or indirectly.
• All green plants and some bacteria • All animals and fungi have this type of
have this type of nutrition nutrition.
 NCERT INTEXT QUESTIONS
2. Where do plants get each of the raw materials required for photosynthesis?
• Sunlight → Absorbed by the chlorophyll and other green parts of the plant.
• Chlorophyll → Present in the green dot like cell organelles inside the leaves.
• CO2 → Plants get CO2 from atmosphere through stomata.
• Water → Water + dissolved minerals like nitrogen, phosphorus etc. are taken up by
the roots of the soil.
 NCERT INTEXT QUESTIONS
3. What is the role of the acid in our stomach?
• Ans.The hydrochloric acid creates an acidic medium which facilitates the action of the
enzyme pepsin. It activates inactive pepsinogen into pepsin, and pepsin helps in the
digestion of protein.
• It also kills bacteria which come into our body through food.
 NCERT INTEXT QUESTIONS
4. What is the function of digestive enzymes?
Ans.Digestive enzymes such as amylase, lipase, pepsin, trypsin, etc., help in the digestion
of food by breaking down complex food particles into simpler ones. These simple
molecules can be easily absorbed by the blood and is thus transported to all the cells in
the body.
 NCERT INTEXT QUESTIONS
5.How is the small intestine designed to absorb digested food?
• The inner lining of the small intestine has numerous finger-like projections
called villi which increase the surface area for absorption.
• The villi are richly supplied with blood vessels which take the absorbed food
to each and every cell of the body.
 Activity 5.4
 Take some freshly prepared lime water in a test tube.
 Blow air through this lime water.
 Note how long it takes for the lime water to turn milky.
It immediately turns lime water milky .
 Activity 5.4

On passing CO2 gas, lime water turns milky.

Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) ⎯→ CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
 Activity 5.4
 Use a syringe or pichkari to pass air through some fresh lime water taken in another
test tube (Fig. 5.7).
 Note how long it takes for this lime water to turn milky.
It takes much time to turn the lime water milky.
 What does this tell us about the amount of carbon dioxide in the air that we breathe
out?
It shows that the breath –out air contains more CO2 as compared to atmospheric air .
Composition of Inhaled and Exhaled Air
 Activity 5.5
 Take some fruit juice or sugar solution and add some yeast to this. Take this mixture in
a test tube fitted with a one-holed cork.
 Fit the cork with a bent glass tube. Dip the free end of the glass tube into a test tube
containing freshly prepared lime water.
 What change is observed in the lime water and how long does it take for this change to
occur?
Air taken out through the tube makes lime water milky.
Activity 5.5
 What does this tell us about the products of fermentation ?
Products of fermentation are CO2 and alcohol.
 Respiration
 The food material taken in during the process of nutrition is used in cells to provide
energy for various life processes.
 Diverse organisms do this in different ways – some use oxygen to break-down glucose
completely into carbon dioxide and water, some use other pathways that do not involve
oxygen .
 Respiration
 In all cases, the first step is the break-down of glucose, a six-carbon molecule, into a
three-carbon molecule called pyruvate. This process takes place in the cytoplasm.
Absence of
oxygen Ethanol + Carbon dioxide + Energy
(in yeast) (2-carbon molecule

In cytoplasm Pyruvate Lack of oxygen Lactic acid + Energy

Glucose (6-carbon (3-carbon
molecule) (in our (3-carbon molecule)
molecule) muscle cells)
+ Presence of
Energy oxygen
Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
(in mitochondria)
HACK

AOO E + C+ E

LOO
G P L+E

POO
C+W+E
 Respiration
Absence of
oxygen Ethanol + Carbon dioxide + Energy
C3H4O3 (in yeast) (2-carbon molecule
C6H12O6
Pyruvate Lack of oxygen
C3H6O3
Glucose (6-carbon In cytoplasm Lactic acid + Energy
(3-carbon (3-carbon molecule)
molecule) molecule) (in our
muscle cells)
+ Presence of
Energy oxygen
Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
(in mitochondria)

