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Cultural Anthropology
A Global Perspective
Tenth Edition

Raymond Scupin
Lindenwood University
FOR INFORMATION: Copyright © 2021 by SAGE Publications, Inc.

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 BRIEF CONTENTS

Prefacexiv

Acknowledgmentsxviii

About the Author xix

PART I • BASIC CONCEPTS IN ANTHROPOLOGY

Chapter 1 • Introduction to Anthropology 1
Chapter 2 • Human Evolution 19
Chapter 3 • Culture42
Chapter 4 • The Process of Enculturation: Psychological and
Cognitive Anthropology 58
Chapter 5 • Language80
Chapter 6 • Anthropological Explanations 104
Chapter 7 • Analyzing Sociocultural Systems 122

PART II • STUDYING DIFFERENT SOCIETIES

Chapter 8 • Environment, Subsistence, and Demography 140
Chapter 9 • Technology and Economics 162
Chapter 10 • Social Structure, the Family, Marriage, and Age 190
Chapter 11 • Gender and Sexuality 224
Chapter 12 • Politics, Warfare, and Law 250
Chapter 13 • Religion and Aesthetics 273

PART III • GLOBALIZATION AND ITS IMPACT

Chapter 14 • Globalization, Culture, and Indigenous Societies 298
Chapter 15 • Globalization, Colonialism, and Postcolonialism 326
Chapter 16 • Race and Ethnicity 361
Chapter 17 • Applied Anthropology 387

Glossary412

References419

Index450
 DETAILED CONTENTS

Prefacexiv Neandertal Technology: The Middle Paleolithic 31

Neandertal Ritual and Beliefs? 31
Acknowledgmentsxviii
Anatomically Modern Homo sapiens 33
About the Author xix The Evolution of Modern Homo sapiens 33
Multiregional Evolutionary Model 34
Replacement Model 34
PART I • BASIC CONCEPTS OF
Hybridization and Assimilation Models 34
ANTHROPOLOGY
Modern Homo sapiens Culture:
Chapter 1 • Introduction to Anthropology 1 The Upper Paleolithic 35
Anthropology: The Four Subfields 2 Upper Paleolithic Tools 35
Biological Anthropology 3 Upper Paleolithic Shelters  36
Archaeology4 Variations in Upper Paleolithic Technologies 36
Linguistic Anthropology 5 Upper Paleolithic Subsistence and Social
Cultural Anthropology 8 Organization36
Applied Anthropology 10 Social Organization 36
The Upper Paleolithic in Africa and Europe 37
Holistic Anthropology, Interdisciplinary
Migration of Upper Paleolithic Humans 37
Research, and the Global Perspective 12
Upper Paleolithic Hunters in America 37
Anthropological Explanations 12 Physical Variation in Modern Humans 38
Evaluating Anthropological Data 13
Skin Color 38
Humanistic-Interpretive Approaches in
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 39
Anthropology14
Key Terms 41
Why Study Anthropology? 16
Critical Thinking and Global Awareness 16
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives  17
Key Terms 18 Chapter 3 • Culture42
The Characteristics of Culture 43
Culture Is Learned 44
Chapter 2 • Human Evolution 19
Symbols and Symbolic Learning 44
Theory of Evolution 20 Symbols and Signs 45
Origin Myths 20 Symbols and Culture 45
Western Origin Myths 20 Culture Is Shared 47
The Scientific Revolution 21 Aspects of Culture 48
Darwin, Wallace, and Natural Selection 22 Values49
Examples of Natural Selection 23 Beliefs49
Principles of Inheritance 23 Norms50
The Evolution of Life 24 Folkways50
Hominin Evolution 24 Mores  50
Australopithecus27 Ideal Versus Real Culture 51

Homo28 Cultural Diversity 51

Early Stone Tools: The Lower Paleolithic 29 Food and Diversity 52
Dress Codes and Symbolism 54
Homo erectus 29
Ethnicity55
Migration of Homo erectus  30
Fire  30 Cultural Universals 55
Acheulean Technology  30 Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 56
Transition to Homo sapiens 30 Key Terms 57
Chapter 4 • The Process of Enculturation: Human Anatomy and Speech 86
Could Early Hominins Speak? 86
Psychological and Cognitive Anthropology 58
The Structure of Language 88
Biology Versus Culture 59
Phonology88
Instincts and Human Nature 60 Morphology88
Human Beings as Animals 60 Syntax89
Instincts in Animals 60 Semantics89
Instincts and Learned Behaviors 61 Kinship Terms 89
Do Humans Possess Instincts? 61
Language Acquisition 90
Drives62
Chomsky on Language Acquisition 90
Culture Versus Instinct 62
Creole and Pidgin Languages 91
Enculturation: Culture and Personality 62 Sign Language in Nicaragua 92
Early Studies of Enculturation 62
Language, Thought, and Culture 92
Benedict and Culture Types 63
The Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis 95
Mead in Samoa 63
A Case Study: The Hopi Language 95
The Culture-and-Personality School:
Universals of Time Expression 95
An Evaluation 64
Weak Linguistic Relativity 95
The Freeman–Mead Controversy 64
Childhood Acquisition of Cultural Historical Linguistics 96
Knowledge65 The Family-Tree Model 96
Japanese Childhood Enculturation 65 Assessing Language Change 97

