RF Module

User’s Guide
RF Module User’s Guide
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Part number: CM021001

C o n t e n t s

Chapter 1: Introduction

About the RF Module 12

What Can the RF Module Do?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
What Problems Can You Solve? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
The RF Module Physics Interface Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes. . . . . . . 15
Selecting the Study Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
The RF Module Modeling Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries? . . . . 18

Overview of the User’s Guide 22

Chapter 2: RF Modeling

Preparing for RF Modeling 26

Simplifying Geometries 27
2D Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3D Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Using Efficient Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Applying Electromagnetic Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Meshing and Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Periodic Boundary Conditions 32

Scattered Field Formulation 34

Modeling with Far-Field Calculations 36

Far-Field Support in the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
The Far Field Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

CONTENTS |3
 S-Parameters and Ports 40
S-Parameters in Terms of Voltage and Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . 40
S-Parameter Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
S-Parameter Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Port Sweeps/Manual Terminal Sweeps and Touchstone Export. . . . . . 41

Lumped Ports with Voltage Input 43

About Lumped Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Lumped Port Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Lumped Ports in the RF Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Lossy Eigenvalue Calculations 47

Eigenfrequency Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Mode Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Connecting to Electrical Circuits 51

About Connecting Electrical Circuits to Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . 51
Connecting Electrical Circuits Using Predefined Couplings . . . . . . . 52
Connecting Electrical Circuits by User-Defined Couplings . . . . . . . 52
Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Postprocessing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Spice Import 55
SPICE Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
SPICE Export . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Reference for SPICE Import and Export . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Reduced Order Modeling 57

Asymptotic Waveform Evaluation (AWE) Method . . . . . . . . . . 57
Frequency-Domain Modal Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Chapter 3: Electromagnetics Theory

Maxwell’s Equations 62
Introduction to Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Constitutive Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

4 | CONTENTS
 Potentials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Electromagnetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Boundary and Interface Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Phasors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Special Calculations 70
S-Parameter Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Far-Field Calculations Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Electromagnetic Quantities 75

Chapter 4: Radio Frequency Interfaces

The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface 78

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the
Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface . . . . . . . . 83
Wave Equation, Electric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Divergence Constraint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
External Current Density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Far-Field Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Far-Field Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Perfect Electric Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Perfect Magnetic Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Integration Line for Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Integration Line for Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Circular Port Reference Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Diffraction Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Periodic Port Reference Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Lumped Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Lumped Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Uniform Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

CONTENTS |5
 Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Scattering Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Impedance Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Surface Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Surface Magnetic Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Surface Roughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Transition Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Periodic Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Magnetic Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Two-Port Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Two-Port Network Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Edge Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Electric Point Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Magnetic Point Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Line Current (Out-of-Plane) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Archie’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

The Electromagnetic Waves, Transient Interface 124

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the
Electromagnetic Waves, Transient Interface . . . . . . . . . . 125
Wave Equation, Electric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Drude-Lorentz Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

The Transmission Line Interface 132

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Transmission
Line Equation Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Transmission Line Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Absorbing Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Incoming Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Open Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Terminating Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Short Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Lumped Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

6 | CONTENTS
The Electromagnetic Waves, Time Explicit Interface 139
Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Electromagnetic Waves,
Time Explicit Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Wave Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Electric Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Magnetic Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Perfect Electric Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Perfect Magnetic Conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Surface Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Low-Reflecting Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Flux/Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Theory for the Electromagnetic Waves Interfaces 148

Introduction to the Physics Interface Equations . . . . . . . . . . 148
Frequency Domain Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Time Domain Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Vector Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Eigenfrequency Calculations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Gaussian Beams as Background Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Effective Material Properties in Porous Media and Mixtures . . . . . . 158
Effective Conductivity in Porous Media and Mixtures . . . . . . . . 159
Effective Relative Permittivity in Porous Media and Mixtures . . . . . 160
Effective Relative Permeability in Porous Media and Mixtures . . . . . 161
Archie’s Law Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Reference for Archie’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

Theory for the Transmission Line Interface 163

Introduction to Transmission Line Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Theory for the Transmission Line Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . 164

Theory for the Electromagnetic Waves, Time Explicit

Interface 167
The Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
In-plane E Field or In-plane H Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Fluxes as Dirichlet Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

CONTENTS |7
 Absorbing Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Chapter 5: AC/DC Interfaces

The Electrical Circuit Interface 176

Ground Node . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Capacitor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Voltage Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Voltage-Controlled Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Current-Controlled Voltage Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Current-Controlled Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Subcircuit Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Subcircuit Instance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
NPN BJT and PNP BJT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
n-Channel MOSFET and p-Channel MOSFET . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Mutual Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Transformer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
External I vs. U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
External U vs. I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
External I-Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
SPICE Circuit Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
SPICE Circuit Export . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

Theory for the Electrical Circuit Interface 192

Electric Circuit Modeling and the Semiconductor Device Models. . . . 192
Bipolar Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
MOSFET Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Reference for the Electrical Circuit Interface . . . . . . . . . . . 201

8 | CONTENTS
C h a p t e r 6 : H e a t Tr a n s f e r I n t e r f a c e s

The Microwave Heating Interface 204

Electromagnetic Heat Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

Chapter 7: Glossary

Glossary of Terms 210

CONTENTS |9
10 | C O N T E N T S
 1

Introduction

This guide describes the RF Module, an optional add-on package for COMSOL
Multiphysics® with customized physics interfaces and functionality optimized for
the analysis of electromagnetic waves.

This chapter introduces you to the capabilities of this module. A summary of the
physics interfaces and where you can find documentation and model examples is
also included. The last section is a brief overview with links to each chapter in this
guide.

• About the RF Module

• Overview of the User’s Guide

11
 About the RF Module
In this section:

• What Can the RF Module Do?

• What Problems Can You Solve?
• The RF Module Physics Interface Guide
• Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes
• Selecting the Study Type
• The RF Module Modeling Process
• Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

The Physics Interfaces and Building a COMSOL Multiphysics Model in

the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

What Can the RF Module Do?

The RF Module solves problems in the general field of electromagnetic waves, such as
RF and microwave applications, optics, and photonics. The underlying equations for
electromagnetics are automatically available in all of the physics interfaces—a feature
unique to COMSOL Multiphysics. This also makes nonstandard modeling easily
accessible.

The module is useful for component design in virtually all areas where you find
electromagnetic waves, such as:

• Antennas
• Filters, couplers, and power dividers
• Planar circuits and passive devices
• RF interconnects and packages
• Waveguides and cavity resonators
• Frequency-selective surfaces
• Meta-materials

12 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The physics interfaces cover the following types of electromagnetics field simulations
and handle time-harmonic, time-dependent, and eigenfrequency/eigenmode
problems:

• In-plane, axisymmetric, and full 3D electromagnetic wave propagation

• Full vector mode analysis in 2D and 3D

Material properties include inhomogeneous and fully anisotropic materials, media with
gains or losses, and complex-valued material properties. In addition to the standard
postprocessing features, the module supports direct computation of S-parameters and
far-field patterns. You can add ports with a wave excitation with specified power level
and mode type, and add PMLs (perfectly matched layers) to simulate electromagnetic
waves that propagate into an unbounded domain. For time-harmonic simulations, you
can use the scattered wave or the total wave.

Using the multiphysics capabilities of COMSOL Multiphysics you can couple

simulations with heat transfer, structural mechanics, fluid flow formulations, and other
physical phenomena.

This module also has interfaces for circuit modeling, a SPICE interface, and support
for importing ECAD drawings.

What Problems Can You Solve?

QUASI-STATIC AND HIGH FREQUENCY MODELING

One major difference between quasi-static and high-frequency modeling is that the
formulations depend on the electrical size of the structure. This dimensionless
measure is the ratio between the largest distance between two points in the structure
divided by the wavelength of the electromagnetic fields.

For simulations of structures with an electrical size in the range up to 1/10,

quasi-static formulations are suitable. The physical assumption of these situations is
that wave propagation delays are small enough to be neglected. Thus, phase shifts or
phase gradients in fields are caused by materials and/or conductor arrangements being
inductive or capacitive rather than being caused by propagation delays.

For electrostatic, magnetostatic, and quasi-static electromagnetics, use the AC/DC

Module, a COMSOL Multiphysics add-on module for low-frequency
electromagnetics.

ABOUT THE RF MODULE | 13

 When propagation delays become important, it is necessary to use the full Maxwell
equations for high-frequency electromagnetic waves. They are appropriate for
structures of electrical size 1/100 and larger. Thus, an overlapping range exists where
you can use both the quasi-static and the full Maxwell physics interfaces.

Independently of the structure size, the module accommodates any case of nonlinear,
inhomogeneous, or anisotropic media. It also handles materials with properties that
vary as a function of time as well as frequency-dispersive materials.

The RF Module Physics Interface Guide

The physics interfaces in this module form a complete set of simulation tools for
electromagnetic wave simulations. Add the physics interface and study type when
starting to build a new model. You can add physics interfaces and studies to an existing
model throughout the design process. In addition to the core physics interfaces
included with the basic COMSOL Multiphysics license, the physics interfaces below
are included with the RF Module and available in the indicated space dimension. All
physics interfaces are available in 2D and 3D. In 2D there are in-plane formulations
for problems with a planar symmetry as well as axisymmetric formulations for problems
with a cylindrical symmetry. 2D mode analysis of waveguide cross sections with
out-of-plane propagation is also supported.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Studies and Solvers

• The Physics Interfaces
• Creating a New Model
• For a list of all the core physics interfaces included with a COMSOL
Multiphysics license, see Physics Interface Guide.

14 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE PRESET STUDY
DIMENSION TYPE

AC/DC

Electrical Circuit cir Not space stationary; frequency

dependent domain; time dependent;
small signal analysis,
frequency domain
Heat Transfer

Electromagnetic Heating

Microwave Heating1 — 3D, 2D, 2D frequency-stationary;

axisymmetric frequency-transient
Radio Frequency

Electromagnetic Waves, emw 3D, 2D, 2D eigenfrequency; frequency

Frequency Domain axisymmetric domain; frequency-domain
modal; boundary mode
analysis; mode analysis (2D
and 2D axisymmetric
models only)
Electromagnetic Waves, ewte 3D, 2D, 2D time dependent
Time Explicit axisymmetric
Electromagnetic Waves, temw 3D, 2D, 2D eigenfrequency; time
Transient axisymmetric dependent; time-dependent
modal
Transmission Line tl 3D, 2D, 1D eigenfrequency; frequency
domain
1 This physics interface is a predefined multiphysics coupling that automatically adds all the
physics interfaces and coupling features required.

Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes

There are several common settings and sections available for the physics interfaces and
feature nodes. Some of these sections also have similar settings or are implemented in

ABOUT THE RF MODULE | 15

 the same way no matter the physics interface or feature being used. There are also some
physics feature nodes that display in COMSOL Multiphysics.

In each module’s documentation, only unique or extra information is included;

standard information and procedures are centralized in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-3 for

links to common sections and Table 2-4 to common feature nodes.
You can also search for information: press F1 to open the Help
window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

Selecting the Study Type

To carry out different kinds of simulations for a given set of parameters in a physics
interface, you can select, add, and change the Study Types at almost every stage of
modeling.

Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

COMPARING THE TIME DEPENDENT AND FREQUENCY DOMAIN STUDIES

When variations in time are present there are two main approaches to represent the
time dependence. The most straightforward is to solve the problem by calculating the
changes in the solution for each time step; that is, solving using the Time Dependent
study (available with the Electromagnetic Waves, Transient interface). However, this
approach can be time consuming if small time steps are necessary for the desired
accuracy. It is necessary when the inputs are transients like turn-on and turn-off
sequences.

However, if the Frequency Domain study available with the Electromagnetic Waves,
Frequency Domain interface is used, this allows you to efficiently simplify and assume
that all variations in time occur as sinusoidal signals. Then the problem is
time-harmonic and in the frequency domain. Thus you can formulate it as a stationary
problem with complex-valued solutions. The complex value represents both the
amplitude and the phase of the field, while the frequency is specified as a scalar model
input, usually provided by the solver. This approach is useful because, combined with
Fourier analysis, it applies to all periodic signals with the exception of nonlinear

16 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
problems. Examples of typical frequency domain simulations are wave-propagation
problems like waveguides and antennas.

