1

BIOLOGY
DEFINITION: is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including
their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy

Characteristics of Life

1. Living Things are Composed of Cells:

 Single-cell organisms have everything they need to be self-sufficient.
 In multicellular organisms, specialization increases until some cells do only certain things.
2. Living Things Have Different Levels of Organization:
 Both molecular and cellular organization.
 Living things must be able to organize simple substances into complex ones.
 Living things organize cells at several levels:

 Tissue - a group of cells that perform a common function.

 Organ - a group of tissues that perform a common function.`
 Organ system - a group of organs that perform a common function.
 Organism - any complete living thing.

3. Living Things Use Energy:

 Living things take in energy and use it for maintenance and growth.

4. Living Things Respond To Their Environment:

 Living things will make changes in response to a stimulus in their environment.
 A behavior is a complex set of responses.
5. Living Things Grow:
 Cell division - the orderly formation of new cells.
 Cell enlargement - the increase in size of a cell. Cells grow to a certain size and then divide.
 An organism gets larger as the number of its cells increases.
6. Living Things Reproduce:
 Reproduction is not essential for the survival of individual organisms, but must occur for a
species to survive.
 All living things reproduce in one of the following ways:
 Asexual reproduction - Producing offspring without the use of gametes.
 Sexual reproduction - Producing offspring by the joining of sex cells.
7. Living Things Adapt To Their Environment:
 Adaptations are traits giving an organism an advantage in a certain environment.
 Variation of individuals is important for a healthy species.
Questions
1. Do all living things have all of the characteristics of life? If your answer is no, give an
example.
2. Name some non-living thing that uses energy.
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 2

3. Name some non-living thing that grows.

Classification is the method used by scientists to order living organisms. All species have a unique
classification that results in a binomial name. Vertebrates are an example of a classification group.
Keys can be used to help to identify individual organisms.

Kingdom to species
Classification
You will remember from your Key Stage 3 studies that species with similar characteristics are put into
groups, and that this is called classification. Remind yourself of the basics of classification.

Kingdoms
The first rank in this system is called a kingdom. There are five kingdoms, based upon what an
organism's cells are like:
1. animalia (all multicellular animals)
2. plantae (all green plants)
3. fungi (moulds, mushrooms, yeast)
4. prokaryotae (bacteria, blue-green algae)
5. protoctista (Amoeba, Paramecium).

Further divisions
There are several further ranks before we reach a particular species. In order, these are:
 kingdom
 phylum
 class
 order
 family
 genus
 Species.
For example, lions have the following classification:
 kingdom - animal
 phylum - vertebrate
 class - mammal
 order - carnivorous
 family - cat
 genus - big cat
 Species - lion.
One way to remember this is by using a daft sentence like this one:
"Kevin plays clarinet or flute - grotty sound!"
All organisms are known by their binomial name which is the genus and species eg Homo sapiens –
modern humans

Classification - Higher tier

Being able to classify species is important to scientists as it allows them to accurately identify
individual species wherever they are. For example - a robin in America isn’t the same as a robin in the
UK so by using the binomial name Turdusmigratorius (American robin) or Erithacusrubecula (UK robin)
then there is no confusion.
Binomial classification is important because it can:
 clearly identify species
 study and conserve species
 target conservation efforts.

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 3

Kingdom characteristics
The first big division of living things in the classification system is to put them into one of five
kingdoms. These are based on what an organism's cells are like. This table shows the names of the
kingdoms, the characteristics and examples of the sort of organisms they contain:

Kingdoms
Kingdom Characteristics and Examples
Animalia Multicellular, no cell wall or chlorophyll, heterotrophic feeders. Examples: all
multicellular animals, including: jellyfish, worms, arthropods, molluscs,
echinoderms, fish, amphibia, reptiles, birds and mammals

Plantae Multicellular, have cell walls and chlorophyll, autotrophic feeders.Examples: all
green plants, including: algae, ferns and mosses (plants that do not produce seeds),
conifers and flowering plants (plants that do produce seeds)

Fungi Multicellular, have cell walls, do not have chlorophyll, saprophytic

feeders.Examples: moulds, mushrooms, yeast
Protoctista Usually unicellular, with a nucleus eg amoeba. Examples: amoeba and paramecium

Prokaryotes Unicellular, with no nucleus eg bacteria.Examples: bacteria and blue-green algae

Classification examples
It can be easy to classify a specie s. For example, we are Homo sapiens.

Classification of species

Rank Classification Notes

kingdom animalia
phylum chordates animals with a supporting rod running the length of the body eg
backbone

class mammals animals that are warm-blooded, have lungs and body hair, produce
milk and give birth to live young
order primates ape-like animals
family hominids human-like animals
genus homo Humans
species sapiens modern humans
It can also be difficult to classify a certain organism. For example, the single-celled organism called
Euglena has some confusing characteristics. It has:
 chloroplasts, like a plant
 no cell wall, like an animal
 a flagellum to swim with, like some bacteria.
A fifth kingdom, called the protoctista, was made for organisms like Euglena.

Viruses
Scientists do not classify a virus as a living thing. This is because:

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 4

 it does not show all seven processes for life

 when it enters a cell it changes the way a cell works so it can make copies of the virus.

CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS (PLANTS & ANIMALS)

ANIMALS; There are many different types of animals in the world. Many animals are quite similar to
each other. Others are quite different. Animals can be classified based on their similarities. They are
classified as vertebrate and invertebrate animals.
Classification examples
It can be easy to classify a species. For example, we are Homo sapiens.

Classification of species
Rank Classification Notes
kingdom animalia
phylum chordates animals with a supporting rod running the length of the body eg
backbone

class mammals animals that are warm-blooded, have lungs and body hair, produce
milk and give birth to live young

order primates ape-like animals

family hominids human-like animals
genus homo Humans
species sapiens modern humans
It can also be difficult to classify a certain organism. For example, the single-celled organism called
Euglena has some confusing characteristics. It has:
 chloroplasts, like a plant
 no cell wall, like an animal
 a flagellum to swim with, like some bacteria.
A fifth kingdom, called the protoctista, was made for organisms like Euglena.

Viruses
Scientists do not classify a virus as a living thing. This is because:
 it does not show all seven processes for life
 when it enters a cell it changes the way a cell works so it can make copies of the virus.

VERTEBRATES ANIMAL
The vertebrates are animals with a backbone. Scientists separate this group into smaller groups
because of their features:
-how the animal takes in oxygen – lungs, gills or through the skin
-thermoregulation – maintains own temperature (homeotherms) or temperature varies with
surroundings (poikilotherms)
-reproduction – internal or external fertilisation, lay eggs (oviparous) or give birth to live
young (viviparous).

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 5

Vertebrates

Group Characteristics
Fish Gills, external fertilisation
Oviparous, poikilotherm
Amphibian Some lungs or gills, external fertilisation
Oviparous, poikilotherm
Reptile Lungs, internal fertilisation
Oviparous, poikilotherm
Bird Lungs, internal fertilisation
Oviparous, homeotherm
Mammal Lungs, internal fertilisation
Vivaparous, homeotherm

Assigning vertebrates to different groups can be difficult as some fall into many categories: for
example, sharks are fish but give birth to live young and use internal fertilisation.

What is a species?
Organisms of the same species:
 have more characteristics in common than they do with organisms of a different species
 can interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
Sometimes a species may have different kinds or breeds that show great variation but the individuals
still belong to the same species. Different breeds of pedigree dog are like this.

Similar species tend to live in similar habitats, and are closely related in evolutionary terms. They are
likely to share a relatively recent ancestor. Closely related species living in different types of habitat
may have different characteristics. You can use keys to identify organisms according to their features.
A species is defined as organisms that produce fertile offspring but this is sometimes limited as some
organisms do not always reproduce sexually, and some hybrids are fertile.
Sometimes classification can be complicated by:
 variation within a species
 hybridisation (closely related species breed to produce offspring that have characteristics
of both – the hybrids are often infertile)
 ring species – neighbouring populations of species may have slightly different
characteristics but can still interbreed as part of a chain but the two ends of the chain can’t
interbreed.

INVERTEBRATES ANIMALS

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 6

CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANISATION

What is a cell?
It is the basic unit of life. It is the smallest unit capable of independent reproduction

TYPES OF CELLS
There are two types
 Animal
 Plant

Structure of animal cell Structure of plant cell

Differences between animal and plant cells:

Plants make their own food, in organelles called chloroplasts. Some of this food is stored in starch
granules. Animals usually have to move to find their food. Animal cell are not rigid, to enable them to
move around easily.

CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Each cell type has its own FUNCTION. Structure and function are always linked together. Read about
how the function of the following organelles is related to their structure.

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 7

Cell membranes
The cell membrane forms a thin layer around each cell and controls what substances pass in and out
of the cell. It is partially permeable. This means it allows some substances to pass through it, but not
others. In a plant cell, the cell membrane is usually - pressed right up against the cell wall and so it
cannot easily be seen as a separate structure.
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is a clear, watery, jelly-like substance. It has many substances, such as proteins,
dissolved in it. Many chemical reactions, called metabolic reactions, take place in the cytoplasm. It is
a site for chemical reactions.
Nucleus
The nucleus is a large, dark structure in the cytoplasm, surrounded by a nuclear membrane. The
nucleus stores information in the chromosomes. The chromosomes are long, thread-like structures
made of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA contains coded instructions that determine what
substances the cell will make. The chromosomes can sometimes be seen with a good light
microscope during cell division, when they become shorter and thicker. Nucleus control all cell
activities.
Vacuoles
Vacuoles are spaces of varying sizes in the cytoplasm of the cell. They are surrounded by a
membrane. Large vacuoles containing solutions of sugars and amino acids are found in plant cells.
Smaller vacuoles containing water or solutions of food are found in animal cells. Vacuoles give cells
their shape.
Cell wall
A cell wall surrounds each plant cell, and it protects and supports the cell. The cell wall is made of
very strong cellulose fibres and is only found in plant cells. Large molecules are able to pass through
the cellulose cell wall, which means it is fully permeable.
Mitochondria
These are the sites for respiration to produce energy. This is indeed the ‘power house‘ of the cell.
Ribosomes
These are the sites of protein synthesis in the cell. That is , it is where proteins are made.

STRUCTURE PROPERTIES FUNCTIONS

Cell membrane 2 lipid layer with one Selects substances
protein layer sandwiched in entering & leaving the cell
between
Nucleus Contains genetic material Regulates cellular activities
(chromosomes)
Cytoplasm Contains water & dissolved Where biochemical
substances e.g. glucose, reaction take place
minerals, vitamins
Ribosome Small grains found Responsible for protein
scattered in the cytoplasm, formation
some may be attached to
endoplasmic reticulum
Mitochondrion Surrounded by 2 Site for aerobic respiration
membranes, inner
membrane has folds
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 8

Cell wall Made carbohydrate called Protects cell against

cellulose, its freely mechanical damage & gives
permeable plant a permanent shape
Vacuole Has concentrated solution Stores the cell sap (vital
made of salts, glucose chemicals for the cell)

SPECIALIZED CELLS
These are cells which have stopped growing, have a definite shape and perform one specific function.
Examples of specialized cells.

Cell Function Relationship between structure & Function.

1. Red Blood Responsible for - Has a biconcave structure that helps it move
Cells transporting O2 in the blood vessels
(Erythrocytes) - Has a spongy cytoplasm that helps it to
compress itself in blood vessels with small
lumen
- Absence of nucleus increases surface area
for transportation of O2
- Presence of haemoglobin that binds to O2
and carry it as an unstable compound called
oxyhaemoglobin
2. Muscle cell - Long & have numerous protein fibres in the
It moves bones in cytoplasm. (fibre helps to shorten the cell
different directions when there is energy)
(contract / relax to help - Can of contract & relax in order to move
move structures) parts

3. Sperm cell - Has streamlined head to enable it to move

Fuse with ovum to from towards ovum with less friction
a zygote - Has a tail to help it swim towards the ovum.

4. Ovum - It has a large food store to provide the

Fuse with sperm to zygote with nourishment before implantation
from a zygote
5. White Blood Phagocytes – engulf & - Phagocytes are polymorphs; can change
Cells digest bacteria shape of cytoplasm like amoeba.
(Leucocytes are (pathogens) - Have Granular cytoplasm with lobed
two types; nucleus.
Phagocytes & Lymphocytes – produce
Lymphocytes) chemicals called
antibodies that kill
bacteria

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 9

6. Root hair cell - Absorb water from the - Large number of mitochondria to generate
soil energy needed fro active transport of ions
- Absorb mineral ions - Has a finger-like projection that enables to
(salts) from the soil penetrate tightly packed soil particles
- anchor the plants - Have Large concentrated sap vacuole which
firmly to the ground. ensures water uptake through osmosis

7. Xylem cells - Transport water & - Has dead hollow tube without cytoplasm to
dissolved minerals from allow flow of water
the roots to top part of - Walls are lignified (coated with lignin) to
a plant withstand water pressure
- Supports the plant - cylindrical cells are attached end to end
against mechanical form a xylem vessel.
damage
8. Nerve Cell Transmits nerve - Have very long fibres which connect distant
(neuron) impulses (messages) parts of the body
around the body - Fibres are coated with sheath to prevent
loss & distortion of messages.
- Chemical reactions cause the impulses to
travel along the fibre

9. Palisade cell To make sugar (starch) - Has lots of chloroplasts to produce

through photosynthesis chlorophyll which traps sunlight energy for
the process
- Elongated so that they can pack tightly
- Located close to the upper epidermis to
receive more sunlight
10. Guard cells To regulate the opening - Crescent shaped
& closing of stomata - Always paired to form a stomata
- Are able to change shape to close / open
depending on whether its day or night.

Cell Organization

Cells are organized into tissues, organs, systems and ultimately an organism (plant / animal)
 A Cell; is the basic unit of life
 A Tissue; is a group of similar cells carrying out the same function. E.g. xylems cells make xylem
tissue
 An Organ; is a group of tissues which work together to perform a particular function. E.g. the
heart is organ made of nerve tissue, muscle tissue, epithelial tissue etc.

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 10

 A System; is a group of organs which work together to perform a particular function. E.g. the
digestive system is made of; stomach, mouth, intestine, liver etc
 An Organism; Is a group of different systems which come together to form a living thing e.g.
Human beings are made of; nervous, skeletal, circulatory, digestive, muscle systems etc.

Movement of Substances in & out of cells

There are three processes that are involved in the movement of substances in & out cells
 Diffusion
 Osmosis
 Active transport

1. Diffusion;
It is the random movement of particles from their region of their higher concentration to their region
low concentration down (along) a concentration gradient until they are evenly distributed.
N.b. Diffusion occurs in all states of matter.
a) Diffusion in gases
The spread of perfume particles (or air freshener) from the nozzle of the spray can to fill up the room
occurs through diffusion.
b) Diffusion in liquids
The spread of potassium permanganate from the bottom of a beaker to the top is by diffusion.
Diffusion is affected by;
I. Changes in temperature;
An increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of particles, hence particles will move
faster leading to an increase in the rate of diffusion
II. Particle size
Small particles dissolve faster because they are less dense & have a large surface area
hence can diffuse rapidly from one end to the other.
III. Concentration gradient
This is the difference in the amount of particles between two adjacent areas. Particles move
faster when the difference in the amount of particles is large. The rate of diffusion diminishes as
the concentration gradient reduces.

2. Osmosis;
It is the random movement of water molecules from their region of higher concentration to their
region of lower concentration along the concentration gradient through a partially / selectively
permeable membrane.
Similarities between Osmosis & Diffusion
 Particles are moving down the concentration gradient
 Both processes are passive, no energy is expended (used)

Differences between Osmosis & Diffusion

OSMOSIS DIFFUSION
Occurs mainly in liquids (only water Occurs in all states of matter (any particle
molecules are moved) is moved)
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 11

Materials are moved across a barrier (a Does not require a barrier (partially
partially permeable membrane required) membrane)

3. Active Transport
This is the movement of materials from their region of low concentration to their region of high
concentration against the concentration gradient using energy from respiration. Substances are
moved through the aid of protein carrier molecules and a barrier is not important.