Psychoanalytic Approaches in Anthropology 67 Sociolinguistics98

Sigmund Freud’s Influence 67 Dialectical Differences in Spoken Language 98
African American Vernacular English (AAVE) 99
Enculturation and Cognition 70
Honorifics in Language 99
Structuralism70
Greeting Behaviors 100
Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky 70
Nonverbal Communication 101
Cognitive Anthropology 71
Kinesics101
Evolutionary Psychology 74 Proxemics102
Enculturation and Emotions 75 Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 102
Neuroanthropology76 Key Terms 103
The Limits of Enculturation 77
Unique Biological Tendencies 77 Chapter 6 • Anthropological Explanations 104
Individual Variation and Agency 77
Nineteenth-Century Evolutionism 106
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 78 Unilineal Evolution: Tylor 106
Key Terms 79 Unilineal Evolution: Morgan 106
Morgan and Kinship Theories 107
Unilineal Evolution: A Critique 107
Chapter 5 • Language80 Diffusionism107
Nonhuman Animal Communication 81 British Diffusionism 108
Teaching Apes to Sign 81 German Diffusionism 108
Ape Sign Language Reexamined 82 The Limitations and Strengths of
Ethological Research on Ape Communication 83 Diffusionism108
Chimpanzee Communication: Jane Goodall 83 Historical Particularism 108
Animal Communication Versus Human Boas Versus the Unilineal Evolutionists 108
Language84 Functionalism109
Productivity84 Structural Functionalism: Radcliffe-Brown 110
Displacement84 Psychological Functionalism: Malinowski 110
Arbitrariness84 The Limitations of Functionalism 110
Combining Sounds to Produce Meanings 85 Twentieth-Century Evolutionism 111
The Evolution of Language 85 Steward and Cultural Ecology 111
The Human Brain and Speech 86 A Case Study: The Shoshone 111
 The Strengths of Neoevolutionism 112 Demography143
Cultural Materialism 112 Fertility, Mortality, and Migration 144
Criticisms of Cultural Materialism 112 Fecundity144
Marxist Anthropology 113 Life Expectancy 144
Evaluation of Marxist Anthropology 114 Population and Environment 144
Population and Culture 144
Symbolic Anthropology: A Humanistic Method
of Inquiry 114 Modern Foraging Environments and Subsistence 144
Criticisms of Symbolic Anthropology 115 Deserts145
Materialism Versus Culturalism 115 Tropical Rain Forests 146
Arctic Regions 147
Feminist Anthropology 115
Mobility and Subsistence 147
Criticisms of Feminist Anthropology 116
Demographic Conditions for Foragers 147
Postmodernism and Anthropology 117
Fissioning147
Postmodernists and Contemporary
Infanticide and Geronticide 148
Research117
Fertility Rates for Foragers 148
Twenty-First-Century Cultural Evolution 118
Environment and Subsistence for
Shifts in Anthropological Explanations 119
Horticulturalists and Pastoralists 149
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives  120 Amazon Horticulturalists: The Yanomamö 149
Key Terms 121 New Guinea Horticulturalists: The Tsembaga 149
Horticulturalists in Woodland Forest Areas:
Chapter 7 • Analyzing Sociocultural Systems 122 The Iroquois 150
Ethnographic Fieldwork 123 Environment and Subsistence for Pastoralists 150
East African Cattle Complex 151
Ethnographic Research and Strategies 124
The Nuer 151
Key Informants 124
Interviews125 Demographics and Settlement 151
Quantitative and Qualitative Data 125 Environment, Subsistence, and Demography for
Culture Shock 126 Chiefdoms152
Life History Projects and Ethnography 127 Pacific Island Chiefdoms 152
Ethics in Anthropological Research 127 African Chiefdoms 152
Native American Chiefdoms 153
Analysis of Ethnographic Data 128
The Mississippi Region 153
Universals, Independent and Dependent
The Northwest Coast 153
Variables128
Demography in Chiefdoms 154
Universals and Variables Studied by Cultural
Anthropologists129 Environment and Demography in
Agricultural States 154
Sociocultural Evolution: A Contemporary Model 130
Environment and Energy Use in Industrial and
Types of Sociocultural Systems 131
Postindustrial Societies 155
Foraging, Band, or Hunter-Gatherer Societies 131
High Energy Consumption Patterns 157
The Concept of Tribe in Anthropology 132
The Concept of the Chiefdom 133 Demographic Change 157
Agricultural States 134 The Demographic-Transition Model Applied 158
Industrial and Postindustrial States 135 Urbanization159

Cross-Cultural Research 137 Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 159

Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 138 Key Terms 161
Key Terms 139
Chapter 9 • Technology and Economics 162
Chapter 8 • Environment, Subsistence, and Anthropological Explanations of Technology 163
Demography140 Anthropology and Economics 164
Subsistence and the Physical Environment 141 The Formalist Approach 164
Modern Cultural Ecology  141 The Substantivist Approach 164
Biomes143 Contemporary Economic Anthropology 164
Subsistence Patterns and Environments 143 Technology in Foraging Societies 165
Economics in Foraging Societies 166 Recent Global Changes in Socialist Countries 184
Reciprocity166 The Former Soviet Union: Perestroika 184
Generalized Reciprocity 166 Socialism to State Capitalism: Russia and China 184
Balanced Reciprocity 167 Hybrid Economic Systems 185
Negative Reciprocity 167 The Evolution of Economic Organizations 185
Exchange and Altruism 167 Multinational Corporations 185
Collective Ownership of Property 168 Capitalist Consumer Societies 186
The Original Affluent Society? 168 Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 187
The Affluence Hypothesis Challenged 169
Key Terms 189
Technology Among Horticulturalists and
Pastoralists170 Chapter 10 • Social Structure, the Family,
Horticulturalist Technology 170 Marriage, and Age 190
Pastoralist Technology 170
Social Structure 191
Economics in Horticulturalist and Pastoralist Components of Social Structure 191
Societies170 The Family 192
Money170 Marriage192
Property Ownership 171
Understanding Incest Avoidance and the
Technology in Chiefdoms 172 Incest Taboo 193
Housing in Chiefdoms 172 Biological Explanations of Incest Avoidance 193
Economics in Chiefdoms 172 Marital Alliance and the Incest Taboo 193
Food Storage 172 Childhood Familiarity Hypothesis 194
Property Ownership 172 Incest Avoidance: Biocultural Perspectives 194
Political Aspects of Property Ownership 173 Age195
Economic Exchange in Chiefdoms 173 Age and Enculturation 195
Reciprocal Exchange 173 Age and the Division of Labor 195
The Kula Exchange 173 Age and Status 195
Redistributional Exchange 174
Social Structure in Hunter-Gatherer Societies 196
Potlatch174
Marriage and Kinship 196
Redistribution in Polynesia 175
Marriage Rules 196
Technology in Agricultural States 175 Brideservice198
Agricultural Innovations 175 Other Marital Patterns Among Foragers 198
The Diffusion of Technology 176 Divorce198
Economics in Agricultural States 176 Age198
Property Rights 176 The Roles of the Elderly 198
The Command Economy Versus the Childcare Activities 199
Entrepreneur177 Social Structure in Tribes 200
The Peasantry 178 Families200
The Moral Economy 178 Descent Groups 200
Trade and Monetary Exchange 178 Unilineal Descent Groups 200
The Rise of Merchants and Peripheral Markets 179 Ambilineal Descent Groups 200
Technology and Economic Change in Industrial and Bilateral Descent Groups 200
Postindustrial Societies 179 Clans201
Technology and Work 179 Phratries and Moieties 201
The Division of Labor 181 Functions of Descent Groups 201
Economic Exchange 181 Descent Groups and Economic Relationships 201
Market Economies 181 Marriage202
Perspectives on Market Economies 182 Polygyny203
Capitalism182 Bridewealth Exchange 203
Capitalism in the United States  182 Polyandry204
Capitalism in Japan 183 The Levirate and Sororate 204
Socialism183 Postmarital Residence Rules in Tribal Societies 204
Socialism in the Former Soviet Union 183 Causes of Postmarital Residence Rules 204
 Generalizations on Marriage in Tribal Societies 205 Gender and the Division of Labor 230
Divorce205 Sex-Based Explanations of the Division
Age205 of Labor 231
Age Sets 206 Female Status 231
Age Sets and Age Grades Among the Gender in Tribal Societies 232
Tribal Pastoralists 206 Gender and Enculturation: Margaret
The Elderly 206 Mead’s Study 232
Social Structure in Chiefdoms 207 Mead’s Study Reappraised 232
Rank and Sumptuary Rules 207 Patriarchy in Tribal Societies 232
A Case Study: Polynesia and Stratified Patriarchy and Sexism in Tribal Societies 233
Descent Groups 207 Gender, Subsistence, and Female Status 234
Marriage207 Female Status in Matrilineal Societies 234
Endogamy208 The Haudenosaunee (Formerly Called Iroquois) 234
Polygyny208
Gender in Chiefdom Societies 234
General Social Principles in Chiefdoms 209
Age209 Gender in Agricultural States 235
Slavery209 Gender, Subsistence, and Status 235
Female Seclusion 235
Social Structure in Agricultural States 210
Patriarchy and Sexism 235
Kinship and Status 210
Variations in the Status of Women 236
The Extended Family 210
Other Kinship Principles 210 Gender in Industrial and Postindustrial
Family Structure Among the Nayar 210 Societies238
Marriage211 Gender and the Division of Labor 238
Dowry and Bridewealth 211 Female Status in Industrial Societies 239
Polygyny211 Feminism239
Divorce211 Gender in Latin America, Africa, the
Social Stratification in Agricultural States 212 Middle East, and Asia 241
The Caste System 212 Machismo in Latin America 241
Slavery212 Gender in Africa 241
Urban African Women 242
Social Structure in Industrial and Postindustrial
Gender in the Middle East 242
Societies212
The Veil and Seclusion 243
Kinship213
Gender and Status in South Asia 244
Family213
Gender in China 245
Marriage214
Divorce216 Sexuality in Different Societies  246
Age217 Codes of Sexual Behavior 246