For nonlinear problems you can apply a Frequency Domain study after a linearization
of the problem, which assumes that the distortion of the sinusoidal signal is small.

Use a Time Dependent study when the nonlinear influence is strong, or if you are
interested in the harmonic distortion of a sine signal. It can also be more efficient to
use a Time Dependent study if you have a periodic input with many harmonics, like a
square-shaped signal.

DEFAULT FREQUENCY

In the RF module, the Frequency Domain, the Frequency-Domain Modal, and the
Eigenfrequency study step have GHz as the default frequency unit and a default
frequency of 1[GHz].

The RF Module Modeling Process

The modeling process has these main steps, which (excluding the first step),
correspond to the branches displayed in the Model Builder in the COMSOL Desktop
environment.

1 Selecting the appropriate physics interface or predefined multiphysics coupling

when adding a physics interface.
2 Defining component parameters and variables in the Definitions branch ( ).
3 Drawing or importing the component geometry in the Geometry branch ( ).
4 Assigning material properties to the geometry in the Materials branch ( ).
5 Setting up the model equations and boundary conditions in the physics interfaces
branch.
6 Meshing in the Mesh branch ( ).
7 Setting up the study and computing the solution in the Study branch ( ).
8 Analyzing and visualizing the results in the Results branch ( ).

When using frequency related study steps, define the simulation

frequency in the Study branch first. The frequency in the Study node
will then be used for defining the physics-controlled mesh and in any
frequency-based physics features.

ABOUT THE RF MODULE | 17

 Even after a model is defined, you can edit to input data, equations, boundary
conditions, geometry—the equations and boundary conditions are still available
through associative geometry—and mesh settings. You can restart the solver, for
example, using the existing solution as the initial condition or initial guess. It is also
easy to add another physics interface to account for a phenomenon not previously
described in a model.

• Building a COMSOL Multiphysics Model in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual
• The RF Module Physics Interface Guide
• Selecting the Study Type

Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

A number of internet resources have more information about COMSOL, including
licensing and technical information. The electronic documentation, topic-based (or
context-based) help, and the application libraries are all accessed through the
COMSOL Desktop.

If you are reading the documentation as a PDF file on your computer,

the blue links do not work to open an application or content
referenced in a different guide. However, if you are using the Help
system in COMSOL Multiphysics, these links work to open other
modules (as long as you have a license), application examples, and
documentation sets.

THE DOCUMENTATION AND ONLINE HELP

The COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual describes the core physics interfaces
and functionality included with the COMSOL Multiphysics license. This book also has
instructions about how to use COMSOL Multiphysics and how to access the
electronic Documentation and Help content.

Opening Topic-Based Help

The Help window is useful as it is connected to many of the features on the GUI. To
learn more about a node in the Model Builder, or a window on the Desktop, click to
highlight a node or window, then press F1 to open the Help window, which then

18 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
displays information about that feature (or click a node in the Model Builder followed
by the Help button ( ). This is called topic-based (or context) help.

To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder, Application Builder, or Physics Builder click a node or

window and then press F1.
• On any toolbar (for example, Home, Definitions, or Geometry), hover the
mouse over a button (for example, Add Physics or Build All) and then
press F1.
• From the File menu, click Help ( ).
• In the upper-right corner of the COMSOL Desktop, click the Help ( )
button.

To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder or Physics Builder click a node or window and then
press F1.
• On the main toolbar, click the Help ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Help.

Opening the Documentation Window

To open the Documentation window:

• Press Ctrl+F1.
• From the File menu select Help>Documentation ( ).

To open the Documentation window:

• Press Ctrl+F1.
• On the main toolbar, click the Documentation ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Documentation.

ABOUT THE RF MODULE | 19

 THE APPLICATION LIBRARIES WINDOW
Each application includes documentation with the theoretical background and
step-by-step instructions to create a model application. The applications are available
in COMSOL as MPH-files that you can open for further investigation. You can use the
step-by-step instructions and the actual applications as a template for your own
modeling and applications. In most models, SI units are used to describe the relevant
properties, parameters, and dimensions in most examples, but other unit systems are
available.

Once the Application Libraries window is opened, you can search by name or browse
under a module folder name. Click to view a summary of the application and its
properties, including options to open it or a PDF document.

The Application Libraries Window in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

Opening the Application Libraries Window

To open the Application Libraries window ( ):

• From the Home toolbar, Windows menu, click ( ) Applications

Libraries.
• From the File menu select Application Libraries.

To include the latest versions of model examples, from the File>Help

menu, select ( ) Update COMSOL Application Library.

Select Application Libraries from the main File> or Windows> menus.

To include the latest versions of model examples, from the Help menu
select ( ) Update COMSOL Application Library.

CONT ACT ING COMSOL BY EMAIL

For general product information, contact COMSOL at info@comsol.com.

To receive technical support from COMSOL for the COMSOL products, please
contact your local COMSOL representative or send your questions to

20 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
support@comsol.com. An automatic notification and a case number are sent to you by
email.

COMSOL ONLINE RESOURCES

COMSOL website www.comsol.com

Contact COMSOL www.comsol.com/contact
Support Center www.comsol.com/support
Product Download www.comsol.com/product-download
Product Updates www.comsol.com/support/updates
COMSOL Blog www.comsol.com/blogs
Discussion Forum www.comsol.com/community
Events www.comsol.com/events
COMSOL Video Gallery www.comsol.com/video
Support Knowledge Base www.comsol.com/support/knowledgebase

ABOUT THE RF MODULE | 21

 Overview of the User’s Guide
The RF Module User’s Guide gets you started with modeling using COMSOL
Multiphysics. The information in this guide is specific to this module. Instructions how
to use COMSOL in general are included with the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

As detailed in the section Where Do I Access the Documentation and

Application Libraries? this information can also be searched from the
COMSOL Multiphysics software Help menu.

TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S , G L O S S A R Y, A N D I N D E X
To help you navigate through this guide, see the Contents, Glossary, and Index.

MODELING WITH THE RF MODULE

The RF Modeling chapter familiarize you with the modeling procedures. A number of
examples available through the Application Libraries window also illustrate the
different aspects of the simulation process. Topics include Preparing for RF Modeling,
Simplifying Geometries, and Scattered Field Formulation.

RF THEORY
The Electromagnetics Theory chapter contains a review of the basic theory of
electromagnetics, starting with Maxwell’s Equations, and the theory for some Special
Calculations: S-parameters, lumped port parameters, and far-field analysis. There is
also a list of Electromagnetic Quantities with their SI units and symbols.

RADIO FREQUENCY
Radio Frequency Interfaces chapter describes:

• The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface, which analyzes

frequency domain electromagnetic waves, and uses time-harmonic and
eigenfrequency or eigenmode (2D only) studies, boundary mode analysis and
frequency domain modal.
• The Electromagnetic Waves, Transient Interface, which supports the Time
Dependent study type.

22 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
• The Transmission Line Interface, which solves the time-harmonic transmission line
equation for the electric potential.
• The Electromagnetic Waves, Time Explicit Interface, which solves a transient wave
equation for both the electric and magnetic fields.

The underlying theory is also included at the end of the chapter.

ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
AC/DC Interfaces chapter describes The Electrical Circuit Interface, which simulates
the current in a conductive and capacitive material under the influence of an electric
field. All three study types (Stationary, Frequency Domain, and Time Dependent) are
available. The underlying theory is also included at the end of the chapter.

H E A T TR A N S F E R
Heat Transfer Interfaces chapter describes the Microwave Heating interface, which
combines the physics features of an Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain
interface from the RF Module with the Heat Transfer interface. The predefined
interaction adds the electromagnetic losses from the electromagnetic waves as a heat
source and solves frequency domain (time-harmonic) electromagnetic waves in
conjunction with stationary or transient heat transfer. This physics interface is based on
the assumption that the electromagnetic cycle time is short compared to the thermal
time scale (adiabatic assumption). The underlying theory is also included at the end of
the chapter.

O V E R V I E W O F T H E U S E R ’S G U I D E | 23
24 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 2

RF Modeling

The goal of this chapter is to familiarize you with the modeling procedure in the
RF Module. A number of models available through the RF Module Applications
Libraries also illustrate the different aspects of the simulation process.

In this chapter:

• Preparing for RF Modeling

• Simplifying Geometries
• Periodic Boundary Conditions
• Scattered Field Formulation
• Modeling with Far-Field Calculations
• S-Parameters and Ports
• Lumped Ports with Voltage Input
• Lossy Eigenvalue Calculations
• Connecting to Electrical Circuits
• Spice Import
• Reduced Order Modeling

25
 Preparing for RF Modeling
Several modeling topics are described in this section that might not be found in
ordinary textbooks on electromagnetic theory.

This section is intended to help answer questions such as:

• Which spatial dimension should I use: 3D, 2D axial symmetry, or 2D?

• Is my problem suited for time-dependent or frequency domain formulations?
• Can I use a quasi-static formulation or do I need wave propagation?
• What sources can I use to excite the fields?
• When do I need to resolve the thickness of thin shells and when can I use boundary
conditions?
• What is the purpose of the model?
• What information do I want to extract from the model?

Increasing the complexity of a model to make it more accurate usually makes it more
expensive to simulate. A complex model is also more difficult to manage and interpret
than a simple one. Keep in mind that it can be more accurate and efficient to use several
simple models instead of a single, complex one.

The Physics Interfaces and Building a COMSOL Multiphysics Model in

the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

26 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
Simplifying Geometries
Most of the problems that are solved with COMSOL Multiphysics are
three-dimensional (3D) in the real world. In many cases, it is sufficient to solve a
two-dimensional (2D) problem that is close to or equivalent to the real problem.
Furthermore, it is good practice to start a modeling project by building one or several
2D models before going to a 3D model. This is because 2D models are easier to
modify and solve much faster. Thus, modeling mistakes are much easier to find when
working in 2D. Once the 2D model is verified, you are in a much better position to
build a 3D model.

In this section:

• 2D Models
• 3D Models
• Using Efficient Boundary Conditions
• Applying Electromagnetic Sources
• Meshing and Solving

2D Models
The text below is a guide to some of the common approximations made for 2D
models. Remember that the modeling in 2D usually represents some 3D geometry
under the assumption that nothing changes in the third dimension or that the field has
a prescribed propagation component in the third dimension.

CARTESIAN COORDINATES
In this case a cross section is viewed in the xy-plane of the actual 3D geometry. The
geometry is mathematically extended to infinity in both directions along the z-axis,
assuming no variation along that axis or that the field has a prescribed wave vector
component along that axis. All the total flows in and out of boundaries are per unit
length along the z-axis. A simplified way of looking at this is to assume that the
geometry is extruded one unit length from the cross section along the z-axis. The total
flow out of each boundary is then from the face created by the extruded boundary (a
boundary in 2D is a line).

SIMPLIFYING GEOMETRIES | 27
 There are usually two approaches that lead to a 2D cross-section view of a problem.
The first approach is when it is known that there is no variation of the solution in one
particular dimension.

This is shown in the model H-Bend Waveguide 2D, where the electric field only has
one component in the z direction and is constant along that axis. The second approach
is when there is a problem where the influence of the finite extension in the third
dimension can be neglected.

Figure 2-1: The cross sections and their real geometry for Cartesian coordinates and
cylindrical coordinates (axial symmetry).

H-Bend Waveguide 2D: Application Library path RF_Module/

Transmission_Lines_and_Waveguides/h_bend_waveguide_2d

AXIAL SYMMETRY (CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES)

If the 3D geometry can be constructed by revolving a cross section around an axis, and
if no variations in any variable occur when going around the axis of revolution (or that
the field has a prescribed wave vector component in the direction of revolution), then
use an axisymmetric physics interface. The spatial coordinates are called r and z, where
r is the radius. The flow at the boundaries is given per unit length along the third
dimension. Because this dimension is a revolution all flows must be multiplied with αr,
where α is the revolution angle (for example, 2π for a full turn).

Conical Antenna: Application Library path RF_Module/Antennas/

conical_antenna

28 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
 When using the axisymmetric versions, the horizontal axis represents the
radial (r) direction and the vertical axis the z direction, and the geometry
in the right half-plane (that is, for positive r only) must be created.