 The energy released during cellular respiration is immediately used to synthesize a

molecule called ATP which is used to fuel all other activities in the cell.
More to Know
More to Know
Respiration
(i) Gaseous exchange: Intake of oxygen from the atmosphere and release of
CO2 → Breathing
(ii) Cellular respiration :
Breakdown of simple food in order to release energy inside the cell.
MODE OF RESPIRATION
Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration
• Takes place in the presence of oxygen • Takes place in the absence of
oxygen
• Occurs in mitochondria • Occurs in cytoplasm
• End products are CO2 and H2O • End products are alcohol or lactic
acid
• More amount of energy is released. • Less amount of energy is released
 Respiration
Since the aerobic respiration pathway depends on oxygen, aerobic organisms
need to ensure that there is sufficient intake of oxygen.
 We have seen that plants exchange gases through stomata, and the large inter-
cellular spaces ensure that all cells are in contact with air.
 Carbon dioxide and oxygen are exchanged by diffusion here. They can go into
cells, or away from them and out into the air.
 The direction of diffusion depends upon the environmental conditions and the
requirements of the plant.
 At night, when there is no photosynthesis occurring, CO2 elimination is the
major exchange activity going on.
 During the day, CO2 generated during respiration is used up for photosynthesis,
hence there is no CO2 release. Instead, oxygen release is the major event at this
time
 Respiration
 Animals have evolved different organs for the uptake of oxygen from the
environment and for getting rid of the carbon dioxide produced.
 Terrestrial animals can breathe the oxygen in the atmosphere, but animals
that live in water need to use the oxygen dissolved in water.
 NCERT Activity 5.6
 Observe fish in an aquarium. They open and close their mouths and the gill-slits
(or the operculum which covers the gill-slits) behind their eyes also open and close.
Are the timings of the opening and closing of the mouth and gill-slits coordinated in
some manner?
Yes ,During breathing ,fishes open and close their mouth & gill slits in a
coordinated manner and timing.
NCERT Activity 5.6
 NCERT Activity 5.6
 Count the number of times the fish opens and closes its mouth in a minute.
It is varied based on the type and size of fish.For example ,goldfish can breathe up to
100 or more times per minute.
 Compare this to the number of times you breathe in and out in a minute.
The amount of dissolved O2 is lower than that in the air .So ,the rate of breathing in
fishes is faster than that in terrestrial organisms.The normal respiratory rate of adult
is 12-16 times /minute.

209 ml/L
5.3 ml/L
 Respiration
Why is the rate of breathing in aquatic organisms much faster than in terrestrial
organisms?
 Since the amount of dissolved oxygen is fairly low compared to the amount
of oxygen in the air, the rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much faster
than that seen in terrestrial organisms.
 Fishes take in water through their mouths and force it past the gills where
the dissolved oxygen is taken up by blood.
 What about terrestrial organism ?
• Terrestrial organisms use the oxygen in the atmosphere for respiration.
• This oxygen is absorbed by different organs in different animals.
• All these organs have a structure that increases the surface area which is in contact
with the oxygen-rich atmosphere.
• Since the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide has to take place across this surface,
this surface is very fine and delicate. In order to protect this surface, it is usually placed
within the body, so there have to be passages that will take air to this area.
• In addition, there is a mechanism for moving the air in and out of this area where the
oxygen is absorbed.
Mechanism of Breathing
Inhalation Exhalation
• Thoracic cavity (chest cavity) expands. • Thoracic cavity contracts.
• Ribs lift outwards. • Ribs move inwards.
• Diaphragm become flat in shape . • Diaphragm becomes dome shaped.
• Volume of lungs increases and air • Volume of lungs decreases and air
enters the lungs exits from the lungs
HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

