TOPIC 1: THE ORIGIN OF THE COLD WAR

KNOW YOUR CONCEPTS !

COMMUNISM is a doctrine that advocates a classless society in which

private ownership has been abolished and the means of
production belong to the community
CAPITALISM is an economic system based on the private ownership of
the means of production and distribution of goods,
characterised by a free competitive market and motivated
by profit
DEMOCRACY a system of government in which leaders are chosen by
the People through a system of elections.
COLD WAR Ideological battle between capitalism and communism
without getting involved in an actual war
OR
A period of conflict and competition between the capitalist
United States and the communist Soviet Union without
getting involved in an actual battle
IRON CURTAIN A symbolic border between the communist bloc and
western European countries during the Cold War
CONTAINMENT The policy of the USA to stop the spread of communism
QUESTION 1: HOW DID THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND THE
SOVIET UNION ATTEMPT TO CREATE SPHERES OF INTEREST
IN EUROPE BETWEEN 1946 AND 1951?

Study Sources 1A, 1B, 1C and 1D and answer questions that follow
SOURCE 1A

The source below explains the United States of America's intention to contain the spread
of communism in Europe from 1947 onwards.

… United States officials in 1947 and 1948 did not have precise (specific) ideas about
how to implement containment. Should containment be applied everywhere? Should
it be applied militarily? Should the United States focus on economic aid to nations
seeking to reconstruct their economies? Should the United States assign priority to
occupation policies, especially in Germany and Japan?

Initially, in what became known as the Truman Doctrine, the United States president
proposed military aid to Greece and Turkey, and declared that the United States
would contest totalitarian expansion everywhere. But his subordinates quickly
recognised that they had to calculate priorities carefully. They decided that they
should focus on economic reconstruction in Western Europe rather than military
rearmament; that they should seek to erode (wear down) support for communist
parties in France, Italy, and Greece; that they should manage the revitalisation
(recovery) of Western Germany and Japan, and co-opt (choose) their future power.
Containment meant that Soviet influence and communist ideology should be
contained within the areas occupied by the forces of the Soviet Union at the end of
World War II.

In June 1947, the United States announced the Marshall Plan to help rebuild Europe.
The governments of most Western European nations were happy to receive US
money and participate in a reconstruction programme. But they possessed deep fears
about the revival of German power. In order to get the French to cooperate, the
United States promised to retain its occupation forces inside Germany.

[From http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/pons/s2-9143.pdf. Accessed on 21 April 2021.]

1.1 Read Source 1A.

1.1.1 Explain the term containment in the context of the Cold War. (1 x 2) (2)
1.1.2 State THREE ways in the source that the United States of America could have
used to implement the policy of containment. (3 x 1) (3)
1.1.3 Using the information in the source and your own knowledge, explain how the
economic reconstruction of countries in Western Europe could have benefitted the
economy of the United States of America in the late 1940s. (1 x 2) (2)

1.1.4 Comment on the usefulness of the information in this source to a historian

researching the USA’s policy of containment. (2 x 2) (4)

SOURCE 1B

The source below highlights the role that Dean Acheson, Deputy Secretary of State
during George Marshall's administration, played in influencing the United States
Congress to adopt Truman's policies in 1947.

… Acheson also played a vital role in shaping the political and economic institutions
of Truman's Cold War. In early 1947, with Byrnes out and George Marshall in as the
secretary of state, the anti-communist governments of Turkey and Greece claimed to
be under severe Soviet pressure and could not guarantee their own survival.
Convinced that the United States must help the Turkish and Greek governments, the
administration nevertheless faced the difficult task of persuading a fiscally
(financially) careful Congress to provide the aid needed to shore up (support) these
governments.

On 27 February Truman called a meeting between administration officials and a

handful of leading senators and members of Congress in the hope of winning over
the legislators. Acheson described this encounter as 'Armageddon' (a term used to
describe the end of the world). Marshall spoke first, emphasising the need for the
United States to act because it was the right thing to do and because no one else
would help. The legislators seemed unmoved. Was it America's fight? Was the bill
(cost) likely to be enormous? Acheson asked to speak.