PO LA RIZATION IN 2D
In addition to selecting 2D or 2D axisymmetry when you start building the model, the
physics interfaces (The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface or The
Electromagnetic Waves, Transient Interface) in the Model Builder offers a choice in
the Components settings section. The available choices are Out-of-plane vector,
In-plane vector, and Three-component vector. This choice determines what
polarizations can be handled. For example, as you are solving for the electric field, a
2D TM (out-of-plane H field) model requires choosing In-plane vector as then the
electric field components are in the modeling plane.

3D Models
Although COMSOL Multiphysics fully supports arbitrary 3D geometries, it is
important to simplify the problem. This is because 3D models often require more
computer power, memory, and time to solve. The extra time spent on simplifying a
model is probably well spent when solving it. Below are a few issues that need to be
addressed before starting to implement a 3D model in this module.

• Check if it is possible to solve the problem in 2D. Given that the necessary
approximations are small, the solution is more accurate in 2D, because a much
denser mesh can be used.
• Look for symmetries in the geometry and model. Many problems have planes where
the solution is the same on both sides of the plane. A good way to check this is to
flip the geometry around the plane, for example, by turning it up-side down around
the horizontal plane. Then remove the geometry below the plane if no differences
are observed between the two cases regarding geometry, materials, and sources.
Boundaries created by the cross section between the geometry and this plane need
a symmetry boundary condition, which is available in all 3D physics interfaces.
• There are also cases when the dependence along one direction is known, and it can
be replaced by an analytical function. Use this approach either to convert 3D to 2D
or to convert a layer to a boundary condition.

SIMPLIFYING GEOMETRIES | 29
 Using Efficient Boundary Conditions
An important technique to minimize the problem size is to use efficient boundary
conditions. Truncating the geometry without introducing too large errors is one of the
great challenges in modeling. Below are a few suggestions of how to do this. They
apply to both 2D and 3D problems.

• Many models extend to infinity or can have regions where the solution only
undergoes small changes. This problem is addressed in two related steps. First, the
geometry needs to be truncated in a suitable position. Second, a suitable boundary
condition needs to be applied there. For static and quasi-static models, it is often
possible to assume zero fields at the open boundary, provided that this is at a
sufficient distance away from the sources. For radiation problems, special
low-reflecting boundary conditions need to be applied. This boundary should be in
the order of a few wavelengths away from any source.
A more accurate option is to use perfectly matched layers (PMLs). PMLs are layers
that absorbs all radiated waves with small reflections.
• Replace thin layers with boundary conditions where possible. There are several types
of boundary conditions in COMSOL Multiphysics suitable for such replacements.
For example, replace materials with high conductivity by the perfect electric
conductor (PEC) boundary condition.
• Use boundary conditions for known solutions. For example, an antenna aperture
can be modeled as an equivalent surface current density on a 2D face (boundary) in
a 3D model.

Applying Electromagnetic Sources

Electromagnetic sources can be applied in many different ways. The typical options are
boundary sources, line sources, and point sources, where point sources in 2D
formulations are equivalent to line sources in 3D formulations. The way sources are
imposed can have an impact on what quantities can be computed from the model. For
example, a line source in an electromagnetic wave model represents a singularity and
the magnetic field does not have a finite value at the position of the source. In a
COMSOL Multiphysics model, the magnetic field of a line source has a finite but
mesh-dependent value. In general, using volume or boundary sources is more flexible
than using line sources or point sources, but the meshing of the source domains
becomes more expensive.

30 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
Meshing and Solving
The finite element method approximates the solution within each element, using some
elementary shape function that can be constant, linear, or of higher order. Depending
on the element order in the model, a finer or coarser mesh is required to resolve the
solution. In general, there are three problem-dependent factors that determine the
necessary mesh resolution:

• The first is the variation in the solution due to geometrical factors. The mesh
generator automatically generates a finer mesh where there is a lot of fine
geometrical details. Try to remove such details if they do not influence the solution,
because they produce a lot of unnecessary mesh elements.
• The second is the skin effect or the field variation due to losses. It is easy to estimate
the skin depth from the conductivity, permeability, and frequency. At least two linear
elements per skin depth are required to capture the variation of the fields. If the skin
depth is not studied or a very accurate measure of the dissipation loss profile is not
needed, replace regions with a small skin depth with a boundary condition, thereby
saving elements. If it is necessary to resolve the skin depth, the boundary layer
meshing technique can be a convenient way to get a dense mesh near a boundary.
• The third and last factor is the wavelength. To resolve a wave properly, it is necessary
to use about 10 linear (or five 2nd order) elements per wavelength. Keep in mind
that the wavelength depends on the local material properties.

SOLVERS
In most cases the solver sequence generated by COMSOL Multiphysics can be used.
The choice of solver is optimized for the typical case for each physics interface and
study type in this module. However, in special cases tuning the solver settings can be
required. This is especially important for 3D problems because they can require a large
amount of memory.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Meshing
• Studies and Solvers

SIMPLIFYING GEOMETRIES | 31
 Periodic Boundary Conditions
The RF Module has a dedicated Periodic Condition. The periodic condition can
identify simple mappings on plane source and destination boundaries of equal shape.
The destination can also be rotated with respect to the source. There are three types
of periodic conditions available (only the first two for transient analysis):

• Continuity—The tangential components of the solution variables are equal on the

source and destination.
• Antiperiodicity—The tangential components have opposite signs.
• Floquet periodicity—There is a phase shift between the tangential components. The
phase shift is determined by a wave vector and the distance between the source and
destination. Floquet periodicity is typically used for models involving plane waves
interacting with periodic structures.

Periodic boundary conditions must have compatible meshes. This can be done
automatically by enabling the Physics-control mesh in the setting for The
Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface or by manually setting up the
correct mesh sequence

If more advanced periodic boundary conditions are required, for

example, when there is a known rotation of the polarization from one
boundary to another, see Component Couplings and Coupling
Operators in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for tools to
define more general mappings between boundaries.

To learn how to use the Copy Mesh feature to ensure that the mesh on
the destination boundary is identical to that on the source boundary, see
Plasmonic Wire Grating: Application Library path RF_Module/Tutorials/
plasmonic_wire_grating.

For an example of how to use the Physics-controlled mesh, see Fresnel

Equations: Application Library path RF_Module/Verification_Examples/
fresnel_equations.

32 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Periodic Condition and Destination Selection

• Periodic Boundary Conditions

PERIODIC BOUNDAR Y CONDITIONS | 33

 Scattered Field Formulation
For problems where a known background field is illuminating an object in free space
it is possible to use the scattered field formulation. Since the equation of the
background field is known it can be entered as a model input and does not need to be
computed. Starting from the frequency-domain governing equation:

∇ × ( μ –1 ∇ × E ) – ω 2 εc E = 0

The total electric field, E, can be decomposed into two components:

E = Etotal = Ebackground + Erelative

The known background field becomes a source term and the scattered field
formulation thus solves for the relative electric field. A linearly polarized plane wave
background field, a paraxial-approximate Gaussian beam, or a user-defined
background field can be specified. When solving the scattered field formulation the
total, the background, and the relative electric fields are available. The relative field is
the difference between the background field and the total field. It is the relative field
that contributes to the far-field calculation. For more information about the Far-Field
computation, see Far-Field Calculations Theory. The benefit to this approach is that if
the background field is much larger in magnitude than the scattered field, the accuracy
of the simulation improves if the relative field is solved for. Another advantage is that
is becomes very easy to set up a perfectly matched layer surrounding the homogeneous
medium modeling domain.

The drawback to the this approach is that the relative field requires some careful
interpretation. The relative electric field can conceptually be decomposed into:

Erelative = Escattered + Ecorrection + Ecancellation

The Escattered component is the scattered field from object. This is the field that is of
interest in a scattering problem. However, the relative field may also consist of a
component that represents a correction to the background field and a cancellation of
the background field. The Ecorrection component can be nonzero when the
background field does not exactly satisfy Maxwell’s equations, such as when the
paraxial Gaussian beam approximation is used for a tightly focused beam. For more
information about the Gaussian beam theory, see Gaussian Beams as Background
Fields. The Ecancellation component will be nonzero and equal to −Ebackground
wherever the total field should be zero, such as in the interior of any perfectly shielded

34 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
objects, or behind a relatively large shielding object. Note that this decomposition is
conceptual only, it is only the relative field that is available.

An alternative of using the scattered-field formulation, is to use ports with the Activate
slit condition on interior port setting enabled. Then the domain can be excited by the
interior port and the outgoing field can be absorbed by perfectly matched layers. For
more information about the Port feature and the Activate slit condition on interior port
setting, see Port Properties.

SCATTERED FIELDS SETTING

The scattered-field formulation is available for The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency
Domain Interface under the Settings section. The scattered field in the analysis is called
the relative electric field. The total electric field is always available, and for the
scattered-field formulation this is the sum of the scattered field and the incident field.

Radar Cross Section: Application Library path RF_Module/

Scattering_and_RCS/radar_cross_section

SCATTERED FIELD FORMULATION | 35

 Modeling with Far-Field Calculations
The far electromagnetic field from, for example, antennas can be calculated from the
near-field solution on a boundary using far-field analysis. The antenna is located in the
vicinity of the origin, while the far-field is taken at infinity but with a well-defined
angular direction ( θ, ϕ ) . The far-field radiation pattern is given by evaluating the
squared norm of the far-field on a sphere centered at the origin. Each coordinate on
the surface of the sphere represents an angular direction.

In this section:

• Far-Field Support in the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface

• The Far Field Plots

Radar Cross Section: Application Library path RF_Module/

Scattering_and_RCS/radar_cross_section

Far-Field Support in the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain

Interface
The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain interface supports far-field analysis.
To define the far-field variables use the Far-Field Calculation node. Select a domain for
the far-field calculation. Then select the boundaries where the algorithm integrates the
near field, and enter a name for the far electric field. Also specify if symmetry planes are
used in the model when calculating the far-field variable. The symmetry planes have to
coincide with one of the Cartesian coordinate planes. For each of these planes it is
possible to select the type of symmetry to use, which can be of either symmetry in E
(PMC) or symmetry in H (PEC). Make the choice here match the boundary
condition used for the symmetry boundary. Using these settings, the parts of the
geometry that are not in the model for symmetry reasons can be included in the
far-field analysis.

The Far-Field Domain and the Far-Field Calculation nodes get their selections
automatically, if the Perfectly Matched Layer (PML) feature has been defined before
adding the Far-Field Domain feature.

For each variable name entered, the software generates functions and variables, which
represent the vector components of the far electric field. The names of these variables

36 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
are constructed by appending the names of the independent variables to the name
entered in the field.

For example, the name Efar is entered and the geometry is Cartesian with the
independent variables x, y, and z, the generated variables get the names Efarx, Efary,
and Efarz.

If, on the other hand, the geometry is axisymmetric with the independent variables r,
phi, and z, the generated variables get the names Efarr, Efarphi, and Efarz.

In 2D, the software only generates the variables for the nonzero field components. The
physics interface name also appears in front of the variable names so they can vary, but
typically look something like emw.Efarz and so forth.

To each of the generated variables, there is a corresponding function with the same
name. This function takes the vector components of the evaluated far-field direction as
arguments.

The vector components also can be interpreted as a position. For example, assume that
the variables dx, dy, and dz represent the direction in which the far electric field is
evaluated.

The expression

Efarx(dx,dy,dz)

gives the value of the far electric field in this direction. To give the direction as an angle,
use the expression

Efarx(sin(theta)*cos(phi),sin(theta)*sin(phi),cos(theta))

where the variables theta and phi are defined to represent the angular direction
( θ, ϕ ) in radians. The magnitude of the far field and its value in dB are also generated
as the variables normEfar and normdBEfar, respectively.

Far-Field Calculations Theory

The Far Field Plots

The Far Field plots are available with this module to plot the value of a global variable
(the far field norm, normEfar and normdBEfar, or components of the far field variable
Efar).

M O D E L I N G W I T H F A R- F I E L D C A L C U L A T I O N S | 37
 The variables are plotted for a selected number of angles on a unit circle (in 2D) or a
unit sphere (in 3D). The angle interval and the number of angles can be manually
specified. For 2D Far Field plots also the reference direction from which the angle is
measured and the normal to the plane the far field is computed for can be specified.
For 3D Far Field plots you also specify an expression for the surface color.

