Compied by Mr Musona P ZPCS Kadoma 2018 4003 syllabus ZW

Paper Chromatography

Chromatography
-is a separation technique used to separate parts of a liquid mixture e.g. dyes, paints, inks
e.t.c.
-chromatography is a Greek word which means, ‘colour writing’
-chromatography uses physical properties of solutes particles in a solution to separate them
-the properties used are: a) particle sizes
b) levels of solubility

-because of different particle sizes of solute dissolved in the solvent and different levels of
solubility, they move up the porous paper at different speeds making it easy to separate
-solution made from bigger particles of solute move slowly than solution made from small
particles of solute
chromatogram
-is a pattern of different coloured spots that appear on paper chromatography after solutions
are made to separate them in a suitable solvent

How paper chromatography works

1. Stationary phase

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-is a liquid or solid supported on a solid (paper)
-it is the strip or piece of paper that is placed in the solvent
-this is where the solvent use the capillary action to move through
2. Mobile phase
-is liquid or gas that flows through the stationary phase carrying components of the mixture
with it

-a special quality porous paper (chromatography paper) is used

-water trapped in the chromatography paper acts as the stationary phase
-a spot of the mixture to be separated is put onto the base of the chromatography paper (at
stationary phase)
-the paper with the mixture spots is suspended in a solvent (the mobile phase) in the
chromatography chamber/ glass beaker
-as the solvent flows up the chromatography paper it flows over the mixture spot
-the components of the mixture/dyes move up the chromatography paper differently,
depending on their solubility in the stationary and flowing solvents
-spots of separated coloured compound can be seen as zones/layers at different heights
starting from the initial spot on the chromatogram
-the solvent travelling up the chromatography paper leaves a line known as the solvent front
-when the solvent front reaches the top end of the paper, the paper is removed from the
solvent and analyse the zones of colours

-as the solvent flows through the green spots, the components the green ink also flow up the
chromatography paper, however, at different speeds, hence, they separate at different
distances along the solvent front

Applications of paper chromatography

-used in the separation of dyes and plant pigments
-used in separating solutes from mixtures that occur in very small volumes

2
-it is used to analyse urine and blood samples e.g to test if athletes have been taking banned
drugs

Experiment

Aim: using paper chromatography to separate mixtures in plant pigments and inks
(to separate out the pigments in spinach leaves and blue pen ink)
Materials
Ø Pestle and mortor
Ø 10 ml measuring cylinder
Ø Beaker
Ø Peg
Ø Chromatography paper
Ø Dropper
Ø Fresh green spinach leaves
Ø 5 ml of acetone
Ø Ether acetone
Method
ü Cut the fresh green spinach leaves into the mortor
ü Add 5ml of acetone and grind the spinach leaves using the pestle
ü Use the spinach extract to make spot on the chromatography paper
ü Make the spot dry
ü Pour ether acetone solvent into beaker
ü Suspend the paper in the beaker with the dried spot held 1cm above the solvent level
ü Use the peg to keep the paper in place
ü Observe as the solvent moves through the paper

Observations
-count the bands on the chromatogram
-yellow, dark green and (yellow-green) light green
-the yellow and green pigments make-up the green colour of the spinach leaves

Results
-spinach extract has several colours: yellow (xanthophyll), dark green (chlorophyll-a) and
light yellow- green (chlorophyll-b)
___________________________________________________________________________
The periodic table
-a tabular arrangement of the chemical elements according to their atomic structure
-the rows are the periods (running from left to right)
-the columns are the groups (from top to bottom)
-the arrangement of elements in the periods and groups follow certain characteristics:
1. All elements in each period have the same number of electron shells around the nucleus
2. Period one elements have one electron shell ( hydrogen and helium)
3. Each period starts with metals and changes to non-metals

3
4. Elements in each group have the same number of electrons in their outer electron shells
(valence electrons)
5. Elements are arranged in an ascending order in the periods according to the number of
protons found in their atomic nucleus
6. Elements in the same group have similar chemical and physical properties
7. Group number corresponds to the number of electrons in the outermost shell, except for
group 8 (0)

Information of elements on the periodic table

-symbol of the element
-the atomic number (number of protons in the nucleus)
-the mass number ( number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus)
-groups of elements are numbered from 1 to 18 (in roman numerals)
-IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system is used to arrange
elements on the periodic table

