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    Chapter 4 (Periodic Table)

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    Tunku Hilman Al-nordin
    The document discusses electron structures and configurations. It explains that electrons occupy principal energy levels designated by n, with sublevels of s and p orbitals within each level. It describes the shapes and sizes of s and p orbitals. The document also discusses writing electron configurations using rules like the Aufbau principle and Hund's rule. Core and valence electrons are defined. Factors like effective nuclear charge that influence atomic and ionic radius are also summarized.

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    Chapter 4 (Periodic Table)

    Uploaded by

    Tunku Hilman Al-nordin
    103 views46 pages
    The document discusses electron structures and configurations. It explains that electrons occupy principal energy levels designated by n, with sublevels of s and p orbitals within each level. It describes the shapes and sizes of s and p orbitals. The document also discusses writing electron configurations using rules like the Aufbau principle and Hund's rule. Core and valence electrons are defined. Factors like effective nuclear charge that influence atomic and ionic radius are also summarized.

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    The document discusses electron structures and configurations. It explains that electrons occupy principal energy levels designated by n, with sublevels of s and p orbitals within each level. It describes the shapes and sizes of s and p orbitals. The document also discusses writing electron configurations using rules like the Aufbau principle and Hund's rule. Core and valence electrons are defined. Factors like effective nuclear charge that influence atomic and ionic radius are also summarized.

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Download as pptx, pdf, or txt
    103 views46 pages

    Chapter 4 (Periodic Table)

    Uploaded by

    Tunku Hilman Al-nordin
    The document discusses electron structures and configurations. It explains that electrons occupy principal energy levels designated by n, with sublevels of s and p orbitals within each level. It describes the shapes and sizes of s and p orbitals. The document also discusses writing electron configurations using rules like the Aufbau principle and Hund's rule. Core and valence electrons are defined. Factors like effective nuclear charge that influence atomic and ionic radius are also summarized.

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    PERIODIC TABLE

    ELECTRON STRUCTURES
    Energy levels of electrons
    Prinsipal energy levels
    Designated by “n”
    n=1, n=2 and so on…

    Sublevels
    If n=1 there is only one sublevel: s
    If n=2 there is two sublevels: s and p

    Orbitals
    Space for electrons
    If n=2, electron occupy in 1s, 2s and 2px, 2py, 2pz
    s orbital
     spherical in shape.
     The electron does not move around on the surface of the
    sphere, but rather the surface encloses a space where there is a
    90% probability that the electron may be found.
     differ in size, which increases as n increases.
    y y y

    x x x

    z z z

    1s orbital 2s orbital 3s orbital


    p orbital
     has two lobes on opposite sides of the nucleus.
     The space enclosed by these surfaces represent the regions of
    probability for finding the electrons 90% of the time.
     increases in size as n increases.
    z z
    y

    x
    x x
    y y z

    px py pz
    Electron configuration
     How the electron are distributed among the various
    atomic orbitals, in order to understand electronic
    behavior.
     Configuration of atom Hydrogen:
    Number of electrons in
    Sublevel orbitals

    1s1
    Sublevel (sub-shell)
    Prinsipal energy level orbital
    (shell)
    How to write electron configuration
    (orbital diagram)

    1. Pauli exclusion principle: no two electrons in an


    atom can have the same four quantum numbers.

     Only two electrons may occupy the same atomic


    orbital, and must have opposite spins.
     Consider, how to write electron configuration for
    2He. Which one is correct?