Immediately he changed the terms of the debate. The crisis in South-eastern Europe,
he said, was no local dust-up (small fight) but one that involved the two Cold War
powers. The Soviets were pressuring Turkey and Greece as they had pressured
Iran. At stake was a vast portion of the free world, for if Greece went communist, 'like
apples in a barrel infected by one rotten one, the corruption of Greece would infect
Iran and all to the east. It would also carry infection to Africa through Asia Minor and
Egypt, and Europe through Italy and France', which faced communist threats of their
own. Only the United States stood in the way of a communist onslaught that would, if
successful, snuff out freedom and destroy all hope of economic recovery in parts of
three continents. The congressional leaders were impressed and the pronouncement
of the Truman Doctrine followed on 12 March, promising that the United States would
fight communism everywhere.

[From: http://www.americanforeignrelations.com/A-D/Cold-Warriors-Dean-acheson.html.
Accessed on 21 April 2021.]
2.1 Refer to Source 1B.

2.1.1 List TWO institutions from the source that Dean Acheson helped to shape
during Truman's Cold War. (2 x 1) (2)

2.1.2 Why, do you think, the US Congress was unwilling to provide aid to the Turkish
and Greek governments? (1 x 2) (2)

2.1.3 Explain how Acheson managed to convince the US Congress to support both
Turkey and Greece with aid. (2 x 2) (4)

SOURCE 1C

The extract below was written by David Reynolds, a historian at Cambridge University
(England). It focuses on the reaction of the Soviet Union to the implementation of the
Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan between 1947 and 1951.

Equally important was the Soviet reaction. The Russians sent an eighty-strong delegation to
Paris, where the European Recovery Programme (Marshall Plan) was outlined and East
European countries like Czechoslovakia and Poland expressed keen interest. But Stalin saw
the American offer as a challenge to his sphere of influence. He warned the Czechs and
others against participating and withdrew the Soviet delegation.

That autumn he declared ideological war on Western capitalism, creating Cominform (the
Communist Information Bureau) to orchestrate (arrange) foreign communist parties and to
replace the coalitionist (working together) strategy in France and Italy with strikes intended to
bring down the governments. In the East Soviet influence now became Soviet domination.
The coup in Czechoslovakia in February 1948 was followed by the Stalinisation of much of
the region. All but communists were proscribed (prohibited), those independent of Moscow
were purged (got rid of), agriculture and heavy industry were brought under state control, and
civil and political liberties systematically abolished.

The Czech coup and the Berlin crisis did much to damage the Soviet image in Europe, even
in France where the Communist Party was still picking up about a quarter of the vote in
elections. Equally important, well-advertised Marshall aid was winning hearts and minds.
Between 1948 and 1951 the United States put into Western Europe about $13 billion; during
the same period the Soviet Union took out roughly the same amount from their part of the
continent.

[From: The Oxford Illustrated History of Modern Europe, edited by TCW Blanning]

3.1 Use Source 1C.

3.1.1 Name the TWO East European countries in the source that expressed keen interest
in joining the European Recovery Programme. (2 x 1) (2)

3.1.2 Explain why Stalin thought the European Recovery Programme was a
challenge to his sphere of influence. (2 x 2) (4)

3.1.3 Comment on why the Cominform was established. (2 x 2)

(4)

4. Consult Sources 1B and 1C. Explain in what ways the evidence in Source 1C supports
the fears which Acheson referred to in Source 1B. (2 x 2) (4)
SOURCE 1D

The cartoon below, by Joe Spier, was published in a booklet that was printed by the
government of Netherlands in November 1949.

From http://score.rims.k12.ca.us/7 Accessed on 21 April 2021.]

5. Study Source 1D.

5.1.1 Explain the messages the cartoonist conveys regarding the Marshall Plan.
(2 x 2) (4)

5.1.2 Comment on why you think the cartoonist used ‘bread’ to symbol the Marshall
Plan. (1 x 2) (2)

6. Using the information in the relevant sources and your own knowledge, write a
paragraph of about EIGHT lines (about 80 words) explaining how the United
States of America and the Soviet Union attempted to create spheres of interest in
Europe between 1946 and 1951. (8)
RESPONSES TO ACTIVITY

QUESTION 1: HOW DID THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND THE

SOVIET UNION ATTEMPT TO CREATE SPHERES OF INTEREST
IN EUROPE BETWEEN 1946 AND 1951?