Social Stratification in Industrial and Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 247
Postindustrial Societies 217 Key Terms 249
The British Class System 218
Chapter 12 • Politics, Warfare, and Law 250
Class in the United States 218
Class in Japan and the Former Soviet Union 219 Politics, Warfare, and Law 251
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 220 Decision Making in a Political System 252
Warfare and Feuds 252
Key Terms 222
Law and Social Control 253
Law as Formalized Norms and Sanctions 253
Chapter 11 • Gender and Sexuality 224
Political Organization in Foraging Societies 253
The Complexities of Sex 225
Characteristics of Leadership 254
Male and Female Brain Differences? 227
Sex and the Division of Labor 228 Warfare and Violence in Foraging Societies 254
Conflict Resolution 255
The Complexities of Gender 228
The Eskimo Song Duel 256
Gender and Enculturation 228
Gender and Status 228 Political Organization in Horticulturalist and
Pastoralist Tribes 256
Transgender and LGBTQ Individuals 228
Sodalities256
Gender in Foraging Societies 230 How Leaders Are Chosen 256
 Village Headman 256 Animism and Shamanism in South America 284
Big Man 257 Witchcraft and Sorcery 284
Pastoralist Tribal Politics 258 The Role of Witchcraft 285
Segmentary Lineage Systems 258 The Role of Sorcery 285
Complementary Opposition 258 Totemism285
Explaining Tribal Warfare 259 Ghost Lineage Members Among the Lugbara 285
The Yanomamö and Protein Shortages 259 Art and Music in Tribal Societies 286
Biological Hypotheses of Tribal Warfare 260 Musical Traditions 286
Multidimensional Explanations of Religion in Chiefdoms 286
Tribal Warfare 260 A Case Study: Law and Religion in Polynesia 287
Law and Conflict Resolution Among Tribes 260 Shamanism in Chiefdoms 287
Ordeals260 Human Sacrifice 287
Oaths and Oracles 261 Art, Architecture, and Music in Chiefdoms 288
Political Authority in Chiefdoms 261 Art and Architecture 288
Limits on Chiefly Power 261 Music288
A Case Study: The Trobriand Islands 261 Religion in Agricultural States 289
A Case Study: Hawaii and Tahiti 261 Ecclesiastical Religions 289
The Evolution of Chiefdoms 262 Divine Rulers, Priests, and Religious Texts 289
Warfare263 Human Sacrifice 289
Law in Chiefdoms 263 Universalistic Religions 290
Politics in Agricultural States 263 Art, Architecture, and Music in
Law in Agricultural States 264 Agricultural States 291
Mediation and Self-Help 265 Religion and Secularization in Industrial and
A Case Study: Law in China 265 Postindustrial Societies 291
Warfare265 Religion in Socialist States 292
The Collapse of Agricultural State Societies 265 Religion in Japan 292
Possible Reasons for Collapse 265 Fundamentalist Movements 292
Political Organization in Industrial and Art and Music in Industrial and
Postindustrial States 266 Postindustrial Societies 293
Political Organization in Socialist States 267 Art293
Industrialism and State Bureaucracy 268 Music294
Law268
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 295
Japanese Law 268
Key Terms 297
Warfare and Industrial Technology 268
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 271
Chapter 14 • Globalization, Culture, and
Key Terms 272 Indigenous Societies 298
Chapter 13 • Religion and Aesthetics 273 Globalization: A Contested Term 299
Religion274 Globalization: Technological and
Economic Trends 300
Myths and Rituals 275
Globalization: General Theoretical Approaches 301
Rites of Passage 276
Modernization Theory 301
Religious Specialists 278
Modernization Theory and the Cold War 302
Religious Movements 278
First, Second, and Third Worlds 303
Cognition and Religion 278 Criticisms of Modernization Theory 303
Aesthetics: Art and Music 280 Dependency Theory 304
Religion Among Foragers 280 Criticisms of Dependency Theory 305
The Dreamtime 281 World-System Analysis 305
Inuit Religion 281 Criticisms of World-System Analysis 305
Rites of Passage Among Foragers 282 Anthropological Analysis and Globalization 306
Art, Music, and Religion Among Foragers 283 Globalization, Politics, and Culture 306
Religion Among Horticulturalists and Globalization and Indigenous Peoples 307
Pastoralists284 Vanishing Foragers 308
 The Ju/’hoansi San  308 Political Changes: Independence and Nationalist
The Mbuti 309 Movements338
The Ik 310 A Nationalist and Independence Movement
Tribes in Transition 311 in India 340
Native North American Horticulturalists 311 Explaining Revolution 341
The Relocation of Native Americans 312 Uneven Economic Development 342
Native North American Indians in the Peripheral Postcolonial Countries 343
Twenty-First Century 312 Withdrawal From the Global Economy 343
Native South American Horticulturalists 312
Ethnographic Studies 343
Recent Developments Among the Yanomamö 313
African Peasants: A Unique Phenomenon? 344
Pastoralist Tribes 314
Middle Eastern Pastoralists: The Bedouins 314 Social Structure in Postcolonial Societies 345
The Qashqa’i 314 Latin American Social Relationships 345
East African Pastoralists and Globalization 315 African Social Relationships 346
Chiefdoms in Transition 315 Family and Social Structure in the
The Hawaiian Islands 315 Middle East 347
The Family 347
Forms of Resistance Among Indigenous
Marriage347
Peoples316
Divorce348
Revitalization Among Native Americans 317
Social Structure and Family in India: Caste 348
The Ghost Dance 317
Origins of the Caste System 348
The Peyote Cult 318
Family and Marriage in South Asia 349
Melanesia and New Guinea: The Cargo Cults 318
The Dowry 350
A Hawaiian Religious Renaissance 319
A Lost Opportunity? 320 Patterns of Ethnicity 350
Native American Knowledge 320 Ethnicity in Latin America 350
Preserving Indigenous Societies 321 Ethnicity in Africa 352
Ethnicity in the Middle East and Asia 354
Pro- and Anti-Globalization: An Anthropological
China and Ethnic Minorities 354
Contribution322
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 358
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 324
Key Terms 360
Key Terms 325