    He He He
    1s2 1s2 1s2
      
    2. Hund’s rule: the most stable arrangement of
    electrons in sublevel is the one with the greatest
    number of parallel spins.
     Consider, how to write electron configuration for atom
    6C:
    1s2 2s2 2p2

    2px 2py 2pz 2px 2py 2pz 2px 2py 2pz

      
    Guidelines to write electron configuration
     Max. 2 electrons can occupy one orbital (opposite
    spin)
    Sub-shell no. of orbitals max no.of electrons
    s 1 2
    p 3 6
    d 5 10
    f 7 14
     Electrons occupy the lowest energy orbitals available.
    They enter a higher energy orbital only after the lower
    orbitals are filled.
     Orbital energies: s < p < d < f

    1s2

    2s2 2p6

    3s2 3p6 3d10

    4s2 4p6 4d10 4f14

    5s2 5p6 5d10 5f14

    6s2 6p6 6d10

    7s2 7p6
     Electrons are added singly to the atomic orbital with
    parallel spins to minimize repulsion between them
     the arrows are shown in the same direction (same
    spin). 
     Then the electrons pair up in the orbital sub-shells with
    opposite spin
     the arrows are shown in opposite directions. 
    EXAMPLE:

    3 Li: proton number = no. of electron = 3


    Orbital diagram:

    1s 2s

    Electron configuration: 1s2 2s1


    7 N: no. of electron = 7
    Orbital diagram:

    1s 2s 2p

    Electron configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p3


    12 Mg: no. of electron = 12

    Electron configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

    Orbital diagram:

    1s 2s 2p 3s
    17 Cl: number of electron = 17

    Electron configuration:
    1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

    Orbital diagram:

    1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
    Core electron and valence electron

     valence electrons – electrons in the valence orbital


    (outermost orbital)
     all others – core electrons

     Core electrons – highly stabilized and isolated from


    external attack by the electrons in outer orbitals.

     Valence electrons – less stable and less isolated. The


    chemical properties of any species depend on its
    valence electrons.
    Examples of electron configurations written
    with the core/valence notation
    full configuration
    atom full core Valence
    using core/
    configuration Conf.
    valence notation
    Li 1s2 2s1 1s2 or He 2s1 [He] 2s1
    N 1s2 2s2 2p3 1s2 or He 2s2 2p3 [He] 2s2 2p3
    O 1s2 2s2 2p4 1s2 or He 2s2 2p4 [He] 2s2 2p4
    Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 1s2 2s2 2p6 or 3s2 [Ne] 3s2
    Ne
    Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 1s2 2s2 2p6 or 3s2 3p5 [Ne] 3s2 3p5
    Ne
    Al 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 1s2 2s2 2p6 or 3s2 3p1 [Ne] 3s2 3p1
    Ne
    Periodic Table
    • 19th Century arrange element using atomic masses
    • Arrange elements according to their atomic masses
    • J.Newlands  every 8 element have the similar
    properties : law of octaves
    • D.Mendeleev & L.Meyer  group according to
    properties and can make prediction.
    • Rutherford & Moseley discovery of proton  arrange
    according to atomic number.

    http://www.cs.ubc.ca/cgi-bin/nph-pertab/tab/periodic-table
    Periodic Classification
     Element arranged according to atomic number
     Electron configuration explain physical and chemical
    properties
    Noble
    Group Period
    gases
    1 1 18

    2 2 13 14 15 16 17

    3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
    Transition metals

    Representative Lanthanides
    (Main Group)

    Actinides
    Electronic Configuration & Periodic Table
     Elements in the same group have the same numbers
    valence electron
    Group 1 to 17 (main group) incomplete s or p subshell

    11 Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 16 S: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
    Group 18, Noble gases completely filled p subshell

    18 Ar: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6


    Transition metals  incomplete d subshell

    21 Sc: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2

    Lanthanides and Actinides  Incomplete f shell


    Cations and Anions
     ions form from neutral atom noble gas outer-electron
    configuration
    Cation
    12Mg: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 Mg2+: 1s2 2s2 2p6

