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IoT Access Technologies

IoT (Internet of Things) access technology refers to the various methods and protocols used to connect IoT
devices to networks, enabling them to communicate and share data. Here are some of the IoT access
technologies:
Examples:Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, LoRa (Long Range), Sigfox, NB-IoT (Narrowband IoT), 5G etc.

Catogoriing access technlogies based on Range:

Short range: The classical wired example is a serial cable. Wireless short-range technologies are often
considered as an alternative to a serial cable, supporting tens of meters of maximum distance between two
devices. Example of short-range wireless technologies are IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth ,Visible Light
Communications (VLC). These short-range communication methods are found in only a minority of IoT
installations.
Medium range: This range is the main category of IoT access technologies. In the range of tens to
hundreds of meters, many pecifications and implementations are available. The maximum distance is
generally less than 1 mile between two devices, although RF technologies do not have real maximum
distances defined, as long as the radio signal is transmitted and received in the scope of the applicable
pecification. Examples of medium-range wireless technologies include Wi-Fi, IEEE 802.15.4, and
WPAN(wireless personal area network). Wired technologies such as Ethernet and Narrowband Power
Line Communications (PLC) may also be classified as medium range, depending on their physical media
Long range: Distances greater than 1 mile between two devices require long-range technologies.
Wireless examples are cellular (2G, 3G, 4G) and some applications of outdoor IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi
,LORA(Long range) and Low-Power Wide-Area (LPWA) technologies. LPWA communications have the
ability to communicate over a large area without consuming much power. These technologies are therefore
ideal for battery-powered IoT sensors. Found mainly in industrial networks, over optical fiber and
Broadband Power Line Communications are classified as long range

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IEEE 802.15.4
IEEE 802.15.4 is a foundational standard for low-rate wireless personal area networks (LR-WPANs), and it
serves as the basis for various access technologies used in a wide range of applications. Here are some
applications of IEEE 802.15.4 access technology:
1.Home Automation,
2. Industrial Automation,
3. Smart Metering and Utility Networks
,4. Health and Medical Applications,
5. Smart Agriculture,
6. Building Automation,
7. Interactive toys and remote controls,
8. Environmental Monitoring
IEEE 802.15.4 defines low-data-rate PHY (Physical)and MAC (Media Access Control) layer
specifications for wireless personal area networks (WPAN). This standard has evolved over the years and
is a wireless access technology for low-cost and low-data-rate devices that are powered or run on batteries.
In addition to being low cost and offering a reasonable battery life, this access technology enables easy
installation using a compact protocol stack while remaining both simple and flexible. Several network
communication stacks, address a wide range of IoT use cases in both the consumer and business markets.

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Protocol Stacks Utilizing IEEE 802.15.4
Protocol Description
ZigBee Promoted through the ZigBee Alliance, ZigBee defines upper-layer
components (network through application) as well as application profiles.
Common profiles include building automation, home automation, and
healthcare. ZigBee also defines device object functions, such as device
role, device discovery, network join, and security
6LoWPAN 6LoWPAN ( IPv6 over Low-power Wireless Personal Area Networks.
)is an IPv6 adaptation layer defined by the IETF(Internet Engineering Task
Force )
6LoWPAN working group that describes how to transport IPv6 packets over
IEEE 802.15.4 layers.
ZigBee IP An evolution of the ZigBee protocol stack, ZigBee IP adopts the
6LoWPAN adaptation layer, IPv6 network layer, and RPL routing
protocol. In addition, it offers improvements to IP security
ISA100.11a ISA100.11a is developed by the International Society of Automation
(ISA) as “Wireless Systems for Industrial Automation: Process Control
and Related Applications.” It is based on IEEE 802.15.4-
. The network and transport layers are based on IETF 6LoWPAN, IPv6, and
UDP standards.
WirelessHART WirelessHART, promoted by the HART Communication Foundation,
is a protocol stack that offers a time-synchronized, self-organizing, and
self-healing mesh architecture, leveraging IEEE 802.15.4-2006 over the
2.4 GHz frequency band.
Thread Constructed on top of IETF 6LoWPAN/IPv6, Thread is a protocol stack
for a secure and reliable mesh network to connect and control products
in the home.

