Here are the wireless networks available for IoT/M2M applications:

1. Personal Area Networks (PANs):

 Zigbee
 Bluetooth (especially Bluetooth Low Energy - BLE)
 Near Field Communications (NFC)
 Proprietary systems like ANT+ and NIKE+
2. Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs):
 Wi-Fi IEEE Standard 802.11 (including low-power implementations)
3. Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs):
 WiMAX
4. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs):
 Various application-specific technologies
5. Third Generation (3G)/4G Cellular Networks:
 Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS)
 General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
 Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE)
 Long-Term Evolution (LTE)
6. Global Networks:
 Satellite networks

6.1 WPAN TECHNOLOGIES FOR IoT/M2M

1. PANs, or Personal Area Networks, facilitate communication among devices in close

proximity to a person, such as smartphones, tablets, and wearables.
2. PANs can support wireless body area networks (WBANs), which are used in medical
and non-medical applications.
3. Medical applications of WBANs include vital sign monitoring, respiration monitoring,
electrocardiography (ECG), pH monitoring, glucose monitoring, disability assistance,
muscle tension monitoring, and artificial limb support.
4. Non-medical applications include video streaming, data transfer, entertainment and
gaming.
5. PANs typically have a reach of a few meters. PANs can be used for communication
among the personal devices themselves (intrapersonal commn) or to higher-level
networks like the Internet.
6. WRT healthcare industry, WBAN technologies prioritize
very low power consumption,
low transmitted power, and
high reliability and quality of service (QoS)

Key standards for WBANs include:

 ZigBee/IEEE 802.15.4
 Personal, Home and Hospital Care (PHHC) Profile—ZigBee Health Care
 IEEE 802.15.1 (Bluetooth)
 IEEE 802.15.6
 IEEE 802.15.4j
 ISO/IEEE 11073
 ETSI TR 101 557 V1.1.1 (2012–02)
1
  ZigBee and Bluetooth have been adapted to meet specific needs of medical and
fitness industries.

 IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi, known for its low-power consumption, is considered less favored
for WBANs currently, though some arguments exist in its favor.

The following network topologies are applicable to personal low-power radio networks:
 Broadcast: environment where a message is sent from a device in the hope that it is
received by a receiver within range. The broadcaster does not receive signals;
 Mesh: environment where a message can be relayed from one point in a network to
any other by hopping through multiple nodes;
 Star: environment where a central device can communicate with a number of
connected devices;
 Scanning: environment where a scanning device is constantly in receive mode,
waiting to pick up a signal from anything transmitting within range;
 Point-to-point: in this mode, a one-to-one connection exists, where only two devices
are connected over the communication path

6.1.1 Zigbee/IEEE 802.15.4

 Consumer-based IoT services rely on wireless, low-power sensors and actuators
deployed within premises. Low cost.
 ZigBee targets "little devices" like light switches, thermostats, and remote controls
often overlooked in an IT-centric world.
 It also caters to complex sensor devices in healthcare, commercial buildings, and
industrial automation.
 ZigBee serves as an open standard, facilitating interoperability and integration across
diverse IoT devices.
 ZigBee IP (ZIP) enables ZigBee systems to operate within an IP context.
 The focus here is on ZigBee's wireless lower-layer aspects rather than its IP
functionalities.
The ZigBee protocol stack is depicted at a general level in Figure 6.1 and at a more specific
level in Figure 6.2.

2
 Zigbee uses IEEE 802.15.4 at phy layer & medium access control layer (PHY & MAC).
 ZigBee networks support various topologies including star, mesh, and cluster-tree,
allowing for flexible device connectivity.
 These network capabilities enable ZigBee networks to accommodate over 65,000
devices within a single wireless network.
 ZigBee facilitates low-latency communication between devices without the need for
initial network synchronization delays commonly associated with Bluetooth.
 ZigBee is capable of forming self-healing wireless mesh networks, enhancing
reliability and resilience in communication.
 ZigBee mesh networks overcome distance and range limitations, allowing all devices
to communicate with each other and act as repeaters for data transmission between
devices.