Chapter 15 • Globalization, Colonialism, and Chapter 16 • Race and Ethnicity 361

Postcolonialism326 Race, Racism, and Culture 362
Ancient Classification Systems 363
Globalization and Colonialism 327
Latin America 327 Modern Racism in Western Thought 363
Cortés (Cortez) and the Aztec Empire  328 Critiques of Scientific Racism 364
Africa328 Race and Intelligence 365
Slave Trade 328 Problems in Measuring Intelligence 365
Colonization in Africa 330 The Cultural and Social Significance of Race 366
The Caribbean 330
Ethnicity368
The Middle East and Asia 331
Colonialism in the Middle East 332 Anthropological Perspectives on Ethnicity 369
Asia333 The Primordialist Model 369
India, Myanmar (Burma), and Malaysia 333 The Circumstantialist Model 369
China334 Patterns of Ethnic Relations 370
The Dutch Empire 334 Pluralism370
French Indochina 334 Assimilation371
Thailand: An Independent Country 334 Ethnic Violence 372
The Philippines 334 Racial and Ethnic Stratification 372
Consequences of Globalization and Ethnic Relations in the United States 373
Colonialism335 WASP Dominance 374
Demographic Change 335 Ethnic Challenges for U.S. Society 374
Economic Change 335 German and Irish Americans 374
Religious Change 337 Italian and Polish Americans 375
 The Melting Pot: Assimilation or Pluralism? 376 Cultural Patterns and Epidemiology 396
African Americans 377 Medical Anthropology and Mental Illness 397
Postslavery and Segregation 377 What Is Abnormal? 397
The Civil Rights Movement 378 Culture-Specific Disorders 398
African Americans Today 378 Globalization and Mental Illness 399
Hispanic/Latino Americans 378 Cultural Resource Management: Applied
Puerto Rican Americans 379 Archaeology400
Cuban Americans 379 Preserving the Past 400
Hispanic and Latino Americans Today 379 Cultural Resource Management in the United States 401
Asian and Arab Americans 380 Native American Graves Protection
Cultural Pluralism 381 and Repatriation Act 402
Multiculturalism in the United States 381 Applied Archaeology: The Study of Garbage 403
Ethnonationalism383 Applied Anthropology and Human Rights 404
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 384 Cultural Relativism and Human Rights 404
Key Terms 386 Relativism Reconsidered 404
Ethical Relativism 404
Chapter 17 • Applied Anthropology 387 A Resolution to the Problem of Relativism 405
The Problem of Intervention 406
The Roles of the Applied Anthropologist 388
Universal Human Rights 407
The Roles of the Applied Anthropologist
The Role of Applied Anthropology in Human Rights 407
in Planned Change 389
Summary and Review of Learning Objectives 410
Applied Anthropology, Climate Change, and
Sustainability  393 Key Terms 411

Medical Anthropology 394

Ethnomedicine394 Glossary 412
Ethnomedicine in Thailand 394
References 419
Ethnomedicine in East Africa 395
Chinese Acupuncture 396 Index 450
 PREFACE