Physical properties of group 1 elements

-soft
-shiny metals
-have relatively low melting point e.g. (Li has a m/p of 180 oC; Na has a m/p of 98 oC and K
has a m/p of 63oC)
-have relatively low boiling point
-have low density (Li; Na and K float on water)
-atomic radius decreases from left to right across the period
-have one electron in their outermost shell

Chemical properties of group 1 elements

-reactivity increases down the group
-react with water to form alkaline solution
-very reactive elements
-good reducing agents
-have high ductility
-excellent conductivity of electricity
-reacts with water to produce a metal hydroxide and hydrogen (more rapidly) e.g.
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
-react with halogens to form halides

Physical properties of group 2 elements

-are known as alkaline earth metals
-they are soft
-they are harder as compared to group 1 elements
-they are bright and shiny when their surfaces are cleaned
-they are good conductors of heat and electricity
-melting point decreases down the group

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-have two electrons in their outermost shell

Chemical properties of group 2 elements

-react with water to produce metal hydroxide and hydrogen (less rapidly than group 1
elements) e.g. Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
-they react by donating electrons and form ions with double positive charge e.g.
Mg(s)→ Mg2+(aq) +2e-
-good reducing agents (substance causing reduction through being oxidised and lose
electrons)
- reactivity increases down the group
-react with oxygen to form basic oxides e.g. 2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
-compounds formed by this group are unstable when heated

Flame colours of metals

Group 1 Group 2

Metal Flame colour Metal Flame colour

Lithium Crimson Calcium Brick red

Sodium Golden yellow Strontium Crimson

Potassium Lilac Barium Apple green

Rubidium Red

Caesium Blue

Physical properties of group 7 elements

Element Electronic Molecular Appearance m.p. b.p.
configuration formula

Fluorine 2.7. F2 Pale yellow -219 -188

gas

Chlorine 2.8.7. CI2 Yellowish -101 -35

green gas

Bromine 2.8.18.7 Br2 Red brown -7 58

liquid

Iodine 2.8.18.18.7 I2 Shiny black 114 183

solid, violet
vapour

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Chemical properties of group 7 elements
-are strong oxidising agents
-react with metals to form ionic metal halides e.g. Na(s) + CI2(g) → 2NaCI(s)
-their reactivity decreases down the group
-they displace other halide ions in displacement reactions (displace each one below itself on
the group in a compound) e.g. Br2(g) + KI(g) → I2(aq) + 2KBr(aq)

CI2(g) + 2KBr(aq) → Br2(aq) + 2KCI (aq)

Uses of halogens
-halogens means ,’salt formers’

1. Fluorine
-used to make CFCs-propellants and refrigerants
-used in making fluoride in toothpaste
-to make PTFE-(the non-stick coating for pans
-to etch glass (hydrofluoric acid)

2. Chlorine
-in bleaches, e.g. wood pulp is bleached to make white paper
-to make PVC
-to make CFCs
-in pesticides
-in disinfectants, e.g. added to drinking water at very low concentrations
-as a solvent e.g. CCI4
-is used in water purification to kill bacteria
-used as a sterilizer in swimming pools
-it is a bleaching agent
-used in the manufacture of plastics
-used in the manufacture of disinfectants
NB: halogens are very reactive oxidising agents. Most of their compounds are used in
anaesthetics, pesticides, drugs and herbicides

3. Bromine
-to make flame retardants
-to make petrol additives
-in the manufacture of photographic film
-in disinfectants

4. Iodine
-in the manufacturing of photographic film
-in certain supplements essential for health e.g. table salt
-in disinfectants

Physical properties of group 8 elements

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-these are noble gases ( He; Ne; Ar; Kr; Xe and Randon (Rn) )
-have a full outermost shell
-their outermost shell either has 2 elements or 8 e.g. He (Helium) has 2 electrons in its
outermost shell and Ne (Neon) has 8 electrons in its outermost shell
-they are inert gases located on the right of the periodic table
-have a full-set of valence electrons, so they are stable
-are non-metals
-boiling point increases down the group
-they are odorlesss, colourless and monatomic gases under standard conditions
-have low boiling and melting points