N P
M C
P
L
T Rings of Car
B
B
A
HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
• Nostrils: There are two nostrils which converge to form a nasal passage. The inner
lining of the nostrils is lined by hair and remains wet due to mucus secretion. The
mucus and the hair help in filtering the dust particles out from inhaled air.
• Pharynx: It is a tube-like structure which continues after the nasal passage.
• Larynx: This part comes after the pharynx. This is also called voice box.
• Trachea: This is composed of rings of cartilage. These ensure that the air-passage
does not collapse.
 HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
• Bronchi: A pair of bronchi comes out from the trachea, with one bronchus going to
each lung.
• Bronchioles: A bronchus divides into branches and sub-branches inside the lung.
• Alveoli: Within the lungs, the passage divides into smaller and smaller tubes which
finally terminate in balloon-like structures which are called alveoli (singular–alveolus).
Alveoli (Site of Gaseous Exchange )
The alveoli provide a surface where the exchange of gases can take place. The walls of
the alveoli contain an extensive network of blood-vessels. This is alveolus, where the
oxygen mixes with the blood and carbon dioxide exits from the blood.
HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
During the breathing cycle, when air is taken in and let out, the lungs always contain a
residual volume of air so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and for
the carbon dioxide to be released.
Respiratory Pigment (Haemoglobin)
 When the body size of animals is large, the
diffusion pressure alone cannot take care of
oxygen delivery to all parts of the body.
 Respiratory pigments take up oxygen from
the air in the lungs and carry it to tissues
which are deficient in oxygen before releasing
it.
 In human beings, the respiratory pigment is
haemoglobin which has a very high affinity for
oxygen.
 This pigment is present in the red blood
corpuscles.
 Carbon dioxide is more soluble in water
than oxygen is and hence is mostly transported
in the dissolved form in our blood.
MORE TO KNOW
 NCERT INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What advantage over an aquatic organism does a terrestrial organism have with regard
to obtaining oxygen for respiration?
Ans.Terrestrial organism obtains oxygen for respiration from the atmosphere where the
oxygen content is high, whereas, aquatic organisms obtain oxygen dissolved in the water
which is very low when compared to the amount in atmosphere. For this reason, aquatic
animals breathe faster to obtain as much oxygen as possible, on the other hand, terrestrial
animal does not have to breathe faster and thus spends less energy than aquatic organism.
 NCERT INTEXT QUESTIONS
2. What are the different ways in which glucose is oxidised to provide
energy in various organisms?
 NCERT INTEXT QUESTIONS
3. How is oxygen and carbon dioxide transported in human beings?
Ans.Transport of Oxygen: The respiratory pigments (haemoglobin) present in red blood
cells takes up the oxygen from the air to the lungs. They carry the oxygen to tissues which
are deficient in oxygen.
Transport of carbon dioxide: Carbon Dioxide is more soluble in water. Hence, it is mostly
transported from body tissues in the dissolved form in our blood plasma to lungs where it
diffuses from blood to air in the lungs and then expelled out through nostrils.
 NCERT INTEXT QUESTIONS
4. How are the lungs designed in human beings to maximise the area for exchange of gases?
Ans.In lungs, balloon like structures called alveoli are present to provide maximum surface
areas for the exchange of gases. The alveoli have very thin walls and contain an extensive
network of blood vessels to facilitate the exchange of gases.
 NCERT Activity 5.7
 Visit a health centre in your locality and find out what is the normal range of haemoglobin
content in human beings.
 Is it the same for children and adults?
 Is there any difference in the haemoglobin levels for men and women?
 Visit a veterinary clinic in your locality. Find out what is the normal range of haemoglobin
content in an animal like the buffalo or cow.
 Is this content different in calves, male and female animals?
 Compare the difference seen in male and female human beings and animals.
 How would the difference, if any, be explained?

Children: 11 to 13 g/dL
Adult males: 14 to 18 g/dL
Adult women: 12 to 16 g/dL
NCERT Activity 5.7

Children: 11 to 13 g/dL
Adult males: 14 to 18 g/dL
Adult women: 12 to 16 g/dL

Calves – 10.5 g /dL

Male Cow -10 -15g /dL
Female cow -8 -12 g /dL
 Transportation
In humans, transportation of oxygen, nutrients, hormone and other substances to
tissue, CO2 to the lungs and waste products to the kidneys is carried out by a
well-defined system .

Small Intestine (a) Intestinal enzyme

convert

Carbohydrate Fats Proteins

Glucose Fatty acid + Glycerol Amino acids

 Circulatory system
It comprises of the heart, blood vessels, blood, lymphatic vessels, lymph, which together
serve to transport materials, throughout the body.
Blood –Fluid Connective Tissue

Functions of blood
• Blood transports food, oxygen
and waste materials in our
bodies.
• Many other substances like salts,
are also transported by the
blood.
 Components of Blood
Plasma (Liquid Component )
• Plasma is the liquid component of blood, in which the red blood cells, white
blood cells, and platelets are suspended.
• Plasma transports food, carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes in dissolved
form
 Components of Blood
Red blood cells (RBC) or Erythrocytes

• Erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBCs) are the most abundant cell in the
blood.
• They have a red colored, iron containing complex protein called hemoglobin,
hence the color and name of these cells.
• These molecules play a significant role in transport of respiratory gases.
 Components of Blood
White blood cells (WBC) or leukocytes

• White blood cells (WBC) or leukocytes are much fewer in number than red
blood cells, accounting for about 1 percent of your blood.
• White blood cells are part of the body's immune system. They help the body
fight infection and other diseases.
Platelets or Thrombocytes
• Think about situations when we are injured and start bleeding. Naturally the
loss of blood from the system has to be minimised.
• In addition, leakage would lead to a loss of pressure which would reduce the
efficiency of the pumping system.
• To avoid this, the blood has platelet cells which circulate around the body
and plug these leaks by helping to clot the blood at these points of injury.
 The tubes – blood vessels
 Blood flows through our body in a complex system of tubes called blood vessels.
There are three types of blood vessels: arteries, capillaries, and veins .
 The tubes – blood vessels

Arteries
 Arteries are the vessels which carry blood away from the
heart to various organs of the body.
 Since the blood emerges from the heart under high
pressure, the arteries have thick, elastic walls.