ZigBee is available in two feature sets: ZigBee PRO and ZigBee

3
 Features of Zigbee Pro:
- Low power consumption
- Supports large networks with thousands of devices
- ZigBee PRO introduces new application profiles such as automatic meter
reading, commercial building automation, and home automation.
- ZigBee PRO can automatically fragment and reassemble larger messages at
receiving nodes. So, less overhead
LR-WPANs (Low-Rate Wireless Personal Area Networks) applications demand technology
that is
low-cost,
compact,
highly reliable,
offers long battery life, lasting for months or even years.
Automatic or semi-automatic installation is also essential.

ZigBee technology stack:

1. PHY Layer Features: The PHY layer specifies network interface components,
parameters, and operations. It includes features like
 Receiver Energy Detection (RED),
 Link Quality Indicator (LQI), and
 Clear Channel Assessment (CCA).
 it supports various low-power features such as low-duty cycle operations,
strict power management, and low transmission overhead.

2. Addressing Modes: IEEE 802.15.4 defines addressing modes allowing the use of
either IEEE 64-bit extended addresses or 16-bit addresses unique within the PAN
after an association event.
3. MAC Layer Operation: The MAC layer handles network association and
disassociation, regulates access to the medium, and operates in two modes:
beaconing and nonbeaconing. Beaconing mode is for environments with an always
active device, while nonbeaconing mode uses unslotted, nonpersistent CSMA-based
MAC protocol.
4. Network Layer: Provides functionalities like

 network routing,
 configuration,
 device discovery,
 association and disassociation,
 topology management,
 MAC layer management, and
 routing and security management.
 It supports three network topologies: star, mesh, and cluster tree.

5. Security Layer: Leverages IEEE 802.15.4 security model for infrastructure security
and application data security.

4
6. Application Layer: Comprises the Application Support Sublayer (APS), ZigBee Device
Object (ZDO), and manufacturer-defined application objects. The APS sublayer
maintains binding tables for devices based on their services and forwards messages
between bound devices.

(Refer Table 6.3)

5
 Data Modulation Modulation
Freq Band Spreading Code Scheme Data Rate Chip Rate Scheme
BPSK with
15-chip m- differential
868 MHz sequence encoding 20 Kbps 300 Kchips/s -
BPSK with
15-chip m- differential
915 MHz sequence encoding 40 Kbps 600 Kchips/s -
16-ary orthogonal O-QPSK with
modulation (O- half-sine pulse
2.4 GHz 32-chip PN codes QPSK) 250 Kbps 2.0 Mchips shaping

IEEE 802.15.4 defines four types of frames: (see Fig. 6.4). IMP ***
 beacon frames,
 MAC command frames,
 acknowledgement frames, and
 data frames.

6
7
  IEEE 802.15.4 nw operate in either nonbeacon-enabled or beacon-enabled modes.
 In beacon-enabled n/ws, devices synchronize themselves using a coordinator's
beacons, allowing the use of superframes within which a contention-free guaranteed
time service (GTS) is possible.
 Nonbeacon-enabled nw use a contention-based channel access method of unslotted
carrier sense multiple access/collision detect (CSMA/CD) for sending data frames.
 In nonbeacon-enabled nw, although beacons are not used for synchronization, they
are still valuable for link-layer device discovery, aiding in association and
disassociation events.

An 8-bit field used

for frame
synchronization. An 8-bit field
A 32-bit field used specifying the length
for symbol of the PHY service
synchronization. data unit (PSDU). Can carry up to 127
bytes of data.

In order to accommodate the MAC protocol, the IEEE 802.15.4 standard distinguishes
devices based on their hardware complexity and capability. Accordingly, the standard
defines two classes of physical devices, namely:

1. full function device (FFD)

 Equipped with adequate resources and memory capacity.

 Can handle all functionalities and features specified by the standard.
 Capable of assuming multiple network responsibilities.
 Can communicate with any other network device.

2. reduced function device (RFD)

 Simplified device with reduced functionalities for lower cost & complexity.
 Typically contains a physical interface to the wireless modem.
 Executes the IEEE 802.15.4 MAC layer protocol.
 Can only associate and communicate with an FFD.