Chemical properties of group O elements

-unreactive gases
-they all conduct electricity
-their densities increase down the group
Group 8 elements
Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar)
-also known as group O
-it is a group of noble gases
General properties
-are non-metals
-are non-reactive
-they are colourless, odourless gases at room temperature
-are all found in the atmosphere
-outermost energy level full
Reactions of metals with water, steam, air and dilute acids
Reactions with water: General equation: metal + water → salt + hydrogen
Metal Reaction
Potassium (K) Very violent with cold water. Catches fire. Hydrogen is given out and forming a
highly soluble oxide. Dangerous to perform in the laboratory.
The equation: 2K(s) + H2O(l)→K2O(aq) + H2(g)
Then the oxide dissolves in water: 2KOH(aq)
Sodium (Na) Violent with cold water. Hydrogen is given out and forms a highly soluble oxide.
The equation: 2Na(s) + H2O(l) →Na2O(aq) + H2(g)
The oxide dissolves in water: 2NaOH(aq)
calcium (Ca) Less violent with cold water. Hydrogen is given out and calcium hydroxide.

Magnesium (Mg) very slow with cold water. Hydrogen is given out and an oxide.

Zinc (Zn) Does not react with cold water.

Iron (Fe) Very slow forming iron oxide (rust). Takes long to notice.

Copper and gold No reaction.

Reaction metals with steam (water in gaseous state H2O(g))

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-potassium, sodium, and calcium are highly reactive metals

Metal (s) Observations Equation

Magnesium Hot magnesium reacts violently with steam Mg(s) + H2O(g)→MgO(s) + H2(g)
to form magnesium oxide (a white powder)
and hydrogen gas. A bright white glow is
produced during the reaction.
Zinc Hot zinc reacts readily with steam to form Zn(s) + H2O(g)→ ZnO(s) + H2(g)
zinc oxide and hydrogen gas. Zinc oxide is
yellow when hot and white when cold.
Iron Red-hot iron reacts slowly with steam to 3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g)→ Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)
form iron oxide and hydrogen gas. The iron
must be heated constantly in order for the
reaction to proceed.
Lead (Pb),
Copper (Cu) No reaction occurs.
and silver
(Ag)

-magnesium, Zinc and iron are fairly reactive metals

-copper, lead and silver are unreactive metals
-reactive metals tend to react to form compounds, while unreactive metals tend to remain as
metals

Reactivity order of metals(reactivity series)

K most reactive
Na
Ca
Mg
Zn reactivity decreases
Fe
Pb
Cu
Ag
Au least reactive

Reaction of metals with dilute acids

-most metals react with dilute acids to produce a salt and hydrogen
Metal + dilute acid → salt + hydrogen
Reaction of metals with dilute hydrochloric acid

Metal Reaction with hydrochloric acid

8
 Magnesium Reacts vigorously
Mg(s) + 2HCI(aq)→ MgCI2(aq) + H2(g)
Zinc Reacts slowly
Zn(s) + 2HCI(aq) → ZnCI2(aq) + H2(g)
Iron Fe(s) + 2HCI(aq) → FeCI2(aq) + H2(g)
Slow moderate reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid
Lead No real reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid
copper No reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid

Investigating into the reactivity of metals

Aim:
To carry out experiments to react magnesium, iron, zinc, copper and lead with water

Materials

Ø beakers
Ø filter funnels
Ø wooden splints
Ø universal indicator
Ø hard glass test tubes
Ø clamp stands
Ø magnesium
Ø iron
Ø zinc
Ø copper
Ø lead
Ø Water

Method
-cut the metals and place small pieces of each metal, about 3mm long in its own test tube
-cover each metal with water
-observe any reaction

Observations and results

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-adding universal indicator to the water in the beaker in which the reacting metals are
immersed, it turned blue to purple
-the gas released caused a pop sound on a glowing splint, showing that it was hydrogen
-however, the unreacting metals had no changes to the indicator

Written Exercise [50]