Active transport is different from the other two modes of movement in that;
 Unlike osmosis & diffusion, it occurs against the concentration gradient
 It requires energy
 Only mineral ions are moved
Osmosis and cells;
A cell can be exposed to the following conditions;
 Immersed in pure (distilled) water / dilute solution
 Immersed in a concentrated solution

- Explain what happens when a plant cell is immersed in pure water / dilute solution

Ans; There will be an influx of water from the container into the cell by osmosis leading to an
increase in the contents of the protoplasm. As a result turgor pressure builds inside the cell
membrane causing it to stretch until it touches the cell wall. When this happens the cell is said to be
Turgid.
- Explain what happens when a plant cell is immersed in a concentrated solution.
Ans; the water molecules will move out of the cell by osmosis. The out-flux of water molecules will
lead to a decrease in the contents of the protoplasm hence a decrease in turgor pressure. The cell
membrane will become flaccid and pull away from the cell wall. When this happens the cell is said to
be plasmolysed.
- Explain what happens when an animal cell is immersed in pure water / dilute solution
Ans; Water molecules will move into the cell by osmosis and due to build up of turgor pressure the
cell membrane will burst (since the animal cell has no cell wall to limit the stretching of the
membrane).
- Explain what happens when a animal cell is immersed in a concentrated solution.

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 12

Ans; Due to outflux of water by osmosis, the cell will decrease in size and when this happens the cell
is said to be shrunken.

ACTIVITY; The Effect of various sugar concentrations on potato tissue

Apparatus & materials

 5 different solns; 0%, 5%, 15%, 25% and 60%
 5 petri dishes
 Cork borer
 White tile
 Scalpel
 30cm ruler
 Large potato
 25ml measuring cylinder

Procedure
- Label the petri dishes A to E.
- Place equal volumes (10ml) of the sugar concentrations in the petri dishes as; 0% in petri dish A
5% in dish B, 15% in dish C etc.
- Prepare 5 equal sized e.g. (40mm) potato slices by boring the potato using a cork borer
- Place one potato slice in each petri dish.
- Leave the potato slices in the solutions for 30 – 60 minutes. The remove the slices & blot them with
a paper tissue.
- Measure the final lengths of the slices and record the results as follows

Sugar soln Initial length Final length Change in length

0%
5%
15%
25%
60%

Practice Questions on the activity above;

 Plot a graph of sugar concentration against change in length
 From the graph, work out the concentration of the potato tubes
 At what concentration would the concentration of the sap vacuole of the potato equal that of
the surrounding sugar soln?
 What process is responsible for the change in length of the potato tubes?
 What is the formula for calculating the change in length of the potato tubes?
 What else can be measured to find out the effect of concentration on the potato slices?

NUTRITION
What is nutrition?
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 13

It is the uptake of substances by organisms from which energy will obtained to be used in
maintaining life processes (characteristics of living things)

Modes of Nutrition
These are principles of obtaining nutrients.
Two modes of nutrition are;
a) Autotrophic- whereby organisms (plants) build up all their food i.e. making organic molecules from
simple inorganic substances.
Auto- means self and trophos means feeding.

b) Heterotrophic- whereby organisms (animals) use ready made organic substances as their source of
food. These organic substances are originally from autotrophs
Hetero means different or other.

Why do organisms need nutrition?

They need it to make new tissues for growth and replacement of worn out tissues but most of it is
used to provide energy.

PLANT (AUTOTROPHIC) NUTRITION

Why are plants referred to as producers?
: Plants able to make (produce) their own food through the process of photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is defined as;

 The process by which green plants make their own food using water and carbon dioxide in
the presence of sunlight.
 The process by which green plants fix complex organic substances such as carbohydrates
from inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide and water.

Raw materials needed for photosynthesis are;

 Carbon dioxide
 Water
 Sunlight
 Chlorophyll

How do plants obtain these raw materials?

Carbon dioxide - diffuses through the stomata found on leaves and some stems.

Water – it is absorbed from the soil by the root hair cells through the process of osmosis. Water
moves between the cell walls through to the xylem tissues which is responsible of transporting water
and dissolved mineral salts.

Sunlight – it is trapped by the green pigment called chlorophyll

Chlorophyll – is a green pigment found mostly in leaves and is made by chloroplasts.

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 14

The process of photosynthesis can be summarized through the following equations;

Word equation;
Sunlight
Carbon dioxide + Water chlorophyll Carbohydrates + Oxygen

Chemical symbol equation;

Sunlight
6CO2 + 6H2O chlorophyll C6H12O6 + 6O2

The importance of photosynthesis

 Almost all forms of life depend on the chemical energy found in carbohydrates produced by
photosynthesis.
 The oxygen produced by photosynthesis is essential for the process of respiration
 The process of photosynthesis uses the atmospheric carbon dioxide thus maintaining an
ecological balance and minimizes the greenhouse effect.
Although photosynthesis occurs mainly in the leaves, any part of the plant that contains chlorophyll
will also photosynthesize.

The Leaf Structure

When scientists say the something is adapted they mean that its structure is related and suited to its
function. A detailed structure of the leaf which enables it to perform its photosynthetic function is
described below.

 Most leaves are thin thus carbon dioxide can easily diffuse across the short distances to reach
the inner cells
 Intercellular air spaces provide an easy passage for diffusion of gases.
 There are many stomata on the lower epidermis to allow for exchange CO2 & O2 and minimize
loss of water by transpiration
 There are more chloroplasts on the upper cells (palisade) than on the lower cells (spongy)
 The branching network of veins (xylem & phloem) provides transport system for good supply
of water to the cells and carrying away of nutrients from the cells.

Leaf Structure

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 15

1. Cuticle- this is a waxy layer on the upper epidermis which prevents water loss by transpiration

2. Epidermis- found on the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf. It helps to keep the leaf in shape
and protects the inner parts of the leaf form micro-organisms. Also reduces transpiration.

3. Mesophyll – is the tissue between the epidermal tissues.

a) Palisade mesophyll tissue – Column-shaped (or elongated) cells which contain lots of
chloroplasts to ensure maximum absorption of light. Is the site for photosynthesis?
b) Spongy mesophyll tissue – irregularly shaped cells which fit loosely to allow for easy
diffusion of gases.

4. Vascular bundle – contains the mains transport tissues

a) Xylem vessels – transport water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves through the
transpiration pull.
b) Phloem vessels – transports manufactured food to growing parts of the part.

5. Guard cells – in most plants there are mainly on the lower epidermis. They surround small
openings called stomata through which gases diffuse in and out.

The fate of glucose following the process of photosynthesis;

The figure below explains how glucose is used after photosynthesis.

Sunlight absorbed by
Chlorophyll to photolyse water
Carbon dioxide + Water

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 16

CO2 H 2O

CO2 + H2 O2 (released as a by product)

C6 H12 O6
(Glucose)

Proteins used to
Sucrose used
make enzymes,
cytoplasm etc for respiration
Converted to

Oil & Fats Cellulose used

used to make to make
cell membrane cell wall

Testing Green leaf for starch

Background information
The leaf manufactures carbohydrates through the process called photosynthesis. First, plants
manufacture sugars which are later converted to starch for storage in the cells to find out if
photosynthesis has taken place we test the leaf starch.

Apparatus; 2 Beakers, test tube, burner, leaf, white tile, ethanol, water, testing reagent- iodine
solution

Procedure;
Step 1
Boil the leaf for 3 minutes order to break open the cells. This also helps to kill the cell cytoplasm and
make the leaf permeable to iodine solution.
Step 2
Boil the leaf in ethanol (alcohol) for 2 minutes to remove the chlorophyll.
Caution; ethanol is flammable; therefore do not heat it directly.

Step 3
Put the leaf in warm water to soften it. Ethanol makes the leaf hard and brittle.

Step 4
Place the leaf on a white tile and add 3 drops of iodine solution.

Results
If starch is present the decolorized leaf will turn blue-black and if there is no starch it will just stain
reddish brown.

Investigating the conditions necessary for photosynthesis.

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 17

- Sunlight
- Chlorophyll
- Carbon dioxide
- Water

These investigations are done using 2 sets of experiments

 The Main experiment – which has all the factors required except the one being investigated.
 The Control experiment – which has all the factors including the one being investigated.

Therefore the results obtained will be due to absence of the factor being investigated.

1. Investigating if sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis

Procedure;
- A potted plant is destarched by keeping it in the dark for a day. Then the plant is exposed to
sunlight for about an hour with one leaf covered with an aluminum foil to keep light away (as
seen in the figure below).
- Take the leaf that was covered and test it for starch following the procedure laid out above.

Results;
The part of the leaf that was covered would not change color whilst the part exposed to sunlight
would turn blue-black.

Interpretation / Conclusion
Since the starch test proved positive only for the part of the leaf that was received sunlight, we can
conclude that sunlight is needed for photosynthesis.
Investigating if Carbon dioxide is needed for photosynthesis

Apparatus; Two potted plants, soda lime, sodium hydrogen carbonate, petri dish, plastic bags
apparatus for starch test

Procedure;
- Two destarched potted plants are covered with plastic bags.
- In one plant place a petri dish with soda lime and the other plant should have sodium
hydrogen carbonate
Note; Soda lime is a chemical that absorbs carbon dioxide whilst sodium hydrogen carbonate serves
to release the gas carbon dioxide.

- Expose both plants to sunlight for 3 hours and then take a leaf from each plant and test it for
starch
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 18

Results;
The leaf that had soda lime did not change color whilst the leaf that sodium hydrogen carbonate had
turned to blue-black.

Interpretation;

Since the leaf from a plant with soda lime which served to absorb carbon dioxide did not stain blue-
black, but only that from a plant with sodium hydrogen carbonate which supplied carbon dioxide we
can conclude that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.

Determining if chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis

Apparatus; variegated plant, Apparatus for starch test.

Background;
A variegated plant is one with uneven distribution of chlorophyll, i.e. it has chlorophyll only in
patches.
Procedure;
- The plant is first destarched and then placed in sunlight for 2 hours
- Take one leaf and test it for starch

Variegated leaf – shown before and after testing for starch

Expected results
The area of the leaf that had chlorophyll would stain blue-black whilst the other area remains brown.
Interpretation;
Since the leaf stained blue-black only on areas with chlorophyll we can conclude that chlorophyll is
necessary for photosynthesis.

Mineral requirement
Plants also need some mineral ions in order to manufacture other important substances needed.
Mineral ions are absorbed through active transport.

Examples of ions needed by plants;

a) Nitrogen – It is absorbed from ammonium compounds
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 19

- Nitrogen is used to make plant protein and when in shortage, it leads to stunted
growth and pale yellow of leaves.

b) Magnesium – absorbed from magnesium ions and it is used in the manufacturing of

chlorophyll.
-Lack of magnesium results in yellowing of leaves and weak stems (leaf
chlorosis)

TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
Plants, like animals have a system of vessels to carry fluids from one part to another. They have two
separate systems
- Xylem vessels
- Phloem vessels

Xylem vessels – carry water and inorganic ions from the roots to the leaves

Phloem sieve – carry substances made by photosynthesis from the leaves to other parts of the plant.

Transport of water
Plants get water from the soil by the root hair cells through osmosis. The soil water has a higher
water potential than the cytoplasm of the root hair cells. The root hairs greatly increase the surface
area of the root which speeds up the rate at which water can be taken into plant. From the root hair
water travels across the cortex cells towards the xylem vessels in the centre of the root. As the water
moves towards the centre of the root some of it goes into the cytoplasm of the cortex cells (the
symplast pathway) and then out again moving from cell to cell.
Much of the water does not go inside the cytoplasm but travel through the cell walls (the apoplast
pathway) from cell to cell until it reaches the xylem.

Probable water pathway

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 20

The water then travels up the plant through the xylem vessels which take it to the leaves. In the
leaves a tiny a tiny fraction of water evaporates at the mesophyll cells turning water vapor. The
water vapour diffuses out of the leaves through the stomata into the air through a process called
Transpiration. As water is lost through transpiration a suction force (transpiration pull) causes more
water to be absorbed from the soil, resulting in a flow of water from the soil to the roots, stems,
leaves and into the air. The movement of water along this pathway is called the Transpiration
stream.

Importance of Transpiration

1. Water transport – the transpiration stream moves water up the xylem of the plant.
2. Salt transport – the transpiration stream carries dissolved salts from the roots for the
synthesis of complex compounds in the leaves.
3. Temperature control – the evaporation of water from the leaves requires heat energy and as
the process takes place heat is withdrawn from the leave cells thus the cells get cooled. This
process prevents overheating of the cells.

Factors Affecting the Rate of Transpiration.

 Temperature
When temperature is high there will be more energy to evaporate water from the leaf cells. (& the
reverse is also true). High temperature increases the rate of transpiration whilst low temperature
reduces it.
 Relative Humidity
Humidity means the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. Transpiration is faster when the air is
dry and has less amount of water vapors. At high humidity the rate of transpiration is slow because is
saturated with water vapor.

 Air Movements
When air moves faster it washes off more water vapour from a leaf surface per given time, therefore
transpiration occurs faster in windy conditions than in cool still air.

 Light Intensity
Light triggers the opening of the stomatal pores and more water is lost into the atmosphere. Also
light increases leaf temperature thus causing rapid evaporation of water from the leaves.

The arrangement of vascular tissues in various plant organs.

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 21

a) In the stem b) In the root

How plants take up the following from the soil.

a) Water;
Water is drawn into the root hair cell mainly by osmosis. Sap vacuole of root cells has a high
concentration of sugars and other metabolites than the surrounding soil water. Water molecules are
therefore drawn across the cellulose cell wall and the partially permeable protoplast into the
vacuole. From the root hairs water passes to the vascular tissues in the centre of the root via the
parenchyma cells. There are three possible pathways of water as shown in the figure below.

b) Mineral salts
Experimental data suggests that mineral ions are many times greater in the cells than in the
surrounding soil water. This therefore further suggests that ions enter the plant cells against their
concentration gradient. Mineral ions are selectively absorbed by active transport which involves the
expenditure of energy.

How are plants adapted to control Transpiration?

 Having less stomata

 Stomata mostly found on the lower epidermis
 Seasonal shedding of leaves during winter
 Developing small leaves
 Developing thick cuticle (waxy layer) on the leaves
 Rolling / curling the leaves when it is hot
 Developing sunken stomata
 Having a photosynthetic stems
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 22

 Developing thorns / spines instead of leaves

Wilting
Excessive loss of water by a plant without replacing it by absorption makes the plant cells flaccid.
Eventually tissues in the leaves become droopy and limply (i.e. looking tired and lifeless). Leaves
which have wilted have a low rate of photosynthesis. In order to minimize these undesirable effects
of wilting plants use the mechanisms of controlling transpiration listed above.

Translocation
It is the movement of organic substances such as sucrose (sugars in plants) through the phloem
vessels after the process of photosynthesis.

ENZYMES
What are enzymes?
These are biological catalyst that speed up biochemical reactions without being used up.

Types of reactions
a) Anabolic reaction
These are reactions that involve the synthesis of macro molecules from micro molecules e.g. starch is
made by joining up glucose molecules.

b) Catabolic reaction
These are biochemical reactions which involve the breakdown of macromolecules into
micromolecules. e.g. digestion of starch into glucose.

Types of Enzymes
a) Intra-cellular enzymes
They catalyze reactions in the cytoplasm of the cells that formed them.

b) Extra-cellular enzymes
They catalyze chemical reactions outside the cells that have formed them. E.g. digestive enzymes.

PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES
 All enzymes are protein in nature
 They are reaction specific
 Enzymes are substrate specific
 They are recycleable
 The are affected by temperature
 They are affected by pH
 Most enzymes’ names end with the suffix “–ase” e.g. amylase, sucrase, lactase, maltase,
lipase, carbohydrase, catalase

How Enzymes Work

Substances which are acted upon by enzymes are called SUBSTRATES and they have specific shapes.
- Enzymes catalyze reactions by binding at their active site.
- The shape of the active site corresponds to the shape the molecules of the substrate
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 23

- The substrate molecule will only fit perfectly to a specific enzyme if their shape corresponds like a
LOCK and KEY
- The reaction is then catalyzed when the Enzyme-substrate complex is formed
- The product is then released and the enzyme is free to catalyse the next reaction

The LOCK and KEY model (hypothesis) explains enzyme action because;
- Only the correct enzyme-substrate combination can work.
- Higher temperatures make the enzyme and substrate molecules to move more quickly, this
also means the substrate molecules enter the active site of the enzyme and the product
molecules leave the active site quickly

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON ENZYME ACTIVITY

- Very low temperatures inactivate enzymes which results in very low rates of chemical reactions.
- An increase in temperature speeds up the activity of an enzyme, therefore increasing the rate of
reaction. Enzymes work best at temperatures called the optimum temperature.
- Temperatures above 50 degrees denature enzymes, i.e. leads to a change in the protein structure of
the enzyme, this result in reactions proceeding very slowly to maintain life. Most organisms are killed
by very high temperatures due to extremely low chemical reactions which cannot maintain life
processes.

GRAPH SHOWING EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON ENZYME ACTIVITY

a) At low temperatures A (0 or less)
- Enzymes are inactive; they do not catalyse any reaction
b) Increase in temperature B (0 upwards)
- Enzymes become active and increase in activity as temperature increases.
c) Optimum temperature
- At this point enzyme activity is at its optimum best
d) Temperature above optimum temperature
- When the temperature increases beyond the optimum level, the enzyme activity drops because the
enzyme is now denatured

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 24

 In which test tube was starch digested?

???Explain why the enzyme and substrate are not mixed immediately in the experiment above.

EFFECT OF pH ON ENZYME ACTIVITY

Different enzymes are affected differently by different pH conditions. A rise or fall in pH condition
affects the activity of enzymes. Some enzymes work best under acidic conditions whereas others
prefer neutral or alkaline conditions. The pH at which an enzyme would catalyse a reaction most
effectively is called its OPTIMUM pH.
e.g. - Amylase works best at pH 7-
- Pepsin works best at pH 2

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 25

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 26

ANIMAL NUTRITION
What is a balanced diet?
A meal that contains all the necessary nutrients in correct proportions, i.e. carbohydrates, proteins,
fats, vitamins & minerals, water and fibre.

Why should energy intake relate to the following?

 Gender;
Men should be given more food than women because they have a large body.

 Age;
Young children require more energy for their size than adults do. This is because children are still
growing and are more active. Also, extra proteins are required for making new tissues as the child
grows. In addition, more calcium, iron and vitamin A are needed for bone formation, red blood cells
and disease resistance respectively.

 Occupation;
The amount of energy people use in physical activity varies according to how active they are, i.e.
 Sedentary work (office workers, clerical services) needs less amount of work
 Moderately active – light industry workers need more energy than sedentary workers.
 Very active – (e.g. mine workers, builders, steel workers) need more energy than the other
groups above.

 Pregnancy;
Energy requirements are increased during pregnancy to allow for the growth of the baby and the
adjustment of the mother’s body to pregnancy. Pregnant women require more supply of calcium,
proteins, iron and vitamin D.

 Lactation;
Lactation means the production of breast milk for feeding the baby. Extra energy is required for the
production of milk. Fats are laid down during pregnancy as an energy store. A lactating mother’s diet
should contain protein, calcium and vitamin A and D.

The main food groups are;

 Carbohydrates
 Proteins
 Fats / oils

Carbohydrates
- There are the major energy sources for the body.
- Consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
- Exist in two types; (i)Sugars and (ii) Starch
(i)Sugars;
- are the simplest form of carbohydrates
- All sugars taste sweet
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 27

- All sugars are soluble in water

- There are three types of sugars

Type a)- Simple sugars (reducing sugars)

They are the simplest form of sugar. Simple sugars consist of a single independent saccharide
molecule hence are called monosaccharides, e.g. glucose, fructose, galactose.
Type b) – Double sugars
Complex sugars consisting of two sugar molecules hence called disaccharides, e.g. sucrose, lactose,
maltose.

Refer to the figure below on how disaccharides are formed.

Monosaccharides Disaccharide
> Glucose + glucose Maltose
> Glucose + fructose Sucrose
> Glucose + Galactose Lactose

Type c) – Long sugars

These are complex sugars also called polysaccharides which are made up of many sugar units (more
than three monosaccharides) linked together forming a long chain e.g. glycogen, cellulose, pectin.

Characteristics of complex sugars

 They taste sweet
 They are soluble in water
 They are a more complex form of sugar
 The complex sugars consist of two sugar units bonded together to form a disaccharide
molecule.

(ii) Starch
- It is a complex from of carbohydrate
- It is not soluble in water
- It consists of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
- Starch molecules are made of a chain of sugar molecules hence named polysaccharides

Proteins
- Replace and repair worn out tissues
- Essential in the manufacture of hormones, antibodies and enzymes
- Excess is stored as an energy source
- Are made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen elements
- Also contains small amounts of Sulphur, iron, phosphorus
Proteins are made of smaller units called amino acids
Structure of amino acid

There are 20 amino acids.

Examples of amino acids are cysteine, glycine, alanine, glutamine, proline etc.

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 28

Proteins are classified as;

- Plant protein – e.g. beans peanuts (legumes)
- Animal protein – e.g. milk, meat, eggs

Fats
 It is a good energy source
 Fats are usually solids whilst oils are liquids and insoluble in water
 Fats consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen elements
 A fat molecule is made of a glycerol molecule and three fatty acids

Fatty acids (e.g. steric acid, palmitic acid, oleic acid)

glycerol
Food tests

Food Nutrient Methodology Positive Result Expected

- Place a food sample on a white

Starch tile
(Use Iodine Solution) - Add 3 drops of iodine solution on Blue-black colour
the piece of food

- Put a food solution in a test tube

Glucose - Add a 5 drops of Benedict’ s soln,
Also called Testing for shake & place the mixture in a Brick red colour
reducing sugars warm water bath for 2 minutes
(Use Benedicts’ Solution (Also, green, orange and yellow
or Fehling’s solution) indicate presence of glucose in
small amounts)
- Put the food solution in a test
Protein tube
Also called the biuret test - Add 5 drops of Copper sulphate Purple colour
(Use Copper sulphate soln & and shake
Sodium hydroxide soln) - Add a 5 drops of Sodium
hydroxide and shake

-Place a food sample in test tube &

Fats add a ethanol and shake
(a) Emulsion test - Allow the mixture to settle and Milky white colour
then decant the top layer into
another tube with water

(b) Using Filter paper - Place a food solution on a filter Greasy opaque mark appears on
paper and leave it to dry paper.

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 29

Digestion
It is the breaking down of large insoluble food substances into smaller soluble particles that can be
absorbed.
This process takes place in the alimentary canal (gut), which is a tube that extends from the mouth to
the anus. When straightened, a mature gut measures between 7.5m and 9.0m long

Types of digestion

1) Physical digestion (mechanical digestion)

The breaking down of food substances through the action of teeth and muscular contractions.
It involves the processes of chewing and peristalsis. During chewing the teeth tear, cut crush / grind
food into smaller particles with a large surface area for enzyme action.

2) Chemical digestion

The conversion of large food substances through the action of enzymes.

Stages involved in the human digestion.

1. Ingestion; the taking in of food through the mouth

2. Digestion; the breaking down of large insoluble food molecules into smaller soluble particles.

3. Absorption; the passage of digested food through the intestinal walls (in the ileum) to the body
fluids. i.e. the circulatory system

4. Assimilation; the building up of body’s own materials from the absorbed food substances. i.e.
usage of the absorbed food substances.

5. Egestion; The discharge of the undigested, unabsorbed material form the alimentary canal. The is
done through the anus.

(Structure of the alimentary canal)

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 30

Functions of parts;
a) The mouth;
Ingestion and mastication (chewing) takes place in the mouth (buccal cavity).
 Teeth serve to grind food into smaller particles for easy swallowing and increasing the surface
area for enzyme activity.
 The saliva moistens / lubricates the food
 The tongue helps to work the food into a ball called food bolus to be swallowed easily.

The enzyme salivary amylase produced by salivary glands under the tongue begins the chemical
digestion of starch into maltose.

When food is swallowed, the soft palate closes the opening of the nasal cavity and epiglottis closes
opening the trachea to avoid choking. The food bolus is then pushed down through the oesophagus
the process of peristalsis
b) The Stomach;
This is a muscular bag which stores food temporarily and release it in small quantities to the lower
alimentary canal. It produces gastric juices which mix with food and churns it to a watery paste called
chyme. Peristaltic action helps to churn the food.

The gastric juice secreted from the stomach walls contains;

1. Hydrochloric acid – which inactivates the salivary amylase and kills most of the bacteria
ingested with food.
2. Enzyme pepsin – which begins the chemical digestion of proteins to peptides. Pepsin is only
active in acidic conditions.
3. Rennin – only produced in infants coagulate (clot / thicken) milk thus making it digestible.

4. Mucus – it prevents the stomach from being corroded by its own hydrochloric acid.

c) Small intestine
The upper part is wider and called Duodenum, it is about 20cm long.
The rest of the small intestine is called the ileum and it’s the longest part of the gut, about 6m to 7m.

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 31

The final stages of digestion take place in the duodenum.

Duodenum
Bile; a greenish fluid made in the liver and stored in gall bladder, is secreted into the duodenum
to emulsify fats; i.e. making them digestible.
Pancreatic juice; an alkaline made by the pancreas and contains a number of enzymes.
Trypsin – This converts some proteins peptides.
 Pancreatic amylase – Acts on starch converting it to maltose.
 Lipase - This breaks down fats into glycerol and fatty acids.

Other digestive enzymes contained in the pancreatic j and the intestinal juices are; maltase,
lactase, sucrase, peptidase.
maltase
Maltose Glucose

lactase
Lactose Glucose

peptidase
Peptides Amino acids

sucrase
Sucrose Glucose

Note also, that the pancreatic juice contains sodium hydrogen carbonate which is alkaline in
order to provide the suitable pH needed by the request of the enzymes.
Though the cells of the gut are partly made of proteins, they are not attacked by proteases
for the following reasons;
 The protein enzymes are secreted in an inactive form and only become active when
inside hydrochloric acid.
 There is mucus secretion which also serves to protect the gut cells from self digestion.

Ileum
The digestive process of the duodenum continues here shortly and the walls of the ileum also secrete
intestinal juice which completes digestion.
The ileum is the site for absorption of the digested food material. The ileum is adapted to carry out
its function because of the following features;
 It is fairly long thus increasing the surface area for absorption.
 The epithelium cells are very thin for easy and rapid diffusion of food substances.
 It has many folds (finger-like projections called villi) on the inner lining thus increasing
the surface are for absorption.
 It is surrounded by a large network of blood capillaries to allow for easy diffusion and
rapid transport of food substances to other parts of the body.

The end products of digestion (glucose, amino acids, glycerol and fatty acids) are absorbed into the
blood stream through diffusion and active transport and they reach the liver through the hepatic
portal vein.
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 32

Structure of a villus as seen through a small section of the ileum.

The Villus

Section of
the ileum

ASSIMILATION
This is whereby the end products of digestion are used within the body.

1. Glucose
 Used by all cells during respiration
 Excess glucose is converted to glycogen and stored in the liver

2. Amino acids
 They are used to make protoplasm (living material), hormones and enzymes
 Used to repair and replace worn out tissues
 Excess amino acids are deaminated by the liver to form urea which is excreted in urine

3. Fatty acids & glycerol

 These recombine in the lacteal to form fat globules
 They are stored under the skin and around organs for heat insulation and as an energy store
 Used by cells for respiration when glucose and glycogen are used up.

d) Large Intestine
The large intestine is divided into the caecum, colon, and rectum.
 The caecum is a swollen sac located in the lower right-hand portion of the abdominal cavity.
 The colon plays a very important role in the re-absorption of water from the undigested waste
food.
 The rectum, about 15 cm, is the terminal portion of the large intestine. At the exit of the rectum,
called the anus, is a round muscle, the anal sphincter that closes the anus. The rectum stores
faeces and release them through the anus at interval. The release of faeces is called egestion /
elimination / defecation

Faeces are a mixture of substances such as;

 Undigested food mainly the cellulose
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 33

 Dead and living bacteria from the alimentary canal

 Mucus and dead cells from the gut walls. The cells lining the gut have a limited life span.
 Surplus bile and other secretions which colour the faeces.

The large intestine has a smooth mucosal lining (only the rectum has folds) that secretes mucus to
lubricate the waste materials.

Describe the role of the liver in metabolism

1. Deamination
A process whereby excess amino acids are broken down by the liver into glycogen and urea
(nitrogenous waste)
The human body cannot store excess amino acids; therefore they are taken to the liver for
deamination where the amino group is removed and the residues converted to glycogen for storage.

2. Fat metabolism
Breaking down of fats into CO2 and H20 to release energy.

3. Detoxification
The conversion of harmful substances into less harmful ones; e.g.
 Chemical substances in drugs and alcohol are broken down into harmless substances.
 Used hormones are broken down into inactive forms
 Ammonia produced during Deamination is converted into less poisonous substance called
urea – to be excreted through the kidneys.
 Dead red blood cells are broken down and the iron stored. The other waste forms bile.

4. Formation of bile
The liver produces bile salts which are important in the emulsification and subsequently absorption
of fats

5. Storage organ
A number of substances used by the body (such as bile, glycogen, iron, vitamin A, B, D) are stored in
the liver.
6. Regulation of blood sugar
The liver is able to convert glucose, amino acids and other substances to an insoluble carbohydrate
called glycogen. Some of the glucose may be from the hepatic portal vein carrying blood rich in
digested food from the ileum to the liver.
When the glucose level is higher than normal range (80mg /100cm 3 to 160mg/100cm3 of
blood) the pancreas secretes insulin hormone into the blood which activates the liver cells to
convert glucose to glycogen.
If the concentration of blood sugar falls below 80mg/100cm 3 of blood, the pancreas secretes
another hormone – glucagon which activates the liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose.
Converted by

Glucagon

GLUCOSE
by
Converted
Insulin

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 34

GYCOGEN

Therefore this brings the glucose concentration to normal range.

Note; if the blood glucose level rises above 160mg/100cm 3, glucose is excreted by the
kidneys. A Blood glucose concentration below 40mg/100cm 3 affects the brain cells adversely leading
to convulsions and coma.
Lack of insulin leads to a condition called Sugar diabetes.

RESPIRATION
It is the process by which energy is generated from the breaking down of carbohydrates in living
cells.
Types of respiration.
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 35

 Aerobic
 Anaerobic

Aerobic respiration
The release of relatively large amounts of energy from the breaking down of carbohydrates in the
presence of oxygen.
Word & symbol equation of aerobic respiration
Glucose + oxygen ENZYMES carbon dioxide + water + energy

ENYMES
C6 H12 O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g) 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l) + 2830KJ/mol

Uses of energy released from respiration

1. It is used to maintain a constant body temperature
2. It is used during active transport, in the selective reabsorption of vital minerals
3. It is used in the synthesis of macromolecules from micromolecules e.g. synthesis of proteins
from amino acids
4. It is used during mitotic cell division which results in the growth of an organism
5. It is used during transmission of nerve impulses

Anaerobic respiration
It is the release of fairly small amounts of energy from the breaking down of carbohydrates in the
absence of oxygen.
Word & symbol equations of anaerobic respiration

(In plants)

ENZYMES
Glucose carbon dioxide + ethanol + energy

ENYMES
C6 H12 O6 (aq) + CO2 (g) + C2 H5 OH (l) + 118KJ/mol

(In animals)

ENZYMES
Glucose carbon dioxide + lactic acid + energy

ENYMES
C6 H12 O6 (aq) + CO2 (g) + --------------+ 118KJ/mol

Difference between Aerobic & Anaerobic respiration

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

Occurs in the presence of oxygen Occurs in the absence of oxygen

Occurs in the mitochondrion Occurs in the cytoplasm matrix
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 36

Releases fairly large amounts of energy Releases fairly small amounts energy
Releases CO2 and H2O as by-products Releases ethanol & lactic acid as a by
product

Fermentation
It is the release of fairly small amounts of energy from breaking down of carbohydrates by extra -
cellular enzymes of microorganisms in the absence of oxygen

Both the word & symbol equation of fermentation are similar to that of anaerobic respiration in
plants.