Zigbee is a wireless communication protocol designed for low-power, low-data-rate applications,

commonly used in home automation, industrial automation, and other applications that require short-
range wireless networking. Here are some key features and details about Zigbee:

1. Low Power Consumption: Zigbee devices are designed to be energy-efficient, making them
ideal for battery-operated devices.
2. Mesh Networking: Zigbee supports mesh networking, allowing devices to relay data through
other devices to extend the range and improve reliability.
3. Data Rate: Zigbee operates at a data rate of up to 250 kbps, which is sufficient for sensor data
and control commands.
4. Frequency Bands: It primarily operates in the 2.4 GHz frequency band but can also work in 868
MHz (Europe) and 915 MHz (USA) bands.
5. Applications: Common applications include smart lighting, security systems, smart thermostats,
and other IoT (Internet of Things) devices.
6. Standards: Zigbee is based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard for wireless personal area networks
(WPANs).
7. Device Types: Zigbee networks consist of three types of devices:
o Coordinator: Manages the network, initiates communication, and stores information
about the network.
o Router: Extends the network range by passing data between devices.

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o End Device: Communicates with the coordinator or router, usually with minimal
communication and power requirements.

Zigbee is popular in environments where reliable, low-power communication is crucial, and its mesh
network capability makes it a robust choice for complex network topologies.

Zigbee protocol stack

ZigBee solutions are aimed at smart objects and sensors that have low bandwidth and low power needs.
Furthermore, products that are ZigBee compliant and certified by the ZigBee Alliance should interoperate
even though different vendors may manufacture them. The main areas where ZigBee is the most well-
known include automation for commercial, retail, and home applications and smart energy. In the
industrial and commercial automation space, ZigBee-based devices can handle various functions, from
measuring temperature and humidity to tracking assets. For home automation, ZigBee can control lighting,
thermostats, and security functions. ZigBee Smart Energy brings together a variety of products, such as
smart meters, that can monitor and control the use and delivery of utilities, such as electricity and water.
The traditional ZigBee stack is illustrated in Figure given below. As mentioned previously, ZigBee
utilizes the IEEE 802.15.4 standard at the lower PHY and MAC layers.

Fig: High level Zigbee protocol stack

The ZigBee network and security layer provides mechanisms for network startup, configuration,
routing, and securing communications. This includes calculating routing paths in what is often a changing
topology, discovering neighbors, and managing the routing tables as devices join for the first time. The
network layer is also responsible for forming the appropriate topology, which is often a mesh but could
be a star or tree as well. From a security perspective, ZigBee utilizes 802.15.4 for security at the MAC
layer,

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The Application support is part of the Zigbee protocol stack responsible for providing an interface between the
network layer and the application layer.

Application Profiles define the set of rules and conventions for specific types of applications or use cases in `
Zigbee network.
The Zigbee platform stack refers to the set of layers and components that enable Zigbee devices to communicate
within a network

ZigBee IP protocol stack

Fig: ZigBee IP protocol stack

With the introduction of ZigBee IP, the support of IEEE 802.15.4 continues, but the IP and TCP/UDP
protocols and various other open standards are now supported at the network and transport layers. The
ZigBee-specific layers are now found only at the top of the protocol stack for the applications.
The Smart Energy Profile 2.0 (SEP 2.0) is a communication standard designed to facilitate the management of
energy consumption and communication between smart energy devices and system. Between MAC layer and
application layer ZigBee IP protocol stack ses following protocols,

UDP - User Datagram Protocol

TCP- Transmission Control Protocol
ICMP-Internet Control Message Protocol
ND- Neighbor Discovery Protocol
RPL- Routing Protocol
Physical Layer
The 802.15.4 standard supports an extensive number of PHY options that range from 2.4 GHz to sub-
GHz frequencies .
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The original physical layer transmission options were as follows:
■ 2.4 GHz, 16 channels, with a data rate of 250 kbps
■ 915 MHz, 10 channels, with a data rate of 40 kbps
■ 868 MHz, 1 channel, with a data rate of 20 kbps

MAC Layer
The IEEE 802.15.4 MAC layer manages access to the PHY channel by defining how devices in the
same area will share the frequencies allocated. At this layer, the scheduling and routing of data frames
are also coordinated. The 802.15.4 MAC layer performs the following tasks:
■ Network beaconing for devices acting as coordinators (New devices use beacons to
join an 802.15.4 network)
■ PAN association and disassociation by a device
■ Device security
■ Reliable link communications between two peer MAC entities

The physical frame in IEEE 802.15.4 is carefully structured to ensure reliable and efficient data transmission in
low-power, low-data-rate wireless personal area networks.