1.1

1.1.1 [Explanation of a historical concept in Source 1A – L1]

• A policy introduced by the United States to prevent the spread of

communism in Europe
• The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan attempted to contain the
spread of totalitarianism
• Any other relevant response (any 1 x 2) (2)

1.1.2 [Extraction of evidence from Source 1A – L1]

• Could have applied it everywhere
• Could have applied it militarily
• Could have focused on economic aid given to nations seeking to
reconstruct their economies
• Could have assigned priority to occupation policies, especially in Germany
and Japan (any 3 x 1) (3)

1.1.3 [Interpretation of information from Source 1A – L2]

• The USA's economy would grow and be stronger
• Any other relevant response (any 1 x 2) (2)

1.14[Evaluate the usefulness of Source 1A – L3]

The source is USEFUL because:

• It indicates the USA’s uncertainty in implementing the policy of

containment
• It indicates the implementation of the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall
Plan
• The information indicates how the Marshall Plan was implemented
• It highlights that Western European nations were happy to receive US
money
• Any other relevant response (any 2 x 2)
(4)
2.1
2.1.1 [Extraction of evidence from Source 1B – L1]
• Political institutions
• Economic institutions (2 x 1) (2)

2.1.2 [Extraction of evidence from Source 1B – L1]

• The United States of America's Congress was exercising financial
discipline and was careful as to how it spent its money
• The United States of America's Congress was unwilling to commit
the USA to involvement in European affairs (1 x 2)
(2)

2.1.3 [Interpretation of evidence from Source 1B – L2]

• Acheson said the crisis in Turkey and Greece was a result of Cold War
conflict and needed USA intervention
• He said if Turkey and Greece fell then Iran, African countries and other
European countries would also fall under communism
• Acheson convinced the United States of America's Congress that only the
United States of America could block the communist onslaught
 Any other relevant response (any 2 x 2)

3.1
3.1.1 [Extraction of evidence from Source 1C – L1]
• Czechoslovakia
• Poland (2 x 1) (2)

3.1.2 [Interpretation of evidence from Source 1C – L2]

• He realised that countries in Eastern Europe might accept aid from
the Marshall Plan
• East European countries were generally poor and would therefore
welcome
financial aid even if it was from the West
• He saw it as a strategy by the USA to extend their sphere of influence in
Eastern Europe
• Any other relevant response (any 2 x 2)
(4)
3.1.3 [Interpretation of evidence from Source 1C – L2]

• To counter the Marshall Plan by creating a group of communist

governments that would counteract the influence of the west
• To co-ordinate and promote trade between countries within the Soviet
sphere of influence to discourage contact with non- communist countries.
• To commit member parties to a common strategy to counter the growing
influence from the west
• Any other relevant response (any 2 x 2) (4)

4. [Comparison of information in Sources 1B and 1C – L3]

 In Source 1B Acheson expresses his fear that if Turkey and Greece
fell to the communists, Iran, Africa and Europe would also fall. The coup
(take over) by Moscow on Czechoslovakia and the Berlin Crisis
(Source1C) confirms Acheson's fear as expressed in Source 1B
 In Source 1B Acheson is concerned about a 'communist onslaught',
some people in the West believed that the establishment of the Cominform
confirmed this fear, as stated in Source 1C
 Any other relevant response (2 x 2) (4)

5.1
5.1.1 [Interpretation of information from Source 1D – L2]
 The Marshall Plan was depicted as providing economic and humanitarian
aid
 That if countries did not accept the Marshall Plan, they would remain
poor, for example, with no buttered bread and with tattered clothing of the
children
 Failure to accept the Marshall Plan could lead to economic under-
development
in certain countries
 Any other relevant response (any 2 x 2)
(4)

5.1.2 [Interpretation of information from Source 1D – L2]