8
Based on these physical device types, ZigBee defines a variety of logical device types. These
logical devices are distinguished based on their physical capabilities and the role they play in
the deployed network. There are three categories of logical devices:

1. Network Coordinator:
 An FFD device responsible for network establishment and control.
 Selects key parameters of network configuration and initiates network setup.
 Stores network information and security keys.
2. Router:
 An FFD device supporting data routing functionality.
 Acts as an intermediate device, linking different network components.
 Forwards messages between remote devices via multihop paths.
 Can communicate with other routers and end devices.
3. End Devices:
 RFD devices with minimal functionality, communicating only with the parent
node (coordinator or router).
 Lack the capability to relay data messages to other end devices

A PAN coordinator is the designated principal controller of the WPAN. Every network has
exactly one PAN coordinator, selected from within all the coordinators of the network. A
coordinator is a network device configured to support network functionalities and additional
responsibilities, including:
1. Managing a list of all associated network devices;
2. Exchanging data frames with network devices and peer coordinator
3. Allocating 16-bit short addresses to network devices. The short addresses, assigned
on-demand, are used by the associated devices in lieu of the 64-bit addresses for
subsequent communications with the coordinator;
4. Generating, on a periodic basis, beacon frames. These frames are used to announce
the PAN identifier, the list of outstanding frames, and other network and device
parameters.

Based on these logical device types, a ZigBee WPAN can be organized into one of three
topologies – star, mesh (peer-to-peer), cluster tree. (See Fig. 6.6.)

9
ZigBee WPAN Topologies:
1. Star Topology:
 Supports a single coordinator with a maximum of 65,536 devices.
 One FFD-type device serves as the network coordinator, while others act as
end devices.
 Coordinator Responsibilities:
 Initiates and maintains the end devices on the network.
 End devices can communicate only with the coordinator upon
initiation.
2. Mesh (Peer-to-Peer) Topology:
 Enables path formation from any source device to any destination device.
 Utilizes tree- and table-driven routing algorithms.
 Routing: Allows for flexible routing between devices.
3. Cluster Tree Topology:
 Supports peer-to-peer network formation with minimal routing overhead.
 Utilizes multihop routing.
 Features:
 Self-organized structure with network redundancy.
 Ensures fault resistance and self-repair.
 Can comprise up to 255 clusters with 254 nodes each, totaling 64,770
nodes.
 Coordinator Assignment:
 Any FFD can be a coordinator, but only one is selected for the PAN.
 PAN coordinator forms the first cluster and assigns it a cluster identity
(CID) of value 0.
 Subsequent clusters are formed with a designated cluster head for
each cluster.

Public Application Profiles (Profiles): These are agreements defining messages, message
formats, and processing actions.

ZigBee Device Object (ZDO): Provides an interface between application objects, profiles
(e.g., ZigBee Health Care), and the APS (Application Support Sublayer). Abstracts low-level
details, allowing developers to focus on application-specific code.

Specific Application Standards: These are like specific rules or protocols that ZigBee devices
follow for different tasks enabling smooth inter-operability and efficiency

10
IEEE 802.15.4 Security:
It requires a certain level of security for data transmission, specifically using the Advanced
Encryption Standard (AES).

ZigBee Health Care Public Application Profile (PHHC Profile):

This is a specialized set of rules created by the ZigBee Alliance, focusing on health care
applications. – like monitoring devices which are non-invasive. It provides a standard way for
devices to exchange data securely.

IEEE 11073 and PHHC Profile: This standard enables devices to establish connections, share
capabilities, and handle communication needs efficiently.

Support for ISO/IEEE 11073:

The ZigBee Health Care profile fully aligns with ISO/IEEE 11073 standards for medical device
communication.
It supports various device specializations, including pulse oximeter, blood pressure monitor,
pulse monitor, weight scale, and glucose meter.

6.1.2 Radio Frequency for Consumer Electronics (RF4CE)

 ZigBee RF4CE is designed for simple, two-way device-to-device control applications

that do not require full-featured mesh networking capabilities like ZigBee. (It's not as
feature-rich as regular ZigBee, making it more cost-effective and requiring less
memory.)