 Preamble Sequence:

 Length: 4 bytes
 Function: Allows the receiver to synchronize with the incoming frame by providing a known bit
pattern at the beginning of each frame.

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 Start of Frame Delimiter (SFD):

 Length: 1 byte
 Function: Marks the end of the preamble and indicates the start of the frame. This helps the
receiver to detect the start of the actual data transmission.

 PHY Header (PHR):

 Length: 1 byte
 Function: Provides information about the length of the PHY Service Data Unit (PSDU).
Specifically, it indicates the number of bytes in the PSDU

The MAC (Medium Access Control) frame in IEEE 802.15.4 is essential for managing how data is
transmitted across the network. It includes various fields that facilitate addressing, data encapsulation,
and error control. Here's a detailed breakdown of the MAC frame structure in IEEE 802.15.4:

MAC Frame Fields

1. Frame Control:
o Length: 2 bytes
o Function: Specifies the type of frame and various control flags.
o Fields:
 Frame Type (3 bits): Indicates the type of frame (e.g., data, acknowledgment, command,
or beacon).
2. Sequence Number:
o Length: 1 byte
o Function: Used to match acknowledgments with the frames they acknowledge.
3. Addressing Fields:
o Length: Variable (2-20 bytes depending on addressing mode)
o Function: Contains the addresses for the source and destination.
4. Frame Payload:
o Length: Variable
o Function: Contains the data being transmitted. The payload length depends on the frame type and
the application.
5. Frame Check Sequence (FCS):
o Length: 2 bytes

The Frame check sequence (FCS) is a part of the frame put in place to verify that the
information each frame contains is not damaged during transmission. If a frame is
corrupted during transmission

IEEE 1901.2
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While most of the constrained network technologies relate to wireless, IEEE 1901.2a-2013 is a wired
technology that is an update to the original IEEE 1901.2 specification. This is a standard for
Narrowband Power Line Communication (NB-PLC). NB-PLC is a narrowband spectrum for low
power, long range, and resistance to interference over the same wires that carry electric power. NB-
PLC is often found in use cases such as the following
 Smart metering: NB-PLC can be used to automate the reading of utility meters, such as electric,
gas, and water meters. This is true particularly in Europe, where PLC is the preferred technology for
utilities deploying smart meter solutions.
 Distribution automation: NB-PLC can be used for distribution automation, which involves
monitoring and controlling all the devices in the power grid.
 Public lighting: A common use for NB-PLC is with public lighting—the lights found in cities and
along streets, highways, and public areas such as parks.
 Electric vehicle charging stations: NB-PLC can be used for electric vehicle charging stations,
where the batteries of electric vehicles can be recharged.
 Microgrids: NB-PLC can be used for microgrids, local energy grids that can disconnect from the
traditional grid and operate independently.
 Renewable energy: NB-PLC can be used in renewable energy applications, such as solar, wind
power, hydroelectric, and geothermal heat.

All these use cases require a direct connection to the power grid. So it makes sense to transport IoT
data across power grid connections that are already in place
Physical Layer

NB-PLC is defined for frequency bands from 3 to 500 kHz. Much as with wireless sub-GHz frequency
bands, regional regulations and definitions apply to NB-PLC. The IEEE 1901.2 working group has
integrated support for all world regions in order to develop a worldwide standard. Specifications
include support for CENELEC A and B bands, US FCC-Low and FCC-above- CENELEC, and Japan
ARIB bands.
CENELEC is the French Committee (European Committee for Electrotechnical
Standardization . This organization is responsible for standardization in the area of electrical
engineering for Europe. The CENELEC A and B bands refer to 9–95 kHz and 95–125 kHz,
respectively.
The FCC is the Federal Communications Commission, a US government organization that regulates
interstate and international communications by radio, television, wire, satellite, and cable. The FCC-
Low band encompasses 37.5–117.1875 kHz, and the FCC-above-CENELEC band is 154.6875–487.5
kHz. The FCC-above-CENELEC band may become the most useful frequency due to its higher
throughput and reduced interference. Figure 4-11 shows the various frequency bands for NB-PLC.
Japan Association of Radio Industries and Businesses (ARIB) band is also present. The two ARIB
frequency bands are ARIB 1, 37.5–117.1875 kHz, and ARIB 2, 154.6875–403.125 kHz
Below figure shows various frequency bands in PLC