The main advantage with the Far Field plot, as compared to making a Line Graph, is that
the unit circle/sphere that you use for defining the plot directions, is not part of your
geometry for the solution. Thus, the number of plotting directions is decoupled from
the discretization of the solution domain.

Default Far Field plots are automatically added to any model that uses far
field calculations.

Available variables are:

• Effective isotropic radiated power (emw.EIRP)

• Effective isotropic radiated power, dB (emw.EIRPdB)
• Far-field gain (emw.gainEfar)
• Far-field gain, dB (emw.gainBEfar)
• Far-field norm (emw.normEfar)
• Far-field norm, dB (emw.normdBEfar)
• Far-field variable, x component (emw.Efarx)
• Far-field variable, y component (emw.Efary)
• Far-field variable, z component (emw.Efarz)
• Realized far-field gain (emw.rGainEfar)
• Realized far-field realized gain, dB (emw.rGainBEfar)

Additional variables are provided for 3D models.

• Axial ratio (emw.axialRatio)

• Axial ratio, dB (emw.axialRatiodB)
• Bistatic radar cross section (emw.bRCS3D)
• Far-field variable, phi component (emw.Efarphi)
• Far-field variable, theta component (emw.Efartheta)

38 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
Additional variable is provided for 2D models.

• Bistatic radar cross section per unit length (emw.bRCS2D)

• 2D example with a Polar Plot Group—Radar Cross Section:

Application Library path RF_Module/Scattering_and_RCS/
radar_cross_section.
• 2D axisymmetric example with a Polar Plot Group and a 3D Plot
Group—Conical Antenna: Application Library path RF_Module/
Antennas/conical_antenna.
• 3D example with a Polar Plot Group and 3D Plot Group—Radome
with Double-Layered Dielectric Lens: Application Library path
RF_Module/Antennas/radome_antenna.

• Far-Field Support in the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain

Interface
• Far Field in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

M O D E L I N G W I T H F A R- F I E L D C A L C U L A T I O N S | 39
 S - P a r a m e t e r s a n d Port s
In this section:

• S-Parameters in Terms of Voltage and Electric Field

• S-Parameter Calculations
• S-Parameter Variables
• Port Sweeps/Manual Terminal Sweeps and Touchstone Export

S-Parameters in Terms of Voltage and Electric Field

Scattering parameters (or S-parameters) are complex-valued, frequency dependent
matrices describing the transmission and reflection of electromagnetic waves at
different ports of devices like filters, antennas, waveguide transitions, and transmission
lines. S-parameters originate from transmission-line theory and are defined in terms of
transmitted and reflected voltage waves. All ports are assumed to be connected to
matched loads/feeds, that is, there is no reflection directly at a port.

For a device with n ports, the S-parameters are

S 11 S 12 . . S 1n
S 21 S 22 . . .
S = . . . . .
. . . . .
S n1 . . . S nn

where S11 is the voltage reflection coefficient at port 1, S21 is the voltage transmission
coefficient from port 1 to port 2, and so on. The time average power reflection/
transmission coefficients are obtained as | Sij |2.

Now, for high-frequency problems, voltage is not a well-defined entity, and it is

necessary to define the scattering parameters in terms of the electric field.

For details on how COMSOL Multiphysics calculates the S-parameters,

see S-Parameter Calculations.

40 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
S-Parameter Calculations
The RF interfaces have built-in support for S-parameter calculations. Use a Port
boundary feature for each port in the model. For connecting transmission lines and
other lumped feeds, use a lumped port that approximates a connecting transmission
lines or a voltage source with a known internal impedance. The lumped port should
only be used when the port width is much smaller than the wavelength.

• For more details about lumped ports, see Lumped Ports with Voltage
Input.
• See Port and Lumped Port for instructions to set up a model.

For a detailed description of how to model numerical ports with a

boundary mode analysis, see Waveguide Adapter: Application Library
path RF_Module/Transmission_Lines_and_Waveguides/waveguide_adapter.

S-Parameter Variables
This module automatically generates variables for the S-parameters. The port names
(use numbers for sweeps to work correctly) determine the variable names. If, for
example, there are two ports with the numbers 1 and 2 and Port 1 is the inport, the
software generates the variables S11 and S21. S11 is the S-parameter for the reflected
wave and S21 is the S-parameter for the transmitted wave. For convenience, two
variables for the S-parameters on a dB scale, S11dB and S21dB, are also defined using
the following relation:

S 11dB = 20 log 10 ( S 11 )

The model and physics interface names also appear in front of the variable names so
they can vary. The S-parameter variables are added to the predefined quantities in
appropriate plot lists.

Port Sweeps/Manual Terminal Sweeps and Touchstone Export

The Port Sweep Settings section in the Electromagnetic Waves interface describes how
to cycle through the ports, compute the entire S-matrix and export it to a Touchstone
file.

S-PARAMETERS AND PORTS | 41

 H-Bend Waveguide 3D: Application Library path RF_Module/
Transmission_Lines_and_Waveguides/h_bend_waveguide_3d

42 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
L um pe d P o r ts wi t h Vol t age In p u t
In this section:

• About Lumped Ports

• Lumped Port Parameters
• Lumped Ports in the RF Module

About Lumped Ports

The ports described in the S-Parameters and Ports section require a detailed
specification of the mode, including the propagation constant and field profile. In
situations with the mode being TEM, a lumped port might be a better choice. It also
allows for connecting to an electrical circuit. It is not as accurate as the ordinary port
in terms of calculating S-parameters, but it is easier to use. Lumped ports are used to
model a connecting transmission line or as a voltage or current source applied between
electrodes. For example, apply a lumped port directly to a printed circuit board or to
the transmission line feed of a device. The lumped port must be applied between two
metallic objects separated by a distance much smaller than the wavelength, that is a
local quasi-static approximation must be justified. This is because the concept of port
or gap voltage breaks down unless the gap is much smaller than the local wavelength.

A lumped port specified as an input port calculates the impedance, Zport, and S11
S-parameter for that port. The parameters are directly given by the relations

V port
Z port = -------------
I port
V port – V in
S 11 = ----------------------------
V in

where Vport is the extracted voltage for the port given by the electric field line integral
between the terminals averaged over the entire port. The current Iport is the averaged
total current over all cross sections parallel to the terminals. Ports not specified as input
ports only return the extracted voltage and current.

Lumped Port Parameters

L U M P E D P O R T S W I T H VO L T A G E I N P U T | 43
 Lumped Port Parameters
In transmission line theory voltages and currents are dealt with rather than electric and
magnetic fields, so the lumped port provides an interface between them. The
requirement on a lumped port is that the feed point must be similar to a transmission
line feed, so its gap must be much less than the wavelength. It is then possible to define
the electric field from the voltage as

V =  E ⋅ dl =  ( E ⋅ ah ) dl
h h

where h is a line between the terminals at the beginning of the transmission line, and
the integration is going from positive (phase) V to ground. The current is positive
going into the terminal at positive V.

I
+V
Js E h
Ground

n
Lumped port boundary

The transmission line current can be represented with a surface current at the lumped
port boundary directed opposite to the electric field.

The impedance of a transmission line is defined as

V
Z = ----
I

and in analogy to this an equivalent surface impedance is defined at the lumped port
boundary

E ⋅ ah
η = -------------------------
Js ⋅ ( –ah )

To calculate the surface current density from the current, integrate along the width, w,
of the transmission line

I =  ( n × Js ) ⋅ dl 
= – ( J s ⋅ a h ) dl
w w

44 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
where the integration is taken in the direction of ah × n. This gives the following
relation between the transmission line impedance and the surface impedance


( E ⋅ a h ) dl  ( E ⋅ a h ) dl
V h
Z = ---- = ----------------------------------- = η ------------------------------ ≈ η ---- 
h h
I w

– ( J s ⋅ a h ) dl  ( E ⋅ a h ) dl
w w
w
η = Z ----
h

where the last approximation assumed that the electric field is constant over the
integrations. A similar relationship can be derived for coaxial cables

2π
η = Z ----------
b
ln ---
a

The transfer equations above are used in an impedance type boundary condition,
relating surface current density to tangential electric field via the surface impedance.

1 1
n × ( H 1 – H 2 ) + --- n × ( E × n ) = 2 --- n × ( E 0 × n )
η η

where E is the total field and E0 the incident field, corresponding to the total voltage,
V, and incident voltage, V0, at the port.

When using the lumped port as a circuit port, the port voltage is fed as
input to the circuit and the current computed by the circuit is applied as
a uniform current density, that is as a surface current condition. Thus, an
open (unconnected) circuit port is just a continuity condition.

Lumped Ports in the RF Module

Not all models can use lumped ports due to the polarization of the fields and how
sources are specified. For the physics interfaces and study types that support the
lumped port, the Lumped Port is available as a boundary feature. See Lumped Port
for instructions to set up this feature.

L U M P E D P O R T S W I T H VO L T A G E I N P U T | 45
 L UMPED PO R T VAR IA BL ES
Each lumped port generates variables that are accessible to the user. Apart from the
S-parameter, a lumped port condition also generates the following variables.

NAME DESCRIPTION

Vport Extracted port voltage

Iport Port current
Zport Port impedance

For example, a lumped port with port number 1, defined in the first geometry, for the
Electromagnetic Waves interface with the tag emw, defines the port impedance variable
emw.Zport_1.

RF Coil: Application Library path RF_Module/Passive_Devices/rf_coil

46 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
Lossy Eigenvalue Calculations
In mode analysis and eigenfrequency analysis, it is usually the primary goal to find a
propagation constant or an eigenfrequency. These quantities are often real valued
although it is not necessary. If the analysis involves some lossy part, like a nonzero
conductivity or an open boundary, the eigenvalue is complex. In such situations, the
eigenvalue is interpreted as two parts (1) the propagation constant or eigenfrequency
and (2) the damping in space and time.

In this section:

• Eigenfrequency Analysis
• Mode Analysis

Lossy Circular Waveguide: Application Library path RF_Module/

Transmission_Lines_and_Waveguides/lossy_circular_waveguide

Eigenfrequency Analysis
The eigenfrequency analysis solves for the eigenfrequency of a model. The
time-harmonic representation of the fields is more general and includes a complex
parameter in the phase

˜ jωt ˜ –λ t
E ( r, t ) = Re ( E ( r T )e ) = Re ( E ( r )e )

where the eigenvalue, (−λ) = −δ + jω, has an imaginary part representing the
eigenfrequency, and a real part responsible for the damping. It is often more common
to use the quality factor or Q-factor, which is derived from the eigenfrequency and
damping

ω
Q fact = ---------
2δ

LOSSY EIGENVALUE CALCULATIONS | 47

 VAR IABLES AF FECTED BY EIGENFREQUENCY ANALYSIS
The following list shows the variables that the eigenfrequency analysis affects:

NAME EXPRESSION CAN BE COMPLEX DESCRIPTION

omega imag(-lambda) No Angular frequency

damp real(lambda) No Damping in time
Qfact 0.5*omega/abs(damp) No Quality factor
nu omega/(2*pi) No Frequency

NONLINEAR EIGENFREQUENCY PROBLEMS

For some combinations of formulation, material parameters, and boundary conditions,
the eigenfrequency problem can be nonlinear, which means that the eigenvalue enters
the equations in another form than the expected second-order polynomial form. The
following table lists those combinations:

SOLVE FOR CRITERION BOUNDARY CONDITION

E Nonzero conductivity Impedance boundary condition

E Nonzero conductivity at Scattering boundary condition
adjacent domain
E Analytical ports Port boundary condition

These situations may require special treatment, especially since it can lead to “singular
matrix” or “undefined value” messages if not treated correctly. Under normal
circumstances, the automatically generated solver settings should handle the cases
described in the table above. However, the following discussion provide some
background to the problem of defining the eigenvalue linearization point. The
complication is not only the nonlinearity itself, it is also the way it enters the equations.
For example the impedance boundary conditions with nonzero boundary conductivity
has the term

ε 0 μ 0 μ rbnd
– ( – λ ) ------------------------------------------ ( n × ( n × H ) )
σ bnd
ε rbnd + -----------------
( – λ )ε 0

where (−λ) = −δ + jω. When the solver starts to solve the eigenfrequency problem it
linearizes the entire formulation with respect to the eigenvalue around a certain
linearization point. By default this linearization point is set to the value provided to the
Search for eigenvalues around field, for the three cases listed in the table above.
Normally, this should be a good value for the linearization point. For instance, for the

48 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
impedance boundary condition, this avoids setting the eigenvalue λ to zero in the
denominator in the equation above. For other cases than those listed in the table
above, the default linearization point is zero.