 ZigBee RF4CE was standardized in 2009 by Sony, Philips, Panasonic, and Samsung.

 ZigBee RF4CE defines a simple, robust, and low-cost communication network

suitable for consumer electronic devices. It enhances the IEEE 802.15.4 standard by
providing a networking layer and standard application layer for multivendor
interoperability within home environments.

 Characteristics:

 Operation in the 2.4 GHz frequency band according to IEEE 802.15.4;

 Frequency agile solution operating over three channels;

 Incorporates power-saving mechanisms for all device classes;

 Discovery mechanism with full application confirmation;

 Pairing mechanism with full application confirmation;

 Multiple star topology with inter-PAN communication;

 Various transmission options including broadcast;

11
  Security key generation mechanism;

 Utilizes the industry standard AES-128 security scheme;

 Specifies a simple RC control profile for CE products;

 Support alliance-developed standards or manufacturer-specific profile

 ZigBee RF4CE is primarily used as a device remote control system, particularly for
television set-top boxes, aiming to address common issues associated with infrared
(IR) technology such as interoperability, line-of-sight limitations, and limited
enhanced features.

6.1.3 Bluetooth and its Low-Energy Profile:

 Based on IEEE 802.15.1 standard.

 Developed by Ericsson initially, then standardized by Bluetooth SIG and IEEE.
 Evolved through four versions, maintaining backward compatibility. (v1 to v4)
 Widely used in consumer electronics for short-range wireless connectivity.
 Operates in 2.4 GHz ISM band with a bandwidth of 1-3 Mbps.
 Uses frequency-hopping spread spectrum for communication.
 Supports various tasks like synchronization, voice communication, and input devices.
 Compared to IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi), Bluetooth has shorter range and lower data
transfer rates.
 Compared to IEEE 802.15.4 (ZigBee), Bluetooth offers higher data rates but shorter
battery life. ( see below table)

 Sublayers of IEEE 802.15:

o RF Layer: Defines air interface parameters like frequency band and link range.
o Baseband Layer: Establishes Bluetooth piconet wher devices connect as master
or slave.
o Link Manager: Establishes links between devices and controls various
parameters.
o L2CAP: Provides upper-layer protocols with connection services and protocol
multiplexing.

 Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE):

o Subset of Bluetooth v4.0 designed for low-power applications.
o Enables devices to operate for years on a single battery charge.
o Suitable for short-range monitoring applications in fields like medicine.
o Primarily targeted for mobile phones, creating star network topologies between
phones and other devices.

Property IEEE 802.11 WLANs 802.15.1/Bluetooth 802.15.4/ZigBee

Battery life Minutes to hours Hours to days Days to years
Data throughput 54 - 867 Mbps (802.11a/g/ac) ∼1 Mbps to 3 Mbps ∼0.25 Mbps

12
 Property IEEE 802.11 WLANs 802.15.1/Bluetooth 802.15.4/ZigBee
Power consumption Medium Low Very low
Range ∼250 m (802.11n) ∼10 to 100 m ∼10 m

Bluetooth Version 1.2: Introduced a maximum data rate of 1 Mbps, resulting in an effective
throughput of about 723 Kbps. This version provided basic wireless connectivity but had
limitations in data transmission speed.

Bluetooth Version 2 (Bluetooth 2.0+EDR): Ratified in late 2004, this version introduced
Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) technology. With EDR, the maximum data rate increased to 3
Mbps, resulting in a throughput of 2.1 Mbps. Bluetooth 2.0+EDR also extended the range up
to 10 meters (and up to 100 meters with power boost).

Both older and newer Bluetooth devices can seamlessly work together without requiring any
special configuration or compatibility efforts. This ensures smooth communication between
devices of different Bluetooth versions.

