PERIODIC TABLE

ELECTRON STRUCTURES
 Energy levels of electrons
Prinsipal energy levels
Designated by “n”
n=1, n=2 and so on…

Sublevels
If n=1 there is only one sublevel: s
If n=2 there is two sublevels: s and p

Orbitals
Space for electrons
If n=2, electron occupy in 1s, 2s and 2px, 2py, 2pz
 s orbital
 spherical in shape.
 The electron does not move around on the surface of the
sphere, but rather the surface encloses a space where there is a
90% probability that the electron may be found.
 differ in size, which increases as n increases.
y y y

x x x

z z z

1s orbital 2s orbital 3s orbital

 p orbital
 has two lobes on opposite sides of the nucleus.
 The space enclosed by these surfaces represent the regions of
probability for finding the electrons 90% of the time.
 increases in size as n increases.
z z
y

x
x x
y y z

px py pz
 Electron configuration
 How the electron are distributed among the various
atomic orbitals, in order to understand electronic
behavior.
 Configuration of atom Hydrogen:
Number of electrons in
Sublevel orbitals

1s1
Sublevel (sub-shell)
Prinsipal energy level orbital
(shell)
 How to write electron configuration
(orbital diagram)

1. Pauli exclusion principle: no two electrons in an

atom can have the same four quantum numbers.

 Only two electrons may occupy the same atomic

orbital, and must have opposite spins.
 Consider, how to write electron configuration for
2He. Which one is correct?

He He He
1s2 1s2 1s2
  
2. Hund’s rule: the most stable arrangement of
electrons in sublevel is the one with the greatest
number of parallel spins.
 Consider, how to write electron configuration for atom
6C:
1s2 2s2 2p2

2px 2py 2pz 2px 2py 2pz 2px 2py 2pz

  
Guidelines to write electron configuration
 Max. 2 electrons can occupy one orbital (opposite
spin)
Sub-shell no. of orbitals max no.of electrons
s 1 2
p 3 6
d 5 10
f 7 14
 Electrons occupy the lowest energy orbitals available.
They enter a higher energy orbital only after the lower
orbitals are filled.
 Orbital energies: s < p < d < f

1s2

2s2 2p6

3s2 3p6 3d10

4s2 4p6 4d10 4f14

5s2 5p6 5d10 5f14

6s2 6p6 6d10

7s2 7p6
 Electrons are added singly to the atomic orbital with
parallel spins to minimize repulsion between them
 the arrows are shown in the same direction (same
spin). 
 Then the electrons pair up in the orbital sub-shells with
opposite spin
 the arrows are shown in opposite directions. 
EXAMPLE:

3 Li: proton number = no. of electron = 3

Orbital diagram:

1s 2s

Electron configuration: 1s2 2s1

7 N: no. of electron = 7
Orbital diagram:

1s 2s 2p

Electron configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p3

12 Mg: no. of electron = 12

Electron configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

Orbital diagram:

1s 2s 2p 3s
17 Cl: number of electron = 17

Electron configuration:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

Orbital diagram:

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
 Core electron and valence electron

 valence electrons – electrons in the valence orbital

(outermost orbital)
 all others – core electrons

 Core electrons – highly stabilized and isolated from

external attack by the electrons in outer orbitals.

 Valence electrons – less stable and less isolated. The

chemical properties of any species depend on its
valence electrons.
 Examples of electron configurations written
with the core/valence notation
full configuration
atom full core Valence
using core/
configuration Conf.
valence notation
Li 1s2 2s1 1s2 or He 2s1 [He] 2s1
N 1s2 2s2 2p3 1s2 or He 2s2 2p3 [He] 2s2 2p3
O 1s2 2s2 2p4 1s2 or He 2s2 2p4 [He] 2s2 2p4
Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 1s2 2s2 2p6 or 3s2 [Ne] 3s2
Ne
Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 1s2 2s2 2p6 or 3s2 3p5 [Ne] 3s2 3p5
Ne
Al 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 1s2 2s2 2p6 or 3s2 3p1 [Ne] 3s2 3p1
Ne
 Periodic Table
• 19th Century arrange element using atomic masses
• Arrange elements according to their atomic masses
• J.Newlands  every 8 element have the similar
properties : law of octaves
• D.Mendeleev & L.Meyer  group according to
properties and can make prediction.
• Rutherford & Moseley discovery of proton  arrange
according to atomic number.