1. Draw a ‘dot and cross’, diagram to show the bonding of chlorine in
a) Sodium chloride (NaCI). [9]
b) Chlorine molecule (CI2). [10]
Your diagrams must show all the electrons.
2. Distinguish between ionic and covalent bonding. [2]
3. What isotopes? [1]
4. State the isotopes of hydrogen, carbon, chlorine and oxygen. [11]
5. Draw dot and cross diagram to show the bonding between hydrogen and oxygen in a
water molecule. [4]
6. Write down in a correct order the names of first 10 elements of the periodic table
and their symbols. [10]
7. State three properties of ionic compounds. [3]
Titration
-is a technique used to find the concentration of a substance in a solution
-it is an example of volumetric analysis
-the substance whose volume is known and whose concentration is to be found is known as
the analyte
-the titrant is the substance of a known volume and concentration (reagent) added to the
analyte

During titration:
-an analyte is placed in a conical flask
-an indicator is added to the analyte
-a titrant is then added to the solution
-the addition continues gradually until the indicator reaches the end-point
-the indicator helps to show when the base has been completely neutralised by the acid
through colour changes
Apparatus used in a titration

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And a safety pipette filler
1. Burette
-is used to add small, measured volumes of one reactant to the other reactant in the conical
flask
2. Conical flask
-is used to contain the liquid from the pipette
3. Pipette
-used to accurately measure a certain volume of acid or alkali
4. Safety pipette filler
-is used to fill the pipette
-use it safely

Titration experiment (acid-base)

Aim:
To titrate NaOH and dilute HCI

Materials
Ø clamp
Ø burette
Ø pipette
Ø pipette filler
Ø conical flask
Ø white tile
Ø dilute hydrochloric acid
Ø sodium hydroxide
Ø phenolphthalein

Method
· using pipette and pipette filler add 25cm3 of (NaOH) to the conical flask
· add a few drops of phenolphthalein (indicator) and put the conical flask on a white tile

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 · the white tile helps to see the colour of the indicator more easily
· fill the burette with dilute HCI
· note the starting volume of HCI in the burette
· slowly add the HCI from the burette to the NaOH in the conical flask, swirling to mix
· each time the solution is swirled, note whether the solution changes colour and if it is
permanent or if it changes back to the original colour
· stop adding the acid when the end-point is reached
· at the end-point, the indicator (phenolphthalein) changes colour permanently
· end-point is the completion of a process of a chemical reaction when no further titrant
should be added
· note the final volume reading of the HCI in the burette

Observations
è when phenolphthalein was added to the colourless analyte, it turned pink
è when the titrant was added and the solution was continuously swirled, it turned
colourless
è that result of the first titration was recorded as rough results e.g. 24.10 on the table of
results
è that means 24.10cm3 of the titrant was used in the first titration 0.00 point on the
burette
è the second titration was started from an initial point of 2.75cm3 (first final titration)
è
when drops of the titrant where continuously added to the solution and swirled, the
analyte then changed colour at 23.25cm3, that gave the first final titration of 26.00cm3
Results
You write the word equation for the reaction:
Sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid → sodium chloride + water
(NaOH) base ┼ (HCI) acid → (NaCI) salt ┼ (H2O)
-they are recorded in a table like the one below:
Reading number Starting volume Final volume reading Permanent colour
3
(cm ) (cm3) change?

1 Yes/no

2 Yes/no

3 Yes/no

4 Yes/no

5 Yes/no

6 (continue until all Yes/no

reading numbers are
completed)

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 End-point

Conclusion
v phenolphthalein is colourless, it remains colourless in acidic solution
v it turns pink at a pH of about 8 and when it turns pink in a solution during titration,
indicates that the base has neutralised all the acid
v you record indicator colour change when a certain volume (cm3) of acid has been
added. That is the end-point in titration. This indicates that, the base/acid has been
neutralised and a salt would have been formed in the conical flask. Though, the salt
may only be seen if evaporation of all the liquid has been done and the salt crystals
then form

Haber Process

Raw materials used in the manufacture of ammonia (NH3):

-nitrogen from air through fractional distillation
-hydrogen from electrolysis of water, but it can be obtained from natural gas (methane) or
from petroleum

Process of the manufacturing of NH3

Stage 1

Mixing
-nitrogen and hydrogen dried gases are mixed at the ratio of 1:3 respectively i.e.1N2:3H2

Stage 2
Compression
-a mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen is compressed at a pressure of about 300atm
-that pressure is maintained in the converter where heating and conversion takes place