Veins

 Veins collect the blood from different organs and bring it back to the heart.
 They do not need thick walls because the blood is no longer under pressure,
instead they have valves that ensure that the blood flows only in one direction .
 Capillaries
• On reaching an organ or tissue, the artery divides into smaller and smaller
vessels to bring the blood in contact with all the individual cells.
• The smallest vessels have walls which are one-cell thick and are called
capillaries .
• Exchange of material between the blood and surrounding cells takes place
across this thin wall.
• The capillaries then join together to form veins that convey the blood away
from the organ or tissue.
Arteries VS Veins
Arteries Veins
1.Carry oxygenated blood from 1. Carry deoxygenated blood from
heart to body parts except body parts to heart except
pulmonary artery. pulmonary vein.
2. Also called distributing vessel 2. Also called collecting vessel.
3. Thick and elastic 3. Thin and less elastic
4. Deep-seated 4. Superficial as compared to
(situated far below the surface.) arteries.
 Our pump — the heart
• Heart is a muscular organ which is as big as our fist is situated in the thoracic
cavity, in between the two lungs, slightly tilted to the left.
• It has the size of a clenched fist.
• Our heart has four chambers, two relatively small upper chambers called atria
and two larger lower chambers called ventricles.
Blood circulation in Human Body
Blood circulation in Human Body

 Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs comes to the thin-walled upper chamber of
the heart on the left, the left atrium. The left atrium relaxes when it is collecting
this blood.
 It then contracts, while the next chamber, the left ventricle, relaxes, so that
the blood is transferred to it.
Blood circulation in Human Body
 When the muscular left ventricle contracts in its turn, the blood is pumped
out to the body.
 De-oxygenated blood comes from the body to the upper chamber on the
right, the right atrium, as it relaxes .
Blood circulation in Human Body

 As the right atrium contracts, the corresponding lower chamber, the right
ventricle, dilates.
 This transfers blood to the right ventricle, which in turn pumps it to the
lungs for oxygenation.
 Blood circulation in Human Body
 Since ventricles have to pump blood into various organs, they have thicker
muscular walls than the atria do.
Valves ensure that blood does not flow backwards when the atria or ventricles
contract
 Why is blood circulation in human heart called double circulation?
The blood circulation in human heart is called double circulation because the blood passes
through the heart twice in one complete cycle of the body – once through the right half in
the form of deoxygenated blood and once through the left half in the form of oxygenated
blood.
Pulmonary Circulation: Blood moves from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart.
Systemic Circulation: Blood moves from the heart to rest of the body and back to the
heart
More to know
 What is the advantage of having four chambered heart?
 The separation of the right side and the left side of the heart is useful to keep
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood from mixing.
 Such separation allows a highly efficient supply of oxygen to the body. This is useful in
animals that have high energy needs, such as birds and mammals, which constantly use
energy to maintain their body temperature.
 In animals that do not use energy for this purpose, the body temperature depends on
the temperature in the environment. Such animals, like amphibians or many reptiles have
three-chambered hearts, and tolerate some mixing of the oxygenated and de-oxygenated
blood streams.
 Single Circulation (Fishes ) -2 Chambered Heart
Fishes, on the other hand, have only two chambers to their hearts, and the
blood is pumped to the gills, is oxygenated there, and passes directly to the rest
of the body. Thus, blood goes only once through the heart in the fish during one
cycle of passage through the body.
 Lymph
There is another type of fluid also involved in transportation. This is called
lymph or tissue fluid. It is similar to the plasma of blood but colourless and
contains less protein.
How lymph is formed ?
Through the pores present in the walls of capillaries
some amount of plasma, proteins and blood cells
escape into intercellular spaces in the tissues to form
the tissue fluid or lymph.

Function of lymph
Lymph carries digested and absorbed fat from intestine and drains excess fluid from extra
cellular space back into the blood.
More to know :Blood Pressure

Blood pressure
The force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel is called blood pressure. This
pressure is much greater in arteries than in veins. The pressure of blood inside the
artery during ventricular systole (contraction) is called systolic pressure and pressure
in artery during ventricular diastole (relaxation) is called diastolic pressure. The normal
systolic pressure is about 120 mm of Hg and diastolic pressure is 80 mm of Hg.