    10 Ne: 1s2 2s2 2p6


    Anion
    8 O: 1s2 2s2 2p4 O2-: 1s2 2s2 2p6

    10 Ne: 1s2 2s2 2p6


    Mg2+, O2- and Ne
    Isoelectronic
    Effective Nuclear Charge, Zeff
     Charge felt by an electron
    The larger Zeff, the stronger the hold of the nucleus on
    these electrons, and the smaller the atomic radius
     Shielding effect of electrons close to the nucleus (core
    electrons)
     Core electrons reduce the electrostatic attraction
    between protons( in the nucleus) & valence electrons
     Repulsive forces between electrons offset the
    attractive force exerted by nucleus
    Atomic Radius
     Is one-half the distance between the two nuclei in
    two adjacent metal atoms or in the diatomic
    molecule.
     Determine by the strength of attraction between
    valence electrons and the nucleus
     the larger the Zeff, the stronger the hold of the
    nucleus on these electrons, and the smaller the
    atomic radius
     Atomic radius increases as we going down a
    group of the periodic table because of an increase
    in principal quantum number, n.
     orbital size increase

    Group 1

    3 Li: 1s2 2s1

    11 Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

    19 K: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1


     Atomic radius decreases as we move from left to
    right across a period because of an increase in
    effective nuclear charge, Zeff , for the valence
    electrons
     moving across a period, the number of core
    electron stays the same, the principal quantum
    number, n remains constant, but Zeff increases.
     as Zeff increases, the electrons are drawn closer
    to the nucleus. Thus, the atomic radius
    decreases.

    3 Li: 1s2 2s1 6 C: 1s2 2s2 2p2 8 O: 1s2 2s2 2p4


    Ionic Radius
     the radius of a cation or an anion
     cation are always smaller than the atom from which they
    were formed.
     removing one or more electrons from an atom reduces
    electron-electron repulsion but the Zeff remains the
    same. So the electron cloud shrinks

    Na Na+
    186 pm 95 pm
     Anion are always larger than the atom from which they
    were formed.
     Because the Zeff remains the same but the repulsion
    resulting from the additional electron(s) enlarges the
    domain of the electron cloud.

    O O2-
    73 pm 140 pm
     When comparing cations or anions within a column
    (group), they get larger going down the column.
    Example:
    Ca2+ > Mg2+ and I- > Br-

     When comparing cations or anions across a row


    (period), they get smaller going across the row from
    left to right. Example:
    N3- > F- and K+ > Ca2+
    IONIZATION ENERGY
     Ionization energy : the minimum energy (in kJ/mol)
    required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom
    in its ground state
     First ionization energy (I1) : the energy needed to
    remove the first electron from a neutral atom.
     Second ionization energy (I2) : the energy needed to
    remove the second electron.
     I1
    Na (g)  Na+ (g) + e- E = 496 kJ/mol

     I2
    Na+ (g)  Na2+ (g) + e- E = 4560 kJ/mol

     The greater the ionization energy, the more difficult it


    is to remove the electron.
     Endothermic process
     Within each row (period) : I1 of elements in a period
    generally increase with increasing atomic number.
     Within each group : I1 of the elements in a group
    generally decrease with increasing atomic number.
    ELECTRON AFFINITY
     The energy change that occurs when an electron is
    accepted by an atom in the gaseous state to form an
    anion.
     Exothermic process
     The greater the attraction between an atom and an
    added electron, the more negative the atom’s electron
    affinity will be.

    Cl (g) + e-  Cl- (g) E = -349 kJ/mol


     Within each row (period) : electron affinity generally
    becomes increasingly negative as we across the row
    from left to right.
     Electron affinity do not change greatly as we move
    down a group.
    CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
     Elements in the same group resemble one another in chemical
    behavior because they have similar outer electron
    configuration.
     Group 1 and 2  all metals
     Group 17 and 18  all nonmetals
     Group 13 through 16
     The elements change either from nonmetals to metals
    or from nonmetals to metalloids
     variation in chemical properties even though
    members of the same group have similar outer
    electron configurations.
    GROUP 1 (ns1, n≥1)