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Stage 3

Heating and conversion conditions

-pressure of at least 200atm
-a temperature of about 450 oC-500oC
-an iron catalyst which is finely divided
-ratio of nitrogen and hydrogen 1:3 respectively
-the process is reversible (forward reaction can equally be reversed from products to
reactants)
-N2(g) + 3H2(g)↔ 2NH3(g)
-at equilibrium , forward reaction would be equal to backward reaction (production of
reactants = production of the product
NB. Highest yields of NH3 are obtained at high pressures and low temperatures
-however, high pressures are expensive since they cause explosions of pipes and therefore
need to reinforce the pipe, thus pressure is controlled by the cost
-low temperatures produce high yields, but they reduce the rate of reaction
-iron catalyst is used to lower the activation energy so as to facilitate use of lower
temperature

Stage 4

Condenser
-a mixture of nitrogen, hydrogen and ammonia gases is cooled until ammonia condenses
-the unreacted reactants are recycled
-liquid ammonia is collected under high pressure and stored for use

Uses of ammonia
-used in the manufacturing of fertilizers (NH4NO3 aq) and (NH)2SO4 aq [ammonium nitrate
and ammonium sulphate]
-used in the manufacture of nitric acids
-used in refrigeration
-it has other uses in the making of household cleaners, dyes, drugs, explosives and fibres
Flow chart for production of ammonia

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 N2

mixture

compressor catalyst Converter

3H2
200atm 200atm, 4500C-
5000C

Unreacted
N2 &H2

condenser

Storage tanks
Contact process

-it is the process by which sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is produced

Raw materials

-oxygen
-sulphur dioxide

Sources of the raw materials

(a) Oxygen
-oxygen is obtained from the liquefaction of air or electrolysis of water
(b) Sulphur dioxide
-obtained through the burning of iron pyrites in air (oxygen)
-obtained through melting and burning sulphur in air (oxygen)

Stages in the manufacturing of H2SO4

-it is a three stage process:
(a) Production of sulphur dioxide

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(b) Production of sulphur trioxide (reversible reaction)
(c) Bubbling of sulphur trioxide into concentrated sulphuric acid (98%) H2SO4 & 2%H2O)

Stage 1
(a) production of sulphur dioxide
-iron pyrite is burnt in air and iron oxide plus sulphur dioxide are the products
Iron pyrite + oxygen → iron oxide + sulphur dioxide
(4FeS2(s) ) (11O2(g) ) (2Fe2O3(s) ) (SO2(g))
or
-sulphur is melt and burnt in air to produce sulphur dioxide
Sulphur + oxygen → sulphur dioxide
(S(l)) (O2(g)) (SO2(g))
Stage 2
(b) production of sulphur trioxide (reversible reaction)
sulphur dioxide + oxygen sulphur trioxide + heat
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
-sulphur dioxide and oxygen are filtered to remove impurities that may destroy the catalyst
-are then mixed with excess air and passed on to the converter
-sulphur dioxide reacts with more oxygen to make sulphur trioxide
-this reaction is exothermic and reversible
Stage 3 (making of sulphuric acid)
-Oleum is formed from the bubbling
-sulphur trioxide + sulphuric acid → oleum
SO3 (g) + H2SO4 (g) → H2S2O7 (I)
Oleum + water → sulphuric acid
H2S2O7 (I) + H2O (I) → 2H2SO4 (I)
-sulphur dioxide and oxygen are filtered and dried as they are mixed
-the mixture is passed over a vanadium (v) oxide (V2O5) to be oxidised at a temperature of
4000C-5000C
-the reactants are mixed in the catalyst chamber to form sulphur trioxide
Sulphur dioxide + oxygen ↔ sulphur trioxide
-2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) ↔ 2SO3 (g)
-the production of sulphur trioxide is exothermic
-low temperatures produce high yield, but the slow reaction makes it uneconomic
-high rate of reaction is produced by high pressure, high temperature and a catalyst
-thus high yield is produced by low temperature and high pressure