If the default values for the linearization point is not suitable for your particular
problem, you can manually provide a “good” linearization point for the eigenvalue
solver. Do this in the Eigenvalue node (not the Eigenfrequency node) under the Solver
Sequence node in the Study branch of the Model Builder. A solver sequence can be
generated first. In the Linearization Point section, select the Transform point check box
and enter a suitable value in the Point field. For example, if it is known that the
eigenfrequency is close to 1 GHz, enter the eigenvalue 1[GHz] in the field.

In many cases it is enough to specify a good linearization point and then solve the
problem once. If a more accurate eigenvalue is needed, an iterative scheme is necessary:

1 Specify that the eigenvalue solver only searches for one eigenvalue. Do this either
for an existing solver sequence in the Eigenvalue node or, before generating a solver
sequence, in the Eigenfrequency node.
2 Solve the problem with a “good” linearization point. As the eigenvalue shifts, use
the same value with the real part removed from the eigenvalue or, equivalently, use
the real part of the eigenfrequency.
3 Extract the eigenvalue from the solution and update the linearization point and the
shift.
4 Repeat until the eigenvalue does not change more than a desired tolerance.

• For a list of the studies available by physics interface, see The RF

Module Physics Interface Guide
• Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

Mode Analysis
In mode analysis and boundary mode analysis COMSOL Multiphysics solves for the
propagation constant. The time-harmonic representation is almost the same as for the
eigenfrequency analysis, but with a known propagation in the out-of-plane direction

˜ jωt – jβz ˜ jωt – αz

E ( r, t ) = Re ( E ( r T )e ) = Re ( E ( r )e )

LOSSY EIGENVALUE CALCULATIONS | 49

 The spatial parameter, α = δz + jβ = −λ, can have a real part and an imaginary part. The
propagation constant is equal to the imaginary part, and the real part, δz, represents
the damping along the propagation direction.

VAR IA BL ES IN FL UEN CED BY MO DE AN AL YS IS

The following table lists the variables that are influenced by the mode analysis:

NAME EXPRESSION CAN BE COMPLEX DESCRIPTION

beta imag(-lambda) No Propagation constant

dampz real(-lambda) No Attenuation constant
dampzdB 20*log10(exp(1))* No Attenuation per meter in dB
dampz
neff j*lambda/k0 Yes Effective mode index

For an example of Boundary Mode Analysis, see the model Polarized

Circular Ports: Application Library path RF_Module/Tutorials/
polarized_circular_ports.

• For a list of the studies available by physics interface, see The RF

Module Physics Interface Guide
• Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

50 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
Connecting to Electrical Circuits
In this section:

• About Connecting Electrical Circuits to Physics Interfaces

• Connecting Electrical Circuits Using Predefined Couplings
• Connecting Electrical Circuits by User-Defined Couplings
• Solving
• Postprocessing

Connecting a 3D Electromagnetic Wave Model to an Electrical

Circuit: Application Library path RF_Module/
Transmission_Lines_and_Waveguides/coaxial_cable_circuit

About Connecting Electrical Circuits to Physics Interfaces

This section describes the various ways electrical circuits can be connected to other
physics interfaces in COMSOL Multiphysics. If you are not familiar with circuit
modeling, it is recommended that you review the Theory for the Electrical Circuit
Interface.

In general electrical circuits connect to other physics interfaces via one or more of three
special circuit features:

• External I vs. U
• External U vs. I
• External I-Terminal

CONNECTING TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS | 51

 These features either accept a voltage measurement from the connecting non-circuit
physics interface and return a current from the Electrical Circuit interface or the other
way around.

The “External” features are considered “ideal” current or voltage sources

by the Electrical Circuit interface. Hence, you cannot connect them
directly in parallel (voltage sources) or in series (current sources) with
other ideal sources. This results in the error message The DAE is
structurally inconsistent. A workaround is to provide a suitable parallel
or series resistor, which can be tuned to minimize its influence on the
results.

Connecting Electrical Circuits Using Predefined Couplings

In addition to these circuit features, interfaces in the AC/DC Module, RF Module,
MEMS Module, Plasma Module, and Semiconductor Module (the modules that
include the Electrical Circuit interface) also contain features that provide couplings to
the Electrical Circuit interface by accepting a voltage or a current from one of the
specific circuit features (External I vs. U, External U vs. I, and External I-Terminal).

This coupling is typically activated when:

• A choice is made in the Settings window for the non-circuit physics interface feature,
which then announces (that is, includes) the coupling to the Electrical Circuit
interface. Its voltage or current is then included to make it visible to the connecting
circuit feature.
• A voltage or current that has been announced (that is, included) is selected in a
feature node’s Settings window.

These circuit connections are supported in Lumped Ports.

Connecting Electrical Circuits by User-Defined Couplings

A more general way to connect a physics interface to the Electrical Circuit interface is
to:

• Apply the voltage or current from the connecting “External” circuit feature as an
excitation in the non-circuit physics interface.

52 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
• Define your own voltage or current measurement in the non-circuit physics
interface using variables, coupling operators and so forth.
• In the Settings window for the Electrical Circuit interface feature, selecting the
User-defined option and entering the name of the variable or expression using
coupling operators defined in the previous step.

D E T E R M I N I N G A C U R R E N T O R VO L T A G E VA R I A B L E N A M E
To determine a current or voltage variable name, look at the Dependent Variables node
under the Study node. To do this:

1 In the Model Builder, right-click the Study node and select Show Default Solver.
2 Expand the Solver>Dependent Variables node and click the state node, in this
example, Current through device R1 (comp1.currents). The variable name is shown on
the Settings window for State

Typically, voltage variables are named cir.Xn_v and current variables

cir.Xn_i, where n is the “External” device number—1, 2, and so on.

CONNECTING TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS | 53

 Solving

Some modeling errors lead to the error message The DAE is structurally
inconsistent, being displayed when solving. This typically occurs from
having an open current loop, from connecting voltage sources in parallel,
or connecting current sources in series.

In this respect, the predefined coupling features are also treated as (ideal)
voltage or current sources. The remedy is to close current loops and to
connect resistors in series with voltage sources or in parallel with current
sources.

Postprocessing
The Electrical Circuits interface, unlike most of the other physics interfaces, solves for
a relatively large number of Global dependent variables (such as voltages and currents),
instead of solving for a few space-varying fields (such as temperature or displacement).
For this reason, the Electrical Circuit interface does not provide default plots when
computing a Study.

The physics interface defines a number of variables that can be used in postprocessing.
All variables defined by the Electrical Circuit interface are of a global scope, and can
be evaluated in a Global Evaluation node (under Derived Values). In addition, the time
evolution or dependency on a parameter can be plotted in a Global plot (under a 1D
Plot Group node).

The physics interface defines a Node voltage variable for each electrical node in the
circuit, with name cir.v_name, where cir is the physics interface Label and <name>
is the node Name. For each two pin component, the physics interface also defines
variables containing the voltage across it and the current flowing through it.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Derived Values and Tables and Global Evaluation

• Plot Groups and Plots and Global

54 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
Spice Import
SPICE Import
The circuit definition in COMSOL Multiphysics adheres to the SPICE format
developed at the University of California, Berkeley (Ref. 1). SPICE netlists can be
imported and the corresponding circuit nodes are generated in the COMSOL
Multiphysics model. Most circuit simulators can export to this format or some version
of it.

The Electrical Circuit interface supports the following device models:

TABLE 2-1: SUPPORTED SPICE DEVICE MODELS

STATEMENT DEVICE MODEL

R Resistor
C Capacitor
L Inductor
V Voltage Source
I Current Source
E Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source
F Current-Controlled Current Source
G Voltage-Controlled Current Source
H Current-Controlled Voltage Source
D Diode
Q NPN BJT and PNP BJT
M n-Channel MOSFET and p-Channel
MOSFET
X Subcircuit Instance

Statements corresponding to multiple devices are resolved by parsing the associated

.model statement. The physics interface also supports the .subckt statement, which
is represented in COMSOL by a Subcircuit Definition node, and the .include
statement. SPICE commands are interpreted case-insensitively. The statement defining
each device is also interpreted as the Device name.

According to SPICE specification, the first line in the netlist file is assumed to be the
title of the netlist and it is ignored by the parser.

SPICE IMPORT | 55
 SPICE Export
The SPICE Export functionality creates a SPICE netlist file containing a description of
the circuit represented by the physics interface. This functionality can be accessed from
the physics interface context menu (right-click the physics interface node and select
Export SPICE Netlist). After specifying a file name, the circuit is exported and messages
from the export process display in the Messages window. During the export process, a
series of operations are performed:

• In order to avoid conflicts, each component must be identified by a unique Device

name. If one or more components have the same device name, the export operation
fails and an error message is displayed. All characters in a Device name that are not
letters, digits or underscores are replaced by underscores.
• According to the SPICE specification, each circuit must have a node with name 0,
which is assumed to be the only ground node. When exporting a circuit, any node
with name 0 that is not connected to a Ground component is exported with a
different node name. All nodes that are connected to a Ground components are
exported as a merged node with name 0. The Messages window shows a log message
if these operations are performed, showing the name of the renamed or merged
nodes.
• All characters in node names that are not letters, digits or underscores are replaced
by underscores.
• Some components (most notably, the External components used to couple to other
physics interfaces) cannot be exported to a SPICE netlist. These components are
ignored during the export process, and a message is shown in the Messages window.
Note that this can change the exported circuit, since some components are then
missing.
• Subcircuit definitions are added as .subckt statements in the netlist.
Semiconductor devices (such as MOSFETs, BJTs, and diodes) are exported as a
SPICE device with a corresponding .model statement.

The title of the exported netlist file is the model's file name, and the time, date and the
version of COMSOL Multiphysics is added as a comment in the netlist file.

Reference for SPICE Import and Export

1. http://bwrc.eecs.berkeley.edu/Classes/IcBook/SPICE/

56 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
Reduced Order Modeling
When designing bandpass-filter type high-Q devices in the frequency domain, it may
be necessary to apply many frequency samples to describe the passband accurately. The
reduced order modeling technique can help accelerate the modeling of such devices as
a fine frequency resolution can be used for a modest simulation time.

Two simulation methods: the asymptotic waveform evaluation (AWE) and

frequency-domain modal methods, both are designed to help overcome the
conventional issue of a longer simulation time when using a very fine frequency
resolution or running a very wide band simulation. The AWE is efficient when it comes
to describing smooth frequency responses with a single resonance or no resonance at
all. The frequency-domain modal method, meanwhile, is useful for quickly analyzing
multistage filters or filters of a high number of elements that have multiple resonances
in a target passband.

In this section:

• Asymptotic Waveform Evaluation (AWE) Method

• Frequency-Domain Modal Method

AWE Solver and Frequency-Domain Modal in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual

Asymptotic Waveform Evaluation (AWE) Method

The AWE method is very useful when simulating resonant circuits, especially
single-resonance bandpass-filter type devices with many frequency points. When using
the AWE option, the simulation time with a much finer frequency resolution can be
almost the same as a coarse resolution regular Frequency Domain simulation.

AWE CONFIGURATION IN FREQUENCY DOMAIN STUDY STEP SETTINGS

The solver performs fast adaptive frequency sweeping using an asymptotic waveform
evaluation method. To trigger the AWE, the following steps are required:

• Expand Study Extensions section in Frequency Domain study step settings.

REDUCED ORDER MODELING | 57

 • Click the Use asymptotic waveform evaluation check box in the Study Extensions
section.
• Specify the user input for the AWE expressions.