Blood pressure is measured with an instrument called sphygmomanometer. High

blood pressure is also called hypertension and is caused by the constriction of
arterioles, which results in increased resistance to blood flow. It can lead to the rupture
of an artery and internal bleeding.
Blood Pressure
• The pressure of blood inside the
artery during ventricular systole
(contraction) is called systolic
pressure and pressure in artery
during ventricular diastole
(relaxation) is called diastolic
pressure.
• The normal systolic pressure is
about 120 mm of Hg and diastolic
pressure is 80 mm of Hg.
Blood pressure is measured with an instrument called sphygmomanometer. High blood
pressure is also called hypertension and is caused by the constriction of arterioles,
which results in increased resistance to blood flow. It can lead to the rupture of an
artery and internal bleeding.
Transportation in Plants
 Transportation in Plants
 We have discussed earlier how plants take in simple compounds such as CO2 and
photosynthesize energy stored in their chlorophyll-containing organs, namely leaves.
 The other kinds of raw materials needed for building plant bodies will also have to be
taken up separately.
 For plants, the soil is the nearest and richest source of raw materials like nitrogen,
phosphorus and other minerals.
 The absorption of these substances therefore occurs through the part in contact with
the soil, namely roots.
 If the distances between soil-contacting organs and chlorophyll containing organs are
small, energy and raw materials can easily diffuse to all parts of the plant body.
 But if these distances become large because of changes in plant body design, diffusion
processes will not be sufficient to provide raw material in leaves and energy in roots.
 A proper system of transportation is therefore essential in such situations.
 Transportation in Plants
• Energy needs differ between different body designs. Plants do not move, and plant
bodies have a large proportion of dead cells in many tissues.
• As a result, plants have low energy needs, and can use relatively slow transport
systems.
• Plant transport systems will move energy stores from leaves and raw materials from
roots.
• These two pathways are constructed as independently organised conducting tubes.
Conducting Tissues (Xylem & Phloem )

Papa P F T V S P S T Company Fibre Par चली नहीीं

Phloem transports products of
Xylem transports water
photosynthesis from the leaves
and minerals from roots to
where they are synthesised to
different plant parts.
other parts of the plant.
Ascent of Sap
The upward movement of water and minerals from roots to different plant parts is
called ascent of sap.
 Transportation in Plants by Root Pressure
• In xylem tissue, vessels and tracheids of
the roots, stems and leaves are
interconnected to form a continuous
system of water-conducting channels
reaching all parts of the plant.
• At the roots, cells in contact with the
soil actively take up ions. This creates a
difference in the concentration of these
ions between the root and the soil.
• Water, therefore moves into the root
from the soil to eliminate this difference.
This means that there is steady
movement of water into root xylem,
creating a column of water that is
steadily pushed upwards.
 Transportation in Plants by Root Pressure
• However, this pressure by itself is unlikely to be enough to move water over the
heights that we commonly see in plants.
• Plants use another strategy to move water in the xylem upwards to the highest
points of the plant body.
 Transportation in Plants by Transpiration Pull
• Provided that the plant has an
adequate supply of water, the water
which is lost through the stomata is
replaced by water from the xylem
vessels in the leaf.
• In fact, evaporation of water
molecules from the cells of a leaf
creates a suction which pulls water
from the xylem cells of roots. The
loss of water in the form of vapor
from the aerial parts of the plant is
known as transpiration.
 Function of transpirations in plants
• Transpiration helps in the absorption and upward movement of water and
minerals dissolved in it from roots to the leaves.
• It also helps in temperature regulation.
• The effect of root pressure in transport of water is more important at night.
• During the day when the stomata are open, the transpiration pull becomes the
major driving force in the movement of water in the xylem.
 NCERT Activity 5.8
 Take two small pots of approximately the same size and having the same amount of soil.
One should have a plant in it. Place a stick of the same height as the plant in the other pot.
 Cover the soil in both pots with a plastic sheet so that moisture cannot escape by
evaporation.
 Cover both sets, one with the plant and the other with the stick, with plastic sheets and
place in bright sunlight for half an hour.
NCERT Activity 5.8
 Do you observe any difference in the two cases?
Yes.In the pot with plant ,water droplets are found in the plastic sheet.It is due to the
condensation of water vapour released by transpiration.In other pot ,water droplets are
not formed .
Transport of food and other substances
 Besides the products of photosynthesis, the phloem transports amino acids and other
substances.
 These substances are especially delivered to the storage organs of roots, fruits and
seeds and to growing organs.
 The translocation of food and other substances takes place in the sieve tubes with the
help of adjacent companion cells both in upward and downward directions.
 Transport of food and other substances
 The translocation in phloem is achieved by utilizing
energy. Material like sucrose C12H22O11 is transferred
into phloem tissue using energy from ATP.
 This increases the osmotic pressure of the tissue
causing water to move into it. This pressure moves the
material in the phloem to tissues which have less
pressure.
 This allows the phloem to move material according
to the plant’s needs.
 This transport of soluble products of photosynthesis
is called translocation and it occurs in the part of the
vascular tissue known as phloem.
 NCERT INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What are the components of the transport system in human beings?
What are the functions of these components?
Ans.The main components of the transport system in human beings are the heart, blood,
and blood vessels.
Heart -The heart pumps oxygenated blood throughout the body. It receives deoxygenated
blood from the various body parts and sends this impure blood to the lungs for
oxygenation.
Blood -Blood helps in the transport of oxygen, nutrients, CO2, and nitrogenous wastes.
Blood Vessels -The blood vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries) carry blood either away
from the heart to various organs or from various organs back to the heart.
 NCERT INTEXT QUESTIONS
2. Why is it necessary to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in
mammals and birds?
Ans.Mammals and birds are warm blooded animals. Their energy requirement is high
since they constantly require energy to maintain their body temperature. Hence, it is
necessary to separate the oxygenated and the deoxygenated blood in mammals and birds
as this separation allows a highly efficient supply of oxygen to the blood cells. This is
important for producing a lot of energy and for maintaining the body temperature.
 NCERT INTEXT QUESTIONS
3. What are the components of the transport system in highly organized plants?
Ans.In highly organized plants, there are two different types of conducting tissues -
xylem and phloem. Xylem conducts water and minerals obtained from the soil (via roots)
to the rest of the plant. Phloem transports food materials from the leaves to different
parts of the plant body.
 NCERT INTEXT QUESTIONS
4. How are water and minerals transported in plants?
 Transportation in Plants by Root Pressure
• At the roots, cells in contact
with the soil actively take up
ions. This creates a difference
in the concentration of these
ions between the root and the
soil.
• Water, therefore moves into
the root from the soil to
eliminate this difference. This
means that there is steady
movement of water into root
xylem, creating a column of
water that is steadily pushed
upwards.
 Transportation in Plants by Transpiration Pull

