BHS 110 INTRODUCTION TO ZIMBABWE

CULTURE AND HERITAGE

 STUDENT LECTURE NOTES

CULTURE
When a group of people stay together, they develop some ways of
doing, expressing things. Societies develop culture which is sometimes
unique to them. Culture of one society/community can be different to
another community. Cultures of a certain community or group of people
can be taken to other communities and have an effect. This means
therefore that culture is not static but is dynamic. Culture can be defined
in several ways.

SOME DEFINITIONS

 Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience,

beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions
of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and
material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in
the course of generations through individual and group striving.

 Culture is the systems of knowledge shared by a relatively large

group of people.

 Culture is communication, communication is culture.

 Culture in its broadest sense is cultivated behaviour; that is the

totality of a person's learned, accumulated experience which is
socially transmitted, or more briefly, behaviour through social
learning.

 Culture is the whole way of life people--their behaviours, beliefs,

values, and symbols that they accept, generally without thinking
about them, and that are passed along by communication and
imitation from one generation to the next.
 Culture is symbolic communication. Some of its symbols include a
group's skills, knowledge, attitudes, values, and motives. The
meanings of the symbols are learned and deliberately perpetuated
in a society through its institutions.

 Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for

behaviour acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the
distinctive achievement of human groups, including their
embodiments in artefacts; the essential core of culture consists of
traditional ideas and especially their attached values; culture
systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of
action, on the other hand, as conditioning influences upon further
action.

 Culture is the sum totality of the learned behaviour of a group of

people that are generally considered to be the tradition of that
people and are transmitted from generation to generation.

 Culture is a collective programming of the mind that distinguishes

the members of one group or category of people from another.

 Culture as a state of mind

 Here, Culture is used as a quality possessed by individuals deemed
to have qualities that are desirable in a particular society. So
when talking about children with culture, we are perhaps talking
about those who greet and respect elders, those who are
responsible. Thus the notion of culture in individual based.
 Culture as civilisation
 In this respect, some societies are considered as more civilised
than others. This sounds rather Eurocentric since western and
European countries are considered to be more cultured than
developing societies. Thus while the first view of culture is based
on individuals, the second view uses societies as the frame of
design
  Material Culture
 In this sense, Culture is referred to as a collective body of arts and
intellectual work in a society. Following this view, Culture is to be
found in theatres, art galleries, concert halls and libraries…not in
all aspects of human social life. Thus, if one wants to know more
about our culture, they are better referred to places such as Great
Zimbabwe and Khami ruins. This view is more inclined to material
culture in the sense that people’s attitudes, beliefs and behaviour
are excluded.
 Adopted Definition
 The last def. sees culture as ‘the whole way of life of a people’. By
looking at culture as the whole way of life of a people, the
definition encompasses several aspects, including all those
referred to in the first three definitions given above and thus can
be considered as comprehensive. Pang (2005) elaborates on this
definition when she views culture as a social system of rules,
language, norms, values, ideals that people share, ways of doing
things, ways of seeing things, methods of learning, methods of
interacting, choices made and communication styles. Two
important issues implied by this definition are that culture is both
learned and shared.

MANIFESTATIONS OF CULTURE

Cultural differences manifest themselves in different ways and differing

levels of depth. Symbols represent the most superficial and value the
deepest manifestations of culture, with heroes and rituals in between.
 Symbols are words, gestures, pictures, or objects that carry a
particular meaning which is only recognized by those who share a
particular culture. New symbols easily develop, old ones disappear.
Symbols from one particular group are regularly copied by others.
This is why symbols represent the outermost layer of a culture.
 Heroes are persons, past or present, real or fictitious, who possess
characteristics that are highly prized in a culture. They also serve
as models for behaviour.
 Rituals are collective activities, sometimes superfluous in reaching
desired objectives, but are considered as socially essential. They
are therefore carried out most of the times for their own sake
(ways of greetings, paying respect to others, religious and social
ceremonies, etc.).
 The core of a culture is formed by values. They are broad
tendencies for preferences of certain state of affairs to others
(good-evil, right-wrong, natural-unnatural). Many values remain
unconscious to those who hold them. Therefore they often cannot
be discussed, nor can they be directly observed by others. Values
can only be inferred from the way people act under different
circumstances.
 Symbols, heroes, and rituals are the tangible or visual aspects of
the practices of a culture. The true cultural meaning of the
practices is intangible; this is revealed only when the practices are
interpreted by the insiders.
Figure 1. Manifestation of Culture at Different Levels of Depth

THEORIES OF CULTURE
THEORY OF CULTURAL DETERMINISM

 The position that the ideas, meanings, beliefs and values people
learn as members of society determines human nature. People are
what they learn. Optimistic version of cultural determinism places
no limits on the abilities of human beings to do or to be whatever
they want. Some anthropologists suggest that there is no universal
"right way" of being human. "Right way" is almost always "our
way"; that "our way" in one society almost never corresponds to
"our way" in any other society. Proper attitude of an informed
human being could only be that of tolerance.

 The optimistic version of this theory postulates that human nature

being infinitely malleable; human being can choose the ways of life
they prefer.
  The pessimistic version maintains that people are what they are
conditioned to be; this is something over which they have no
control. Human beings are passive creatures and do whatever
their culture tells them to do. This explanation leads to
behaviourism that locates the causes of human behaviour in a
realm that is totally beyond human control.

CULTURAL RELATIVISM

 Different cultural groups think, feel, and act differently. There are
no scientific standards for considering one group as intrinsically
superior or inferior to another. Studying differences in culture
among groups and societies presupposes a position of cultural
relativism. It does not imply normalcy for oneself, or for one's
society. It, however, calls for judgment when dealing with groups
or societies different from one's own. Information about the nature
of cultural differences between societies, their roots, and their
consequences should precede judgment and action. Negotiation is
more likely to succeed when the parties concerned understand the
reasons for the differences in viewpoints.