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Figure- Various frequency bands in PLC

MAC Layer
The MAC frame format of IEEE 1901.2a is based on the IEEE 802.15.4 MAC frame but integrates the
latest IEEE 802.15.4e-2012 amendment, which enables key features to be supported. (For more
information on the 802.15.4 MAC frame format, refer to Figure 4-6. For the 802.15.4e MAC frame
format, see Figure 4-9.) One of the key components brought from 802.15.4e to IEEE 1901.2a is
information elements. With IE support, additional capabilities, such as IEEE 802.15.9 Key
Management Protocol and SSID, are supported. Figure 4-12 provides an overview of the general MAC
frame format for IEEE 1901.2. Note that the numeric value above each field in the frame
shows the size of the field, in bytes.
n IEEE 1901.2, segment control refers to mechanisms used to manage and organize data
transmission segments over power line communication (PLC) networks. This involves breaking
down large data packets into smaller segments, ensuring each segment is correctly transmitted and
reassembled at the receiving end.

Fig: general MAC format of IEEE 1901.2

Following are the fields of the MAC Layer
1. Segment control- In IEEE 1901.2, segment control refers to mechanisms used to manage
and organize data transmission segments over power line communication (PLC) networks.
This involves breaking down large data packets into smaller segments, ensuring each
segment is correctly transmitted and reassembled at the receiving end. Length 3 Bytes

2. Frame Control:
o Length: 2 bytes
o Function: Specifies the type of frame and various control flags.
o Fields:
 Frame Type (3 bits): Indicates the type of frame (e.g., data, acknowledgment, command,
or beacon).

3. Sequence Number:

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o Length: 1 byte
o Function: Used to match acknowledgments with the frames they acknowledge.

4.Addressing Fields:

Length: Variable (2-20 bytes depending on addressing mode)

Function: Contains the addresses for the source and destination.

5. Auxiliary Security Header is a field used to provide security features such as encryption
and authentication for data transmission. Length variable.
6. Information Elements (IEs) are structured components within frames that carry various
types of control and management information essential for communication over power
line networks.
7. Frame Payload: Length: Variable

Function: Contains the data being transmitted. The payload length depends on the frame
type and the application.

8. Frame Check Sequence (FCS):

Length: 2 bytes

The Frame check sequence (FCS) is a part of the frame put in place to verify that the
information each frame contains is not damaged during transmission. If a frame is
corrupted during transmission

IEEE 802.11ah
In unconstrained networks, IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi is certainly the most successfully deployed wireless
technology. This standard is a key IoT wireless access technology, either for connecting endpoints such as
fog computing nodes, high-data-rate sensors, and audio or video analytics devices or for deploying Wi-Fi
backhaul infrastructures, such as outdoor Wi-Fi mesh in smart cities, oil and mining or other environments.
However, Wi-Fi lacks sub-GHz support for better signal penetration, low power for battery-powered nodes,
and the ability to support a large number of devices. For these reasons, the IEEE 802.11 working group
launched a task group named IEEE 802.11ah to specify a sub-GHz version of Wi-Fi. Three main use cases
are identified for IEEE 802.11ah:
Applications of IEEE 802.11 ah
1.Sensors and meters covering a smart grid: IEEE 802.11 isapplicable in Environmental/agricultural
monitoring, industrial process sensors, indoor healthcare system and fitness sensors, home and building
automation sensors.

2.Backhaul aggregation of industrial sensors and meter data: Potentially connecting IEEE 802.15.4g
subnetworks,
3. Extended range Wi-Fi: For outdoor extended-range hotspot or cellular traffic offloading when distances
already covered by IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n/ac are not good enough.