ENZYMES
Glucose carbon dioxide + ethanol + energy

ENYMES
C6 H12 O6 (aq) + CO2 (g) + C2 H5 OH (l) + 118KJ/mol

ACTIVITY; Experiment to show fermentation of flour by yeast

Procedure
1. Boil the water to expel the entire O2 and allow it cool
2. Use boiled water make a solution of 5% glucose & 10% suspension of yeast
3. Place 5cm of glucose solution in a test tube
4. Add 1cm of yeast suspension to the glucose in the test tube
5. Add a layer of paraffin / oil to exclude atmospheric O2
6. Connect the apparatus as shown above
7. Follow the same instructions to prepare a control experiment. This time use yeast suspension that has been boiled to
kill yeast cells & denature enzymes
8. Wait for 15minutes before taking observations. The start of the experiment may be shown by bubbles escaping into
lime water
- In the case the experiment takes long to commence, warm the mixture in a warm water bath for 5minutes at
30 0C

Results:
 The bubbles of the gas from the living yeast will turn lime water milky showing that CO2 is released.
 In the control set the lime water will not turn milky because the enzymes in the yeast cells were denatured by
boiling therefore no fermentation took place

How Lactic Acid is produce in muscles during exercise

During exercise, the O supply may be insufficient to meet the energy demand. When this happens
the cells produce energy by anaerobic respiration, lactic acid is produced as a by product. The
accumulation of lactic acid causes muscles fatigue but is eventually reduced as oxygen intake returns
to normal after the period of exercise. This shortfall of oxygen is called “Oxygen debt” and can be
repaid by increased O2 intake. i.e. the person will continue to breathe fast & deep in order to draw
more O2 into the lungs. This O2 will be used to oxidize lactic acid to carbon dioxide & water

The Graph Showing Effect of Exercise on the Lactic Acid Concentration of Blood.

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 37

TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS
The Mammalian Circulatory System
Multicellular organisms need a circulatory system to
1. Supply all the cells within the body with food nutrients so as to carry out their functions.
2. Supply the cells with oxygen is necessary for the generation of energy
3. Get rid of waste products from cells to excretory parts where they can be eliminated out of
the body.

Constituents of the Circulatory System

 The Heart (a pump) – to pump the blood and dissolved substances
 The blood vessels – to carry blood around the body
 The valves - ensure unidirectional flow of blood.

The mammalian transport system has a dual / double circulation consisting of;
 Pulmonary circulation
 Systematic circulation
\

The pulmonary circuit supplies the lungs with deoxygenated blood and the systematic circuit supplies
oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Therefore the blood pressure in the pulmonary circuit is
low since blood flows through a short distance and through delicate capillaries during gaseous
exchange and high in the systematic circuit where blood must be pumped over long distances.

The main blood vessels are;

Aorta – main artery carrying oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body
Vena cava - carries deoxygenated from the rest of the body back to heart.
Pulmonary vein – carrying oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 38

Pulmonary artery – conveys deoxygenated from the heart blood to the lungs
Hepatic artery – carries blood the liver
Hepatic portal vein – conveys blood rich with absorbed food nutrients from the alimentary
canal
Hepatic vein – carries blood from the liver towards the heart
Renal artery – conveys blood to the kidneys
Renal vein – carries blood from the kidneys

The Structure of the Heart

The heart is a muscular organ the size of a human fist. It is divided into the two sides (left & right
sides) and four chambers. The two upper chambers are called atria (or auricles) and the remaining
bottom chambers called ventricles
 Right Atrium (right auricle)
 Left Atrium (left auricle)
 Right Ventricles
 Left Ventricle

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 39

The role of the heart is to pump deoxygenated blood from the head & other body parts to the lungs
for oxygenation, and to pump oxygenated blood from the lungs to the head & the rest of the body.

Deoxygenated blood enters the heart from the head & other parts through the vena cava into right
atrium. This blood is then forced down into the right ventricle as the atrium contracts. The tricuspid
valve then closes to prevent backward flow of blood into from the right ventricle to the right atrium.
The muscles of the right ventricle contracts to push the blood into pulmonary artery which carries it
to the lungs. The semi-lunar valves in the pulmonary artery prevent the blood from flowing back into
the right ventricles.

Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the heart at the left atrium through the pulmonary vein.
This blood then passes to the left ventricle when the left atrium contracts. The passage of blood from
the left atrium to left ventricle is controlled by the bicuspid valve. When the left ventricle contracts
blood is pushed into the aorta which carries it towards the head & other body parts. The semi-lunar
valves in the aorta also direct the flow of oxygenated blood.

Blood Vessels

a) Arteries
 Have a smaller lumen as compared to veins
 Have thick walls made of many fibrous elastic tissue
 Arteries divide into arterioles (smaller vessels) which have less elastic tissue but more muscle
fibres than the larger arteries.
 Largest artery is called the aorta

Muscle layer

Lining of lumen

lumen

All Arteries serve to carry oxygenated blood from the heart to different body parts, (except the
pulmonary artery)

b) Veins
 Largest vein is called the vena cava
 Have a wider lumen
 Have thinner walls with fewer fibrous & less elastic tissues.
 Have valves
 Veins divide into venules (smaller vessels)

Wider
lumen PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 40

valve

All veins carry deoxygenated blood from various body tissues to the heart, (except the pulmonary
vein)
c) Capillaries
 These are tiny vessels which are one cell thick (have diameter of about 0.001mm)
 They are semi-permeable to allow tissue fluids and gases to escape through them.
 Blood flows very slowly in the capillaries.

Cell

Capillaries supply all living cells with oxygen and food nutrients, and pick up substances from the cells
i.e. allows for the exchange of substances between the blood stream and body cells.

Arteries Arterioles Capillaries Venules Veins

Transfer of materials at capillaries

The blood pressure in the capillaries forces part of the plasma fluids out through the capillary walls.
This fluid is known as tissue fluids. The tissue fluid is similar to plasma but has fewer proteins and it
supplies the cells with dissolved food substances & O2.

When the tissue fluid returns back to capillary it contains waste products e.g. CO 2 from respiration.
The deoxygenated blood then leaves the capillaries through the venules which recombine to form
veins.

Pulse
Pulse, in physiology, is the rhythmic expansion of the arteries resulting from passage of successive
surges of blood, produced by continuing contractions of the heart.
(Or simply the expansion and contraction of the arterial walls that can be felt in all the arteries near
the surface of the skin).
The pulse may be felt wherever an artery passes over a solid structure, such as a bone or cartilage.
The crest of the pulse wave represents the systolic pressure whilst the trough is the diastolic.
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 41

Pulse rate is the number of heart beats in a minute. The rate of the pulse varies from 150 beats per
minute in the embryo to about 60 in the aged; however the average pulse rate measures 72 beats
per minute in a mature healthy person.

Physical activity e.g. taking an exercise increases the pulse rate. This is because the rate at which the
heart pumps blood is increased to provide the body with enough oxygenated blood to cope with
activity undertaken as well as to remove the CO2 that may be accumulating in body cells.

Coronary Heart Disease

Coronary heart disease is a disease caused by the occlusion or blockage of coronary arteries
(Coronary artery is an artery branching from the aorta and supplies the heart muscles with food &
oxygen).

Causes of coronary heart disease

 Blood clot
 Diet
 Stress
 Smoking
 Lack of exercise

Atheroma (also called atherosclerosis) is a disease caused by deposits of fatty substances in the lining
of the arteries.

Blood clot
If the blood clots it blocks the coronary artery and starves the heart muscle of oxygen and nutrients
as a result the heart may stop beating. Due to this the brain is deprived of oxygen resulting in stroke
or death

Diet
Too much fatty foods taken result in excess fat accumulating in the lining of the arteries,
narrowing their lumen and eventually blocking them. If these fats become rough patches they result
in the formation of thrombus (blood clot) due to the breaking down of blood platelets. This blockage
of the artery again results in no oxygen & nutrient supply to the heart muscles
Stress
Emotional stress (or when a person is immobilized for long time) often leads to a raised blood
pressure. High blood pressure may increase the rate at which thrombus is formed in the arteries.

Smoking
Carbon monoxide and other chemicals in cigarette smoke may change the lining of the arteries,
allowing atheroma to form. These harden up the arteries resulting in breaking down of platelets as
they pass along the rough surfaces of the arteries. The platelets release enzymes which aid in blood
clotting & consequently lead to occlusion of the arteries.
Note; Smokers are 2 to 3 times more likely to die from a heart attack than non-smothers of the same
age.

Lack of Exercise
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 42

A sluggish blood flow resulting from lack of exercise may allow atheroma to form in the lining of the
arteries. Regular, vigorous exercise reduces the chances of a heart attack due to an improved
coronary blood flow.

Preventing Coronary Heart Disease

 Avoid being immobile or isolated, communicate your stressful situations to relief yourself.
 Avoid smoking
 Avoid fatty foods especially animal fat.
 Take regular body exercises.

Blood Components
 Plasma
 Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
 White blood cells (leucocytes)
 Platelets (thrombocytes)

Plasma - Is a pale yellow liquid part of the blood. It consists of 92% water and many important
dissolved substances including the products of digestion, albumin, fibrinogen, antibodies, hormones,
waste materials like urea & CO2. Plasma can be forced through the blood vessels under high pressure,
carrying with it food & O2 from the tissue fluid which bathes every cell in the body. This fluid is
constantly circulating among body cells supplying food & O2 and removing waste products.

Function of Plasma;
It transports blood cells, ions, end products of digestion, hormones, vitamins & plasma proteins. &
excretory materials like CO2 & urea.

Red blood Cells;

 These are biconcave disc-like structures formed in the bone marrow.
 Extremely small
 Have no nucleus (non-nucleated)
 Flexible, so they can squeeze through narrow blood vessels
 Live for about 120 days and later destroyed in the liver

Function of Red blood cells;

They are responsible for the transport of O2 around the body.

White blood Cells;

These cells are larger in size but fewer in number than the red blood cells.
The two most common & important types of white blood cells are the phagocytes & lymphocytes

 Phagocytes;
 They are irregular in shape & can change their form.
 They have a lobed nucleus.
 The cells move by the flowing action of the their cytoplasm and can sometimes pass
through the capillary walls.
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 43

 They are made in the bone marrow.

Function of phagocytes.
They accumulate on the site of injury / infection in order to attack the invading bacteria. They
destroy bacteria & deed tissue cells by flowing around, engulfing and digesting them, and this action
is known as phagocytosis. This helps to prevent the spread of harmful bacteria & accelerate the
healing process.

 Lymphocytes
 They are smaller than phagocytes.
 Have a round nucleus which occupies most of the cell
 They are made in the spleen & the lymph nodes

Function of lymphocytes;
The lymphocytes produce chemical substances called antibodies which attack foreign substances
called antigens in the body. The antibodies can adhere to the surfaces of the microorganism, making
them clump together (agglutination) or cause them to disintegrate (lysis). The remains of the
microorganisms are then ingested by the phagocytes.

(Tissue rejection)
This happens if a living tissue is transplanted from an individual to another, and the recipient
recognizes the foreign antigens in the transplanted tissue and reject (destroys) it. Transplanted
organs such as kidneys & hearts are usually rejected unless the two individuals share exactly similar
antigens, i.e. when they are genetically identical.

Platelets
These are tiny irregular shaped structures made in the bone marrow.

Function of platelets
They help in clotting in wounds or damaged blood vessels walls to prevent excessive loss of blood &
entry of germs. The formation of blood clot involves the following stages;

 When the skin cut & blood is flowing out, the platelets are exposed to air, they disintegrate &
release an enzyme called thrombokinase, into the plasma.
 Thrombokinase in the presence of calcium ions found in the blood can now change the
plasma protein prothrombin to an active enzyme thrombin.
 Thrombin reacts with the soluble plasma protein fibrinogen and changes it to insoluble fibrin
which forms a network of fibres around the injured part.
 The blood cells become trapped in the fibres, dry up, die and harden to form a scab under
which the wound can heal & prevent entry of foreign particles.

Nervous System
Response and Coordination
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 44

Coordination is a process by which an organism’s activities are organized to increase its chances of
survival.
Coordination is enhanced by the nervous system & the endocrine system.
The nervous system has three primary functions;
 To collect information about conditions outside & inside the body
 To process & analyze this information
 To coordinate an appropriate response

Structure of the Nervous System

The nervous system consists of;
Spinal cord
Brain
Nerves (neurons)
Sense organs

The nervous system has millions of nerve cells also called neurons which carry impulses.

There are two types of nerve pathways;

- Voluntary – using the brain & body to take conscious action
- Reflexes (involuntary) – quick automatic response to a stimulus which requires no
thinking. i.e. the spinal cord (& not the brain) is involved in sorting out the best response

Definition of biological terms in coordination

1) Sensory neurone – This is a nerve cell which receive stimulus & changes it to an impulse &
conveys the impulse to the CNS (CNS – Central Nervous System; brain & spinal cord)
2) Motor neurone – This is a nerve cell which takes impulses from the CNS to the effector
organs, e.g. muscles & glands
3) Relay neurone – connects the sensory neurone & the motor neurone together.
4) Impulse – The electrical message carried along the nerve cell.
5) Reflex arc – When an impulse re-routes itself through the spinal cord & back the area of
stimulation
6) Reflex action – Is a response to the stimulus which does not involve the use of the brain, e.g.
sneezing, coughing, blinking, change of the size of the pupil etc.
7) Axon –An elongated extension from the cell body which conducts impulse away from the cell
body
8) Cell body – The mass of cytoplasm (containing nucleus) from which the braches of the cell
originates.
9) Synapse – areas where nerve cells make close contact with each other.
10) Myelin sheath – A fatty substance (with protein) which surrounds larger nerve fibres & act as
an insulator.
11) Reflex – A quick automatic response to a stimulus
12) Dendron – A short extension of a cell body which is involved in receiving stimuli, i.e. conducts
impulses towards the cell body.
The nervous system
The nervous system allows the body to respond to changes in the environment. This is a process
usually coordinated by the brain. Reflex actions are extra-rapid responses to stimuli [stimuli: things
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 45

that set off a reaction in the nervous system - for example, light, heat, sound, gravity, smell, taste, or
temperature. The singular is stimulus], and this process also involves the nervous system, but
bypasses the brain.
Receptors and effectors
Receptors
Receptors are groups of specialised cells. They can detect changes in the environment, which are
called stimuli, and turn them into electrical impulses. Receptors are often located in the sense
organs, such as the ear, eye and skin. Each organ has receptors sensitive to particular kinds of
stimulus.
The central nervous system - CNS - in humans consists of the brain and spinal cord. When a receptor
is stimulated, it sends a signal along the nerve cells - neurones - to the brain. The brain then co-
ordinates the response.
Effectors
An effector is any part of the body that produces the response. Here are some examples of effectors:
• a muscle contracting to move the arm
• a muscle squeezing saliva from the salivary gland
• a gland releasing a hormone [hormone: chemical messengers produced in glands and carried by
the blood to specific organs in the body] into the blood
Neurones
Neurones are nerve cells. They carry information as tiny electrical signals. There are three different
types of neurones, each with a slightly different function.
1. Sensory neurones carry signals from receptors [receptors: organs which recognize and respond to
stimuli J to the spinal cord and brain.
2. Relay neurones carry messages from one part of the CNS [CNS: Central Ne,vous System (brain and
spinal cord). ]to another.
3. Motor neurones carry signals from the CNS [CNS: Central Nervous System (brain and spinal cord). ]
to effectors.
The diagram below shows a typical neurone - in this case, a motor neurone. It has tiny branches at
each end and a long fibre carries the signals.