http://www.cs.ubc.ca/cgi-bin/nph-pertab/tab/periodic-table
 Periodic Classification
 Element arranged according to atomic number
 Electron configuration explain physical and chemical
properties
Noble
Group Period
gases
1 1 18

2 2 13 14 15 16 17

3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Transition metals

Representative Lanthanides
(Main Group)

Actinides
Electronic Configuration & Periodic Table
 Elements in the same group have the same numbers
valence electron
Group 1 to 17 (main group) incomplete s or p subshell

11 Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 16 S: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
Group 18, Noble gases completely filled p subshell

18 Ar: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

Transition metals  incomplete d subshell

21 Sc: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2

Lanthanides and Actinides  Incomplete f shell

 Cations and Anions
 ions form from neutral atom noble gas outer-electron
configuration
Cation
12Mg: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 Mg2+: 1s2 2s2 2p6

10 Ne: 1s2 2s2 2p6

Anion
8 O: 1s2 2s2 2p4 O2-: 1s2 2s2 2p6

10 Ne: 1s2 2s2 2p6

Mg2+, O2- and Ne
Isoelectronic
 Effective Nuclear Charge, Zeff
 Charge felt by an electron
The larger Zeff, the stronger the hold of the nucleus on
these electrons, and the smaller the atomic radius
 Shielding effect of electrons close to the nucleus (core
electrons)
 Core electrons reduce the electrostatic attraction
between protons( in the nucleus) & valence electrons
 Repulsive forces between electrons offset the
attractive force exerted by nucleus
 Atomic Radius
 Is one-half the distance between the two nuclei in
two adjacent metal atoms or in the diatomic
molecule.
 Determine by the strength of attraction between
valence electrons and the nucleus
 the larger the Zeff, the stronger the hold of the
nucleus on these electrons, and the smaller the
atomic radius
 Atomic radius increases as we going down a
group of the periodic table because of an increase
in principal quantum number, n.
 orbital size increase

Group 1

3 Li: 1s2 2s1

11 Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

19 K: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1

  Atomic radius decreases as we move from left to
right across a period because of an increase in
effective nuclear charge, Zeff , for the valence
electrons
 moving across a period, the number of core
electron stays the same, the principal quantum
number, n remains constant, but Zeff increases.
 as Zeff increases, the electrons are drawn closer
to the nucleus. Thus, the atomic radius
decreases.

3 Li: 1s2 2s1 6 C: 1s2 2s2 2p2 8 O: 1s2 2s2 2p4

 Ionic Radius
 the radius of a cation or an anion
 cation are always smaller than the atom from which they
were formed.
 removing one or more electrons from an atom reduces
electron-electron repulsion but the Zeff remains the
same. So the electron cloud shrinks

Na Na+
186 pm 95 pm
 Anion are always larger than the atom from which they
were formed.
 Because the Zeff remains the same but the repulsion
resulting from the additional electron(s) enlarges the
domain of the electron cloud.

O O2-
73 pm 140 pm
 When comparing cations or anions within a column
(group), they get larger going down the column.
Example:
Ca2+ > Mg2+ and I- > Br-

 When comparing cations or anions across a row

(period), they get smaller going across the row from
left to right. Example:
N3- > F- and K+ > Ca2+
 IONIZATION ENERGY
 Ionization energy : the minimum energy (in kJ/mol)
required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom
in its ground state
 First ionization energy (I1) : the energy needed to
remove the first electron from a neutral atom.
 Second ionization energy (I2) : the energy needed to
remove the second electron.
  I1
Na (g)  Na+ (g) + e- E = 496 kJ/mol

 I2
Na+ (g)  Na2+ (g) + e- E = 4560 kJ/mol

 The greater the ionization energy, the more difficult it

is to remove the electron.
 Endothermic process
 Within each row (period) : I1 of elements in a period
generally increase with increasing atomic number.
 Within each group : I1 of the elements in a group
generally decrease with increasing atomic number.
 ELECTRON AFFINITY
 The energy change that occurs when an electron is
accepted by an atom in the gaseous state to form an
anion.
 Exothermic process
 The greater the attraction between an atom and an
added electron, the more negative the atom’s electron
affinity will be.