• Provided that the plant has an adequate

supply of water, the water which is lost
through the stomata is replaced by water
from the xylem vessels in the leaf.
• In fact, evaporation of water molecules
from the cells of a leaf creates a suction
which pulls water from the xylem cells of
roots. The loss of water in the form of
vapor from the aerial parts of the plant is
known as transpiration.
 NCERT INTEXT QUESTIONS
5. How is food transported in plants?
Ans.Phloem transports food materials from the leaves to different parts of the plant. The
transportation of food in phloem is achieved by utilizing energy from ATP which helps in
creating osmotic pressure that transports food from the area of high concentration to low
concentration.
 What is excretion ?
• The metabolic activities in the body generates many kinds of wastes including
nitrogenous wastes which are harmful for the body and hence needed to be
removed.

Define Excretion
The biological process involved in the removal of these harmful metabolic wastes
from the body is called excretion.
 How Do Unicellular Organisms do Excretion ?
• Many unicellular organisms remove these wastes by simple diffusion from
the body surface into the surrounding water.
 Human Excretory System
The excretory system of human beings (Fig. 5.13) includes a pair of kidneys, a pair of
ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra.
Excretory/urinary system consists of:
(1) The kidneys : The excretory organ
(2) The ureters : Ducts which drain out urine
from the kidneys
(3) The urinary bladder : The urinary reservoir
(4) The urethra : The channel to the exterior
Human Excretory System
Structure of a Nephron

• Nephrons -The basic filtration unit in the

kidneys is a cluster of very thin-walled
blood capillaries.
• Each capillary cluster in the kidney is
associated with the cup-shaped end of a
coiled tube called Bowman’s capsule that
collects the filtrate (Fig. 5.14).
• Each kidney has large numbers of these
filtration units called nephrons packed close
together
How is urine produced?

GF TR TS
1.Glomerular Filtration
2.Tubular Reabsorption
Some substances in the initial filtrate, such as glucose, amino acids, salts and a major
amount of water, are selectively re-absorbed as the urine flows along the tube.
The amount of water re-absorbed depends on how much excess water there is in the
body, and on how much of dissolved waste there is to be excreted.
3.Tubular Secretion