Bluetooth Version Features

- Introduced a maximum data rate of 1 Mbps <br> - Effective
1.2 throughput of about 723 Kbps
- Provided basic wireless connectivity
2 (2.0+EDR) - Ratified in late 2004
- Introduced Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) technology
- Increased maximum data rate to 3 Mbps (2.1 Mbps throughput)
- Extended range up to 10 meters (and up to 100 meters with power
boost)
- Interoperable with older Bluetooth devices
- Improved energy efficiency through faster data transmission and
reduced duty cycle
- Offered three times faster transmission speed compared to previous
Bluetooth technology
- Simplified implementation of multilink applications due to increased
available bandwidth

13
Bluetooth Version Features
- Maintained backward compatibility with earlier Bluetooth versions
- Enhanced Bit Error Rate (BER) performance for more reliable data
transmission

Figure 6.7 - structure of a BLE packet

Current chip designs support two types of BLE implementations—dual mode and single
mode.

In a single-mode implementation, the BLE protocol stack is the sole functionality

implemented.

In a dual-mode implementation, BLE functionality is integrated into an existing Classic

Bluetooth controller.

14
15
Figure 6.8 - frequency plan associated with BLE

Figure shows various coexistence scenarios, such as in corporate settings, homes, or small
office home offices (SOHO) where Wi-Fi is utilized.

IEEE 802.11b and 802.11g specifications propose dividing the spectrum into 14 overlapping,
staggered channels with 5 MHz spacing. Channels 1, 6, and 11 (and optionally channel 14)
do not overlap, allowing multiple networks to operate in close proximity without
interference.

Figure 6.9 - The spectral mask for 802.11b requires the signal to be at least 30 dB down
from its peak energy at ±11 MHz from the center frequency and at least 50 dB down at ±22
MHz from the center frequency.

Each BLE channel is 2 MHz wide. However, the placement of ZigBee channels suggests that
only four channels are likely to be free in typical Wi-Fi network settings, where channels 1,
6, and 11 are common defaults.

With a signaling data rate of 250 Kbps and no hopping capability, ZigBee faces the risk of
packet nondelivery in congested Wi-Fi environments.

16
Devices that operate solely on Bluetooth v4.0 without implementing other versions are
known as single-mode devices.

Bluetooth has traditionally been used in health care primarily for connecting various
medical devices together.

17
The development of the Bluetooth Health Device Profile (HDP) marks a shift in the use of
Bluetooth in health care.

Under Bluetooth, a profile defines the characteristics and features, including the
function, of a Bluetooth system.

HDP facilitates the connection of application data source devices (e.g., blood pressure
monitors, weight scales, glucose meters) to application data sink devices (e.g., mobile
phones, laptops, desktop computers, health appliances) without requiring cables.

HDP supports a variety of medical devices, including blood pressure monitors, weight
scales, glucose meters, thermometers, and pulse oximeters.

HDP can be combined with Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) to ensure that medical devices
can remain operational for extended periods, even months or years.

The use of HDP with Bluetooth enables wireless connectivity between medical devices
and data collection devices, enhancing convenience and mobility in health care settings.

 The HDP specification incorporates the Multi-Channel Adaptation Protocol (MCAP)

and utilizes the Device ID (DI) profile.
 The architecture of a Bluetooth system with HDP and applications is depicted in
Figure 6.10, highlighting key components.
 HDP provides several critical features:
o Control channel connection/disconnection
o Creation of data links (reliable or streaming)
o Deletion and abort of data links
o Reconnection of data links
o Data transmission over one or more data links
o Clock synchronization

18
 6.2.3 LTE

 LTE (Long-Term Evolution) is a 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project) initiative

aimed at evolving the UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System)
technology towards 4G.
 LTE aims to ensure uninterrupted connectivity for end-users' applications, even
during mobility, without disruptions.

LTE promises the following benefits:

o Simplified network architecture (Flat IP based);
o Efficient interworking;
o Robust QoS framework;
o Common evolution for multiple technologies;
o Real-time, interactive, low-latency true broadband;
o Multisession data;
o End-to-end enhanced QoS management (see below);
o Policy control and management;
o High level of security.

 The EPS is the key element provided by LTE/SAE, encompassing both LTE and SAE
technologies.
 It provides users with IP connectivity to a packet data network, enabling access to
the Internet and supporting services like streaming video.