CULTURAL ETHNOCENTRISM

The theory is based on the thinking that that one's own culture is
superior to that of other cultures. It is a form of superiority that reduces
the "other way" of life to a distorted version of one's own. This is
particularly important in case of global dealings when a company or an
individual is infused with the idea that methods, materials, or ideas that
worked in the home country will also work abroad. Environmental
differences are, therefore, ignored. Most Europeans when they came to
Africa they were obsessed with the view that their culture is better than
those of Africans thus ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism, in relation to
global dealings, can be categorized as follows:
Important factors in business are overlooked because of the obsession
with certain cause-effect relationships in one's own country. It is always
a good idea to refer to checklists of human variables in order to be
assured that all major factors have been at least considered while
working abroad.

Even though one may recognize the environmental differences and

problems associated with change, but may focus only on achieving
objectives related to the home-country. This may result in the loss of
effectiveness of a company or an individual in terms of international
competitiveness. The objectives set for global operations should also be
global.

The differences are recognized, but it is assumed that associated

changes are so basic that they can be achieved effortlessly. It is always
a good idea to perform a cost-benefit analysis of the changes proposed.
Sometimes a change may upset important values and thereby may face
resistance from being implemented. The cost of some changes may
exceed the benefits derived from the implementation of such changes

ZIMBABWEAN TRADITIONAL AND CULTURAL VALUES

MARRIAGE INSTITUTIONS

-Marriage is one of the most important institutions that was/is highly

valued by the various cultural groups that are found in Zimbabwe.

-The marriage institution allowed procreation and therefore continuity

hence it was largely celebrated.
-This institution has largely been affected by the Western culture and
the conversion of African people into Western religions like Christianity-
How? Lesbians and Gays and also dedicated brothers and sisters in the
case of Catholics.

- People are now highly mobile in this globalized world as a result people
have largely intermarried and this has affected the marriage institution
in Zimbabwe.

- Marriage is considered an avenue to get status amongst most ethnic

groups in Zimbabwe.

-It is almost universal amongst the Bantu people that a person is

referred to using the name of the first born e.g mother of so and so or
father as so and so.

- The westerners use their first names or other tittles e.g. Doctor
,Professor, Mr., Mrs., Reverend etc.

-parenthood is necessary to establish status among the people of

Zimbabwe

-family life is thus of outer most importance. That is the reason why
people who don’t get married are regarded as social outcasts e.g
tsvimborume or mbongorori this is usually explained as a misfortune or
caused by evil sprits e.g ane chitsinha/Chinzvi.

≠At this juncture ,it is important to establish how this marriages were
formed and how they functioned-

-marriages have varieties of forms, right and customs in different parts

of the country. The procedures for getting married vary widely.

NB the marriage is essentially A CONTRACT BETWEEN TWO

FAMILIES. A marriage is not a contract between two people
(Bourdillion 1987,40)

QUESTION:Why do we regard marriage as a contract between two

families.

-Tezvara is a tezvara to the whole of the groom’s family.

-people usually say we have married such and such a family

-negotiations for marriage require participation by senior representatives

of each family.

PROCEDURES THAT ARE FOLLOWED

The process of marriage varies with status, region and cultural beliefs.
Normal procedures of marriage are as follows; it all begins with informal
courting which can also involve private engagement i.e. the exchange of
love tokens (nduma) between the agreed parties. The love tokens
included the pieces of under clothing from the girl

-This has largely been replaced by public agreement where engagement

rings will be exchanged.

-This will be followed by the formal and public engagement in this case
the suitor approaches the girl’s family through a messenger that is
munyai with some gifts.

-The bride price is then negotiated and paid but not in full

-mukusha should remain in debt.

- Terms included in the bride price include rutsambo, mombe yehumai,

roora

-Rutsambo was associated with sexual rights and was only paid for
virgins.

Roora was paid in the form of cattle; this gave the husband rights over
children born to the woman

-Mombe yehumai –cow of motherhood was committed to the matrilineal

ancestors

-The bride price should not be equated to other transcations e.g buying
a home or a car

- the wife is not a supply bought as property or a slave who might be

bought and sold again
-the husband’s family may not pass her on to a third family

-in the case of divorce she must be officially returned to her kin.

OTHER TRADITIONAL FORMS OF MARRIAGE

1.Elopement i.e kutizira

2.child marriage i.e kuzvarira/kuzvarirwa
3.service marriage i.e kutema ugariri
4.church marriage i.e this was borrowed from the European
marriage customs
5. court marriages i.e this was borrowed from the European marriage
customs
AFRICAN TRADITIONAL MEDICINES

-Sickness usually requires an explanation among the people of

Zimbabwe

-we have two categories of explanations

1. Scientific explanation

2. Spiritual explanation

-If an ailment occurs or should it become serious and life threatening, it

requires an explanation beyond the ancestral or scientific explanation
e.g. HIV/AIDS

For this reasons we had to believe in the western medicines/ western

medicated treatment and traditional treatment

-Scientific medicines were only introduced into Africa by the white man
but before then there were native doctors/healers.

-With the coming of the white man and western medicine and
Christianity traditional medicines were discouraged-missionaries
attempted to discourage the use of traditional medicines.

-The traditional healers (native doctors) where considered to be devil

worshippers, who were doomed to hell unless they turned to
Christianity- they are regarded nyangas or varoyi
-Many people now shun or are ashamed of visiting the traditional
practitioners because of the stigma attached to traditional treatment and
medicines.

-Nowadays western –scientific medicines are given first choice.

-But there are cases in which scientifically trained doctors fail to

diagnose the cause of illness. In that case native doctors have to be
consulted.

-African worldview-Abnormal illnesses are caused by ancestral spirits,

ngozi (avenging spirits), mashave (wondering spirits) and witches)

- it is important to note that illness is believed to be caused by angered

spirits, witchcraft or sorcery

-Even HIV and AIDS.

-in this case it is not wise to rely on scientific medicines which only cure
the physical being rather than the spiritual being.

-most Zimbabwean people like other African groups believe that their
well being depends on their relationship with spirit guardians who
control their lives.

- The living are protected by the- native doctors or healers.

-The living dead are belied to have the protective powers-so that evil
does not enter the homes-that’s the reason why there is the kurova
guva ceremony.

-if a person a person becomes sick it means the spiritual world will
have removed their protective powers as punishment some corrective
rituals should be carried out to appease these spirits to get the
protection once again.