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For the 802.11ah standard, the Wi-Fi Alliance defined a new brand called Wi-Fi HaLow. This marketing
name is based on a play on words between “11ah” in reverse and “low power.” It is similar to the word
“hello” but it is pronounced “hay-low.” The HaLow brand exclusively covers IEEE 802.11ah for sub-GHz
device certification. Wi-Fi HaLow is a commercial designation for products incorporating IEEE 802.11ah
technology.
Physical Layer
IEEE 802.11ah essentially provides an additional 802.11 physical layer operating in unlicensed sub- GHz
bands. For example, various countries and regions use the following bands for IEEE 802.11ah: 868–868.6
MHz for EMEAR, 902–928 MHz and associated subsets for North America and Asia- Pacific regions, and
314–316 MHz, 430–434 MHz, 470–510 MHz, and 779–787 MHz for China.
Based on OFDM modulation, IEEE 802.11ah uses channels of 2, 4, 8, or 16 MHz (and also 1 MHz for low-
bandwidth transmission). This is one-tenth of the IEEE 802.11ac channels, resulting in one- tenth of the
corresponding data rates of IEEE 802.11ac. The IEEE 802.11ac standard is a high-speed wireless LAN
protocol at the 5 GHz band that is capable of speeds up to 1 Gbps. While 802.11ah does not approach this
transmission speed (as it uses one-tenth of 802.11ac channel width, it reaches one-tenth of 802.11ac speed),
it does provide an extended range for its lower speed data. For example, at a data rate of 100 kbps, the
outdoor transmission range for IEEE 802.11ah is expected to be 0.62 mile.
MAC Layer
The IEEE 802.11ah MAC layer is optimized to support the new sub-GHz Wi-Fi PHY while providing low
power consumption and the ability to support a larger number of endpoints. Enhancements and features
specified by IEEE 802.11ah for the MAC layer include the following:
 Number of devices: Has been scaled up to 8192 per access point.
 MAC header: Has been shortened to allow more efficient communication.
 Null data packet (NDP) support: Is extended to cover several control and management frames. Relevant
information is concentrated in the PHY header and the additional overhead associated with decoding the
MAC header and data payload is avoided. This change makes the control frame exchanges efficient and less
power-consuming for the receiving stations.
 Grouping and sectorization: Enables an AP to use sector antennas and also group stations (distributing a
group ID). In combination with RAW and TWT, this mechanism reduces
contention in large cells with many clients by restricting which group, in which sector, can contend during
which time window. (Sectors are described in more detail in the following section.)
 Restricted access window (RAW): Is a control algorithm that avoids simultaneous transmissions when
many devices are present and provides fair access to the wireless network. By providing more efficient
access to the medium, additional power savings for battery-powered devices can be achieved, and collisions
are reduced.
 Target wake time (TWT): Reduces energy consumption by permitting an access point to define times
when a device can access the network. This allows devices to enter a low-power state until their TWT time
arrives. It also reduces the probability of collisions in large cells with many clients.
 Speed frame exchange: Enables an AP and endpoint to exchange frames during a reserved transmit
opportunity (TXOP). This reduces contention on the medium, minimizes the number of frame exchanges to
improve channel efficiency, and extends battery life by keeping awake times short.

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From the above feature list the 802.11ah MAC layer is focused on power consumption and mechanisms to
allow low-power Wi-Fi stations to wake up less often and operate more efficiently. This sort of MAC layer is
ideal for IoT devices that often produce short, low-bit-rate transmissions.
Sectorization is a technique that involves partitioning the coverage area into several sectors to get reduced
contention within a certain sector. This technique is useful for limiting collisions in cells that have many
clients. This technique is also often necessary when the coverage area of 802.11ah access points is large, and
interference from neighboring access points is problematic. Sectorization uses an antenna array and beam-
forming techniques to partition the cell-coverage area. Figure 4-14 shows an example of 802.11ah
sectorization.

Security
No additional security has been identified for IEEE 802.11ah compared to other IEEE 802.11 specifications.
These protocols include IEEE 802.15.4, IEEE 802.15.4e, and IEEE 1901.2a, and the security information for
them is also applicable to IEEE 802.11ah.
3.6.5 LoRaWAN
In recent years, a new set of wireless technologies known as Low-Power Wide-Area (LPWA) has received a
lot of attention from the industry and press. Particularly well adapted for long-range and battery-powered
endpoints, LPWA technologies open new business opportunities to both services providers and enterprises
considering IoT solutions. This section discusses an example of an unlicensed-band LPWA technology,
known as LoRaWAN, and the next section, “NB-IoT and Other LTE Variations,” reviews licensed-band
alternatives from the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP).