A motor neurone

Synapses
Where two neurones meet, there is a tiny gap called a synapse. Signals cross this gap using
chemicals. One neurone releases the chemical into the gap. The chemical diffuses across the gap
and makes the next neurone transmit an electrical signal.

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 46

When a receptor is stimulated, it sends a signal to the central nervous system, where the brain
co-ordinates the response. But sometimes avery quick response is needed, one that does not
need the involvement of the brain. This is a reflex action.
Reflex actions are rapid and happen without us thinking. For example, you should pull your hand
away from a hot flame without thinking about it. The allows you to step through each stage of
the reflex arc.
This is what happens:
1. receptor detects a stimulus - change in the environment
2. sensory neurone sends signal to relay neurone
3. motor neurone sends signal to effector
4. effector produces a response
The way the iris in our eye adjusts the size of the pupil in response to
bright or dim light is also a reflex action.
In bright light:
• Radial muscles of the iris relax.
• Circular muscles of the iris contract.
• Less light enters the eye through the contracted pupil.
In dim light:
• Radial muscles of the iris contract.
• Circular muscles of the iris relax.
• More light enters the eye through the dilated pupil.
Five key events in the Nervous System.

I. Receptor cells in sense organ detect a stimulus.

II. Nerve impulse travel through a sensory neurone to the CNS
III. Nerve impulse travel through a relay neurone inside the CNS
IV. Nerve impulse travel through a motor neurone to reach an effector organ
V. The effector organ responds, e.g. muscle contracts
VI.
(Brain & Spinal cord)
Stimulus →→→ Receptor→→→ Sensory neurone →→→ CNS →→→ Motor neurone→→→ Effector
organ
How do Nerve impulses travel?
A nerve impulse is an electrical charge passing through a nerve. It begins at a sense organ, then it
travels through neurones to the CNS, rather like a current passing from a battery around a circuit.
Neurones are not directly connected to each other but are separated by very small gaps called
synapse. A nerve impulse arriving at one side of a synapse cause the secretion of a chemical
transmitter (neurotransmitter) substance which diffuses across the gap & restarts the nerve impulse
in the next neurone.
A synapse ensures that nerve impulses travel in one direction only.

Type of Sense Sense organ / Sensory cells Stimulus

Receptor
Sight Eyes Photoreceptors (cones & rods Light {(Cones = colour; Rods
cells) = light)}
Hearing Ears Mechanoreceptors Sound & Pressure
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 47

Smelling Nose Chemoreceptors Smell (chemicals in the air)

Touch Skin Themoreceptors Temperature
Mechanoreceptors Pressure (pain)
Taste Tongue Chemoreceptors Chemicals in food

Structure of Motor & Sensory Neurones

Differences between Sensory & Motor neurones

Feature Sensory Neurone Motor Neurone
Cell body - It is located to the side of the nerve - It is terminal with
fibre dendrites projections from
- It has a smooth surface without its surface
dendrites
Nerve fibre - It has both the Axon & Dendron - It only has the Axon

Nerve endings - Its nerve endings are attached to - Its nerve endings are
sensory organs attached to the effector
organ.

The nervous pathway of a reflex action is known as a Reflex arc, and it allows for a rapid response to
a stimulus.
Example; Knee jerk
1. The stimulus is a tap on the knee
2. Receptor cells in the muscle detect the stimulus.
3. An impulse is conveyed along the sensory neurone to the spinal cord
4. In the spinal cord the impulse is on to the motor neurone
5. The motor neurone then conveys the impulse from the spinal cord to the effector organ;
muscles of the leg.
6. The muscles respond by contracting & so the lower leg jerks up

Reflex Action Voluntary action

The response is very rapid The response may be slow
Nerve impulses take the shortest route Nerve impulses take a long route

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 48

Spinal cord is involved Brain is involved

Effectors are muscles & glands Effectors are muscles only

Functions of the Spinal Cord

 It conducts sensory impulses from the muscles to the brain
 It carries motor impulses from the brain to the trunk limbs
 It is responsible for reflex actions involving body structures below the neck

The brain structure

a) The Pituitary gland

The gland produces many hormones, some of which act on the endocrine glands stimulating them to
produce their own hormones. Examples;
Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) – acts on the kidney to regulate the amount of water reabsorbed
in the kidney tubules
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) – which makes the follicle in the ovary to become mature
& produce oestrogen
Thyroid Stimulating hormone (TSH) – acts on the thyroid gland & makes it produce thyroxine

b) The Cerebrum
This is the largest part of the brain which divided into the left & right cerebral hemispheres. The
nervous tissue of the cerebral cortex increases the surface of the area & hence its capacity for
complex functions. The cortex is formed of grey matter (cell bodies of neurones) as distinct from the
inner part which is composed of white matter (nerve fibres of neurones).
Different areas of the cortex contain distinct functions, Examples;
The largest part of the human’s cerebral cortex is concerned with intelligence, memory,
reasoning ability & acquired skills
There are the sensory areas which control sight, hearing, taste, smell & skin sensation.
The motor areas which control muscles of legs, arms, face, eyes & head

c) Cerebellum
it is the part of the brain which controls posture, balance & coordination of movement of the body
in relation to its surroundings. Therefore it is involved in the coordination of muscular activity. (it
receives sensory impulses from the skeletal muscles & sends motor impulses out to them).

d) Hypothalamus
This is the reflex centre concerned with a number of homeostatic mechanisms such as temperature
control, water balance & CO2 levels in the blood. In some of these it works hand in hand with the
pituitary gland. Information from the hypothalamus is relayed to the effectors through medulla &

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 49

spinal cord. Other areas of the hypothalamus contain specific centres for the initiation of feeding
(control hunger), drinking (control thirst) & sleeping.

e) Medulla
It is the link between the spinal cord & the brain hence relays information between these two
structures. It has a number of reflex centres which control heart beat, blood pressure, breathing,
coughing, swallowing, sneezing, yawning & vomiting.

The Eye – longitudinal Section

Functions of parts of the eye

i. Sclera – maintains the shape of the eye
ii. Choroids – supply food & O2 to the retina, and also pigments that prevent internal reflection
iii. Retina – a light sensitive tissue where images are formed
iv. Fovea – a region where the greatest colour discrimination occurs due to concentration of
cone cells.
v. Ciliary muscle – controls the length / curvature / shape of the lens fro accommodation
vi. Cornea – refracts light passing though leading the convergence onto the lens
vii. Optic nerve – sends impulses to the brain
viii. Vitreous humor – protective fluid helps to maintain the shape of the eyeball
ix. Aqueous humor – supplies the lens & cornea with food & O2.
x. Lens – Focuses images on the retina
xi. Iris – It controls the size of the of the pupil
xii. Pupil – allows light to enter the eye.

The Eye – Front View

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 50

When the eye is viewed from the front, the only structures visible are;
 The sclera
 The iris
 The pupil
 The conjunctiva

The front of the eye is covered by a thin transparent membrane called the conjunctiva. Dust particles
a washed away by a watery fluid from the tear glands which are under the eye lids. This fluid
contains lysozyme, an en enzyme that destroys bacteria. Blinking helps to spread the fluid across the
conjunctiva. When the fluid reaches the lower part of the eye it drains into a tube & goes down into
the nose.

Reflex actions of the Pupil in response to bright & dim light

 The circular muscles of the iris contract.

 The radial muscles relax
 The pupil becomes smaller
 And less light enters the eye, preventing damage to retina

 The radial muscles contract

 The circular muscles relax
 The pupil dilates
 And more light enters the eye, for the image to be formed on the retina.
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 51

Accommodation
It is the process of producing a finely focused image on the retina by the action of the ciliary muscles
on the lens.

a) Focusing close objects

Light must be greatly refracted (bent)

 Ciliary muscles contract, pulling the eyeball inwards.
 The suspensory ligaments relax
 The lens becomes short & fat (thick)

b) Focusing on distant objects

Light is less refracted.

 Ciliary muscles relax, eyeball become spherical
 The ligaments tauten (stretched tight)
 The lens is pulled into a long & thin shape

HORMONAL CORDINATION
A hormone is a chemical substance produced by a gland carried in the blood, which alters the activity
of one or more specific target organs.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXOCRINE & ENDOCRINE GLANDS

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 52

The exocrine glands are those glands which have ducts, i.e. their secretions are passed through ducts
onto the epithelial surface e.g. tear gland, salivary gland etc. The endocrine glands are ductless (do
not have ducts) and their secretions are carried by the blood.
EXAMPLES OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS & THE HORMONES THEY PRODUCE

GLAND HORMONE
Thyroid Thyroxin
Adrenal Adrenaline
Pituitary ADH, FSH, TSH Legend;
Pancreas Insulin, glucagon ADH – Antidiuretic Hormone FSH
Testis Testosterone – Follicle Stimulating Hormone
Ovaries Oestrogen, TSH – Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
Progesterone

Function of Insulin
- Insulin reduces the blood glucose level when its high (regulates the amount of glucose level in
the blood) by stimulating the liver cells to take up glucose from the blood & convert it to
glycogen & stored.

Function of glucagon
- it raises the blood glucose level when its low by stimulating the liver cells to convert the
stored glycogen to glucose.

Functions of adrenaline
This is commonly known as Flight or Fight hormone because it prepares the body for action. It has
the following affects;
- It increases the rate & depth of breathing.
- It increases the rate of heart beat
- Constricts the blood vessels carrying the blood to the gut & skin hence diverting more blood
to the muscles
- It also promotes the conversion of the stored glycogen to glucose.

The above mentioned effects help to provide more glucose & more oxygen to the working muscles.

Function of testosterone
- It controls the production & development of sperms
- Regulates the development of the male secondary sexual characteristics e.g. enlargement of
sex organs, growth of facial hair (beard), muscle enlargement, deepening of the voice etc.

Functions of oestrogen
- It is responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics in females, e.g.
armpit & pubic hair, development of breasts, broadening of hips, enlargement of vagina etc
- It prepares the uterus for implantation by making its lining thicker & rich in blood vessels

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 53

Comparison between the Nervous & the Endocrine Systems

NERVOUS SYSTEM ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Information passes as electrical impulses Information passes as a chemical
substances (hormone)
Transmission is through the nerves Transmission is through the blood

Rapid Transmission & immediate Slow transmission & usually slow response
responses e.g. blinking of the eye e.g. growth
The response is short lived The response is long lasting

The response is exact since impulses are The response is usually widespread
sent directly to target organs because hormones are dispersed
throughout the body
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
The Incoming message triggers the release of another message, which brings a negative change (of
opposite effect).
Example;
- When the blood sugar level is high, the pancreas is stimulated to produce insulin which in
term stimulates the liver cells to convert excess glucose to glycogen and reduce the blood
sugar level.
- The Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) secreted by the pituitary gland stimulates the ovaries
to produce oestrogen, but the moment the oestrogen level increases the production of FSH
stops, which in turn will lead to a decrease in oestrogen level.

THE ROLE OF HORMONES IN THE TROPIC RESPONSES OF PLANTS

Geotropism – Is the growth response of a plant to gravity

Phototropism – Is the growth response of a plant to light

Geotropism & Phototropism in terms of auxins regulating growth

Geotropism
If a plant is placed with its shoot horizontal more auxin reaches the lower of the shoot. The lower
side of the shoot elongates faster than the upper side of the shoot and the shoot curves upwards as
it grows. This also applies to the radicle which in this case shows positive geotropism.
b
Phototropism
In phototropism less auxin reaches the illuminated side and more reaches the shaded side. The cells
on the shaded side extend more rapidly than those on illuminated side causing the shoot to grow in a
curve towards the light source.

The Effect of Removing the apical bud from a plant seedling

the cells near tip of some growing seedling / shoot produce a chemical auxin, which in certain
concentrations accelerates growth in length. The auxins achieve this effect probably by delaying the
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 54

loss of plasticity in the walls of the cells in the region of extension so that at a time when the cells are
osmotically active & taking in water, the increased pressure in the vacuole forces the cell wall to
extend.

It has been observed that when the tip of the coleoptile (sheath surrounding & protecting the
plumule of some monocots; especially grasses) is removed, the growth of the plant is arrested (on
elongation). If the tip is cut & auxin applied on the cut / decapitated coleoptile, growth is resumed
which shows that auxin is a growth stimulating hormone.

HOMEOSTASIS
This refers to keeping the internal environment stable (constant) or within narrow limits.
In mammals a variety of organs play specific roles in homeostasis.

Organs Concerned Factors controlled

Kidneys Water (osmo-regulation),
pH & urea
Lungs CO2 & O2
Skin & Liver Temperature
Liver & islets of Langerhans Blood sugar / glucose

The Skin

The skin has two layers;

1. Epidermis
2. Dermis
3.
Epidermis:
This is the outermost layer of the skin. It protects the body from pathogens by forming a barrier on
top of one’s body.

Dermis
This tissue has several structures such as hair follicle, sebaceous gland, nerve endings, adipose tissue,
blood vessels etc.
Functions of the skin
a) Protection – the outermost layer of the dead cells of the epidermis helps to reduce water loss &
provides a barrier. The melanin pigment produced by the mulphigian layer protects the skin from
damage by ultra-violet light rays.
b) Sensitivity – scattered throughout the skin are a large number of tiny receptors which give rise to
sensations of pain, pressure, heat & cold. These make us aware of changes in our surroundings &
enable us to avoid danger.
c) Temperature Regulation - Keeping the human body temperature constant is an example of a
homeostatic mechanism. The skin plays an important role in maintaining a constant body
temperature by adjusting blood flow near the skin surface & by sweating.
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 55

The Skin Structure

 Hair Follicle – This gives rise to the found on the surface

 Sebaceous gland – Secretes an oily substance called sebum. This goes onto the skin surface to
keep it soft & supple
 Sweat glands – Absorb excess water and salts to make sweat
 Blood vessels – These supply the skin with useful substances such as food & take away waste
such as CO2 from the skin.
 Nerve endings – These are receptors to touch, pressure, heat etc; they pick up stimuli in the
skin & also bring motor impulses to the skin.
 Adipose tissue – (sub – cutaneous fats found below the skin), it is food store and also insulates
the internal organs & prevents excessive heat loss.

Maintenance of a constant body temperature in humans;

Overcooling;
If the temperature of blood falls below normal, the Hypothalamus in the brain detects this, impulses
are sent to the skin for the blood’s temperature to be increased. The skin will respond by;
i. Vaso-Constriction – this is the reduction on diameter of the blood vessels running near the
skin surface. This reduces blood flow near the skin surface & thus heat loss (by conduction,
convection & radiation) is greatly reduced.
ii. Sweat production stops – heat is conserved when there is no evaporation of sweat from the
skin.
iii. Hair on the skin surface stands up. This helps to trap air that insulates the body.
iv. Shivering – shivering is an involuntary muscular contraction in response to a drop in body
temperature. During these muscular contractions a lot of heat energy is released.