-in order to reconnect with the world with the world of the departed
(nyikadzimu) who control what happens in the under world people have
to go the relevant person .i.e the n’anga or healers.
 -the traditional healer has the power to power to communicate with
the world of the departed ones-not any other ordinary person can do
that; same with the faith healers these days=not all persons can speak a
hear God (vanzwi vedenga)

- There are two types of traditional healers

1. One who specialize in divinity

2. One who specialize in herbalist (therapy)

-The professional diviner gives the diagnosis for the illness and
sometimes prescribes the remedy.

-the diagnosis includes curve hakata /gata i.e. throwing of the divining
dices which can be carved wood, ivory or bone. Dices

-these divers have different names of

chirume,nhokwara,kwadzima,ngwena,kivani.

-treatment can include

1. Brewing of millet in honor of the sprit guardian

2. Use of herbal remedies(herbs) or other therapies solutions, blood etc

3 kutemwa nyora-making incisions on the skin and rubbing some
mechanical powder – or smoking out the foreign elements in the body 4
some medicines are taken by mouth e.g. powders and liquid form.

AFRICAN TRADITIONAL DANCE/ZIMBABWEAN

-dance is an important aspect of African people in general and

Zimbabwean culture in particular.

-in Zimbabwe different ethnic groups have unique traditional dances

which were performed at different functions and occasions.

-song and dances in the past were important vehicles of communication

between the living and the living dead-RELIGIOUS, SOCIAL AND
CEREMONIAL PACKAGE.

-the traditional songs and dances can be very spiritual.

-Dances are also used as a vehicle of transmitting traditions, good value
and customs from one generation to the next. They therefore have
meanings.

-Dancing can also be used to arouse the spirits

-if one dances he is quickly possessed.

-Traditional dances were also performed for simple enjoyment or

entertainment.

-The dances can be classified into three main groups

1. Entertainment and enjoyment

2. Commemorative and thanks giving

3. Ritual dances andmemorial

-Zimbabwean people fall into several ethnic and sub ethnic groups which
include the Ndebele, shona(ndau),Zezuru, Manyika, Karanga,Korekore
and kalanga, and other community groups such as the
Machangana,Tsonga, Venda, Shongwe, Nambia

-the traditional dances of the Zimbabwean people include Muchongoyo,

mbkuamba, shangara, mhande, chinyanhera,mbende (jerusalema),gule
Wamukulu (Nyao) jiti, Ngororombe, Mbaqanga, imbongi, Tsotsa,
isitshikisha, Zvipumha.

-these different traditional dances have unique cultural historical and

spiritual contexts.

- They are also accompanied by peculiar material culture which includes

costumes and instruments.

-Different skills are needed to perform the different dances e.g

acrobatics

-According to Mataga (2008) traditional dances are a unique form of

cultural expression
-these dances are an important aspect of our heritage which should be
preserved for posterity.

-efforts have been made to preserve these traditional dances and

document them by the Zimbabwe National Traditional Dance Association
(ZINTDA) and the National Arts Council (NAC)

-these traditional dances are still being performed mainly in the rural
areas, farms and townships mostly by the elderly.

-however majority of Zimbabwean people have since abandoned

traditional dances because they are considered backward and against
their Christian beliefs

-it is not possible to cover all dances in detail in this lecture.

Three traditional dances will be covered in this lecture i.e

Mbende/Jerusalema, Muchongoyo and Gule Wmukulu.

MBENDE/JERUSAREMA

-Jerusarema dance was traditionally performed by the Zezuru people of

Murehwa and Uzumba Maramba Pfungwe districts

-The Jerusarema dance was originally called Mhende

-The dance was originally performed as a war dance which was devised
to distract the enemy.

-The mbende dance was performed in order to confuse the enemies in

the same way as the Haka dance of the All Blacks in rugby today.

-The Zezuru would put forward women, too old and too young, to dance
before the war so that the enemy would think the battle would be too
easy.

-long after the threats of war had disappeared, the Mbende dance
continued to be an important part of Zezuru people.

-The Christian missionaries considered many African dances to be

lustful, indecent and provocative. And also that leads and promoted
laziness.
-Many African dances were outlawed and prohibited and were replaced
with ballroom, walt dances during colonial period.

-Just like traditional medicines most of these dances were viewed as

part and parcel of devil worshipping.

- Mbende was officially outlawed in 1910

-The Zezuru then changed the name from Mbende to Jerusarema so

that they could continue with their dances. Mbende was thus christened
Jerusarema.

-The Jerusarema dance took a sexual emphasis along the way. it is too
seductive and erotic.

-Some scholars would want to view Jerusarema as a dance that was

performed at night by men and women of marrying age as a form of
entertainment. Provided opportunities for cover to meet

-Mbende remains important to the people of Zimbabwe since the

Mbende drumming is is used on ZBC.

-Due to its importance in 2005 Mbende /Jerusarema was listed on the

Unesco Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of humanity list

MUCHONGOYO

-The Muchongoyo dance is most popular cultural activity among the

Ndau people of Chipinge.

-Chongoyo is a Ndau word meaning stamping one’s feet in pain.

-The Muchongoyo dance developed from the Nguni war dance called
Amahubo

-Soshangana (a runaway commander of Tshaka the Zulu brought this

dance to Gazaland

-the war regiments would dance with their spears and shields in their
full military regalia.
-the dance included some summersaults and walking on hands to show
strength and display aggression and submission.

-Muchongoyo served no ritualistic or religious purpose.

-long after the Mfecane wars the Muchongoyo dance continued to be

performed for purely entertainment purposes.

-This should be contrasted with other dances e.g. Mbende which are
primarily carried out in religious ritual contexts like at the kurova guva
ceremony.

≠GULE WAMUKULU/NYAO/NYAWO DANCE

-Gule Wamukulu literally means the big or great dance aka

Zvinyau/Zvigure dances

-This dance was introduced to Zimbabwe by migrant workers from

Malawi and Zambia who came to work in commercial farms and mines
during the 1950s

-Gule Wmukulu is now a religious institution which features at the core

of the Chewa culture of Nyaja people

-Nyau masked dancers are understood to be spirits of the dead and are
usually done by men.

-in order to do the Gule Wamukulu one should be initiated with the
secret society and this involves staying/residing in a wooded grove/place
of the dead i.e. grave yard

-Gule Wmkulu is a religious dance whose function is to communicate

with the ancestral world.

- the dance goes back to the Great Chewa empire of the 17th century.
However, it did not began as a religious dance.