To differentiate from the physical layer modulation known as LoRa, the LoRa Alliance uses
the term LoRaWAN to refer to its architecture and its specifications that describe end-to-end LoRaWAN
communications and protocols. Figure provides a high-level overview of the LoRaWAN layers. In this
figure, notice that Semtech is responsible for the PHY layer, while the LoRa Alliance handles the MAC
layer and regional frequency bands.

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Figure: LORAWAN Standards

 The LoRa Alliance owns and manages the roadmap and technical development of the
 LoRaWAN architecture and protocol. This alliance also handles the LoRaWAN endpoint certification
program and technology promotion through its certification and marketing committees.
Physical Layer
 LoRa modulation trades a lower data rate for receiver sensitivity to significantly increase the
communication distance. In addition, it allows demodulation below the noise floor, offers robustness
to noise and interference, and manages a single channel occupation by different spreading factors. This
enables LoRa devices to receive on multiple channels in parallel.
 LoRaWAN regional specifications describe the use of the main unlicensed sub-GHz frequency bands
of 433 MHz, 779–787 MHz, 863–870 MHz, and 902–928 MHz, as well as regional profiles for a subset
of the 902–928 MHz bandwidth. For example, Australia utilizes 915–928 MHz frequency bands, while
South Korea uses 920–923 MHz and Japan uses 920–928 MHz.
 The data rate in LoRaWAN varies depending on the frequency bands and adaptive data rate (ADR).
ADR is an algorithm that manages the data rate and radio signal for each endpoint. The ADR algorithm
ensures that packets are delivered at the best data rate possible and that network performance is both
optimal and scalable. Endpoints close to the gateways with good signal values transmit with the highest
data rate, which enables a shorter transmission time over the wireless network, and the lowest transmit
power. Meanwhile, endpoints at the edge of the link budget communicate at the lowest data rate and
highest transmit power.
 An important feature of LoRa is its ability to handle various data rates via the spreading factor. Devices
with a low spreading factor (SF) achieve less distance in their communications but transmit at faster
speeds, resulting in less airtime. A higher SF provides slower transmission rates but achieves a higher
reliability at longer distances.
MAC Layer
As mentioned previously, the MAC layer is defined in the LoRaWAN specification. This layer takes
advantage of the LoRa physical layer and classifies LoRaWAN endpoints to optimize their battery life and
ensure downstream communications to the LoRaWAN endpoints. The LoRaWAN specification documents
three classes of LoRaWAN devices:
 Class A: This class is the default implementation. Optimized for battery-powered nodes, it allows
bidirectional communications, where a given node is able to receive downstream traffic after transmitting.
Two receive windows are available after each transmission.

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 Class B: This class was designated “experimental” in LoRaWAN 1.0.1 until it can be better defined. A
Class B node or endpoint should get additional receive windows compared to Class A, but gateways must be
synchronized through a beaconing process.
 Class C: This class is particularly adapted for powered nodes. This classification enables a node to be
continuously listening by keeping its receive window open when not transmitting.

LoRaWAN messages, either uplink or downlink, have a PHY payload composed of a 1-byte MAC header, a
variable-byte MAC payload, and a MIC that is 4 bytes in length. The MAC payload size depends on the
frequency band and the data rate, ranging from 59 to 230 bytes for the 863–870 MHz band and 19 to 250
bytes for the 902–928 MHz band. Figure 4-16 shows a high-level LoRaWAN MAC frame format. IoT

In Figure LoRaWAN endpoints transport their selected application data over the LoRaWAN MAC layer on
top of one of the supported PHY layer frequency bands. The application data is contained in upper protocol
layers. These upper layers are not the responsibility of the LoRa Alliance, but best practices may be
developed and recommended. These upper layers could just be raw data on top of the LoRaWAN MAC
layer, or the data could be stacked in multiple protocols. Figure also shows how LoRaWAN gateways act as
bridges that relay between endpoints and the network servers. Multiple gateways can receive and transport
the same packets. When duplicate packets are received, de-duplication is a function of the network server.
The LoRaWAN network server manages the data rate and radio frequency (RF) of each endpoint through the
adaptive data rate (ADR) algorithm. ADR is a key component of the network scalability, performance, and
battery life of the endpoints. The LoRaWAN network server forwards application data to the application
servers, as depicted in Figure .

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