Conditions for the production of H2SO4

v moderate temperature of 450oC – 500 oC

v use of vanadium (V) oxide as a catalyst
v 1 atm pressure

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-a compromise on high yield from low temperature is made to increase rate of reaction by
using a catalyst
-concentration of sulphuric acid produced depends on the dilution made using water or
concentrated sulphuric acid added

uses of sulphuric acid

v in the extraction of metals
v cleaning metals before electroplating
v in the manufacturing of textiles
v as electrolytes in batteries
v making of paper
v in the manufacturing of detergents
v as a drying agent (absorbing water)
v in the manufacturing of plastics and paints
v in the production of fertilizers
Oxidation
-is a process of adding oxygen, the removal of hydrogen or losing of electrons in a chemical
reaction
Reduction
-is a process of removing oxygen, adding of hydrogen or gaining of electrons in a chemical
reaction
Alloy
-is a mixture of two or more elements where at least one element is a metal
Alloys of iron
1. Mild steel
2. Stainless steel
3. Cast iron
4. Pig iron
5. Wrought iron
6. Manganese steel
7. Titanium steel
-steel is a mixture of iron and carbon
-iron (pig iron) produced in the blast (oxygen) furnace is an alloy of about 96% iron
Composition of the alloys of iron

1.Mild steel
-has low carbon content
-less than 0,25% carbon
-cheap
-strong
-easily shaped (malleable) and ductile
-can be welded
-main metal for construction (used in making bridges, buildings, ships and vehicles)

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2.Stainless steel
-80% iron
-15% chromium (resists rust by forming a thin layer of chromium oxide on the surface
protecting iron)
-4% nickel
-0.5 -1% carbon
-strong and hard
-very high resistance to corrosion (due to chromium)
-used in making cookware, cutlery and industrial chemical plant

3.Titanium steel
- 0.5 – 2% titanium
-has varying amounts of chromium, nickel and vanadium
-it is very hard
-used in aircrafts and armour plating
4. Manganese steel
-84% iron
-15% manganese
-1% carbon
-extremely hard
-used for railway points and dredging equipment
5. cast iron
-it is a ferrous alloy
-2-4% carbon
-0.5- 3% silicon and small amount of sulphur, manganese and phosphorus
-hard and brittle
-resistant to corrosion
-is not attracted by magnet
-high melting point of 1250 oC
-good tensile and compressive strength
-it is made from Pig iron through liquefying it with limestone and coke then allow it to cool
in a mould
-it is found in many types: grey cast iron, malleable cast iron, white cast iron, ductile cast iron
-very poor ductility
-used to make rail chairs
-used to make sanitary fittings
-used in casting moulds
-casting gas stoves
Ethanol
Ø -is a flammable, volatile and colourless liquid created when grains, fruits or
vegetables are fermented
Volatile liquid
Ø -substance which easily evaporate at normal temperature

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 Ø -it is also known as ethyl alcohol/grain alcohol
Ø -it belongs to the alcohol homologous series
Ø -its chemical formula is C2H5OH (molecular formula)

Ø -its structural formula is H H

│ │
H─ C ─ C─OH
│ │
H H
Ø -its boiling point (b.p.) is 780C
Uses of ethanol
Ø -used to blend petrol as a fuel
Ø -it is a component of alcoholic drinks such as beer, wines and spirits
Ø -used as a solvent in paints, vanishes, perfumes, detergents, e.t.c.
Ø -used in the manufacture of ethanoic acid
Ø -used to produce medical drugs
Ø -as a fluid in thermometer
Ø -as a preservation of biological specimens
Ø -as a fuel in lamps and stoves (methylated spirits)
Production of Ethanol
Ø -it is manufactured through two methods: (a) By catalytic hydration of ethene /
catalytic addition of steam (industrial manufacture). (b) Fermentation of sugar
compounds
Manufacturing of ethanol by fermentation

Fermentation
Ø -is the decomposition of organic matter without the use of oxygen
Ø -ethanol is produced through fermenting sugar and maize
Ø -in Zimbabwe it is done at Triangle Ethanol Plant
Ø -it is done in four stages:
1. Crushing
Ø -sugar cane or maize is crushed and the stalks are filtered
Ø -the juice extract is evaporated forming sugar crystals and molasses (a sticky liquid)
Ø -molasses and sugar crystals are separated through draining and collecting
(centrifuging)
2. Pasteurization
Ø -molasses is diluted with a lot of water forming a mash
Ø -the mash is pasteurized by heating to 700C and cooling again
Ø -the heating kills any bacteria in the mash
3. Pre-fermentation
Ø -pasteurized mash is mixed with yeast in a pre-fermentation tank
Ø -the pH in that tank is lowered by adding sulphuric acid
Ø -at the lowered pH bacteria dies but yeast survives
Ø -temperature is maintained at around 200C