EDUCATIONAL GOALS AND evidence, while acknowledging the unique elements of each
ORIENTATION OF THIS TEXTBOOK case, society, or culture. The text casts an inquiring eye on
materials from numerous geographical regions and historical
The world has become a small place. Global communications, eras to enrich student understanding. A diachronic approach
international trade, geopolitical events with worldwide impact, also characterizes this textbook. In evaluating human evolu-
and ease of travel have brought people and cultures into more tion, prehistoric events, language divergence, or developments
intimate contact than ever before, forcing this generation of in social structure, anthropologists must rely on models that
students to become more knowledgeable about societies other reflect changes through time, so this diachronic orientation
than their own. This textbook is grounded in the belief that an suffuses the text.
enhanced global awareness is essential for people preparing to
take their place in the fast-paced, increasingly interconnected FOUR UNIFYING THEMES
world of the twenty-first century. Anthropology is ideally OF THIS TEXT
suited to introduce students to a global perspective. Through
exploring the range of human diversity, each of the subfields In previous editions of this textbook, we emphasized three
of anthropology helps liberate students from a narrow, paro- unifying themes that structured the material presented. These
chial view and enables them to appreciate the full sweep of the have been retained and expanded in this edition. The first two
human condition. themes we introduce students to are the diversity of human soci-
The anthropological perspective, which stresses critical eties and cultural patterns the world over and the similarities
thinking, the evaluation of competing hypotheses, and the that make all humans fundamentally alike. To achieve these two
skills to generalize from specific data, contributes signifi- objectives, we pay as much attention to universal human char-
cantly to a well-rounded education. This text engages read- acteristics as we do to local cultural contexts and conditions.
ers in anthropology by delving into both classic and current We emphasize the growing interconnectedness of humanity
research in the field. This reflects a commitment to anthro- and both the positive and negative consequences of this reality.
pology’s holistic and integrative approach. It spells out how We draw on anthropological studies to discover how people are
the four basic subfields of anthropology—biological anthro- responding to the process of globalization.
pology, archaeology, linguistics, and cultural anthropology— The third theme focuses on the interconnections between
together yield a comprehensive understanding of humanity. the sciences and humanities within anthropology. We call this
Because the subfields often overlap, insights from all of them the synthetic-complementary approach, which views the scien-
are woven together to reveal the holistic fabric of a particular tific method and the methods in the humanities as comple-
society or the threads uniting all of humanity. In examin- mentary and suggests that one is incomplete without the other.
ing anthropological research, this text often refers to research This theme was mentioned in previous editions, but we have
conducted in other fields. Contemporary anthropologists made it much more of a centerpiece in this edition. This third
draw on the findings of biologists, paleontologists, geologists, important theme dovetails with the two other themes, demon-
economists, historians, psychologists, sociologists, politi- strating how human behavior is unique to a specific culture yet
cal scientists, religious studies specialists, philosophers, and also universal.
researchers in other areas whose work sheds light on anthro- Several decades ago, in another anthropology textbook, the
pological inquiry. In addition to enlarging the scope of the late Eric Wolf emphasized that anthropology has always had
text, exploring interactions between anthropology and other one foot in the sciences and one foot in the humanities. This
fields sparks the critical imagination that brings the learning observation is evermore true today. Wolf said, “Anthropology
process to life. is both the most scientific of the humanities and the most
The comparative approach, another cornerstone of the humanistic of the sciences” (1964, 88). We would like to carry
anthropological perspective, is also highlighted in this text. on the tradition that Wolf accentuated in his work.
When anthropologists assess fossil evidence, artifacts, lan- One of the prime goals in this edition is to further highlight
guages, or cultural beliefs and values, they weigh comparative the fundamental importance of the synthetic-complementary

xiv
 Preface   xv

approach to science and the humanities in anthropol- a linguistic anthropologist who is assisting people
ogy. Some anthropologists have argued that the scientific in Papua New Guinea in preserving and developing
approach is not suitable for assessing and interpreting human their native language. We also have Anthropologists
behavior and culture, whereas others believe that the human- at Work boxes about cultural anthropologists who are
istic approach is not appropriate for developing general cross- exploring current topics such as psychiatric treatments
cultural and causal explanations about human behavior and and the psychology of religion, and an ethnographic
study of how young people use YouTube. Other boxes
culture. This has led to textbooks that focus on either one
are about anthropologists who are applying their
or the other approach. In this book, we highlight how the
skills in jobs outside of academia in fields such as
humanistic-interpretive perspective is complementary to the
space travel, the high-tech industry, and the global
scientific method, which seeks general cross-cultural and financial world.
causal explanations for human behavior and culture. The
humanistic-interpretive perspective provides insight into ——New coverage of recent fossil and archaeological
the specifics of human behavior within different cultures, evidence added to the chapter on human evolution.
whereas the scientific approach offers a method to test causal ——New updated and expanded discussions of
explanations that allow for insight into universal aspects of anthropological research on color perception in
human behavior. various societies.
We have added a fourth theme that is prevalent in the text- ——New discussions and developments of the
book. The fourth theme is emphasized in a Critical Perspectives anthropological research on enculturation and
box, “Essentialism,” in Chapter 1. We explain the meaning of emotions.
psychological essentialism: attributing the belief that members
——New discussion of twenty-first-century “cultural
of certain categories or classifications such as “species,” “races,”
evolution theories”: dual inheritance models, cultural
“ethnic groups,” “genders,” or “cultures” share an underlying
attraction theory.
invisible essence. Extensive psychological and anthropologi-
cal research has demonstrated that psychological essentialism ——New discussions of anthropological research on
appears universal and is prevalent in human cognition and inequality and debt for economic anthropology.
thinking throughout the world. One of the major missions of ——New discussion of life history projects in South
anthropology and this textbook is to help reduce essentialist America by various anthropologists.
beliefs and generalizations regarding the different categories
——New discussions of political power, kingships,
such as ethnic or “racial” groups, cultures, civilizations, societ-
and warfare as understood by recent research in
ies, tribes, or religious groups. Anthropologists have found that anthropology.
within these different categories there is enormous variation.
Essentialist thinking has resulted in many widespread simplis- ——New discussion of extreme “high arousal rituals”
tic misconceptions or distorted perceptions. by Dimitris Xygalatas in the religion and aesthetics
chapter.
In different sections of the textbook, we indicate how
essentialist beliefs and perceptions have been prevalent. One ——New discussion of shamanism and examples among
of the major goals of this textbook is to introduce the stu- the Ju/’hoansi San and the Inuit.
dent to the anthropological research that demonstrates the ——New discussion of anthropological explanations of
problems of facile generalizations and essentialist beliefs and human sacrifice rituals in agricultural states.
perceptions.
——New discussion of the Human Generosity Project as
established by Lee Cronk.
——New discussions of the recent impact and reactions to
WHAT’S NEW TO THIS EDITION globalization by indigenous communities.
——New condensed chapter on globalization, colonialism,
——A brand new chapter on gender and sexuality
and postcolonialism.
explores the complexities of topics such as transgender
and LGBTQ issues in various societies throughout ——New discussion of research on essentialism as it is
the world. related to “race” classification.
——New Anthropologists at Work boxes illustrate current ——New discussion of anthropological contributions to
research directions of an archaeologist who explores genomic research in Mexico in the race and ethnicity
both the past and the present in Mesoamerica and chapter.
xvi Cultural Anthropology