-it is understood that Gule Wamukulu originated during the time of

Great famine and it came up as a means of survival as it allowed its
members to dance and entertain people in return for food.
-it was invented by KALANZI PHIRI, eventually it was joined by Chiefs
and headmen who had no desire to be exposed or recognized as
participants as a result the dance ended up being a masked dance.

-it was eventually transformed into a religious dance that it has become
today.

-in Zimbabwe Gule Wamukulu is popular in farm and mine compounds

and is rather done purely for entertainment purposes.

-the dance is also staged at funeral ceremonies and at boys and girls
initiation ceremonies (Chinamwari)

IMPACT OF MODERNISATION ON TRADITIONAL DANCES

-traditional dances in Zimbabwe are constantly changing.

-though some of the dances remain the same the purpose has since
changed e.g. some of the religious dances are now carried out of
context at dance competitions like the Chibuku Neshamwari Traditional
Competition.

-with the incoming of Christianity most of these dances are viewed

negatively. They are largely seen as devil worshipping as such most
people shun joining institutions like Gule wamukulu.

-modern religious beliefs tend to be against traditional dances e.g.

Apostolic families don’t want their children to participate in traditional
dances which they see as evil.

-dances have been weakened due to the effects of modernization,

migration of diversity of religions.

-the material culture used in the dances have also changed through time
e.g. attire and instruments.

-we now have new forms of dances e.g chibhasikoro, borrowdale,

kochekera bheriya, pantsula which are now popular in townships, farms
and growth points.
MODERNITY, GLOBALIZATION AND ZIMBABWEAN CULTURAL
VALUES

- {Q} what is modernity and what is globalization?

{Q} when did globalization start?

(Q) Is globalization civilizing or destructive? i.e bad or good

(Q) Is globalization equivalent to westernization?

(Q) What has been the impact of modernity and globalization on

Zimbabwean cultural values?

(Q) Should we equate globalization to European colonization,

imperialism and neo colonialism?

INTRODUCTION

terms like modernity and globalization are frequently used in the day to
day vocabulary. However, the exact meaning of these terms remains
problematic.

-frequently we hear people saying that we are now living in a ‘global

village’ a term which was coined by Mcluhan. But what exactly is meant
by the concept ‘global village’? does it mean one world, one culture,
whose culture for whose benefit?

DEFINITIONS OF GLOBALISATION

-Hochschild (1998) defines globalization as the removal of national

boundaries as impediments to the free flow of capital, of goods and of
services. THE ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE

-Giddens cited in Sengupta (2001) defines globalization as the

intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in
such a way that local happenings are shaped by events miles away and
vice versa= THE SOCIAL PERSPECTIVE

-Senguta (2001) looks at globalization as the process by which the

people of the world are incorporated into a single society, i.e the global
society.
-some would simply want to view globalization as the increased contact
between people, their values, ideas and way of life.

- How is this achieved? By travelling, communication e.g. tv, internet,

mobile phones airplanes satellites.

-it is now much easier to reach out other parts of the world in short
space of time.

WHEN AND HOW DID GLOBALIZATION BEGIN?

-According to Guttal (2007) the routes of globalization can be traced

back to colonization of Asia, Africa and the Americas by the dominant
economic powers of Europe.

-The exact periodization and nature of globalization has been a matter

of dispute.

-Some would like to view globalization as a phenomenon which began

with the voyages of discovery in the 15th century e.g. Christopher
Columbus-vasco dagama etc.

-globalization is thus viewed as a byproduct of European imperialism and

colonization.

-the cross border flows of investment, knowledge flow and other cultural
goods and people are therefore not new phenomena

-As a byproduct of colonization globalization is frequently looked at as

negative development

-critics argue that globalization is demonic and antagonistic to local

cultures, economies etc.

-globalization has largely been associated with destruction of cultural

identities, victims of accelerating of homogenized, westernized consumer
culture.

-the critics see globalization as a soundless extension of western cultural

imperialism therefore there is a general assumption that globalization
destroys local indigenous identities and cultural values (acculturation)
-it is a fact that Europeans have always viewed their culture and values
as universal and superior that is ethnocentrism- the tendency to use
their own groups culture as the basis or yardstick for charging others
(Gwirayi, 2010 p70) they usually view other cultural values as bad and
inferior.

-from this perspective globalization on the socio-cultural sense can be

equated to cultural imperialism i.e we have anti-globalisation activists

- globalization is therefore seen as acculturation- which is resulting in

the domination of western values and symbols.

-in Africa we have been just losing our political institutions, social values,
central identity.

THE EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON ZIMBABWEAN VALUES

-THERE IS NO DOUBT that globalization has both good and bad effects
on cultural values.

THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS

1. It has resulted in the abandonment of traditional values and practices.

-Zimbabweans in general are now xenocentric i.e. they prefer goods,

services and cultural values that are foreign.

-they largely consider their culture and practices as inferior to those

from other country (Gwirayi 2010)

-we have a high appetite for goods from other countries e.g. S.A and
Europe and recently Dubai.

2. Globalization has seen the dismantling of the economic basis on which

Zimbabwean cultural values should survive/depend on e.g. In an
economic set up where agro-pastoral activities form the economic base

- Rainfall will be important thus people will contribute with their

rainmaking ceremonies. We now have industries in town which don’t
directly rely on good harvest – new professions e.g. Teachers, soldiers,
and lawyers.
 - Our cultural values depend upon socio – economic contexts if
these are removed the values will be affected as well. E.g. roora –
in the form of cattle – mombe yehumai – you can’t bring it to the
town.
3. Globalization has also resulted in the imposition of western values
in Zimbabwe. e.g most evident is the way we dress – what was
wrong with our own traditional dress.

- Language – we treat western languages as superior we continue

to use the language of our former colonizers.
- With globalization the Nollywood film industry and entertainment
have some to dominate thus affecting the lifestyles of the youth.
- The international dominance of U.S films is just one aspect of the
spread of western culture.

TOTEMISM

What is it?
It is the belief that people are discerned from animals, plants and other
natural objects.

-these natural objects are symbolized as totems which are associated

with clans/groups of families with common descent (ancestry)

-however, Shona culture’s doesn’t believe that people necessarily

originate from animals and other objects but they identify themselves
with certain animal species for the purpose of social identity.