Urea, extra water and salts are

secreted into the tubule.
 Steps of Urine formation :
1.Glomerular filtration: Nitrogenous
wastes, glucose water, amino acid filter from
the blood into Bowman Capsule of the
nephron.
2. Tubular reabsorption: Now, useful
substances from the filtrate are reabsorbed
back by capillaries surrounding the nephron.
3. Secretion: Urea, extra water and salts
are secreted into the tubule which open up
into the collecting duct & then into the
ureter.
 The urine forming in each kidney eventually enters a long tube, the ureter,
which connects the kidneys with the urinary bladder.
 Urine is stored in the urinary bladder until the pressure of the expanded
bladder leads to the urge to pass it out through the urethra.
 The bladder is muscular, so it is under nervous control, as we have
discussed elsewhere. As a result, we can usually control the urge to urinate.
 Artificial kidney (Hemodialysis)
Kidneys are vital organs for survival. Several factors like infections, injury or
restricted blood flow to kidneys reduce the activity of kidneys. This leads to
accumulation of poisonous wastes in the body, which can even lead to death. In
case of kidney failure, an artificial kidney can be used. An artificial kidney is a
device to remove nitrogenous waste products from the blood through dialysis.
Artificial kidneys contain a number of tubes with a semi-permeable lining, suspended
in a tank filled with dialysing fluid. Line
from artery to pump Tubing made of a
selectively permeable membrane This
fluid has the same osmotic pressure as
blood, except that it is devoid of
nitrogenous wastes. The pat
Ent's blood is passed through these
tubes. During this passage. the waste
products from the blood pass into
dialysing fluid by diffusion. The purified
blood is pumped back into the patient.
This is similar to the function of the
kidney, but it is different since there is
no re- absorption involved. Normally, in
a healthy adult, the initial filtrate in the
kidneys is about 180 L daily. However,
the volume actually excreted is only a
litre or two a day. because the
remaining filtrate is re- absorbed in the
kidney tubules.
• Kidneys are vital organs for survival. Several factors like infections, injury or
restricted blood flow to kidneys reduce the activity of kidneys.
• This leads to accumulation of poisonous wastes in the body, which can even lead to
death. In case of kidney failure, an artificial kidney can be used.
• An artificial kidney is a device to remove nitrogenous waste products from the blood
through dialysis.
• Artificial kidneys contain a number of tubes
with a semi-permeable lining, suspended in
a tank filled with dialysing fluid.
• This fluid has the same osmotic pressure as
blood, except that it is devoid of
nitrogenous wastes.
• The patient’s blood is passed through these
tubes. During this passage, the waste
products from the blood pass into dialysing
fluid by diffusion.
• The purified blood is pumped back into the
patient. This is similar to the function of the
kidney, but it is different since there is no
re-absorption involved.
• Normally, in a healthy adult, the initial filtrate in the kidneys is about 180 L daily.
However, the volume actually excreted is only a litre or two a day. because the
remaining filtrate is re- absorbed in the kidney tubules.
Composition of Urine
 Excretion in Plants
Plants use different strategies for excretion of different products:
• Oxygen and carbon dioxide is removed by the process of photosynthesis and
respiration.
• Excess water is removed by the process of transpiration.
• Many plant waste products are stored in cellular vacuoles. Waste products may be
stored in leaves that fall off.
• Other waste products are stored as resins and gums, especially in old xylem.
Plants also excrete some waste substances into the soil around them.
 NCERT INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Describe the structure and functioning of nephrons.
Nephrons are the basic filtering units of kidneys. Each kidney possesses large number
of nephrons, approximately 1-1.5 million.
The main components of the nephron are glomerulus, Bowman's capsule, and a long
renal tubule.
Functioning of a nephron:
 The blood enters the kidney through the renal artery, which branches into many
capillaries associated with glomerulus.
 The water and solute are transferred to the nephron at Bowman's capsule.
 In the proximal tubule, some substances such as amino acids, glucose, and salts are
selectively reabsorbed and unwanted molecules are added in the urine.
 The filtrate then moves down into the loop of Henle, where more water is absorbed.
 From here, the filtrate moves upwards into the distal tubule and finally to the
collecting duct. Collecting duct collects urine from many nephrons.
 The urine formed in each kidney enters a long tube called ureter. From ureter, it
gets transported to the urinary bladder and then into the urethra.
 NCERT INTEXT QUESTIONS
2. What are the methods used by plants to get rid of excretory products?
Excretion in Plants
Plants use different strategies for excretion of different products:
• Oxygen and carbon dioxide is removed by the process of photosynthesis and respiration .
• Excess water is removed by the process of transpiration.
• Many plant waste products are stored in cellular vacuoles. Waste products may be stored
in leaves that fall off.
• Other waste products are stored as resins and gums, especially in old xylem.
 NCERT INTEXT QUESTIONS
3. How is the amount of urine produced regulated?
Ans.The amount of urine produced depends on the on how much excess water
there is in the body, and on how much of dissolved waste there is to be excreted
 NCERT EXERCISE QUESTIONS
1. The kidneys in human beings are a part of the system for
(a) nutrition
(b) respiration
(c) Excretion
(d) transportation
 NCERT EXERCISE QUESTIONS
2. The xylem in plants are responsible for
(a) transport of water
(b) transport of food
(c) transport of amino acids
(d) transport of oxygen
 NCERT EXERCISE QUESTIONS
3. The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires
(a) carbon dioxide and water
(b) chlorophyll
(c) Sunlight
(d) all of the above
 NCERT EXERCISE QUESTIONS
4. The breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon dioxide, water and energy takes place in
(a) cytoplasm
(b) mitochondria
(c) Chloroplast
(d) nucleus.
 NCERT EXERCISE QUESTIONS
5. How are fats digested in our bodies? Where does this process take place?
Ans. Fats are present in the form of large globules in the small intestine. The small
intestine receives the secretions from the liver and the pancreas. The bile salts (from the
liver) break down the large fat globules into smaller globules so that the pancreatic
enzyme lipase can easily act on them. This is referred to as the emulsification of fats and
then the intestinal enzymes present in intestinal juice converts fats into fatty acids and
glycerol .This process takes place in the small intestine.
 NCERT EXERCISE QUESTIONS
6. What is the role of saliva in the digestion of food?
Ans. The role of saliva in the digestion of food:
• It moistens the food for easy swallowing.
• It contains a digestive enzyme called salivary amylase, which breaks down starch into
sugar.
 NCERT EXERCISE QUESTIONS
7. What are the necessary conditions for autotrophic nutrition and what are its by
products?
Ans. Autotrophic nutrition takes place through the process of photosynthesis. Carbon
dioxide, water, chlorophyll pigment and sunlight are the necessary conditions required for
autotrophic nutrition .Carbohydrates (food) and O2 are the by-products of
photosynthesis.
 NCERT EXERCISE QUESTIONS
8. What are the differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration? Name some
organisms that use the anaerobic mode of respiration.