CHOOSING APPROPRIATE AWE EXPRESSION

The simulation time may vary depending on the user input for the AWE expressions.
Any model variable works as an AWE expression, so long as it has a smooth curve shape
like a Gaussian pulse as a function of frequency. The absolute value of S21,
abs(emw.S21), often works as the input for the AWE expression in the case of
two-port bandpass filters. For one-port devices like antennas, the absolute value of S11
is a good choice. If the frequency response of the AWE expression contains an infinite
gradient — the case for the S11 value of an antenna with excellent impedance matching
at a single frequency point — the simulation will take longer to complete because it
requires many data points to describe the sharp dip.

DATA MANAGEMENT
With a very fine frequency step simulation, the solutions contain a lot of data. As a
result, the model file size will increase tremendously when it is saved. By selecting the
Store fields in output check box in the Values of Dependent Variables section of the
Frequency Domain study step settings, it is possible to define for what part of the model
the computed solution should be saved. When only S-parameters are of interest, it is
not necessary to store all of the field solutions. Instead, only store the field on the
selections for the port and lumped port boundaries, as those will be used for the
S-parameter calculations.

In the Values of Dependent Variables section, change the selection in the Store fields in
output combo box from All to For selections and then add the explicit selections that
include the port and lumped port boundaries. The explicit selection can be easily
created from the port and lumped port feature by clicking Create Selection icon in the
Boundary Selection settings once the selection is specified.

Evanescent Mode Cylindrical Cavity Filter: Application Library path

RF_Module/Filters/cylidrical_cavity_filter_evanescent

Frequency-Domain Modal Method

Bandpass-frequency responses of a passive circuit often result from a combination of
multiple resonances. Eigenfrequency analysis is used for capturing the resonance

58 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
frequencies of a device. In a subsequent step, the information from the Eigenfrequency
solutions can be reused in a Frequency-Domain Modal study to generate a solution for
the driven problem.

EIGENFREQUENCY STUDY STEP SETTINGS

To perform a Frequency-Domain Modal analysis, it is necessary to configure the
Eigenfrequency study step properly. As the output of the Eigenfrequency study may
include unphysical results (so called spurious modes), appropriate settings help refine
the Eigenfrequency study results.

• Set Eigenfrequency search method to Manual

• Adjust Desired number of eigenfrequencies if necessary.
• Set Search for eigenfrequencies around to the estimate of the lowest passband
frequency.
• Set Eigenfrequency search method around shift to Larger real part.

DATA MANAGEMENT

The Store fields in output check box in the Values of Dependent Variables section can be
applied to the Frequency-Domain Modal study — if you are interested only in
S-parameters. By storing solutions only on port or lumped port boundaries, the saved
model file size will decrease a lot.

Note that the phase of the computed S-parameters in the

Frequency-Domain Modal study can be different from that of the regular
frequency sweep model due to that all relevant eigenmodes might not be
included in the simulation. It is recommended to perform an initial
eigenfrequency investigation, to find all relevant eigenfrequencies
contributing to the frequency response. If not all relevant
eigenfrequencies are included in the simulation, the results are
compatible only for phase-independent S-parameter values, such as
dB-scaled, absolute value, reflectivity, or transmittivity.

REDUCED ORDER MODELING | 59

 Cascaded Rectangular Cavity Filter: Application Library path
RF_Module/Filters/cascaded_cavity_filter

Coupled-Line Bandpass Filter: Application Library path RF_Module/

Filters/coupled_line_filter

Coplanar Waveguide Bandpass Filter: Application Library path

RF_Module/Filters/cpw_bandpass_filter

60 | CHAPTER 2: RF MODELING
 3

Electromagnetics Theory

This chapter contains a review of the basic theory of electromagnetics, starting

with Maxwell’s equations, and the theory for some special calculations:
S-parameters, lumped port parameters, and far-field analysis. There is also a list of
electromagnetic quantities with their SI units and symbols.

In this chapter:

• Maxwell’s Equations
• Special Calculations
• Electromagnetic Quantities

See also:

• Theory for the Electromagnetic Waves Interfaces

• Theory for the Electrical Circuit Interface
• Theory for Heat Transfer in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

61
 Maxwell’s Equations
In this section:

• Introduction to Maxwell’s Equations

• Constitutive Relations
• Potentials
• Electromagnetic Energy
• Material Properties
• Boundary and Interface Conditions
• Phasors

Introduction to Maxwell’s Equations

Electromagnetic analysis on a macroscopic level involves solving Maxwell’s equations
subject to certain boundary conditions. Maxwell’s equations are a set of equations,
written in differential or integral form, stating the relationships between the
fundamental electromagnetic quantities. These quantities are the:

• Electric field intensity E

• Electric displacement or electric flux density D
• Magnetic field intensity H
• Magnetic flux density B
• Current density J
• Electric charge density ρ

The equations can be formulated in differential or integral form. The differential form
are presented here, because it leads to differential equations that the finite element
method can handle. For general time-varying fields, Maxwell’s equations can be
written as

∂D
∇ × H = J + -------
∂t
∂------
B-
∇×E = –
∂t
∇⋅D = ρ
∇⋅B = 0

62 | CHAPTER 3: ELECTROMAGNETICS THEORY

The first two equations are also referred to as Maxwell-Ampère’s law and Faraday’s
law, respectively. Equation three and four are two forms of Gauss’ law, the electric and
magnetic form, respectively.

Another fundamental equation is the equation of continuity, which can be written as

∂ρ
∇⋅J = – ------
∂t

Out of the five equations mentioned, only three are independent. The first two
combined with either the electric form of Gauss’ law or the equation of continuity
form such an independent system.

Constitutive Relations
To obtain a closed system, the constitutive relations describing the macroscopic
properties of the medium, are included. They are given as

D = ε0 E + P
B = μ0 ( H + M )
J = σE
Here ε0 is the permittivity of vacuum, μ0 is the permeability of vacuum, and σ the
electrical conductivity. In the SI system, the permeability of a vacuum is chosen to be
4π·10−7 H/m. The velocity of an electromagnetic wave in a vacuum is given as c0 and
the permittivity of a vacuum is derived from the relation

1 – 12 1 –9
ε 0 = ----------
2
= 8.854 ⋅ 10 F/m ≈ --------- ⋅ 10 F/m
c0 μ0 36π

The electric polarization vector P describes how the material is polarized when an
electric field E is present. It can be interpreted as the volume density of electric dipole
moments. P is generally a function of E. Some materials can have a nonzero P also
when there is no electric field present.

The magnetization vector M similarly describes how the material is magnetized when
a magnetic field H is present. It can be interpreted as the volume density of magnetic
dipole moments. M is generally a function of H. Permanent magnets, however, have a
nonzero M also when there is no magnetic field present.

For linear materials, the polarization is directly proportional to the electric field,
P = ε0χeE, where χe is the electric susceptibility. Similarly in linear materials, the

M A X W E L L ’S E Q U A T I O N S | 63
 magnetization is directly proportional to the magnetic field, M = χmH, where χm is the
magnetic susceptibility. For such materials, the constitutive relations can be written

D = ε 0 ( 1 + χ e )E = ε 0 ε r E = εE
B = μ 0 ( 1 + χ m )H = μ 0 μ r H = μH

The parameter εr is the relative permittivity and μr is the relative permeability of the
material. These are usually scalar properties but they can, for a general anisotropic
material, be 3-by-3 tensors. The properties ε and μ (without subscripts) are the
permittivity and permeability of the material.

GENERALIZED CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS

Generalized forms of the constitutive relations are well suited for modeling nonlinear
materials. The relation used for the electric fields is

D = ε0 εr E + Dr

The field Dr is the remanent displacement, which is the displacement when no electric
field is present.

Similarly, a generalized form of the constitutive relation for the magnetic field is

B = μ0 μr H + Br

where Br is the remanent magnetic flux density, which is the magnetic flux density
when no magnetic field is present.

The relation defining the current density is generalized by introducing an externally

generated current Je. The resulting constitutive relation is

e
J = σE + J

Potentials
Under certain circumstances it can be helpful to formulate the problems in terms of
the electric scalar potential V and the magnetic vector potential A. They are given by
the equalities

B = ∇×A
∂A
E = – ∇V – -------
∂t

64 | CHAPTER 3: ELECTROMAGNETICS THEORY

The defining equation for the magnetic vector potential is a direct consequence of the
magnetic Gauss’ law. The electric potential results from Faraday’s law.

Electromagnetic Energy
The electric and magnetic energies are defined as

D T
∂D
We = V  0 E ⋅ dD dV = V  0 E ⋅ -------
∂t 
dt dV

B T
∂B
Wm = V  0 H ⋅ dB dV = V  0 H ⋅ ------
∂t 
- dt dV

The time derivatives of these expressions are the electric and magnetic power

∂D
Pe = V E ⋅ -------
∂t
dV

∂B
Pm = V H ⋅ ------
∂t
- dV

These quantities are related to the resistive and radiative energy, or energy loss,
through Poynting’s theorem (Ref. 3)

∂D ∂B
– V  E ⋅ -------
∂t
+ H ⋅ ------- dV =  J ⋅ E dV +  ( E × H ) ⋅ n dS
∂t  V °S
where V is the computation domain and S is the closed boundary of V.

The first term on the right-hand side represents the resistive losses,

Ph = V J ⋅ E dV
which result in heat dissipation in the material. (The current density J in this
expression is the one appearing in Maxwell-Ampère’s law.)

The second term on the right-hand side of Poynting’s theorem represents the radiative
losses,

Pr =
°S ( E × H ) ⋅ n dS
The quantity S = E × H is called the Poynting vector.

Under the assumption the material is linear and isotropic, it holds that

M A X W E L L ’S E Q U A T I O N S | 65
 ∂D ∂E
E ⋅ ------- = εE ⋅ ------- = ∂  --- εE ⋅ E
1
∂t ∂t ∂t 2
∂B ∂B
H ⋅ ------- = --- B ⋅ ------- = ∂  ------- B ⋅ B
1 1
∂t μ ∂t ∂ t  2μ 

By interchanging the order of differentiation and integration (justified by the fact that
the volume is constant and the assumption that the fields are continuous in time), this
equation results:

–∂ V  --2- εE ⋅ E + ------
- B ⋅ B dV =
1 1
∂t 2μ  V J ⋅ E dV + °S ( E × H ) ⋅ n dS
The integrand of the left-hand side is the total electromagnetic energy density

1 1
w = w e + w m = --- εE ⋅ E + ------- B ⋅ B
2 2μ

Material Properties
Until now, there has only been a formal introduction of the constitutive relations.
These seemingly simple relations can be quite complicated at times. There are four
main groups of materials where they require some consideration. A given material can
belong to one or more of these groups. The groups are:

• Inhomogeneous materials
• Anisotropic materials
• Nonlinear materials
• Dispersive materials

The least complicated of the groups above is that of the inhomogeneous materials. An
inhomogeneous medium is one where the constitutive parameters vary with the space
coordinates, so that different field properties prevail at different parts of the material
structure.

For anisotropic materials, the field relations at any point are different for different
directions of propagation. This means that a 3-by-3 tensor is required to properly
define the constitutive relations. If this tensor is symmetric, the material is often
referred to as reciprocal. In these cases, the coordinate system can be rotated in such
a way that a diagonal matrix is obtained. If two of the diagonal entries are equal, the
material is uniaxially anisotropic. If none of the elements have the same value, the
material is biaxially anisotropic (Ref. 2). An example where anisotropic parameters

66 | CHAPTER 3: ELECTROMAGNETICS THEORY

are used is for the permittivity in crystals (Ref. 2).

Nonlinearity is the effect of variations in permittivity or permeability with the intensity

of the electromagnetic field. This also includes hysteresis effects, where not only the
current field intensities influence the physical properties of the material, but also the
history of the field distribution.

Finally, dispersion describes changes in the velocity of the wave with wavelength. In
the frequency domain, dispersion is expressed by a frequency dependence in the
constitutive laws.