-most Bantu people have these totems for instance Zulu, Xhosa, Swazi
and Australian Aborigines.

-Totemism happens to be as old as Shona culture itself-totenism is a key

component of the Bantu religious beliefs.
-the French anthropologist Guile Durklein using the functionalist
approach contends that totemism is the simplest and most basic form of
religion.

-A clan lives on large extended family with its members sharing certain
duties and obligations. each clan has its own totem usually animal and
animal body parts, the totem acts as a symbol.

-the totem is the emblem of the clan as Durkein puts it ‘ it is its flag I,
it’s the sign by which its clan distinguish itself from others’

-Durklein noted that a totem is more than a mere symbol it is rather a

religious, sacred symbol.

-Shona society is divided into multiplicity of clans and sub-clans which

distinguishes themselves from each other on the basis of totems.

-these use at least 25 idendifiable totems Shona society with at least 65

praise names

-the totems include:

shoko, moyo, shava, ngara, gumbo, tsivo-gushungo , gwayi, mbizi.

Nzou, Shumba, bonga, nyati, dziva, nheta, beta, garwe, mbeva,
mbano, mhembwe, nguruve/humba, shiri, mhara, mhari, mvuu e.tc

Shoko/soko has 6 praise names, mukanya, bvudzijena, wachemuka,

murehwa, mutadza, Gumere, mudyavevana

-praise names are used to identify a sub-clan

-Moyo, tsivo and Gumbo are not animals but organs of animals.

WHY ADOPTING TOTEMS?

-it is difficult to explain why the shona people adopted totems, however,
from our observations about the functions of totems we can hypothesis.

-it appears totems were a strategy of survival

-it seems from his origin man has drawn inspiration for survival from
nature-in any case man is dependent on nature for survival e.g. Food.,
shelter, clothing, medicine

-man find all solutions to problems from nature

-with the increase in population there was need to have social identity,
we saw that the animal kingdom is made up of distinct species of
animals others very aggressive and others friendly and others simply
shy.

-it may be because of this that the earliest ancestors decided to adopt
certain animals as their totems in order to represent the social
differentiation that was taking place in their society and they were
increasing in numbers.

-particular animals were chosen as totems because of certain attributes

which they possessed.

-the attributes were found to be very useful if imitated by human beings

-these attribute made human society more stable and organized to

achieve their daily needs e.g monkeys live as a group which translate
into a clan/family. Monkeys care for each other and they fight to protect
members of their group.

-monkeys have a clear social structure were the younger ones respect
the elders

-elephants represent strength i.e the clan is against laziness

FUNCTION OF TOTEMS

1. They are the basis of social identity. They don’t only identify
people socially but also historically and culturally. e.g. the study of
Shona totems is an avenue in knowing and approximating Shona
history and culture.
2. Totems are important in a society because they are the basis for
solidarity and unity. People of the same totem are basically
 relatives who share a common ancestry. As a result they always
see each other as one.
3. they have a religious function. the belief in totemism emphasis
some of the central traits of religion e.g. amongst the Shona
totemism is one of the fundamental pillars of their religion. we use
totems and praise names to communicate to mwari and the
departed ones (family spirits)
4. Totenism is an important basis for socialization not only among
man but also between man and women. Totenism regulates
gender relations. each and every individual through totemic
identity is given a particular social position which is respected by
members of his / her clan as well as members of other clans.
5. Totems also regulate marriage. Most Bantu people are
EXOGAMOUS. A woman can only marry into a different clan where
she will be considered Mutorwa.
6. totenism plays an important role in the solving of conflict. In
Shona society when people of the same totem wrong each other
they are persuaded to forgive each other because they are
children of the same clan.- similarly people of different totems are
persuaded to solve their differences because of fear of ngozi.
7. Totems also serve as the basis for dividing roles and
responsibilities to members of different clans. People negotiate
their roles through totems.
8. Totems also regulate the environment. hunting is regulated by
clans they do not hunt or eat their totems

TOTEMISM IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY

-As knowledge form totemism is fast losing its significance

although Shona people still identify themselves using totems.
-some of the important rituals and beliefs associated with totems
have been abandoned
-all cultural values are found in totems-totenism is a package of
values
 -it appears that today totenism is a symbol that has been emptied
of its contents due to the encroachment and embrace of western
cultural values by Africans.
-totenism is an important aspect of Bantu religious beliefs when
Christian missionaries came they denigrated African religious
beliefs branding them paganist practices.
-with many Africans converting to Christianity with the passage of
time the significance of totenism begun to decline
-cases of people with the same totem who marry each other are
on the rise.
-elite Africans and their children have totally lost knowledge about
totenism and their cultural values in general
-increased physical mobility among Africans means that many
have moved from their traditional homes to go to mining and
commercial farm areas and cities as they seek employment.
-Africans no longer identify themselves with their clans
-Prostitution, men who indulge in prostitution do not bother to ask
about the prostitute’s totem
-in spite of the impact of western culture totenism to some extend
is still being celebrated.

The Shona religion

The spiritual hierarchy

MWARI/MUSIKAVANHU

NATIONAL/INTER TERRITORIAL SPIRITS/MHONDORO

↓
FAMILY SPIRITS/MUDZIMU

-The shona believe in the high God whose personal name is Mwari with
various names such as Nyadenga, Dedza, Musikavanhu, Dzivaguru,
Chikara, Mutakangakugara

-Mwari is considered a spirit (mudzimu) –since he has other vadzimu

below him he is the supreme mudzimu.

-Shona religion is one of the few religions in Africa and the entire world
that believes in the existence of one god (monotheistic religion)

-Mwari who is the god of the Shona people was one of the earliest of
the Shona people called Murenga whose epithet were Pfumojena or
Sorojena and he was the son of Tovela.

-he was elevated to the position of God because of his extra ordinary
activities.

-he was a warrior leader who was eager to fight for his people.

-He was a charismatic leader whose people always depended on him for
their security and survival.

-consequently when he died he became a legend emulated by all

people.

-in shona religions history his spirit did not possess any human medium
heart could communicate to its followers from trees, rocks, caves and
from the sky.

-below Mwari are national or territorial spirits (Majukwa? Makombwe)

-These are spirits who also were elevated to without status because of
extra ordinary deeds in society.