19
Components of EPS: *** (Overall network architecture of EPS n/w elements)
1. New Air Interface E-UTRAN (Evolved UTRAN):
 E-UTRAN, or evolved UTRAN, represents the new air interface introduced
with LTE.
 It encompasses the radio access network (RAN) components, including base
stations (eNodeBs), that facilitate wireless communication between User
Equipment (UE) and the core network.
2. Evolved Packet Core (EPC) Network:
 The EPC network forms the backbone of the LTE/SAE architecture.
 It comprises various network elements responsible for handling packet-
switched traffic and managing user sessions.
 Components of the EPC include the Mobility Management Entity (MME),
Serving Gateway (SGW), Packet Data Network Gateway (PGW), and others.

20
Advantages of IPv6 IMP ***

Advantage Description
IPv6 utilizes 128-bit addresses compared to IPv4's 32-bit addresses, offering
a significantly larger address space.
Scalability and While IPv4 provides approximately 4.3 billion addresses, IPv6 offers over 340
expanded addressing undecillion addresses, providing ample room for the growing number of
capabilities devices on the Internet.
IPv6 features a "plug-and-play" mechanism that enables automatic
configuration of network equipment without the need for a dedicated
server. This simplifies the process of connecting devices to the network,
reducing manual configuration efforts and ensuring seamless integration
"Plug-and-play" into the network infrastructure.
IPv6 allows nodes to have multiple IPv6 addresses on the same network
interface, facilitating the creation of overlay or communities of interest (COI)
Support for multiple networks.
IPv6 addresses on This enables users to establish specific networks with their own security
one interface policies, enhancing flexibility and security in network configurations.
IPv6 includes built-in security features such as payload encryption and
source authentication. With mandatory IP Security (IPsec) implementation,
IPv6 promotes end-to-end security, allowing hosts to provide security
services for data traffic between them.
This results in greater flexibility in creating policy-based trust domains based
Enhanced security on various parameters.
VPN deployment is easier and more standardized in IPv6 due to features like
Authentication Header (AH) and Encapsulating Security Protocol (ESP)
extension headers.
Simplified Virtual IPv6 VPN implementation incurs lower performance penalties compared to
Private Network IPv4, making it an attractive option for secure communication over
(VPN) deployment networks.
IPv6 removes unused or obsolete IPv4 characteristics, resulting in a better-
optimized protocol. Merging networks with overlapping addresses, a
complex task in IPv4, becomes simpler with IPv6, facilitating organizational
Optimized protocol mergers or network expansions.
IPv6 includes "labeled flows" to better support real-time traffic like VoIP and
IPTV. Routers can identify end-to-end flows, similar to MPLS, enhancing
quality of service without additional overhead.
Support for real-time This feature preceded MPLS and is intrinsic to the IPv6 mechanism,
applications providing efficient support for real-time applications.
IPv6 incorporates more efficient mobility mechanisms, especially for mobile
IP and mobile computing devices. Mobile IPv6 (MIPv6), defined in RFC 3775,
Enhanced mobility offers robust support for mobile devices and is increasingly deployed,
support ensuring seamless connectivity and efficient mobility management.
Streamlined header IPv6 features a streamlined header format and efficient flow identification,
format and flow optimizing packet processing and enhancing network performance.

21
 Advantage Description
identification
IPv6 is designed to be extensible, offering support for new options and
extensions.
This allows for the integration of future technologies and standards,
ensuring the longevity and adaptability of the IPv6 protocol in evolving
Extensibility network environments.

IMP ***

Unicast addresses are utilized for a majority of traditional (enterprise)

communications, as was the case in IPv4.

However, Broadcast as a specific addressing type has been eliminated; in its place
support for multicast addressing has been expanded and made a required part of the
protocol.

A new type of addressing called anycast has also been implemented. In addition,
there are a number of special IPv6 addresses.