MATERIAL PROPER TIES AND THE MATERIAL BROWSER

All interfaces in the RF Module support the use of the COMSOL Multiphysics
material database libraries. The electromagnetic material properties that can be stored
in the materials database are:

• The electrical conductivity

• The relative permittivity
• The relative permeability
• The refractive index

The physics-specific domain material properties are by default taken from the material
specification. The material properties are inputs to material laws or constitutive
relations that are defined on the feature level below the physics interface node in the
model tree. There is one editable default domain feature (wave equation) that initially
represents a linear isotropic material. Domains with different material laws are specified
by adding additional features. Some of the domain parameters can either be a scalar or
a matrix (tensor) depending on whether the material is isotropic or anisotropic.

In a similar way, boundary, edge, and point settings are specified by adding the
corresponding features. A certain feature might require one or several fields to be
specified, while others generate the conditions without user-specified fields.

Materials and Modeling Anisotropic Materials in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual

M A X W E L L ’S E Q U A T I O N S | 67
 Boundary and Interface Conditions
To get a full description of an electromagnetic problem, specify boundary conditions
at material interfaces and physical boundaries. At interfaces between two media, the
boundary conditions can be expressed mathematically as

n2 × ( E1 – E2 ) = 0
n2 ⋅ ( D1 – D2 ) = ρs
n2 × ( H1 – H2 ) = Js
n2 ⋅ ( B1 – B2 ) = 0

where ρs and Js denote surface charge density and surface current density,
respectively, and n2 is the outward normal from medium 2. Of these four conditions,
only two are independent. One of the first and the fourth equations, together with one
of the second and third equations, form a set of two independent conditions.

A consequence of the above is the interface condition for the current density,

∂ρ s
n 2 ⋅ ( J 1 – J 2 ) = – --------
∂t

INTERFACE BETWEEN A DIELECTRIC AND A PERFECT CONDUCTO R

A perfect conductor has infinite electrical conductivity and thus no internal electric
field. Otherwise, it would produce an infinite current density according to the third
fundamental constitutive relation. At an interface between a dielectric and a perfect
conductor, the boundary conditions for the E and D fields are simplified. If, say,
subscript 1 corresponds to the perfect conductor, then D1 = 0 and E1 = 0 in the
relations above. For the general time-varying case, it holds that B1 = 0 and H1 = 0 as
well (as a consequence of Maxwell’s equations). What remains is the following set of
boundary conditions for time-varying fields in the dielectric medium.

–n2 × E2 = 0
–n2 × H2 = Js
–n2 ⋅ D2 = ρs
–n2 ⋅ B2 = 0

Phasors
Whenever a problem is time-harmonic the fields can be written in the form

68 | CHAPTER 3: ELECTROMAGNETICS THEORY

 ˆ
E ( r, t ) = E ( r ) cos ( ωt + φ )

Instead of using a cosine function for the time dependence, it is more convenient to
use an exponential function, by writing the field as

ˆ ˆ jφ jωt ˜ jωt
E ( r, t ) = E ( r ) cos ( ωt + φ ) = Re ( E ( r )e e ) = Re ( E ( r )e )
˜
The field E ( r ) is a phasor (phase vector), which contains amplitude and phase
information of the field but is independent of t. One thing that makes the use of
phasors suitable is that a time derivative corresponds to a multiplication by jω,

∂------
E- ˜ jωt
= Re ( jωE ( r )e )
∂t

This means that an equation for the phasor can be derived from a time-dependent
equation by replacing the time derivatives by a factor jω. All time-harmonic equations
in this module are expressed as equations for the phasors. (The tilde is dropped from
the variable denoting the phasor.).

When looking at the solution of a time-harmonic equation, it is important

to remember that the field that has been calculated is a phasor and not a
physical field.

For example, all plot functions visualize

˜
Re ( E ( r ) )

by default, which is E at time t = 0. To obtain the solution at a given time, specify a

phase factor when evaluating and visualizing the results.

M A X W E L L ’S E Q U A T I O N S | 69
 Special Calculations
In this section:

• S-Parameter Calculations
• Far-Field Calculations Theory
• References

Lumped Ports with Voltage Input

S-Parameter Calculations
For high-frequency problems, voltage is not a well-defined entity, and it is necessary
to define the scattering parameters (S-parameter) in terms of the electric field. To
convert an electric field pattern on a port to a scalar complex number corresponding
to the voltage in transmission line theory an eigenmode expansion of the
electromagnetic fields on the ports needs to be performed. Assume that an eigenmode
analysis has been performed on the ports 1, 2, 3, … and that the electric field patterns
E1, E2, E3, … of the fundamental modes on these ports are known. Further, assume
that the fields are normalized with respect to the integral of the power flow across each
port cross section, respectively. This normalization is frequency dependent unless
TEM modes are being dealt with. The port excitation is applied using the fundamental
eigenmode, the mode with subscript 1. The computed electric field Ec on the port
consists of the excitation plus the reflected field. That is, on the port boundary where
there is an incident wave, the computed field can be expanded in terms of the mode
fields as

Ec = E1 +  Si1 Ei ,
i=1

whereas on all other port boundaries, the computed field is given by

Ec =  Si1 Ei
i=1

70 | CHAPTER 3: ELECTROMAGNETICS THEORY

The S-parameter for the mode with index k is then given by multiplying with the
conjugate of the mode field for mode k and integrating over the port boundary. Since
the mode fields for the different modes are orthogonal, the following relations are
obtained for the S-parameters


*
( ( E c – E 1 ) ⋅ E 1 ) dA 1
S 11 = port 1
---------------------------------------------------------------
-

*
( E 1 ⋅ E 1 ) dA 1
port 1


*
( E c ⋅ E 2 ) dA 2
port 2
S 21 = ----------------------------------------------
-

*
( E 2 ⋅ E 2 ) dA 2
port 2


*
( E c ⋅ E 3 ) dA 3
port 3
S 31 = ----------------------------------------------
-

*
( E 3 ⋅ E 3 ) dA 3
port 3

and so on. To get S22 and S12, excite port number 2 in the same way.

POWER FLOW NORMALIZATION

The fields E1, E2, E3, and so on, should be normalized such that they represent the
same power flow through the respective ports. The power flow is given by the
time-average Poynting vector,

1 *
S av = --- Re ( E × H )
2

The amount of power flowing out of a port is given by the normal component of the
Poynting vector,

1 *
n ⋅ S av = n ⋅ --- Re ( E × H )
2

Below the cutoff frequency the power flow is zero, which implies that it is not possible
to normalize the field with respect to the power flow below the cutoff frequency. But
in this region the S-parameters are trivial and do not need to be calculated.

In the following subsections the power flow is expressed directly in terms of the electric
field for TE, TM, and TEM waves.

SPECIAL CALCULATIONS | 71
 TE Waves
For TE waves it holds that

E = – Z TE ( n × H )

where ZTE is the wave impedance

ωμ
Z TE = -------
β

ω is the angular frequency of the wave, μ the permeability, and β the propagation
constant. The power flow then becomes

1 * 1 * 1 2
n ⋅ S av = --- n ⋅ Re ( E × H ) = – --- Re ( E ⋅ ( n × H ) ) = -------------- E
2 2 2Z TE

TM Waves
For TM waves it holds that

1
H = ----------- ( n × E )
Z TM

where ZTM is the wave impedance

β
Z TM = -------
ωε

and ε is the permittivity. The power flow then becomes

1 * 1 *
n ⋅ S av = --- n ⋅ Re ( E × H ) = --------------- ( n ⋅ Re ( E × ( n × E ) ) )
2 2Z TM
1 2
= --------------- n × E
2Z TM

TEM Waves
For TEM waves it holds that

1
H = --------------- ( n × E )
Z TEM

where ZTEM is the wave impedance

μ
Z TEM = ---
ε

72 | CHAPTER 3: ELECTROMAGNETICS THEORY

The power flow then becomes

1 * 1 2 1 2
n ⋅ S av = --- n ⋅ Re ( E × H ) = ------------------ n × E = ------------------ E
2 2Z TEM 2Z TEM

where the last equality holds because the electric field is tangential to the port.

Far-Field Calculations Theory

The far electromagnetic field from, for example, antennas can be calculated from the
near field using the Stratton-Chu formula. In 3D, this is:

jk

E p = ------ r 0 × [ n × E – ηr 0 × ( n × H ) ] exp ( jkr ⋅ r 0 ) dS
4π

and in 2D it looks slightly different:

jk
Ep =
4π 
λ ------ r 0 × [ n × E – ηr 0 × ( n × H ) ] exp ( jkr ⋅ r 0 ) dS

In both cases the integration is performed on a closed boundary. In the scattered field
formulation, where the total electric field is the sum of the background field and the
scattered field, the far-field only gets contributions from the scattered field, since the
contributions from the background field cancel out when integrated over all parts of
the closed boundary.

For scattering problems, the far field in COMSOL Multiphysics is identical to what in
physics is known as the “scattering amplitude”.

The antenna is located in the vicinity of the origin, while the far-field point p is taken
at infinity but with a well-defined angular position ( θ, ϕ ) .

In the above formulas,

• E and H are the fields on the “aperture”—the surface S enclosing the antenna.
• r0 is the unit vector pointing from the origin to the field point p. If the field points
lie on a spherical surface S', r0 is the unit normal to S'.
• n is the unit normal to the surface S.
• η is the impedance:

η = μ⁄ε

• k is the wave number.

SPECIAL CALCULATIONS | 73
 • λ is the wavelength.
• r is the radius vector (not a unit vector) of the surface S.
• Ep is the calculated far field in the direction from the origin towards point p.

Thus the unit vector r0 can be interpreted as the direction defined by the angular
position ( θ, ϕ ) and Ep is the far field in this direction.

Because the far field is calculated in free space, the magnetic field at the far-field point
is given by

r0 × Ep
H p = -------------------
η0

The Poynting vector gives the power flow of the far field:

* 2
r 0 ⋅ S = r 0 ⋅ Re ( E p × H p ) ∼ E p

Thus the relative far-field radiation pattern is given by plotting |Ep|2.

References
1. D.K. Cheng, Field and Wave Electromagnetics, 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley, 1991.

2. Jianming Jin, The Finite Element Method in Electromagnetics, 2nd ed.,

Wiley-IEEE Press, 2002.

3. A. Kovetz, The Principles of Electromagnetic Theory, Cambridge University Press,

1990.

4. R.K. Wangsness, Electromagnetic Fields, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 1986.

74 | CHAPTER 3: ELECTROMAGNETICS THEORY

Electromagnetic Quantities
Table 3-1 shows the symbol and SI unit for most of the physical quantities that are
included with this module.
TABLE 3-1: ELECTROMAGNETIC QUANTITIES

QUANTITY SYMBOL UNIT ABBREVIATION

Angular frequency ω radian/second rad/s

Attenuation constant α meter-1 m-1
Capacitance C farad F
Charge q coulomb C
2
Charge density (surface) ρs coulomb/meter C/m2
3
Charge density (volume) ρ coulomb/meter C/m3
Current I ampere A
Current density (surface) Js ampere/meter A/m
2
Current density (volume) J ampere/meter A/m2
2
Electric displacement D coulomb/meter C/m2
Electric field E volt/meter V/m
Electric potential V volt V
Electric susceptibility χe (dimensionless) −
Electrical conductivity σ siemens/meter S/m
Energy density W joule/meter3 J/m3
Force F newton N
Frequency ν hertz Hz
Impedance Z, η ohm Ω
Inductance L henry H
Magnetic field H ampere/meter A/m
Magnetic flux Φ weber Wb
Magnetic flux density B tesla T
Magnetic potential (scalar) Vm ampere A
Magnetic potential (vector) A weber/meter Wb/m
Magnetic susceptibility χm (dimensionless) −
Magnetization M ampere/meter A/m

ELECTROMAGNETIC QUANTITIES | 75
 TABLE 3-1: ELECTROMAGNETIC QUANTITIES

QUANTITY SYMBOL UNIT ABBREVIATION

Permeability μ henry/meter H/m

Permittivity ε farad/meter F/m
Polarization P coulomb/meter2 C/m2
Poynting vector S watt/meter2 W/m2
Propagation constant β radian/meter rad/m
Reactance X ohm Ω
Relative permeability μr (dimensionless) −
Relative permittivity εr (dimensionless) −
Resistance R ohm W
Resistive loss Q watt/meter3 W/m3
Torque T newton-meter Nm
Velocity v meter/second m/s
Wavelength λ meter m
Wave number k radian/meter rad/m

76 | CHAPTER 3: ELECTROMAGNETICS THEORY

 4

Radio Frequency Interfaces

This chapter discusses the physics interfaces found under the Radio Frequency
branch ( ).