-While each ruling dynasty had its own chiefly spirits same of its
activities went beyond the boundaries of the chiefdoms hence the label
inter-territorial spirits e.g. Chaminuka. Kaguvi and Nehanda.

-with the establishment of the modern Zimbabwean state these spirits

became known as NATIONAL SPIRITS
-On the bottom of the hierarchy are the family spirits.

-These are the 3 levels in the Shona spiritual hierarchy- this is very
important in understanding the religious practice of the people.

-Spiritual needs were satisfied at different levels e.g. Mwari ‘s

responsibilities are intended to gravity the Shona people as a whole
through providing rains, freeing society from wars, epidemics drought
and other human and non- human catastrophes thus when people
approach Mwari they do it as a group and not individuals.

-God ensured the fertility of the land.

-at the Chiefdom level the Chiefly spirits(mhondoro) were involved in

the activities which affected the Chiefdom part rain making
ceremonies, giving day, to see that no one violated chisi and also to
sanction the installation of the chief. At the family level each family had
the responsibility to do rituals to satisfy their needs as families.

- The Shona people just like other Bantu cultural groups have many
traditional ceremonies to mark significant occasions in a person’s life

DEATH AND BURIAL IN SHONA SOCIETY

-death in Shona culture is considered as a rite of people.

-it is the avenue from the physical to the metaphysical world (spirit
world)

-For the Shona – it is believed that a human being made up the spirit
and the flesh.

-And the death means the separation of the two.

-however while the body/flesh will decompose the spirit continues the
live – the spirit is immortal.

-The Shona people believe that every death has a cause whether it is a
toddler, a young adult person or an adult or old age.

-Reasons of death are visible or invisible e.g car accident –there is a

visible and invisible cause.
- The visible reason/ the manifest cause is not adequate in explaining
the cause of the death to satisfy the Shona people.

-the Shona people try to explain death through reference to the invisible
cause’s i.e those which go beyond the visible reasons.

- These are attributed to evil spirits that may be tormenting the family of
the victim that may be tormenting the family of the victim.

- all misfortunes whether they are death or any other levels of

suffering are always attributed to the work of evil spirits - which might
be manipulated by some people who are against the success of other
individuals and families.

- The Shona people attribute death to mostly witchcraft activities.

-witchcraft is the most hated and feared form of evil in Shona culture.

- The reason for this intense hatred is that witches believe in the values
that are the antithesis of what the Shona people celebrate in their
culture.

-the Shona people are survivalists, as such they celebrate human

existence- witches on the other land take pride in terminating human
life – they are against social progress

-When a person is about to die certain precautions were taken – The

person would be moved to a hut that was not frequently by outsiders

-As birth occurs in private, so too should occur behind closed doors.

-Outsiders were not supposed to know about the illness because many
of them might be people responsible for illness.

-People would ask him /her if they were any outstanding debts so that
they could be settled.

-in the very traditional Shona past sometimes a person was given
medicines to make the passing away easier.

-soon after death the villagers were notified of death through drums and
horns or by word of mouth.
-The body of deceased was walled in preparation for burial by close
relatives.

-Burials differ e.g. Chiefs and headman –Their place for burial and death
was not normally announced in public e.g. stay for months.

-chiefs were not buried underground but in caves i.e. ninga.

-Burial – known in different words e.g. kuchengeta, kurasha, kuviga,

kuradzika.

-During the burial there were rituals to protect body of the deceased.

KUROVA GUVA CEREMONY/MAGADZIRO

{SETTLING THE DECEASED’S SPIRIT}

The ceremony is known by different names among the Shona sub-

cultural groups e.g karanga—magadziro,kugadzira mudzimu, Zezuru-
kurova guva (to beat the grave),korekore kutamba mudzimu, kutora
mudzimu or bona.

-however, the ceremony generally is performed during the same season

of the year to save a common function.

-Some rites may differ here and there but the function of ritual is the
same i.e to invite the spirit of the deceased into the family.

-The ceremony is directly linked to the burial ceremony due to the fact
that when the burial ceremony is being conducted it is done in
anticipation of performing the kurova guva in the near future.

- It takes place a year after burial

-The Shona belief that the body will have to completely decompose
.however, there are instances where it can take place immediately after
burial.

-This would be due to some difficulties surrounding the condition of the

deceased’s spirit.
-When a person dies the Shona be believes that the spirit of the
deceased wonders in the wilderness awaiting the kurova guva
ceremony.

-Post –burial period the spirit is considered dangerous and can be

manipulated by evil spirits.

-Musha mutema- there is a dark cloud that wonders in the family.

-The ritual can also be held after more than one year in some cases
after 30 to 40 years due to several factors.

1. In poor families this was mainly due to lack of livestock especially

cattle or the scarcity of grain to brew beer and food to feed people at
the ceremony.

2. Sometimes there were droughts which would force people to post

pone the ceremony.

3. The person might have died in a distant place

4 rituals are performed according to spirituality hence they have to wait

until the senior‘s kurova guva has been done.

5. Family conflicts in some of them held to do with the decease’s wealth

and widow.

6. In modern days the impact of western religious (Christianity)

-The ceremony was held during the dry season (August) dry
season=religious and social activities.

It was seen after harvest that food will therefore be plentiful.

-There were certain taboos that were supposed to be respected between

the burial and the kurova guva ceremony by the members of the family
e.g. The children were not supposed to …..

-The spirit should be there to bless ……..

-They also wanted to to prevent shock to the incoming of new members

in the family.
-You were not supposed to temper with the estate of the deceased since
it will have to wait the inheritance ceremony which is held after the
KUROVA GUVA ceremony and this might include the widow.

-the widow herself was not to marry or indulge in sexual relation s until
after the kurova guva and nhaka ceremony.

-if a widow or widower decided to marry before kurovaguva ceremony

that’s violation which referred to as “ kupisa Guva’

PROCEDURES TO BE TAKEN IN THE KUROVA GUVA CEREMONY

-The rituals differ from place to place and region to region.

- They consult a n’anga to find out the procedure they should take.

- Consulting a n’anga is done to make sure that the ritual will be

performed in a way that is acceptable to the spirit.

-From this stage all the steps will be done with amultation with the
deceased’s spirit.