Overheating
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 56

If the blood’s temperature rises above normal, the thermoregulatory centre of the hypothalamus
detects this, impulses are sent to the skin to cool the blood. The skin responds by;
i. Vaso-dilation – blood vessels in the skin increase in diameter. As a result more blood flows
near the skin surface. More heat is lost (by conduction, convection & radiation)
ii. Producing sweat – Sweat glands absorb water, excess salts & urea from the blood to make
sweat. This is transported to the skin surface through the sweat duct to the sweat pore. As
the sweat evaporates, it draws a lot of heat from the blood capillaries and one feels cooler as
the temperature falls to normal.
iii. Hair on the skin lies close to the skin surface – these makes the air currents to easily flow
close to the skin surface, collecting sweat & heat energy away from the body.

The role of the brain in temperature regulation

The hypothalamus located in the brain, detects the temperature of the blood. The thermoregulatory
centre (in the hypothalamus) receives sensory impulses from the skin. If the blood is too hot, the
hypothalamus sends an impulse to skin. The effect of this motor impulse will cause the skin to
respond through the activities that cool the blood as outlined above. This mechanism of coordination
is known as “Negative Feedback Mechanism”. This whereby the outgoing impulse counteracts the
effects of the received impulse. If the blood is too cold, the outgoing impulse will make the skin warm
the blood.

Osmo-regulation (water balance)

Water balance in the body is achieved by regulating the amount of water in the urine. This is made
possible by the action of ADH – anti-diuretic hormone produced in the pituitary gland.
Concentrated blood

Importance of water balance

Water is gained by the body from drinks & food and also produced within through respiration.
It is lost through urine, sweat, faeces & as vapour in the exhaled air. It is imperative that there is
balance between water gained & lost. If this balance breaks down then the body cells will either gain
or loss water through osmosis resulting in malfunctioning.

Generally kidneys regulate the amount of water present in the body by variation of the urine
produced as depicted in the flow diagram below.

Detected by the hypothalamus Detected by the hypothalamus

Dilute blood

cells cell

Pituitary gland produces ADH

Pituitary gland stops producing

ADH

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 57

Kidney tubule cells become less

permeable to water – less water
Kidney tubule cells become is re-absorbed
more permeable to water – more
water is re-absorbed

Small amounts of concentrated

urine produced

Large amount of dilute urine is

produced

Normal amount of water in the

body

Regulation of glucose level

The recommended sugar level must be around 160mg/100cm3. when the concentration of blood
sugar increases, insulin is released by the islets of Langerhans cells in the pancreas into the blood
stream. Upon reaching the liver, it stimulates the liver cells to take up excess glucose & convert it to
glycogen for storage. When the glucose levels in the blood drop another hormone called glucagon is
released to stimulate the liver cells to convert glycogen back to glucose.

EXCRETION
This refers to the removal of metabolic waste from the body. There are several organs which play an
important role in this process.

EXCRETORY ORGAN EXCRETORY PRODUCT

Lungs Carbon dioxide
Kidneys Nitrogenous waste, water toxins,
used drugs, hormones & excess
salts.
Liver Bile pigments

Position of Kidneys in the body

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 58

Functions of parts
i) Blood vessels
 Renal artery; brings oxygenated blood to the kidneys from the aorta. This blood is rich in food
materials, oxygen & waste substances such as urea.
 Renal vein; carries deoxygenated blood from the kidneys to the vena cava.
ii) Kidneys
These are bean shaped organs found in the abdomen towards the back. They filter the blood and
remove any waste to form a substance called urine.
iii) Ureter
This is a tube that emerges from of the two kidneys and serves to transport urine from kidneys to the
bladder.
iv) Bladder
It is a muscular organ that stores urine. It is kept closed by a ring of muscles called sphincter muscles,
which relax at certain times to let urine out of the bladder. An adult’s bladder can hold between 450-
500ml of urine.
v) Urethra
It is a tube that carries urine to the outside of the body. In females it carries urine only, whilst in
males it transports both urine & semen but at different times.

Structure of Kidney & Nephron

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 59

Approximately one million nephrons (right) compose each bean-shaped kidney (left). The filtration
unit of the nephron, called the glomerulus, regulates the concentration of important substances such
as potassium, calcium, and hydrogen, and removes substances not produced by the body such as
drugs and food additives. The filtrate, urine, leaves the nephron through a long tubule and collecting
duct. Chemical signals triggered by the body’s need for water and salt cause the walls of the tubule to
become more or less permeable to these substances, which are reabsorbed accordingly from the
urine.

The main function of the kidneys is to remove urea & other waste from the body as urine. The kidney
has two regions; the cortex & the medulla. The cortex appears dark red since the glomerulus is
located in this region. The medulla is lighter than cortex this is where the rest of renal tubule lies,
towards the ureter. A nephron is the smallest unit that makes urine. It consists of a cup-shaped
structure called the Bowman’s capsule , which encloses highly coiled capillaries called the
Glomerulus. Extending form the bowman’s capsule is along coiled tube called the renal tubule.

The nephron makes urine through these main processes;

 Ultra filtration
 Selective reabsorption

Ultra filtration
An arteriole brings blood (dirty) into each of the glomerulus in a kidney. The blood is from the aorta
hence it under high pressure. The rapid coiling of afferent artery in the glomerulus further raises this
pressure. The raised pressure of the blood forces the liquid part of the blood into the bowman’s
capsule and this is called ultra filtration. This fluid is now called the glomerular filtrate. The
glomerular filtrate trickles down the renal tubule extending from the glomerulus coiled around the
capillaries. The glomerular filtrate has both useful & waste substances dissolved in it. As the
glomerular filtrate moves down the renal tubule some water, glucose & other useful salts are
reabsorbed back into the blood by the capillaries coiled around the renal tubule. The process of
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 60

choosing which substances are taken back into the blood is called Selective-Reabsorption. The waste
materials will be left behind to exit the renal tubule through the collecting ducts. The substance is
now called urine.

If the blood becomes too concentrated (has less water) a hormone called Anti-Diuretic Hormone
(ADH) is released. This will stimulate the nephron to reabsorb most of the water. If the blood is dilute
(has more water) the production of ADH stops. The nephron will then leave most of the water in the
glomerular filtrates therefore more urine is made.

KIDNEY FAILURE
Kidneys may not perform their function if they have been affected by diseases or as a result of
sudden drop in blood pressure, maybe due to road accidents. If the kidney fails one can have a
kidney transplant or use an “artificial” kidney or dialysis machine. During a kidney transplant a close
relative is usually the best candidate. Sometimes the patient’s immune system can resist the
transplanted kidney, therefore immunosuppressant drugs are used to minimize rejection.

Dialysis machine

Blood from a patient suffering from kidney failure is led from the patient’s vein into the dialysis
tubing which is made of cellulose material. In the tubing there are submicroscopic pores which allow
small molecules such as those of salts, glucose & urea to leak out into the water bath which the
dialysis tubing is coiled in. larger substances such as proteins are not allowed into out of the dialysis
tubing, hence making semi-permeable. Because the concentration of the waste substances is higher
in the blood than in the dialysis fluid, they will pass through the membrane into the dialysis fluid. The
continuous coiling of the tubing enables a thorough blood cleansing.

DRUGS
Definition
A drug is a chemical substance that alters / changes the normal function of the body
A chemical substance that creates physical, mental, emotional or behavioral change in the
user.
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 61

Any substance taken in from an external source to affect or modify chemical reactions in the
body.

Why Use Drugs?

Relief pain
Give excessive energy
To get pleasure / euphoria (ecstasy)
To improve performancess
To cure diseases

The use of drugs can be categorized into two

Non –medicinal purpose

Medicinal purpose

Non – Medicinal Drugs

Tobacco
EPO
Nicotine
Cocaine
Mandrax
Heroine
Marijuana

Medicinal Drugs
Antibiotics – drugs that cure bacterial diseases. These are obtained from other organisms e.g.
penicillin
Anti-acids – these are drugs taken to neutralize excess stomach acid.
Painkillers – these are drugs taken to alleviate pain or suppress the parts of the brain that sense
pain; e.g. aspirin, morphine.
Sedatives – these are drugs used to calm down a person, or suppress their emotions (tranquilizers)

Drug Dependence

Frequent use of a drug causes the body to develop resistance to the effect of the drug. This leads to
the use of increased dosages of the drug to get the same effect. Eventually this leads to drug
dependence – inability of the body systems to function normally without the drug

Emotional Dependence
The user is emotionally attached to the drug & develops a craving for the drug whenever it is
taken. Withdrawal symptoms are not physical but normally emotional. E.g. loss of temper,
headaches and nausea.
Drugs that cause emotional dependence include nicotine

Physical Dependence

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 62

The user develops physical withdrawal symptoms when the drug is withdrawn. This from of
dependence is called Addiction and the withdrawal symptoms include; violent shaking,
hallucinations, nausea, headaches.
Drugs that leads to this condition include; cocaine, heroine etc

Drug Abuse
Mostly this is done with drugs that affect the nervous system, mainly the brain.

Stimulants
These are drugs that speed up the reactions of the nervous system & make the user more alert, e.g.
nicotine, caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines.

Depressants / Sedative
They slow down the reactions of the nervous system & the brain and cause one to become sleepy.
They suppress the brain & cause relief from emotional tension & anxiety e.g. alcohol, valium etc.

Hallucinogens
These are drugs that make one to hear, feel or see things that do not really exist e.g. cannabis
(marijuana), LSD, inhalants like glue.

ALCOHOL
Alcohol is one of the most abused drugs. It a depressant, i.e. it slows down brain activity & lowers
blood pressure. It slows down brain activity & lowers blood pressure. It slows down transmission of
nerve impulses thereby;
Increasing reaction time.
Affects coordination of all senses e.g. sight (double vision), feeling (false sensation of warmth
due to dilation of arteries below skin).
Inability to perform activities requiring skill, e.g. writing

Alcohol destroys the liver on a long term basis & result in a disease called Liver Cirrhosis. Then the
liver will no longer detoxify, deaminate & balance blood glucose. This leads to death. It also affects
the kidneys.

Social Implications
Impoverish families because a lot of money is used to buy alcohol.
Loss of social dignity

Allergic Reactions
An allergic reaction is an unusual reaction to any substance. A substance that causes an allergic
reaction is called an allergen. Example allergens are drugs, food, dust particles, pollen grains.

Symptoms of Allergic Reactions

Running nose
Breathing difficulties
Rash
Oedema (unexplained swellings)
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 63

Drug Tolerance
Frequent use of a drug causes the body to develop resistance to the effect of the drug. This leads to
the use of increased dosages of the drug to get the same effect & eventually culminate in drug
dependence. Drug dependence builds up to drug tolerance.

REPRODUCTION
Reproduction refers to the perpetual continuation of life for the survival of a species (i.e organism
which share similar characteristics & can interbreed to produce fertile offspring). There are two types
of reproduction;
Asexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
It is the reproduction in which new organisms are formed from a single parent without a gamete
reproduction. This is reproduction without fertilization i.e. no fusion of gametes. The offspring from
asexual reproduction are genetically identical to each other & to the parent organism and are
referred to as CLONES.
Examples of Asexual Reproduction in Plants and Animals.
1. Budding – it is form of asexual reproduction in which a new organism is produced as an
outgrowth. The outgrowth is later released as a self-supporting, identical copy of the parent.
Most roses are propagated by budding on suitable wood stock. Another example is hydra, a
simple of animal.
2. Fragmentation / Regeneration – It is the breaking of an organism into two or more parts, each
of which grow to form a new a individual. This form of asexual reproduction is common
among less differentiated animals. Less differentiated animals retain strong powers of
regeneration from undifferentiated cells. Some animals undergo accidental fragmentation.
E.g. starfish & flatworms.
3. Vegetative propagation – It is a form of asexual reproduction in which relatively large, usually
differentiated part of a plant body becomes & develops into an independent plant.
Specialized structures often develop for this purpose, including bulbs (modified shoot), corms
(a shoot swollen vertically underground stem), rhizomes, stolons & tubers.
4. Cutting – the cutting of about 20cm is trimmed at the base just below a joint & inserted firmly
in good moist soil or water. Most plant e.g. roses are propagated through cutting
5. Grafting – a bid / shoot from the plant is inserted under the bark on the stem of another
closely related variety. The bud then grows using water & nutrients supplied by the other
plant, mostly suitable for propagation of apple trees, pear trees, rubber trees etc.

Commercial Application of Asexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Refer to grafting & cutting-

Advantages of Asexual Reproduction

It is the simplest & shortest way of reproduction
The chances of offspring survival are greatly enhanced
There is no danger of gametes getting destroyed before fusion
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 64

Ideal for presentation of good characteristics within the population

Possible to produce a large number of offspring within a short time

Disadvantages of Asexual reproduction

Defects from parents are easily passed to offspring
Inhibits evolutionary change

Sexual Reproduction in Plants.

Functions of parts
Stigma – receives pollen grains
Style – allows the pollen tube to pass through to the ovary
Ovary – produces female sex cells called ovules
Anther – produces the male sex cells called pollen grain
Filament – holds the anther
Petals – encloses parts of the flower ( protection)
Sepals – protects the ovary (and the general flower during the bud stage)
Flower stalk – holds the flower in position (attaches the flower to the plant)
Receptacle – where all the other parts of a flower are attached

Pollination
It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to stigma
Types of Pollination
 Self-Pollination – the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma in the same flower,
or the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to stigma of another flower on the same plant.
 Cross Pollination – The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of another flower
of the same species.

Agents of Pollination
Insects
Wind

Characteristics of Flowers

Wind Pollinated Flower Insects Pollinated

Flower
 Have dull petals  Bright coloured
petals
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 65

 Small or no petals  Have large

petals
 Have feathery  Plain stigma
stigma
 Light pollen grains  Sticky pollen
produced grains
 Lots of pollen grains  Few pollen
produced grains
 Have no scent  Scented petals
 No nectar  Have nectar

Fertilization
In order for fertilization to occur, pollination must first take place. Fertilization is the fusion of the
male nucleus (from pollen grains) with female nucleus (from the ovules)

Growth of the Pollen Tube (as a vehicle for pollen grains)

The fertilized egg (ovule) develops into an embryo. The embryo has plumule (which develops into
shoot) and a radicle (which develops into roots). The embryo is attached to the cotyledons in – one in
monocots & two in dicots. The embryo is found enclose in seeds.
NB: after fertilization the petals dry up and fall off leaving the ovary to develop into the fruit & ovules
into the seeds.

Non- Endospermic Seed (Dicot) e.g. bean seed

Functions of Parts
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 66

1. Testa {seed coat} – this is the tough outer cover in seeds. It protects the embryo from physical
damage.
2. Cotyledon - this is where food is stored for the embryo. Non Endospermic seeds (dicots) have
two cotyledons. Endospermic seeds have one cotyledon
3. Micropyle – it is an opening left by the pollen tube on the testa. It allows water & O 2 needed
for germination to enter the seed to go
4. Embryo is made of the;
 Plumule – which develops into the shoot during germination
 Radicle – which grows in the root system.
Environmental Conditions for Germination
The following conditions must be present in order for seeds to germinate
Water
Oxygen
Suitable Temperature
Water
Adequate water is needed for germination to start & continue. Excess water prevents germination by
probably excluding oxygen. The forces exerted by the accumulation of water into the seed may
eventually rapture the testa. Water is also required to activate the biochemical reactions associated
with germination because these take place in solution.

Oxygen
It is required for aerobic respiration. The energy released is used to run chemical reactions within the
cells of the embryo during its period of growth.

Suitable Temperature
This will make enzymes to be activated thus chemical reactions will occur at the highest rate to make
new cells. Each species of seeds have an optimum temperature for germination; (5 0C– 40 0C) is the
temperature range suitable for seed germination.

The Role of Enzymes in Seed germination

In the early stages of germination, the food reserves in the cotyledons mostly starch & proteins are
acted upon by enzymes and converted to soluble products which pass to, & are used by the actively
growing regions where protoplasms are being made. Glucose is formed from the stored starch &
being used in various ways; e.g. in the synthesis of cellulose & incorporated into cell walls and in the
process of respiration to generate energy needed in the growing regions.