Types of transmissions:

22
o Unicast transmission: “send to this one specific address”

o Multicast transmission: “send to every member of this specific group”

o Anycast transmission: “send to any one member of this specific group.” Typically
(motivated by efficiency goals), the transmission occurs to the closest (in routing
terms) member of the group. Generally one interprets anycast to mean “send to
the closest member of this specific group.”

23
IMP ***

24
 An IPv6 packet, also known as an IPv6 datagram, comprises an IPv6 header and an
IPv6 payload.
 The IPv6 header consists of two parts: the IPv6 base header and optional extension
headers.
 Functionally, the optional extension headers and upper-layer protocols, such as TCP,
are considered part of the IPv6 payload.
 The IPv6 base header fields are detailed in Table 7.4.
 IPv4 headers and IPv6 headers are not directly interoperable; hosts and routers must
implement both IPv4 and IPv6 to recognize and process both header formats.
 This lack of interoperability creates complexities in the migration process between
IPv4 and IPv6 environments.
 The IPv6 header is streamlined and defined to be a fixed length of 40 bytes.
 In IPv6, several IPv4 header fields have been removed, renamed, or moved to
optional IPv6 extension headers.
 The IPv4 "type of service" field is equivalent to the IPv6 "traffic class" field.
 The "total length" field in IPv4 has been replaced with the "payload length" field in
IPv6.
 IPv6 only allows fragmentation to be performed by the source and destination
nodes, not individual routers, leading to changes in segment control fields.
 The "time to live (TTL)" field in IPv4 is replaced by the "hop limit" field in IPv6.
 The "protocol" field in IPv4 is replaced by the "next header type" field in IPv6.

25
 The "header checksum" field was removed in IPv6 to save processing time at relays.
 The "options" field from IPv4 headers is no longer part of the IPv6 header; instead,
options are specified in optional IPv6 extension headers.
 Removing the options field from the header enhances routing efficiency by
processing only necessary information.

26
27
 IPv6 tunneling establishes a "virtual link" between two IPv6 nodes for transmitting
data packets as payloads of IPv6 packets.
 This virtual link, known as an IPv6 tunnel, appears as a point-to-point link from the
perspective of the two nodes, with IPv6 acting like a link-layer protocol.
 The two IPv6 nodes involved in tunneling have specific roles:
 The encapsulator node, AKA tunnel entry-point node, encapsulates original
packets received from other nodes or itself and forwards the resulting tunnel
packets through the tunnel.
 The decapsulator node, AKA tunnel exit point, decapsulates the received
tunnel packets and forwards the resulting original packets toward their
destinations, possibly itself.
 IPv6 tunnels are unidirectional mechanisms, meaning tunnel packet flow occurs in
one direction between the IPv6 tunnel entry-point and exit-point nodes.
 Bidirectional tunneling is achieved by configuring two tunnels, each in opposite
directions, where the entry-point node of one tunnel serves as the exit-point node of
the other tunnel.

28
 IPsec provides network-level security by encapsulating application data within IPv6
packets.
 IPsec consists of two protocols: ESP (Encapsulating Security Payload), which provides
integrity and confidentiality, and AH (Authentication Header), which provides
integrity.
 AH and ESP headers may be used separately or in combination to provide security.
 With ESP, IPsec offers integrity, data origin authentication, confidentiality, and
optional anti-replay features.
 ESP also provides limited traffic flow confidentiality.
 IPsec can be implemented in two modes:
 Tunnel mode: The protocol is applied to the entire IP packet, ensuring
security over the entire packet. A new IPv6 header and an AH or ESP header
are wrapped around the original IP packet.
 Transport mode: The protocol is applied only to the transport layer (e.g., TCP,
UDP, ICMP), with an IPv6 header and AH or ESP header followed by the
transport protocol data.
 Ongoing work in the IETF aims to address issues like highly scalable multihoming
support for IPv6 sites and IP-layer interworking between IPv6-only and IPv4-only
hosts.
 IPv6/IPv4 interworking at the application layers is managed within the dual-stack
model of IPv6 deployment, where either end of an application session has dual-stack
connectivity or a dual-stack intermediary interfaces with both IPv4-only and IPv6-
only hosts or applications.

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