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 Ø -air is bubbled into the tank to multiply yeast
Ø -yeast and mash are removed to main fermentation tank when the population of yeast
has reached at the required level
4. Fermentation tank
Ø -more mash is added in this tank for anaerobic fermentation to take place and allowed
to brew for 40hrs
Ø -yeast does not multiply in this tank because there is no air

Conversion to ethanol
Ø -yeast secretes two enzymes: invertase and zymase
Ø -invertase speeds up the conversion sucrose to glucose
Ø -zymase speeds up the conversion of glucose into ethanol and carbon dioxide
Summary of ethanol manufacture
Invertase zymase
Ø Sucrose → glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide

Crushed maize or sugar cane

↓
Gives a mixture of sugars (sucrose) which is diluted with water into mash

↓
Mash is placed in fermentation vats and mixed with yeast at a temperature around (20 0C)

And sulphuric acid to kill bacteria, but yeast survives

↓
In fermentation vats:

Invertase zymase

sucrose → glucose → alcohol (ethanol) + carbon dioxide

Ø -this ethanol is 10% concentrated

Ø -fractional distillation is used to concentrate the alcohol
Ø - pure ethanol burns with a very hot clean flame

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 Fermentation in the laboratory

Fractional distillation to separate water and alcohol in the laboratory

Ø -the process is used to separate liquids of different boiling points
Ø -the fractionating column packed with glass beads can be observed where condensing
liquid will be running down the column
Ø -the column is cooled at the top
Ø -any liquid boiling at a temperature above 78 0C will condense and drain back into the
flask
Ø -thus only ethanol reaches the top as a vapour and distils into the condense
Ø -ethanol will evaporate first
Ø -it will rise up the flask, the fractionating column and glass side- arm
Ø -it is boiled and condensed by the liebig’s condenser
Ø -pure ethanol liquid distillate forms

Sequence of events:
Ø Heating to 78 0C→evaporation (ethanol vapour)→ cooling→condensation→pure
ethanol (liquid fraction)

Global warming
Ø -is the general increase in the earth’s temperature
Ø Causes
Ø -presence of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere causing changes in climate patterns
across
Ø Combustion of fossil fuels
Ø Deforestation (removal of atmospheric cleaners of CO2 one of the greenhouse gases )

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 Signs
Ø -sea levels rising
Ø -glaciers melting
Ø -hurricanes getting bigger and stronger
Ø -polar bears losing habitats
Ø -soaring global temperatures

Climate change

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 Ø -is the rise in planet’s average temperature
Effects
Ø -affects winds and ocean currents which affect yearly amounts of rainfall and snow

Greenhouse gases
Ø -are gases that absorb and emit radiant energy within the thermal infrared range
Ø -carbon dioxide (CO2)[increasing by 10% every 20years in the atmosphere]
Ø -methane (CH4)
Ø -CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons)-decompose releasing chlorine which react with ozone
(O3) breaking ozone layer
Ø -water vapour
Ø -ozone (O3)

Greenhouse effect
Ø -infrared radiation passing through the atmosphere is absorbed and re-emitted in all
directions by the greenhouse gas molecules and clouds , thereby leading to the
warming of the earth’s surface and lower atmosphere
Ø -the greenhouse gases hold heat and cause earth temperature to rise

Sources of carbon dioxide (CO2)

Ø -volcanic outgassing
Ø -combustion of organic matter
Ø -respiration of aerobic organisms
Ø -lack of sufficient atmosphere cleaners (plants/trees) due to deforestation

Sources of methane (CH4)

Ø -decomposition of wastes
Ø -digestion by ruminants
Ø -natural gas and oil systems
Ø -manure management associated with livestock

Ozone layer
Ø -protects the earth from ultraviolet radiation
Ø -about 15-40 km of upper atmosphere
Ø -naturally, is a self-correcting system when O3 reacts with radiation rays breaking into
O2 and O, then recombining into O3, thereby filtering the radiation which gets to the
earth’ s surface and reflecting some back into the stratosphere
Ø Corrective summits by world leaders
Ø -Montreal Protocol to reduce CFCs
Ø -Kyotto Protocol to reduce CO2

Eduction needs a mindset which is as positive as a proton

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