Seed Dispersal
This is the transfer {scattering away} of seeds from the parent plant to new sites. After seed
development either the entire fruit or the seed(s) contained within are dispersed from the parent
plant.

Advantages of Seed dispersal

I. It reduces chances of competition for nutrients & space
II. There is also more chance of finding a fresh area to colonize, thus increasing the overall
species population in time. (it promotes plants diversity in different localities)

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 67

Disadvantages
I. There is a possibility of not finding a suitable place for germination

Mechanisms of Seed Dispersal.

There are three main external agents (mechanisms) of dispersal, namely;

Animal
Wind
Water

In addition, seeds can be dispersed through self-dispersal mechanism, which involves an explosive
release of seeds from the fruit.

1. Animal Dispersed Seeds, Example

They have hooks or spines with which they attach themselves to the skin, fur or wool
of passing animals and thus carried over some distance before dropping off or being
scratched off. E.g. goose grass, buttercup etc.
Contained in succulent fruits which have edible fleshly parts. E.g. tomatoes,
strawberry, mulberry, wild berries, grapes etc. The fruit is eaten & digested but the
seeds are resistant to digestive enzymes & pass unharmed through the gut of the
animal to be deposited with faeeces often on fertile soils.

2. Wind Dispersed Seeds, Example

Parachute fruits & seed – seeds of willow herb & the fruit of dandelion have projecting
feathery hairs (parachute-like structures) which increase their surface area. As a
result, the seeds floats over long distances before sinking to the ground. It is therefore
likely to be carried a long way from the parent plant by slight air current.
Winged fruits – Fruits of sycamore & ash trees have wing-like outgrowths from the
ovary walls or leaf-like structures on the flower stalk. These wings cause the fruit to
spin as it falls from the tree & slow down its fall. This delay increases the chances of
the fruit being carried away in air currents.

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 68

Pepper pot effect – e.g. poppy has along flower on which hangs a dry hollow capsule
(formed from the ovary) with one / more openings. The wind shakes the flower stalk
and seeds are scattered on all sides through the openings in the capsule

3. Water Dispersed Seeds

Some plants e.g. Coconut have a fibrous ovary wall which enables the fruit to float on
water so that the seed is water dispersed.

4. Self-Dispersed Seed, Example;

Explosive fruits – the pods of flowers in the pea family dry up in the sun and shrivel. The
tough fibres in the fruit wall shrinks & set up a tension forcing the fruit to split in half
down the lines of weakness, the two halves curl back suddenly & flick out the seed.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN MAMMALS

The Male Reproductive System

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 69

Functions of Parts
1. Testes – they produce sperms & the hormone testosterone
2. Scrotum – a special sac outside the abdominal cavity containing testes. At this position testes
are kept at a temperature slightly below the body temperature. This is the best temperature
for sperm production
3. Sperm ducts – carry sperms from the testes to the urethra
4. Prostate gland – it secretes a fluid that activates & feed sperms
5. Seminal vesicle – it secretes a fluid that activates aids in sperm mobility
6. Urethra – it carries urine & semen ( fluid containing sperms) out of the male’s body
7. Epididymis – A coiled tube that stores sperms
8. Penis – It is used to deposit sperms into the female’s vagina during sexual intercourse

The Female Reproductive System

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 70

Functions of Parts
1. Ovaries – they produce ova (eggs) and the hormones oestrogen & progesterone
2. Oviducts – the tube through which the ova pass when released from the ovary. It is also a
region where fertilization occurs.
3. Uterus – the region where the embryo is implanted after fertilization in the oviduct
4. Cervix – A ring of muscle closing the lower end of the uterus where it joins the vagina. It
dilates / widens during child birth.
5. Vagina – it accommodates (receives) the penis during sexual intercourse. It is where sperms
are deposited from the male and also serves as a birth canal.

The Difference between Female (ovum) & Male (sperm) Gametes

SPERMATOZOA OVUM

cytoplasm

Cell membrane

Smaller in size (diameter of sperm head is Larger in size (diameter of 0.05mm)

0.01mm)
Has no food store Has a food store
Has a tail which helps it to swim towards Does not move by itself (move by the help
the egg of cilia within the oviducts)
Produced in large numbers Produced in small numbers
Life span is 2 – 3 days (i.e. sperms might be Has a life span of 24hours after being
able to fertilize an ovum within 2 – 3 days ) produced

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 71

MENSTRUAL CYCLE

Effect of Diet on Menstrual Cycle

Females are advised to eat food rich in iron as they loose a lot of blood during menstruation. Females
lacking iron miss periods during certain months & some may eventually become anaemic. These kind
of people are normally given iron supplements in the form of tablets & normally advised to eat lots
of green vegetables to gain iron.

Effect of Emotional State on Menstrual Cycle

Anxiety, stress & excitement may result in a female having her menstrual periods earlier than
normal.

Identical & Non-identical Twins (Fraternal twins)

Identical twins are twins resulting from the separation of one fertilized egg to form two
complete individuals. These individuals may share the placenta & amnion. They also have the
same sex & closely resemble each other in every respect.

Fraternal Twins (non-identical twins) results from two different ova fertilized by two different
sperms. Each embryo will have its own placenta & amnion. It is possible that they may be of the
same or different sexes & may not resemble each other.

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 72

Function of Amnion & Amniotic Fluid

The amnion (also called amniotic sac) is a thin membrane covering the embryo & has a protective
function. The sac is filled with a fluid known as amniotic fluid which supports the embryo & protect it
from mechanical shock. As the embryo increases in size the amniotic sac also expands to
accommodate it.

SPECIAL DIETARY NEEDS OF A PREGNANT WOMAN

A woman needs adequate supply of food

She must eat plenty of nourishing foods, especially proteins for the growing baby
She needs an increased intake of calcium & vitamin D (i.e. in milk) for the formation of strong
bones if the baby
She must have an increased intake of carbohydrates for the energy needed to carry the
growing baby.
She should avoid taking any drug unless seriously necessary & prescribed by a medical
practitioner.
She must also avoid alcohol & smoking as these interfere with the growth of the baby leading
to miscarriage still born or children born underweight.

Advantages of Breast Feeding over Bottle Feeding

Breast milk is ready made & cheap

It is always at right temperature required by the baby
It almost all the required nutrients e.g. proteins, fats, sugar, vitamins & salts in correct
quantities
It contains anti-bodies to any disease from which the mother has recovered
It also carries white blood cells which produce ant-bodies or ingest bacteria
Its free from bacteria
It helps to establish an emotional bond between mother & child.

Birth Control Methods

This involves using methods of contraception which enable to people to prevent any unplanned /
unwanted pregnancies.

 Condoms

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 73

a) Male Condom is a thin sheath which is rolled onto an erect penis before intercourse to
prevent the sperms from entering the vagina. The penis must be removed cautiously from the
vagina immediately after ejaculation to avoid spillage of sperms.
b) Female Condom is also a thin sheath inserted inside the vagina before intercourse to collect
the sperms from the penis.

 Diaphragm (the cap)

A dome shaped device which fits over the cervix to prevent entry of sperms. They come in
different sizes & a woman must be trained how to insert it by a doctor or at a family welfare
clinic. Diaphragms offer more protection when used together with a spermicidal cream. It must
remain in place for some time after intercourse (about 8 hours), then it can be removed, washed,
dried powdered & kept in a container.

 Intra-Uterine Device (IUDs)

IUDs are fitted inside the uterus by a doctor. The IUD touches the wall of the uterus & prevents
implantation of the embryo. The IUD is removed by a doctor by pulling the strings attached to it
which pass though the cervix. IUDs are usually used by women who have already had a child and
they remain effective for 8 - 10 years.

 Chemical / Hormonal Methods

a) Spermicidal creams
A woman uses an applicant to put spermicides insides her vagina just before intercourse kill
sperms. Spermicides are not very effective on their own & so are often coupled with diaphragms
for back up.

b) The Pill
The contraceptive pill contains one / both hormones estrogen & progesterone. The contraception
of hormones stops the ovaries from producing eggs. The woman takes the pill every day for 21
days of her menstrual cycle. When she stops taking this pill menstruation occurs. The woman can
then begin taking the pill again on day one of her next menstrual cycle. If she forgets to take the
pill for a day then the protection is incomplete & so another contraception must be used until the
woman’s menstrual cycle.

c) Norplant
It consists of six capsules which are inserted under the skin in the woman’ arm. It contains
progesterone which prevents ovulation. It is effective 24 hours after insertion and remains
effective for five years. The norplant also thickens the cervical mucus making it difficult for the
sperm to enter the uterus. It also makes the inner lining of the uterus unsuitable for the fertilized
egg to get implanted.

d) The injection
This contains the hormone progesterone. Once injected into the arm of the woman the hormone
is slowly released into the body for the next 2 – 3 months. The progesterone stops the production
of eggs. Injected contraceptives are useful for women who have difficulties taking the pill or
experience problems with other methods of contraception.
PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 74

 Surgical Method (Sterilisation)

It involves a minor operation (in men is called Vasectomy; in females its called Tubal ligation). In
males the spermducts are tied & cut by a surgeon. The man can still ejaculate as the ducts are
only cut below the seminal vesicles but the fluid ejaculated will contain no sperms. This prevents
the sperms from the reaching the egg.
In females the oviducts are tied & cut to prevent the passage of eggs from the ovaries.

 Natural Methods
a) Rhythm method (safe period)
This depends on the woman (and possibly her partner) understanding how her menstrual cycle
works. She should be able to calculate the times at which pregnancy is possible. In addition, the
woman may also observe a slight increase in body temperature when ovulation sets in. (the
temperature rise at ovulation is 0.5 0C) unfortunately the menstrual cycle is always unpredictable
especially in teenagers.

b) Withdrawal method
This depends on the men, who should pull out his penis from the woman’s vagina before
ejaculation. This is however an unreliable method because some semen would have long passed
into the vagina even before complete ejaculation.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES 1. Syphilis

Caused by; a spirochete bacterium called Trepanema Pallidum

Transmission – a) through unprotected sexual intercourse

b) From pregnant woman to foetus across the placenta

Symptoms (In both males & females)

I. First stage – painless sores appear on genitals or site of infection, which can heal after 4 –
8 weeks.
II. Second stage – skin rash, lymph nodes enlarge, headache, aches & pains in the bones.
III. Third stage – brain & heart damage which occur within 10 years of original infection.
During birth a baby’s eyes may become infected as it passes through the cervix & vagina.

Treatment - Can be treated with penicillin

Control
I. Abstinence
II. Condom use
III. Be faithful to your partner

2. Gonorrhea
Caused by; a bacterium called Nersseria gonorrhoeas / gonococcus

Transmission – a) through unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person

b) From pregnant woman to foetus across the placenta

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
 75

Symptoms
In males
 Yellowish smelly discharge from
the penis
 Painful urination
 May lead to the blockage of the
urethra and sperm ducts
leading to sterility

In females
 Painful urination
 Yellowish & smelly discharge
from the vagina.
 Oviducts may become blocked
resulting in sterility
 Bacteria may invade the baby’s
eyes at birth & cause blindness.
 May not show any signs at first
st

PREPARED BY RAYMOND
Treatment – can be treated by using antibiotics like penicillin
Control
I. Abstinence
II. Condom use
III. Be faithful to your partner

ECOLOGY
Ecology is the study of how organisms interact with each other & their environment.

TERMS USED IN ECOLOGY

Community – all organisms of all species living in the same habitat

Habitat – the area where an organism lives
Population – a group of organisms of the same species
Species – a group of organisms of the same kind which mate & produce a fertile offspring
Environment – the surroundings where an organisms lives
Ecosystem – consists of a community & its environment
Food chain – a linear feeding relationship between organisms
Food web – a set of linked food chains showing a more complex but realistic feeding
relationship
Producer – an organism which makes its own food e.g. plants. (also known as autotrophs)
Primary consumer – an organism that feeds directly on producers; a.k.a. herbivores
Secondary consumers – an animal that feeds on primary consumers a.k.a. meat eaters/
carnivores
Omnivores – an animal that feeds on both meat & plants e.g. man
Tertiary consumers – organisms that normally feed secondary consumers
Decomposers – organisms that normally feed on dead animal or plant matter
Scavengers – animals that feed on the remains of dead animals e.g. vultures & hyenas
Trophic / feeding level – stage in a food chain or food web
Pyramid of numbers – a diagram showing the number of organisms at each trophic level,
the length of the bar is proportional to the number of organisms.
An Ecosystem is a habitat – a place where an organism lives and the physical factors that influence
it e.g. temperature, soil type, rainfall; (or a community of organisms interacting with their
environment)

All energy for an ecosystem which flows through an ecosystem comes from the sun, i.e. the sun the
principal source of energy.
Energy is transferred through an ecosystem by feeding, when one organism eats another organism
some energy is passed on.

The feeding relationships are shown using food chains & food webs. A food chain is a linear
representation of how energy is passed between organisms, & has one type of organism at each
feeding (trophic) level.
A food web is a complex but more realistic way of presenting energy flow – made of several food
chains interlinked.
There are usually 4 to 5 feeding levels in a food chain, and these levels are called trophic levels.

The first trophic level is Producers. These are always green plants / green algae which are
photosynthetic. Producers produce food for the next trophic level, which are primary consumers.
These are always plant eaters so they are called Herbivores. The primary consumers are eaten by
secondary consumers, also referred to as carnivores because they eat other animals. The tertiary
consumers feed largely on secondary consumers. Producers & all the consumers stated above are
fed on by Decomposers.

Sun’s energy Producers Primary Consumers Secondary Consumers Tertiary

Consumers

Decomposers
The arrows show the direction of flow of energy. Energy is not cyclical meaning that it does not
return to its source & it can be used over & over.
Energy is either lost or used up along the food chain.

If Producer Primary Consumers Secondary Consumers Tertiary

Consumers
Has 100KJ keeps 10KJ for growth keeps 1KJ Keeps 0.1KJ

90KJ lost 9KJ lost 0.9KJ lost

Most energy is passed on between producers & tertiary consumers, but also most of it is lost i.e.
only 10% of the energy is passed on from one trophic level to the next as shown above. A very
small amount of energy reaches the tertiary level. After that there is not enough energy to support
 life at fourth consumer level. More energy is found at the beginning of the food chain & it
decreases up the trophic level.

This means that there are more producers & a few consumers. This can be illustrated using a
pyramid of numbers as shown below

.
Tertiary consumers

. Secondary consumers

. Primary consumers

Producers

Energy cannot be recycled in an ecosystem but nutrients can be recycled, carbon & nitrogen for
example, can be used again & again in different forms in an ecosystem.

The Carbon Cycle

There is carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which is used by plants to make carbohydrates
through photosynthesis. Therefore green plants remove carbon from the atmosphere.
Plants are eaten by animals, so the process of feeding passes carbon from plants to animals.
Plants and animals respire all the time when there are alive, and respiration releases carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere.
When plants & animals die, they are decomposed by bacteria & this causes decay. This
process also releases CO2 to the atmosphere. Through these processes the carbon cycle is
balanced
Photosynthesis is balanced naturally by Respiration & Decay
However, human beings have upset the cycle by adding more CO2 to the air. This is caused
by combustion of fossil fuels like; natural gas, crude oil, coal.

Plants use the

CO2 in the atmosphere PHOTOSYNTHESIS
atmospheric CO2 to make
RESPIRATION carbohydrates
DECAY

DECAY Animal tissue formed EATEN

from eating plant tissue

RESPIRATION

Fossil fuels; e.g.

natural gas, Coal,
Crude oil
 COMBUSTION S FOSSILISATION

EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITY ON THE ENVIRONMENT

There is a natural balance between plants & animals, as shown by food webs & food chains.
However human activities upset the balance, harming the environment & posing many problems to
human beings themselves. Examples are given below

How Poor Agricultural Practices Result in the Destruction of Ecosystems

1) Monoculture
This means growing one type of crop on the same piece of land year after year. Such crops cannot
support a mixed population of organisms. It also leads to the displacement of the natural plants &
animals, as the land will be cleared for growing that particular crop. Monoculture also results on
the use of pesticides to control pests affecting that crop, but this often kills not only the pests but
also other beneficial organisms.