 It shows that the Marshall Plan would provide economic aid in the
form of basic necessities
 It shows that the Marshall Plan will provide financial assistance to buy
the basic needs
 Any other relevant response (any 1 x 2) (2)
6. [Interpretation, evaluation and synthesis of evidence from relevant sources - L3]
Candidates could include the following aspects in their response:
 Policy of Containment – to prevent the spread of communism (Source 1A)
 The introduction of Truman Doctrine (Source 1A)
 Introduction of Marshall Plan (Source 1A)
 The USA pronounced that the Truman Doctrine was a commitment
by USA to act against and prevent communism from spreading
further into Western Europe (Source 1B)
 USA set up the European Recovery Plan (Marshall Plan) to provide
aid to countries so that they fall under the sphere of the West
(capitalism) (Source 1C)
 The Marshall Aid won the hearts and minds of many since USA
invested $13 billion in aid between 1948 and 1951 (Source 1C)
 The Soviet Union responded to the Marshall Plan through the
Cominform which ensured that foreign communist parties could take
over (Source 1C)
 The Soviet Union spent roughly the same amount as the USA
($13 billion) to retain its sphere of influence in Eastern Europe (Source 1C)
 Advantages of the Marshall Plan (Source 1D)
 Formation of NATO and Warsaw Pact (own knowledge)
 Any other relevant response
Use the following rubric to allocate a mark:

 Uses evidence in an elementary manner e.g. shows no or little

understanding of how the United States of America and the
Soviet Union attempted to create spheres of interest in
Europe between 1946 and 1951. MARKS
LEVEL 1
0–2
 Uses evidence partially to report on topic or cannot report on
topic.
 Evidence is mostly relevant and relates to a great extent to the
topic e.g. shows some understanding of how the United
States of America and the Soviet Union attempted to create MARKS
LEVEL 2
spheres of interest in Europe between 1946 and 1951. 3–5
 Uses evidence in a very basic manner.
 Uses relevant evidence e.g. demonstrates a thorough
understanding of how the United States of America and the
Soviet Union attempted to create spheres of interest in
Europe between 1946 and 1951. MARKS
LEVEL 3
 Uses evidence very effectively in an organised paragraph that 6–8
shows an understanding of the topic.

(8)
RESPONSES TO ACTIVITY 1
QUESTION 1: HOW DID THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND THE
SOVIET UNION ATTEMPT TO CREATE SPHERES OF INTEREST
IN EUROPE BETWEEN 1946 AND 1951?

1.1
1.1.1 [Explanation of a historical concept in Source 1A – L1]
• A policy introduced by the United States to prevent the spread of communism
in Europe
• The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan attempted to contain the
spread of totalitarianism
• Any other relevant response (any 1 x 2) (2)

1.1.2 [Extraction of evidence from Source 1A – L1]

• Could have applied it everywhere
• Could have applied it militarily
• Could have focused on economic aid given to nations seeking to
reconstruct their economies
• Could have assigned priority to occupation policies, especially in Germany
and Japan (any 3 x 1) (3)

1.1.3 [Interpretation of information from Source 1A – L2]

• The USA's economy would grow and be stronger
• Any other relevant response (any 1 x 2) (2)

1.14[Evaluate the usefulness of Source 1A – L3]

The source is USEFUL because:

• It indicates the USA’s uncertainty in implementing the policy of containment

• It indicates the implementation of the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan
• The information indicates how the Marshall Plan was implemented
• It highlights that Western European nations were happy to receive US money
• Any other relevant response (any 2 x 2) (4)

2.1
2.1.1 [Extraction of evidence from Source 1B – L1]
• Political institutions
• Economic institutions (2 x 1) (2)
2.1.2 [Extraction of evidence from Source 1B – L1]

• The United States of America's Congress was exercising financial discipline

and was careful as to how it spent its money
• The United States of America's Congress was unwilling to commit
the USA to involvement in European affairs (1 x 2) (2)

2.1.3 [Interpretation of evidence from Source 1B – L2]

• Acheson said the crisis in Turkey and Greece was a result of Cold War conflict
and needed USA intervention
• He said if Turkey and Greece fell then Iran, African countries and other European
countries would also fall under communism
• Acheson convinced the United States of America's Congress that only the United
States of America could block the communist onslaught
 Any other relevant response (any 2 x 2) (4)