-the ritual should have the approval of the family spirits.

-if one wants to marry there should be consultation.

-Millet beer will be brewed by elderly woman who are beyond child
bearing stage with no sexual relations(kupedza Ura)

-she will be helped by the small boys and girls (pre pubescent boys and
girls)

-members of the family are advised not to have conflict when preparing
for the ceremony.

-On the evening before the ceremony the beer is consecrated to the
spirit of the deceased by the eldest member of the family.

-The consecration marks an all night celebration that involves singing

and dancing in honour of the spirit.

-Music is important because it enables communities between the living

and the dead person.
-The next morning involves rite of inviting the spirit from the grave.

-This rite varies from area to area

-In some areas they remove one or two stones and ------ of porridge
and beer are poured on the front of the grave to invite the spirit.

-The elder member of the family who will be leading will speak to
the deceases asking the spirit to accept the invitation to come home.

-after this , the entourage return home to dance and feast

-sometimes the spirit is symbolizing brought home.

- For the Shangwe they tie a black cloth around the neck of a ------on
the----before the ceremony and take the good outside-the homestead
and appropriate functioning will address the spirit that they are bringing
home and sacrificed the following day.

-Among the Shona people of North E. Zimbabwe a branch is cut from a

ceremonial tree and the severed end is covered to avoid the spirit from
escaping.

- The branch is dropped to the homestead making fragment rest to the

rest the spirit.

-The spirit is cooled by pouring beer into a branch.

-The branch is tied to the wall of the house of the family head.

-Among the Korekore a pathway is made between the grave and the
homestead to provide the spirit into a road to travel as it rejoins the
family.

-among the ---- there is need to got the grave early in the morning
the spirit is invited by members of the family by pouring water on the
back of a goat addressing the spirit of the deceased to come home.

- if the spirit accepts the invitation the goat would shake its body
vigorously.

-The goat is slaughtered and the meat is roasted and eaten without salt.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CEREMONY

1. It brings hope and confidence into the family considering the

unpredictability of the spirit of the deceased.
2. It marks the end of mourning in the homestead which is referred
to as musha mutema
The widow will no longer veil her head with black cloth or wear the
symbolic black dress of mourning – return to mourning.

3. It resolves problems and tensions caused by death by ….. the

spirit of the deceased among the family’s spirit guardians. The
living and the dead would have restrengthened their cowardice
relationship.
4. It allows one of the most important rituals in Shona culture to take
place i.e. inheritance ceremony “NHAKA”
5. from a general point of view the ceremony celebrates shona
religious practices and communities and re unites the people to
the fundamental tradition of their culture
6. it strengthens relationship – ties as both close and distant relatives
converge at one place for a common purpose. So it reaffirms social
ties.
CHANGE- the ceremony has been replaced by memorial service-
Christianity.

RAINMAKING CEREMONIES

-Learning outcomes

1. To describe and analyze the rain making rituals

2. To establish how these ceremonies differ from place to place and

region to region.

-Bozongwana 1983 p 49 ‘nowadays – farmers speak of cloud -seeding to

help natural rainfall’

- i.e commercial farmers – who used to do cloud seeding with their small
airplanes. Western form of rainmaking – where use chemicals to
precipitate cloud condensation.
-the Bantu people of southern Africa together with those of san origin
also believe in rainmaking but they don’t rely on cloud seeding in the
western sense.

-They believe in their supernatural powers and for the process of

rainmaking they depend on RAIN SPIRITS and their TRIBAL or SPIRITS
(e.g Ungwali) amongst the Ndebele people)

-The year they perform some rainmaking ceremonies which are known
by different names in the different areas e.g.
mukwerera.ukuphehla.izulu,makasva(manyika0,rukato (korekore),

-Reminding them the spiritual hierarchy –MWARI,UNKULUNKULU- Tribal

spirits – clan spirits family spirits -people don’t pray directly to
God/Mwari.

-tribal spirits have the religious powers whilst the political powers are
found in the chiefs offices.

-tribal spirits aka mhondoro spirits held the sacred duties e.g rainmaking
and agricultural ceremonies.

-the tribal spirits deal with issues such as fertility and rainfall.

-Tribal spirits are concerned with the welfare of a group / a community

/the whole tribe and individual problems

-Tribal spirits are the guardians of the land they are spiritual protectors
of the land. They closely with those who have the political powers i.e the
chiefs

-The mhondoro speaks through their medium and they are prophets
who foresee the future and every children should have its own tribal or
territorial spirit who meddle between the living and the spiritual world.

QUESTION- What causes droughts and famine?

-in the modern day sense what causes these droughts climatic change
-most Bantu groups – including the ones in Zimbabwe believed that
drought are caused incest, prostitution, violence and by people who do
not respect taboos.

-the taboos include respect sacred days of rest or certain animals and
trees which are not supposed to be killed or cut. Mberengwa –njuzu–
Mermaids.

-In the times of drought the Chief should summon the rain priests or the
tribal spirits to hold the rain making rituals.

Although many people within that rain making rituals are carried out
during the time of drought in actual fact these ritual should be carried
out every year.

THE RAIN MAKING PRACTICES

-the rain making rituals are out of single event

-In some cases a domestic animal will be slaughtered and all night
ceremony will be held were they will be dancing and spirit possession

-special rain dances and music will be sung

-the place where this ceremony and ritual will be carried out differs.

-e.g. specific trees should be selected on the periphery of the village

egg muhacha or mukamba.

-amongst the manyika it will be held on a sacred mountain

-lots o f beer will be left at clerk trees and sacred mountains for the
spirits to drink.

-dance and song are are an important vehicle of communication

between the living and spiritual world.

-the rainmaking ceremony includes sexual songs a, and sexual initiative

dances as a symbolic way of seducing the ancestors to release the rain.
– There is a lot of symbolism which include fertility, manhood, semen
and wetness etc.
-other ceremonies include the FIRST FRUITS CEREMONY (usually held in
January/February) and HARVEST CEREMONY (April/May)

-people may not eat the new produce before this ceremony and before
the chief allows them to do so

-Amongst the Ndebele people a day is set aside for people to go out and
clear the bush (UKUVESULA INKOZA) – Taboos men were not supposed
to have intercourse with their wife- the night prior to the day

HERITAGE
-Heritage can be regarded as all the inherited resources which people
value for the reasons beyond functional and utilitarian reasons.