2) Overstocking
This means keeping a large number of livestock with a small area. This leads to overgrazing which
might lead to soil erosion. Overgrazing leads to the destruction of habitats for small organisms.

3) Deforestation

This refers to the cutting down of too many trees (for the purposes of building industries,
residential houses, construction of roads & other things) without replacing them. As a result most
habitats are destroyed & also certain plant species are destroyed. The noise caused during the
construction away drive some animals & hence disturbing the ecosystem.

4) Pesticides

Some insecticides such as DDT are non-biodegradable, i.e. cannot be decomposed by biological
organisms. Therefore they enter the smaller organisms in the food chain. The concentration of this
insecticide increases up the trophic levels hence the tertiary consumer may die due to higher
concentrations of the insecticides, (Bioaccumulation)

Vulture
Cat Consumes many organisms which had consumed more organisms with high
concentrations of the pesticides

Lizard

Mosquito Treated with pesticides & therefore more small organisms will be affected by the
pesticide
 5) The use of Fertilizers

Fertilizers are very rich in nitrates & phosphates, and they are normally used to enrich the soil for
better crop yields. If these nitrates & phosphates are drained into rivers due to running water, they
promote the growth of green algae. These green algae will flourish & cover up the surface of the
water and prevent the plants beneath from receiving sunlight; as a result these plants may
eventually die because they will not be able to make themselves food. When they die, they get
decomposed by the bacteria & this process uses lot oxygen from the water. As a result there will be
insufficient oxygen supply to the marine animals, e.g. fish. These animals will then suffocate & die.
This whole process is called EUTROPHICATION

PROBLEMS LEADING TO FAMINE

 Unequal Distribution of Food
The country may have enough food but not equally distributed among the whole population. There
are certain areas where people are extremely poor due to lack of food while in other areas in the
same country people have more than enough.

 Natural Disasters
Certain areas may experience heavy rainfall resulting in floods, which may destroy many houses &
vegetation. People will remain poor without shelter & food. In certain areas it may be very hot &
dry without any rain which will make farming impossible. Since many people rely on farming, they
will starve because livestock will be destroyed & no crops will be grown.

 Increase in Population
If there are too many people in a given area & less resources, there will be a serious problem
because there will be acute shortage of food supply.

POLLUTION

It is the presence of harmful substances in an environment

OR
It refers to bringing about changes that are destructive to both living & non-living things in an
environment.

These harmful substances are called POLLUTANTS

Types of Pollution

Air Pollution

The presence of pollutant s in the atmosphere causes air pollution. E.g. poisonous gases from
industries results in the pollution of air. One of the most common gases released from industries is
Sulphur dioxide. When this gas combines with the moisture in the atmosphere, it fall down as acid,
which corrodes buildings & destroys vegetation.
Excess CO2 in the atmosphere can also bring about some problems. An increase in CO2 may be due
to burning fuels; e.g. fire wood, fossil fuels etc. at a higher rate & also due to the cutting down of
trees which could otherwise help in reducing the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere. CO2 has the
ability to trap a lot of heat energy & allow little to escape the atmosphere. If the concentration of
CO2 is very high it means more heat will be trapped leading to a rise in the earth’s temperature.
This is known as Global Warming. This rise in temperature may result in the melting of ice in the
arctic areas raising the sea levels, which may even lead to floods.

Some oxides such as lead oxide released from car exhausts may also pollute the air & are harmful
to people when inhaled.

Water Pollution
 Sewage Disposal
Some waste materials from toilets and kitchens when drained into rivers will cause water
pollution. This waste contains disease causing micro-organisms which may result in people
catching diseases if they use this untreated water, e.g. cholera, bilharzia etc.
 Inorganic wastes
These are usually the waste materials from industries which when discharged into rivers,
pollute the water. This waste may contain poisonous chemical substances such as mercury,
lead etc. If they enter the food chain e.g. e.g. from small fish up to human beings, they may
cause serious health problems such as cancers or even death.

Land Pollution

The land may be polluted by litter e.g. tins, papers, glasses etc, which may end up acting as
breeding places for disease causing micro-organisms. The land may also be polluted by disposed
chemicals, which may destroy beneficial organisms.

CONSERVATION
This involves preserving habitats & protecting individual species of plants & animals.

Advantages
1. it ensures biodiversity
2. it ensures the protection & keeping of species with survival value

Reasons for Conserving Organisms

1. they are a source of food e.g. Mowana & Mosukujane
2. For medicinal purposes e.g. sengaparile (devil’s claw) & monepenepe
3. For tourist attraction e.g. rhinos, cheetahs, lions etc.

Material Recycling
This is one way of conserving materials & it involves the use & reuse of materials (i.e. reprocessing
of used materials to be used again).
Reasons for Recycling
1. Reduces littering & pollution
2. Saves money because there is no need to new materials

Examples of Recycling
 Organic waste can be fermented to produce methane gas, which is used in cooking and other
things.
 Empty bottles can be cleansed and reused in the packaging of drinks, like at kgalagadi breweries
 Scrap metals & tins can be heated up & molded to make new items.
 Old newspapers can be used to make toilet paper.

ENERGY FLOW
Energy flow refers to the movement of energy from one trophic level to another. The sun is the
principal source of energy for all biological systems. i.e. plants & animals.

The Sun (principal source o f energy)

Green Plants (photosynthesis)

Herbivores (starch eaters)

Carnivores (meat eaters)

Decomposers (carcass eaters)

Non – Cyclical flow of Energy

Energy does not flow backwards & return to the sun therefore we say that the energy flow through
the ecosystem is non-cyclical

Food chains – a linear feeding relationship between organisms

Should always begin with a producer
Should have arrows to indicate the direction of energy flow

Producer Primary consumer Secondary consumer Tertiary consumer

e.g.
1. Grass zebra lion vulture

2. Algae tadpole water scorpion perch

Schematic flow diagram of food chain

Food web – It is made of many food chains linked together.
e.g.

Owl Flea Tick

Shrew Fox Weasel Badger

Caterpillars Rabbit Grasshopper

Oak tree Grass

Schematic flow diagram of food web

ENERGY LOSES IN FOOD CHAINS

The plants in field use a lot of sunlight & convert it into chemical energy in food. Every time energy
passes from one organism to the next in a food chain, quiet a lot of energy is wasted. On average
only about one tenth of the energy from trophic level is passed onto to the next trophic level.

Energy from
Produce Primary Secondary
the sun r consumer consume 0.1%
100% 10% 1% r
 90% lost 9% lost 0.9% lost

When herbivores eat the plants they do not get all the energy from them. Only a part of the energy
is passed onto the herbivores.
There are several reasons to this;
1. the plants will have used some of the energy for themselves
2. the herbivores may not eat all of the plants e.g. may only eat leaves
3. the herbivores may not be able to digest all parts of the plants

Pyramid of Numbers

Algae tadpole water scorpion perch

Perch

Water scorpion

Tad poles

Algae

The bar for producers is always at the bottom of the diagram. Pyramids of numbers are usually a
typical shape with a broad base, but in certain circumstances they are in wrong shape, e.g.

Eagle
This happens when the producer is a
large with lots of smaller consumers
Birds feeding on it

Caterpillar

Large plant

Parasites
This happens when one of the
consumer bars is made of parasites
e.g. ticks / fleas. Lots of these tiny
animals can live on a host
Pyramids of Biomass
These are diagrams that show the mass of organisms at each trophic level. The length of the bar is
proportional to the mass of organisms

Perch

Water scorpion

Tadpole

Algae

Bioaccumulation
Scenario - A lake was sprayed with an insecticide to control mosquitoes. The diagram shows how
the insecticide passed from organism to another in a food chain.

Mosquito larva small fish large fish fish eagle

Fish eagle

Large fish

Small fish

Mosquito larva

Additional Info (Schematic Diagram of the Carbon cycle)

Carbon Cycle
Carbon, used by all living organisms, continuously circulates in the earth’s ecosystem. In the
atmosphere, it exists as the gas carbon dioxide, which is used by plants in the process of
photosynthesis. Animals acquire the carbon stored in plant tissue when they eat and exhale carbon
dioxide as a by-product of metabolism. Although some carbon is removed from circulation
temporarily as coal, petroleum, fossil fuels, gas, and limestone deposits, respiration and
photosynthesis balance to keep the amount of atmospheric carbon relatively stable.
Industrialization, however, has contributed additional carbon dioxide to the environment.

BIOTECHNOLGY
It is the application of biological organisms, systems or processes to manufacturing & service
industries. Microbes, plant & animal cells are used to make substances that are useful to human
beings.

Why Micro-organisms are used in Biotechnology

1. Savings on fuel because they carry out reactions at moderate temperatures.

2. They are very efficient because they produce purer products & less waste.
3. They can be genetically engineered to produce compounds needed for humans.

The Role Micro-organisms in Food Production

Making Bread.
The enzymes in yeast act on the sugar added to the flour & ferment it to alcohol & carbon
dioxide which makes the dough to rise.

Sour Milk (madila)

The milk is put into a large container & bacteria (lacto bacillus) are added to ferment the milk.
The bacteria converts the milk sugar (lactose) to lactic acid. The lactic acid will coagulate
(solidify) the milk protein. Water will then remain at the bottom of the container & coagulated
protein floats on top. The mixture is sieved to remove the waste water from the curd or sour
milk. At this stage the milk is sometimes stirred to obtain evenly thick & smooth sour milk.
Then the sour milk will be ready for packaging & distribution.

Chibuku ( traditional brew)

Mealie meal, water & malt are mixed & left to ferment & this mixture is called wort. This is the
first fermentation process, the enzymes found in the malt brake down starch (mealie meal) to
maltose & glucose & then ferment these sugars to alcohol. After this fermentation, the mixture
is cooked at 970C for about one hour. Yeast & lactic acid are added. Lactic acid gives chibuku its
sour taste. The second fermentation process will then occur. The yeast cells will then ferment
maltose & glucose. (Sugars from the first fermentation) to produce alcohol. After the second
fermentation process, the mixture is then served. Chibuku is pasteurized, before packaging to
kill both yeast cells & any other micro-organisms

Single Cell Protein

The aim here is to produce food in bulk using micro-organisms or the organism being the food
itself. It can be used to feed humans & animals. Filamentous fungus which is very rich in
 proteins can be produced in large amounts & be used as a meat substitute. It contains a lot of
dietary fibre & very little amount of fat. Unicellular algae, fungi & bacteria have been used.

Wine
It is made from grapes & these are crushed to release sugar. The yeast found on the grape skin
ferments the sugar to make wine.

Yoghurt & cheese

Bacteria are used to ferment milk to form yoghurt & cheese. The bacteria act on the milk sugar
(lactose) & convert it to lactic acid, which in turn coagulates the milk protein, casein to produce
a thick creamy substance (yoghurt). The lactic acid gives the yoghurt its slightly sour taste. In
cheese making, the mold can also be involved e.g. adding spores of penicillium at the
fermentation stage to give varieties of cheese.

The Role of Micro-organisms in Fuels & Other Chemicals

 Fuel
In some countries e.g. Brazil, yeast is used to ferment sugar from sugar cane to alcohol
(ethanol). The ethanol is distilled & then concentrated to about 96% alcohol. Pure alcohol
will burn in the same way as petrol. It is used in car engines that are specially adapted.
Unlike petrol, it does not pollute the atmosphere.
Micro-organism can be used for production of bio-gas, e.g. methane gas. This gas can be
produced from decomposing cow dung using bacteria. This gas can be used as a substitute
for the gas used for cooking, which is fossil fuel.

 Biological Enzyme Washing Powders

When washing powders are prepared, some biological enzymes are added to help in
removing stains from clothes, e.g. - The enzyme lipase will act on fat stains & make easy
to wash the clothes.
- The proteases would act on protein stains & remove the much faster & easier,
e.t.c

The Role of Micro-organisms in Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering is the transfer of genes from one organism to another of a different species.
Genetic engineering has been found to solve most problems, e.g.
Making insulin for people who are unable to produce it.
Replacing faulty alleles with normal alleles (Gene therapy)
Producing plants that are often resistant to diseases e.t.c

Bacteria are simple organisms & are often used in genetic engineering because they are easy to
manipulate, since their DNA called plasmids are not enclosed in a nuclear membrane.

 Insulin Production
A gene for insulin production in humans can be removed from the human cell & be pasted /
attached to the DNA of Escherichia coli (E.coli), a bacterium that lives in the human digestive tract.
Special kinds of enzymes of called restriction enzymes are used to cut in a very precise way, a
specific base sequence of the DNS molecule to remove targeted gene, which in this case will be the
gene for insulin production. This cut of the DNA will then be attached to a cut portion of the
plasmid (bacterial circular DNA) using an enzyme called DNA ligase. The plasmids with the attached
human DNA will then be taken back into the bacterial cell where they start controlling the activity
of the bacterial cell. One of the instructions will be to produce insulin, which can then be extracted
and used to help those people who need it. The bacterial cells divide very rapidly making billions of
copies of themselves and each bacterium will be carrying in its DNA a true copy of the gene for
insulin production, i.e. each bacterium cell inherits the human insulin gene.

 Gene Therapy
It involves the use of genetic engineering to replace defective / faulty genes with normal genes.
This is sometimes done to correct hereditary diseases such as haemophilia, sickle cell anaemia,
cystic fibrosis e.t.c. cystic fibrosis is a disease in which the person lacks a gene which encodes for
cell membrane protein. This results in cells, especially in the air passages, producing a lot of thick &
sticky mucus. In this case, the normal gene can be introduced into the patient’ lungs by using a
harmless form of flu virus. It is hoped, once inside the body that the DNA with the normal gene can
be incorporate itself to the DNA of the body cell & thus correcting the disease. If a normal gene is
inserted in any body cell not a sex cell to correct a particular disorder, it cannot be passed on to
future generations & this is called Somatic gene therapy. It the healthy gene is inserted into a
fertilized egg of a human being or an animal that has a specific genetic defect, then it will be passed
to the future generations resulting in the normal offsprings. This is called Germline cell therapy.

 Crop / plant Resistance

Genetic engineering can be used to induce resistance in plants / crops in terms of resistance to
diseases, pests or environmental conditions such as drought, frost, wind etc. a gene may be
inserted into the plant to enable it to produce an insecticidal crystal protein which may affect the
gut of pests e.g. caterpillars so that they cannot feed & eventually die. Some genes transferred into
the plant may make it resistant to herbicides. The field of growing crops can then be sprayed with
the herbicides which will selectively kill the weeds since they do not possess the resistance gene.
Genetic engineering can be used to produce plants with thicker & waxier cuticle which grow well in
more arid areas. Some may be engineered to have stronger stems of a more uniform height to be
resistant to wind damage.

The Role of Micro-organism in the Production of Medicine (Antibiotics & Vaccines)

Vaccines
They are prepared from dead or inactivated (harmless) micro-organisms {germs} and given to
people to immunize them against diseases, e.g. measles, polio, small pox etc. these germs still have
antigens which will provoke the human body to produce antibodies just like active germs do. These
antibodies will be ready to fight germs the moment they invade the body.

Antibodies
These are chemicals that are used to kill germs. E.g. penicillin which is produced by a mould.
Penicillium is used to cure bacterial diseases e.g. syphilis & gonorrhea.

This was discovered by a scientist named Alexander, who was growing bacteria on agar plates, but
he left one of the plates open by accident & a mould started to grow on the surface. He noticed
that the mould was stopping the bacteria from spreading; it seemed to be making a substance that
killed the bacteria. Eventually the substance was extracted & used to cure bacterial diseases. The
antibiotic, streptomycin is produced by bacteria called streptomyces.