     Alkali metals
     Very reactive (why?)
     Have low first ionization energy  great tendency to lose the
    its valence electron to form ions with a +1 charge.
     React with water  producing hydrogen gas and solutions of
    alkali metal hydroxides
    2Na (s) + 2H2O (l)  2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
     Reaction between alkali metals and oxygen:
     Lithium form metal oxides (which contain O2- ion)
    4Li (s) + O2 (g)  2Li2O (s)
     other metals form metal oxides and peroxides (contain O22-
    ion)
    2Na (s) + O2 (g)  Na2O2 (s)
     K, Rb and Cs also form superoxides (contains O2- ion)
    K (s) + O2 (g)  KO2 (s)
    GROUP 2 (ns2, n≥2 )
     Alkali earth metals
     Less reactive than alkali metals
     ionization energies decrease as we move down the group from
    Be to Ba.
     reactivity increases from top to bottom
     Reactivity towards water
     Beryllium (Be) does not react with water
     Mg react with steam to form MgO and hydrogen gas
    Mg (s) + H2O (g)  MgO (s) + H2 (g)
     Ca, Sr, Ba react with water at room temperature
    Ca (s) + 2H2O (l)  Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
     Reactivity towards oxygen
     increase from Be to Ba
     Be and Mg form oxides (BeO and MgO) only at
    elevated temperature
     Ca, Sr and Ba form oxides at room temperature
     Mg, Ca, Sr and Ba reacts with aqueous acid to produce
    hydrogen gas
    Mg (s) + 2H+ (aq)  Mg2+ (aq) + H2 (g)
    GROUP 13 (ns2 np1, n≥2 )

    First member, Boron – metalloid; the rest – metals


    Boron – does not form binary ionic compounds and
    unreactive towards O2 (g) and water
    Aluminum – readily forms aluminum oxide when exposed to
    air
    4Al (s) + 3O2 (g)  2Al2O3 (s)
    Al forms only +3 ion (Al3+). Other elements form both +1 and
    +3 ions.
    Moving down the group  the +1 ions becomes more stable
    than the +3 ion.
    GROUP 14 (ns2 np2, n≥2 )

     carbon  nonmetal Do not form ionic


     Si and Ge  metalloids compound

     Sn and Pb  metallic elements


     Do not react with water
     React with acid to produce hydrogen gas
    Pb (s) + 2H+ (aq)  Pb2+ (aq) + H2 (g)
    GROUP 15 (ns2 np3, n≥2 )

     Nitrogen, phosphorus  nonmetals


     Arsenic and Antimony  metalloid
     Bismuth  metals
     Nitrogen exist as diatomic gas (N2). Nitrogen has a tendency
    to accept 3 electrons to form nitride ion, N3-
     Phosphorus exist as P4 molecules.
    GROUP 16 (ns2 np4, n≥2 )

    Oxygen, sulfur and selenium  nonmetals


    Tellurium and polonium  metalloids
    Oxygen – diatomic gas  has a tendency to accept two
    electrons to form oxide ion (O2-)
    Sulfur exist as S8 molecule and selenium as Se8
    GROUP 17 (ns2 np5, n≥2 )

     Are known as halogen


     All the halogen are nonmetals
     All halogen exist as diatomic molecules
     F2 and Cl2  gases at room temperature
     Br2  liquid
     I2  solid
     Halogens have highly negative electron affinities  great
    tendency to gain electrons from other elements to form
    halide ions
    X2 + 2e-  2X- (X indicates a halogen elements)
     Fluorine and chlorine are more reactive than bromine and
    iodine
     Fluorine is so reactive and removes electrons from almost
    any substance with which it comes into contact, including
    water.
    2F2 (g) + 2H2O (l)  4HF (aq) + O2 (g)
    2F2 (g) + SiO2 (s)  SiF4 (g) + O2 (g)
     As a result, fluorine gas is difficult and dangerous to use in
    the laboratory and requiring special apparatus.
    GROUP 18 (ns2 np6, n≥2 )

     Known as noble gases


     All noble gases exist as monoatomic species.
     Their atoms have completely filled outer ns and np subshells,
    which give them great stability.

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