Cl (g) + e-  Cl- (g) E = -349 kJ/mol

 Within each row (period) : electron affinity generally
becomes increasingly negative as we across the row
from left to right.
 Electron affinity do not change greatly as we move
down a group.
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
 Elements in the same group resemble one another in chemical
behavior because they have similar outer electron
configuration.
 Group 1 and 2  all metals
 Group 17 and 18  all nonmetals
 Group 13 through 16
 The elements change either from nonmetals to metals
or from nonmetals to metalloids
 variation in chemical properties even though
members of the same group have similar outer
electron configurations.
 GROUP 1 (ns1, n≥1)

 Alkali metals
 Very reactive (why?)
 Have low first ionization energy  great tendency to lose the
its valence electron to form ions with a +1 charge.
 React with water  producing hydrogen gas and solutions of
alkali metal hydroxides
2Na (s) + 2H2O (l)  2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
 Reaction between alkali metals and oxygen:
 Lithium form metal oxides (which contain O2- ion)
4Li (s) + O2 (g)  2Li2O (s)
 other metals form metal oxides and peroxides (contain O22-
ion)
2Na (s) + O2 (g)  Na2O2 (s)
 K, Rb and Cs also form superoxides (contains O2- ion)
K (s) + O2 (g)  KO2 (s)
 GROUP 2 (ns2, n≥2 )
 Alkali earth metals
 Less reactive than alkali metals
 ionization energies decrease as we move down the group from
Be to Ba.
 reactivity increases from top to bottom
 Reactivity towards water
 Beryllium (Be) does not react with water
 Mg react with steam to form MgO and hydrogen gas
Mg (s) + H2O (g)  MgO (s) + H2 (g)
 Ca, Sr, Ba react with water at room temperature
Ca (s) + 2H2O (l)  Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
 Reactivity towards oxygen
 increase from Be to Ba
 Be and Mg form oxides (BeO and MgO) only at
elevated temperature
 Ca, Sr and Ba form oxides at room temperature
 Mg, Ca, Sr and Ba reacts with aqueous acid to produce
hydrogen gas
Mg (s) + 2H+ (aq)  Mg2+ (aq) + H2 (g)
 GROUP 13 (ns2 np1, n≥2 )

First member, Boron – metalloid; the rest – metals

Boron – does not form binary ionic compounds and
unreactive towards O2 (g) and water
Aluminum – readily forms aluminum oxide when exposed to
air
4Al (s) + 3O2 (g)  2Al2O3 (s)
Al forms only +3 ion (Al3+). Other elements form both +1 and
+3 ions.
Moving down the group  the +1 ions becomes more stable
than the +3 ion.
 GROUP 14 (ns2 np2, n≥2 )

 carbon  nonmetal Do not form ionic

 Si and Ge  metalloids compound

 Sn and Pb  metallic elements

 Do not react with water
 React with acid to produce hydrogen gas
Pb (s) + 2H+ (aq)  Pb2+ (aq) + H2 (g)
 GROUP 15 (ns2 np3, n≥2 )

 Nitrogen, phosphorus  nonmetals

 Arsenic and Antimony  metalloid
 Bismuth  metals
 Nitrogen exist as diatomic gas (N2). Nitrogen has a tendency
to accept 3 electrons to form nitride ion, N3-
 Phosphorus exist as P4 molecules.
 GROUP 16 (ns2 np4, n≥2 )

Oxygen, sulfur and selenium  nonmetals

Tellurium and polonium  metalloids
Oxygen – diatomic gas  has a tendency to accept two
electrons to form oxide ion (O2-)
Sulfur exist as S8 molecule and selenium as Se8
 GROUP 17 (ns2 np5, n≥2 )

 Are known as halogen

 All the halogen are nonmetals
 All halogen exist as diatomic molecules
 F2 and Cl2  gases at room temperature
 Br2  liquid
 I2  solid
 Halogens have highly negative electron affinities  great
tendency to gain electrons from other elements to form
halide ions
X2 + 2e-  2X- (X indicates a halogen elements)
 Fluorine and chlorine are more reactive than bromine and
iodine
 Fluorine is so reactive and removes electrons from almost
any substance with which it comes into contact, including
water.
2F2 (g) + 2H2O (l)  4HF (aq) + O2 (g)
2F2 (g) + SiO2 (s)  SiF4 (g) + O2 (g)
 As a result, fluorine gas is difficult and dangerous to use in
the laboratory and requiring special apparatus.
 GROUP 18 (ns2 np6, n≥2 )

 Known as noble gases

 All noble gases exist as monoatomic species.
 Their atoms have completely filled outer ns and np subshells,
which give them great stability.