-Heritage therefore encompasses all things that a society, group of

people or even individuals deem necessary to retain for posterity.

- International Cultural Tourism Charter, ICOMOS (1999) defines

heritage as a broad concept and includes the natural as well as the
cultural environment.

-It should encompass landscapes, historic places, sites and built

environments, as well as bio-diversity, collections, past and continuing
cultural practices, knowledge and living experiences.

-It records and expresses the long processes of historic development,

forming the essence of diverse national, regional, indigenous and local
identities and is an integral part of modern life.

-It is a dynamic reference point and positive instrument for growth and
change. The particular heritage and collective memory of each locality or
community is irreplaceable and an important foundation for
development, both now and into the future.
Heritage Management in Zimbabwe

The management of heritage should encompass all aspects of care for

that heritage so that its longevity is ensured. Caring for a heritage site
means that its significance is revealed and retained to a wider audience
and therefore its future is secured (Ndoro, 2005:8). The history of
heritage management in Zimbabwe can be done tracing what was
happening at the Great Zimbabwe. It should be pointed out that
although scientific methods of heritage management particularly
conservation was brought by Europeans, it should be taken into
cognisance as Ndoro (2005) suggests that the fact that Europeans found
many monuments still intact is a testimony that there was a form of
heritage management which predates those introduced by the west.
Various taboos and restrictions especially at sites that were considered
as religious and or shrines received a fair share of preservation before
the Europeans introduced scientific methods. Sites like Great Zimbabwe,
Khami, Slozwane, and Bomboshava among others are cases in point
here.

The modern heritage management in Zimbabwe and other many

southern countries was initially a preserve of the few and was
considered to be a highly academic subject not meant for public
consumption. This led to the management of heritage to be under
universities and Museums. These institutions were established to
research and add scientific flavour in the management of heritage. This
resulted in the researches more focussed on typologies, categories and
chronologies and unfortunately nothing was done to link the
communities living or staying near those sites. In fact the locals were
taken as objects of study and were above all taken as tabla rasas or
blank slates. This again resulted in the alienation and driving away of
local communities from the sites as the sites were delineated. Colonial
education was undermining African traditional values and therefore
grossly discouraged Africans to respect and honour their heritage.
Modern heritage management was stimulated or was a reaction of what
was happening after the Pioneer column disbanded at Fort Salisbury and
went on a rampage of gold searching. Targets were dzimbabwes and
ancient sites as there was a big myth of King Solomon‘s Gold mines.

As members of the pioneer column, went all directions in ambitious

search of Gold, there was a considerable damage that was done to
monuments like Regina(Zinjanja), Danamombe and others and Great
Zimbabwe was declared a no go area by Rhodes. This was because of
too much high expectation of Gold at the monument. It was in 1902 that
the BASCO in effort to protect monuments from the ever increasing
activities of the settlers in destroying the sites, the Ancient Monuments
Protection Ordinance was passed. It should be therefore taken note that
although the ordinance did not cover other forms of heritage like Rock
Art, the ordinance basically laid foundation for the modern heritage
management in Zimbabwe. The year 1902 is a land mark in heritage
management developments in Zimbabwe because it was the same year
when the Natural History Museum was established with the mandate of
managing natural history of the nation.

In 1936 there was promulgation of Monuments and Relics Act which

brought about the ranking of monuments. The act brought the
Commission for the Preservation of Natural and Historical Monuments
and Relics. This was known as Monuments Commission. The
Commission was tasked for the documentation of all monuments in
Southern Rhodesia and keep the register. Above all the commission was
to undertake all the site maintenance and excavations.

Heritage legislation in Zimbabwe

Heritage needs to be protected and there should be an instrument for

the protection of Heritage. Legislation as an instrument for the
protection of heritage has been adopted by many countries world wide.
It is suffice to mention that almost all southern African countries have
laws that govern the protection and use of heritage resource (Ndoro,
2005:16). Basically, Heritage legislation should be put in place in order
to ensure the resource’s longevity and continuity exists for the benefit of
future generations. Legislation should ensure development of
understanding and experience of the cultural heritage with the aim of
improving quality of life. It should also ensure protection and extraction
of scientific information contained within the cultural environment as a
precondition of describing and interpreting the history it embodies.

NMMZ ACT1

In Zimbabwe, the legislation protecting heritage is called National

Museums and Monuments Act of 1972 chapter 25/11. This act spells out
that what is considered to be heritage is that which existed before 1890.
It is through this legislation that 12000 sites have been registered.
About 200 sites have colonial ancestry. Of the 172 declared national
monuments, about 143 are colonial sites or have relationship with
colonial heritage. The act is silent on liberation heritage. Generally the
law puts more emphasis of tangible heritage and is again silent on
intangible heritage. This is all stemming from the fact that the Act is
lacking meaningful review since its promulgation. In its definition, the
Act defines heritage as ‘any building, ruin or relic or an area of land of
historical, archaeological, paleontological or other scientific value’ it is
however sad that the terms Culture and Cultural Heritage are not
used in the Act.

Issues of Access

The Act states that if a monument has been discovered, it should be

immediately reported to National Museums and Monuments of
Zimbabwe. The Act grant powers to Monuments inspectors and such
powers are referred as reasonable access to private property with the
aim of inspecting the heritage. Despite that in the 1980s and 1990s
some monument inspectors has often encountered access problems into
the white owned farms when they were denied access. This was
because the definition of reasonable access was not well defined and
also the prevalence of privacy laws which prohibit strangers from
entering private property. It should be again acknowledged that
although the law exists, in most cases the law enforcing agents are not
fully aware if not ignorant of the existence of such legislation. From
independence very few (if there were some at all) cases that went to
the courts.

Presentation and information

In terms of presentation and information, the act provides for the

extensive dissemination. There is useful and uncomplicated provision
that exhorts Museums and Monuments board to maintain a continuous
flow of information to the public regarding the professional activities,
programmes and projects of the organisation. This means that the
information should be disseminated through a variety of means.

Incentives

The act states that if a monument is has been discovered,…’It should be

reported to the board without delay by (a) the discoverer thereof and
(b) the owner or occupier of the land….when the discovery come into
notice. The act ii
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