3.1
3.1.1 [Extraction of evidence from Source 1C – L1]
• Czechoslovakia
• Poland (2 x 1) (2)

3.1.2 [Interpretation of evidence from Source 1C – L2]

• He realised that countries in Eastern Europe might accept aid from
the Marshall Plan
• East European countries were generally poor and would therefore welcome
financial aid even if it was from the West
• He saw it as a strategy by the USA to extend their sphere of influence in
Eastern Europe
• Any other relevant response (any 2 x 2) (4)

3.1.3 [Interpretation of evidence from Source 1C – L2]

• To counter the Marshall Plan by creating a group of communist
governments that would counteract the influence of the west
• To co-ordinate and promote trade between countries within the Soviet
sphere of influence to discourage contact with non- communist countries.
• To commit member parties to a common strategy to counter the growing
influence from the west
• Any other relevant response (any 2 x 2) (4)
4. [Comparison of information in Sources 1B and 1C – L3]
• In Source 1B Acheson expresses his fear that if Turkey and Greece
fell to the communists, Iran, Africa and Europe would also fall. The coup
(take over) by Moscow on Czechoslovakia and the Berlin Crisis
(Source1C) confirms Acheson's fear as expressed in Source 1B
• In Source 1B Acheson is concerned about a 'communist onslaught',
some people in the West believed that the establishment of the Cominform
confirmed this fear, as stated in Source 1C
• Any other relevant response (2 x 2) (4)

5.1

5.1.1 [Interpretation of information from Source 1D – L2]

• The Marshall Plan was depicted as providing economic and humanitarian

aid
• That if countries did not accept the Marshall Plan, they would remain
poor, for example, with no buttered bread and with tattered clothing of the
• Failure to accept the Marshall Plan could lead to economic under-development
in certain countries
• Any other relevant response (any 2 x 2) (4)

5.1.2 [Interpretation of information from Source 1D – L2]

• It shows that the Marshall Plan would provide economic aid in the
form of basic necessities
• It shows that the Marshall Plan will provide financial assistance to buy
the basic needs
• Any other relevant response (any 1 x 2) (2)

6. [Interpretation, evaluation and synthesis of evidence from relevant sources - L3]

Candidates could include the following aspects in their response:
• Policy of Containment – to prevent the spread of communism (Source 1A)
• The introduction of Truman Doctrine (Source 1A)
• Introduction of Marshall Plan (Source 1A)
• The USA pronounced that the Truman Doctrine was a commitment by USA to act
and prevent communism from spreading further into Western Europe (Source
1B)
• USA set up the European Recovery Plan (Marshall Plan) to provide aid to
countries so that they fall under the sphere of the West (capitalism) (Source 1C)
• The Marshall Aid won the hearts and minds of many since USA invested $13
billion in aid
between 1948 and 1951 (Source 1C)
• The Soviet Union responded to the Marshall Plan through the Cominform which
 ensured that foreign communist parties could take over (Source 1C)
• The Soviet Union spent roughly the same amount as the USA
($13 billion) to retain its sphere of influence in Eastern Europe (Source 1C)
• Advantages of the Marshall Plan (Source 1D)
• Formation of NATO and Warsaw Pact (own knowledge)
• Any other relevant response

Use the following rubric to allocate a mark:

 Uses evidence in an elementary manner e.g. shows no or little

understanding of how the United States of America and the
Soviet Union attempted to create spheres of interest in
Europe between 1946 and 1951. MARKS
LEVEL 1
0–2
 Uses evidence partially to report on topic or cannot report on
topic.
 Evidence is mostly relevant and relates to a great extent to the
topic e.g. shows some understanding of how the United
States of America and the Soviet Union attempted to create MARKS
LEVEL 2
spheres of interest in Europe between 1946 and 1951. 3–5
 Uses evidence in a very basic manner.
 Uses relevant evidence e.g. demonstrates a thorough
understanding of how the United States of America and the
Soviet Union attempted to create spheres of interest in
Europe between 1946 and 1951. MARKS
LEVEL 3
 Uses evidence very effectively in an organised paragraph that 6–8
shows an understanding of the topic.