——New discussion of the roles of applied anthropologists Digital Assets

in their various activities.
——New discussion of ethnomedicine in Africa in the
applied anthropology chapter.
——New discussion of how anthropologists are actively SAGE edge for Instructors
doing research on the impact of climate change on A password-protected resource site is available at edge.sagepub.
various societies throughout the world.
com/scupincultural10e supports teaching, providing high-
——New discussion of recent applied archaeology and quality content to create a rich learning environment for stu-
developments in garbology. dents. The SAGE edge for this book includes the following
——In addition to the new discussions described above, instructor resources:
we have expanded and updated many sections and
boxes of the chapters within the textbook, paying ——Test banks built on Bloom’s Taxonomy provide a
close attention to the readability and coherence of the diverse range of test items. Each chapter includes 50
content for the undergraduate student. questions
——Editable, chapter-specific PowerPoint® slides offer
Features of This Text flexibility for creating a multimedia presentation for
lectures
Boxes
——Lecture notes for each chapter align with the
In the Critical Perspectives boxes, designed to stimulate inde- PowerPoint slides summarize key concepts to help
pendent reasoning and judgment, students take the role of with preparation for lectures and class discussion
anthropologist by engaging in the critical analysis of specific
problems and issues that arise in anthropological research. A ——Carefully selected video and multimedia content
successful holdover from the first edition, these boxes encour- that are aligned with the book’s learning objectives
enhance exploration of key topics
age students to use rigorous standards of evidence when evalu-
ating assumptions and hypotheses regarding scientific and ——Chapter-specific discussion questions help launch
philosophical issues that have no easy answers. I have updated engaging classroom interaction while reinforcing
my discussions in the Critical Perspectives boxes for this edi- important content
tion. By probing beneath the surface of various assumptions ——Sample course syllabi provide suggested models for
and hypotheses in these exercises, students stand to discover structuring your course
the excitement and challenge of anthropological investigation.
Anthropologists at Work boxes, profiling prominent ——Tables and figures from the book are available for
anthropologists, humanize many of the issues covered in download
the chapters. These boxes—another carryover from the ——SAGE coursepacks provide easy LMS integration
first ­
edition—go behind the scenes to trace the personal
and ­ professional development of some of today’s leading SAGE edge for Students
anthropologists. The open-access companion website helps students accomplish
their coursework goals in an easy-to-use learning environment,
featuring:
Pedagogical Aids
This edition of the textbook provides some basic features that ——Learning objectives reinforce the most important
facilitate the process of teaching and learning. Each chapter material
opens with Learning Objectives that will guide students to the ——eQuizzes encourage self-guided assessment and
most important issues addressed in the chapter. And each chap- practice
ter ends with a Summary and Review of Learning Objectives,
which helps the students better comprehend the content in the ——eFlashcards hat strengthen understanding of key
chapter. In addition, each chapter has a list of Key Terms with terms and concepts.
page numbers that will help the students focus on the impor- ——Carefully selected video and multimedia content
tant concepts introduced in the chapter. The Key Terms are also that are aligned with the book’s learning objectives
found with succinct definitions in the Glossary. enhance exploration of key topics
 Preface   xvii

cc Instructions on how to use and integrate the

comprehensive assessments and resources provided.
——Assignable video tied to learning objectives with
SAGE coursepacks make it easy to import our quality corresponding assessments bring concepts to life to
instructor and student resource content into your school’s increase student engagement.
learning management system (LMS) with minimal effort.
——Integrated links to the eBook version that make it
Intuitive and simple to use, SAGE coursepacks gives you
easy to access the mobile-friendly version of the text,
the control to customize course content to me et your which can be read anywhere, anytime.
students’ needs. The SAGE coursepacks are customized
and curated for use in Blackboard, Canvas, Desire2Learn
(D2L), and Moodel.
In addition to the content available on the Edge site, the
coursepacks include:

——Pedagogically robust assessment tools that foster

review, practice, and critical thinking:
cc Chapter tests identify opportunities for student
improvement, track student progress, and ensure
mastery of key learning objectives.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A
textbook like this one requires the enormous effort of State University; Henry Munson, University of Maine; John
many people. First, I would like to offer thanks to my A. Napora, University of Southern Florida; Thomas O’Toole,
colleague, Christina Pomianek, a faculty member at St. Cloud State University; Paul (Jim) Roscoe, University of
Lindenwood University. She provided in-depth and helpful Maine; Susan D. Russell, Northern Illinois University; Paul
comments for various sections of this textbook. Shankman, University of Colorado Boulder; William Silcott,
I would also like to thank the following reviewers for their Friends University; Stephen A. Tyler, Rice University; Linda
valuable comments on the various editions of this textbook: Watts, University of Colorado Colorado Springs; Derrick
Hoyt Alverson, Dartmouth College; Jessica Amato, Napa Willis, College of DuPage; Melford S. Weiss, California State
Valley College; Rucha Ambikar, Bemidji State University; University, Sacramento; Dimitris Xygalatas, University of
Harumi Befu, Stanford University; Donald E. Brown, Connecticut at Storrs.
University of California–Santa Barbara; Susan Brownell, I also extend thanks to all my colleagues who sent photos
University of Missouri–St. Louis; Margaret Bruchez, Blinn and information for use in the Anthropologists at Work boxes
College; Robert Carmack, State University of New York at and elsewhere in the textbook.
Albany; A. H. Peter Castro, Syracuse University; Miriam I am grateful for the unwavering support given to this project
S. Chaiken, New Mexico State University; Tom Connelly, by SAGE Publications, including the moral support and encour-
New Mexico State University; Dale Eickelman, Dartmouth agement of our acquisitions editor Joshua Perigo, ­development
College; Adam D. Frank, University of Central Arkansas; editor Alissa Nance, editorial assistant Noelle Cumberbatch,
Raymond Hames, University of Nebraska; Robert W. Hefner, production editor Bennie Clark Allen, copy editor Melinda
Boston University; Lawrence A. Hirschfeld, New School Masson, and both Zina Craft and Jade Henderson in marketing.
for Social Research; Robert Hitchcock, University of New My warmest appreciation goes to my wife, Susan, whose
Mexico, Albuquerque; Frank Hutchins, Bellarmine University; emotional support, patience, love, and endurance made pos-
Ronald Kephart, University of North Florida; Rita S. Kipp, sible the publication of this project.
Kenyon College; Howard Kress, University of Connecticut; Anyone with comments, suggestions, or recommendations
the late Robert Lawless, Wichita State University; James regarding this textbook is welcome to send email messages to
Lett, Indian River Community College; Ronald Lukens- the following address: rscupin@lindenwood.edu.
Bull, University of North Florida; Juliet Morrow, Arkansas SAGE also wishes to thank the following for their assistance:

Jessica Amato, Napa Valley College John A. Napora, University of South Florida
Rucha Ambikar, Bemidji State University Christina Pomianek, Lindenwood University
Lindsay Anderson, The University of Tennessee at Martin Paul Roach, Century College
Margaret Bruchez, Blinn College Paul Roscoe, University of Maine
Steve Dasovich, Lindenwood University William Silcott, Friends University
Holly DeLeo, Rowan College at Burlington County Jesse Todd, Brookhaven College
Robert K. Hitchcock, University of New Mexico Deborah Tooker, Le Moyne College
Frank Hutchins, Bellarmine University Lillian Marie Wallace, Pima Community College
Jacquelyn Kyle, Rowan College at Burlington County Linda K. Watts, University of Colorado Colorado Springs
Mohsen M. Mobasher, University of Houston - Downtown Derrick Willis, College of DuPage
Juliet E. Morrow, Arkansas State University Dimitris Xygalatas, University of Connecticut

xviii
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

R
aymond Scupin is a professor of anthropology and prompted to write this textbook, which would allow a wide
international studies at Lindenwood University. He range of undergraduate students to understand the holistic
received his BA degree in history, Asian studies, and and global perspectives of the four-field approach in anthro-
anthropology from the University of California–Los A ­ ngeles. pology. In 1999, he received the Missouri Governor’s Award
He completed his MA and PhD degrees in anthropology at for Teaching Excellence. In 2007, Dr. Scupin received the
the University of California–Santa Barbara. Dr. Scupin is Distinguished Scholars Award at Lindenwood University.
truly a four-field anthropologist. During graduate school, Dr. Scupin has published many essays, book chapters, and
he did archaeological and ethnohistorical research on Native review essays based on his ethnographic research in ­Thailand.
Americans in the Santa Barbara region. He did extensive eth- He returned to Thailand and other countries of Southeast
nographic fieldwork in Thailand with a focus on understand- Asia to update his ethnographic data on Islamic trends in that
ing the ethnic and religious movements among the Muslim area, an increasingly important topic in the post-9/11 world.
minority. In addition, Dr. Scupin taught linguistics and con- He is a member of many professional associations, includ-
ducted linguistic research while based at a Thai university. ing the American Anthropological Association, the Associ-
Dr. Scupin has been teaching undergraduate and graduate ation for Asian Studies, and the Council on Thai Studies.
courses in anthropology for more than thirty years at a vari- Dr. Scupin has authored Religion and Culture: An Anthropological
ety of academic institutions, including community colleges, Focus, Race and Ethnicity: The United States and the World,
research universities, and a four-year liberal arts university. and Peoples and Cultures of Asia. He is also a coauthor with
Thus, he has taught a very broad spectrum of undergraduate Christopher DeCorse of Anthropology: A Global Perspective
students. Through his teaching experience, Dr. Scupin was (9th ed., with SAGE).

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