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

• Takes place in the presence of oxygen • Takes place in the absence of oxygen
• Occurs in mitochondria • Occurs in cytoplasm
• End products are CO2 and H2O • End products are alcohol or lactic acid
• More amount of energy is released. • Less amount of energy is released
Some organisms that use the anaerobic mode of respiration are yeast, bacteria, etc.
 NCERT EXERCISE QUESTIONS
9. How are the alveoli designed to maximise the exchange of gases?
Ans.The alveoli are thin-walled and richly supplied with a network of blood vessels to
facilitate the exchange of gases between blood in the capillaries and the air inside the
alveoli. These alveoli are balloon-like structures which provide the maximum surface area
for the exchange of gases.
 NCERT EXERCISE QUESTIONS
10. What would be the consequences of a deficiency of haemoglobin in our bodies?
Ans. Haemoglobin is the respiratory pigment that transports oxygen to the body cells
for cellular respiration. Therefore, a deficiency of haemoglobin in the blood can affect
the oxygen supplying capacity of the blood. This can lead to a deficiency of oxygen in the
body's cells. It can also lead to a disease called anaemia.
 NCERT EXERCISE QUESTIONS
11. Describe double circulation of blood in human beings. Why is it necessary?
Ans. Double circulation means, in a single cycle blood goes twice in the heart. The
process helps in separating oxygenated and deoxygenated blood to maintain a constant
body temperature.
The double circulatory system of blood includes
• Pulmonary circulation
• Systemic circulation.
 NCERT EXERCISE QUESTIONS
11. Describe double circulation of blood in human beings. Why is it necessary?
Pulmonary Circulation: Blood moves from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart.
Systemic Circulation: Blood moves from the heart to rest of the body and back to the
heart
 NCERT EXERCISE QUESTIONS
12. What are the differences between the transport of materials in xylem and phloem?
Transport of materials in xylem Transport of materials in phloem
Xylem involves the transport of water and Phloem involves transport of food
minerals from the soil to the rest of the materials from the leaves to different parts
plant body. of the plant body
Movement of water is unidirectional, i.e. Movement of food is bidirectional, i.e.
upwards from the roots to the aerial parts both upward and downward
of the plant.
Transport of material in xylem requires Transport of material in phloem requires
physical forces such as transpiration pull. energy in the form of ATP.
 NCERT EXERCISE QUESTIONS
13. Compare the functioning of alveoli in the lungs and nephrons in the kidneys with
respect to their structure and functioning.
Alveoli Nephrons
Structure Structure
Alveoli are tiny balloon-like structures Nephrons are tubular structures present
present inside the lungs inside the kidneys.
The walls of the alveoli are one cell thick Nephrons are made of glomerulus, a
and they contain an extensive network of Bowman's capsule, and a long renal tube
blood capillaries
 NCERT EXERCISE QUESTIONS
13. Compare the functioning of alveoli in the lungs and nephrons in the kidneys with
respect to their structure and functioning.
Function Function
The exchange of O2 and CO2 takes place The blood enters the kidneys through the
between the blood of the capillaries that renal artery. The blood is entered here
surround the alveoli and the gases present and the nitrogenous waste in the form of
in the alveoli. urine is collected by collecting duct.
Alveoli are the site of gaseous exchange. Nephrons are the basic filtration unit of
kidney.