In this chapter:

• The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface

• The Electromagnetic Waves, Transient Interface
• The Transmission Line Interface
• The Electromagnetic Waves, Time Explicit Interface
• Theory for the Electromagnetic Waves Interfaces
• Theory for the Transmission Line Interface
• Theory for the Electromagnetic Waves, Time Explicit Interface

77
 The Electromagnetic Waves,
Frequency Domain Interface
The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain (emw) interface ( ), found under the
Radio Frequency branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to solve for
time-harmonic electromagnetic field distributions.

For this physics interface, the maximum mesh element size should be limited to a
fraction of the wavelength. The domain size that can be simulated thus scales with the
amount of available computer memory and the wavelength. The physics interface
supports the study types Frequency Domain, Eigenfrequency, Mode Analysis, and
Boundary Mode Analysis. The Frequency Domain study type is used for source driven
simulations for a single frequency or a sequence of frequencies. The Eigenfrequency
study type is used to find resonance frequencies and their associated eigenmodes in
resonant cavities.

This physics interface solves the time-harmonic wave equation for the electric field.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Wave Equation, Electric, Perfect Electric Conductor, and Initial Values. Then,
from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary
conditions. You can also right-click Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain to select
physics features from the context menu.

The Mode analysis study type is applicable only for 2D and 2D axisymmetric
cross-sections of waveguides and transmission lines where it is used to find allowed
propagating modes. Boundary mode analysis is used for the same purpose in 2D, 2D
axisymmetry, and 3D and applies to boundaries representing waveguide ports.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is emw.

78 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

SETTINGS
From the Formulation list, select whether to solve for the Full field (the default) or the
Scattered field.

For Scattered field select a Background wave type — User defined (the default), Gaussian
beam, or Linearly polarized plane wave.

User Defined
Enter the component expressions for the Background electric field Eb (SI unit: V/m).
The entered expressions must be differentiable.

Notice that expressions including coupling operators are not

differentiable and cannot be used as background fields.

Gaussian Beam
The Gaussian beam background field is a solution to the paraxial wave equation, which
is an approximation to the Helmholtz equation solved for by the Electromagnetic
Waves, Frequency Domain (emw) interface. The approximation is valid for Gaussian
beams that have a beam radius that is much larger than the wavelength. Since the
paraxial Gaussian beam background field is an approximation to the Helmholtz
equation, for tightly focused beams, you can get a nonzero scattered field solution,
even if you do not have any scatterers. For more information about the Gaussian beam
theory, see Gaussian Beams as Background Fields.

• Select a Beam orientation: Along the x-axis (the default), Along the y-axis, or for 3D
components, Along the z-axis.
• Enter a Beam radius w0 (SI unit: m). The default is 20π/emw.k0 m (10 vacuum
wavelengths).
• Enter a Focal plane along the axis p0 (SI unit: m). The default is 0 m.
• Enter the component expressions for the Background electric field amplitude,
Gaussian beam Ebg0 (SI unit: V/m).
• Enter a Wave number k (SI unit: rad/m). The default is emw.k0 rad/m. The wave
number must evaluate to a value that is the same for all the domains the scattered
field is applied to. Setting the Wave number k to a positive value, means that the wave
is propagating in the positive x-, y-, or z-axis direction, whereas setting the Wave
number k to a negative value means that the wave is propagating in the negative x-,
y-, or z-axis direction.

T HE E L E C T RO M A G N E T I C WAVE S, F RE Q UE N C Y D O M AI N I N T E R F AC E | 79
 Linearly Polarized Plane Wave
The initial background wave is predefined as E0 = exp(−jkxx)z. This field is
transformed by three successive rotations along the roll, pitch, and yaw angles, in that
order. For a graphic representation of the initial background field and the definition of
the three rotations, c.f. Figure 4-1 below.

• Enter an Electric field amplitude E0 (SI unit: V/m). The default is 1 V/m.
• Enter a Roll angle (SI unit: rad), which is a right-handed rotation with respect to the
+x-direction. The default is 0 rad, corresponding to polarization along the
+z-direction.
• Enter a Pitch angle (SI unit: rad), which is a right-handed rotation with respect to
the +y-direction. The default is 0 rad, corresponding to the initial direction of
propagation pointing in the +x-direction.
• Enter a Yaw angle (SI unit: rad), which is a right-handed rotation with respect to the
+z-direction.
• Enter a Wave number k (SI unit: rad/m). The default is emw.k0 rad/m. The wave
number must evaluate to a value that is the same for the domains the scattered field
is applied to.

Figure 4-1: Schematic of the directions for the wave vector k, the electric field E0, and the
roll, pitch and yaw rotations. The top image represents an initial wave propagating in the
x direction with a polarization along the z direction.

ELECTRIC FIELD COMPONENTS SOLVED FOR

This section is available for 2D and 2D axisymmetric components.

80 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Select the Electric field components solved for — Three-component vector, Out-of-plane
vector, or In-plane vector. Select:

• Three-component vector (the default) to solve using a full three-component vector

for the electric field E.
• Out-of-plane vector to solve for the electric field vector component perpendicular to
the modeling plane, assuming that there is no electric field in the plane.
• In-plane vector to solve for the electric field vector components in the modeling
plane assuming that there is no electric field perpendicular to the plane.

OUT-OF-PLANE WAVE NUMBER

This section is available for 2D and 2D axisymmetric components, when solving for
Three-component vector or In-plane vector.

For 2D components, assign a wave vector component to the Out-of-plane wave number
field. For 2D axisymmetric components, assign an integer constant or an integer
parameter expression to the Azimuthal mode number field.

PHYSICS-CONTROLLED MESH
Select the Enable check box to use a physics-controlled mesh for the electromagnetic
problem. When selected, this invokes a parameter for the maximum mesh element size
in free space. The physics-controlled mesh automatically scales the maximum mesh
element size as the wavelength changes in different dielectric and magnetic regions. If
the model is configured by any periodic conditions, identical meshes are generated on
each pair of periodic boundaries. Perfectly matched layers are built with a structured
mesh, specifically, a swept mesh in 3D and a mapped mesh in 2D.

When Enable is selected, choose one of the three options for the Maximum mesh
element size control parameter — User defined (the default), Frequency, or Wavelength.
For the option User defined, enter a suitable Maximum element size in free space. For
example, 1/5 of the vacuum wavelength or smaller. When Frequency is selected, enter
the highest frequency intended to be used during the simulation. The maximum mesh
element size in free space is 1/5 of the vacuum wavelength for the entered frequency.
For the Wavelength option, enter the smallest vacuum wavelength intended to be used
during the simulation. The maximum mesh element size in free space is 1/5 of the
entered wavelength.

When Resolve wave in lossy media is selected, the outer boundaries of lossy media
domains are meshed with a maximum mesh element size in free space given by the
minimum value of half a skin depth and 1/5 of the vacuum wavelength.

T HE E L E C T RO M A G N E T I C WAVE S, F RE Q UE N C Y D O M AI N I N T E R F AC E | 81
 The maximum mesh element size in dielectric media is that in free space divided by the
square root of the product of the relative permittivity and permeability.

ANALYSIS METHODOLOGY
From the Methodology options list, select one of three solver configurations: Robust,
Intermediate, or Fast (the default).

The settings of each methodology option are found in Solver Configurations and the
subsidiary nodes.

POR T SWEEP SETTINGS

Select the Activate port sweep check box to switch on the port sweep. When selected,
this invokes a parametric sweep over the ports in addition to the automatically
generated frequency sweep. The generated lumped parameters are in the form of an
S-parameter matrix.

For Activate port sweep enter a Sweep parameter name to assign a specific name to the
parameter that controls the port number solved for during the sweep. Before making
the port sweep, the parameter must also have been added to the list of parameters in
the Parameters section of the Parameters node under the Global Definitions node.

For this physics interface, the S-parameters are subject to Touchstone file export. Click
Browse to locate the file, or enter a file name and path. Select an Output format:
Magnitude angle, Magnitude (dB) angle, or Real imaginary.

Enter a Reference impedance, Touchstone file export Zref (SI unit: Ω). The default is
50 Ω.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are for the Electric field E and its components
(in the Electric field components fields). The name can be changed but the names of
fields and dependent variables must be unique within a model.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization.

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the

Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface
• Theory for the Electromagnetic Waves Interfaces

82 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 H-Bend Waveguide 3D: Application Library path
RF_Module/Transmission_Lines_and_Waveguides/h_bend_waveguide_3d
demonstrates how to set up a port sweep.

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the

Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface
The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface has these domain,
boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes and subnodes, listed in alphabetical order, are
available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac
or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

DOMAIN

• Archie’s Law • Initial Values

• Divergence Constraint • Porous Media
• External Current Density • Wave Equation, Electric
• Far-Field Calculation
• Far-Field Domain

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
With no surface currents present the boundary conditions

n2 × ( E1 – E2 ) = 0
n2 × ( H1 – H2 ) = 0

need to be fulfilled. Because E is being solved for, the tangential component of the
electric field is always continuous, and thus the first condition is automatically fulfilled.
The second condition is equivalent to the natural boundary condition

–1 –1
– n × [ ( μ r ∇ × E ) 1 – ( μ r ∇ × E ) 2 ] = n × jωμ 0 ( H 1 – H2 ) = 0

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 and is therefore also fulfilled. These conditions are available (listed in alphabetical
order):

• Diffraction Order • Perfect Magnetic Conductor

• Electric Field • Periodic Condition
• Impedance Boundary Condition • Port
• Lumped Element • Scattering Boundary Condition
• Lumped Port • Surface Current Density
• Magnetic Field • Surface Roughness
• Perfect Electric Conductor • Transition Boundary Condition

EDGE, POINT, AND PAIR

• Circular Port Reference Axis • Magnetic Current

• Edge Current • Magnetic Point Dipole
• Electric Field • Perfect Electric Conductor
• Electric Point Dipole • Perfect Magnetic Conductor
• Integration Line for Current • Periodic Port Reference Point
• Integration Line for Voltage • Surface Current Density
• Line Current (Out-of-Plane)

For 2D axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node to the component that is valid on the axial symmetry
boundaries only.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-3 for links
to common sections and Table 2-4 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

84 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Wave Equation, Electric
Wave Equation, Electric is the main feature node for this physics interface. The
governing equation can be written in the form

2
∇ × ( μ r– 1 ∇ × E ) – k 0 ε rc E = 0

for the time-harmonic and eigenfrequency problems. The wave number of free space
k0 is defined as

ω
k 0 = ω ε 0 μ 0 = -----
c0

where c0 is the speed of light in vacuum.

In 2D the electric field varies with the out-of-plane wave number kz as

˜
E ( x, y, z ) = E ( x, y ) exp ( – ik z z ) .

The wave equation is thereby rewritten as

˜ 2 ˜
( ∇ – ik z z ) × [ μ r–1 ( ∇ – ik z z ) × E ] – k 0 ε rc E = 0 ,

where z is the unit vector in the out-of-plane z-direction.

Notice that the ansatz above just explains how the wave equation is modified when the
out-of-plane wave vector component kz is not zero. As an example, for a plane wave
with a nonzero out-of-plane wave vector component, the electric field is of course
given by

˜
E ( x, y, z ) = E ( x, y ) exp ( – ik z z ) = A exp ( – i ( k x x + k y y + k z z ) ) ,

where A is a constant amplitude and kx, ky, and kz are the wave vector components.

In 2D axisymmetry, the electric field varies with the azimuthal mode number m as

˜
E ( r, ϕ, z ) = E ( r, z ) exp ( – imϕ ) .

For this case, the wave equation is rewritten as

∇ – im ˜ ˜
----- ϕ × μ r–1  ∇ – i m
----- ϕ × E – k 0 ε rc E = 0 ,
2
 r   r 

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 where ϕ is the unit vector in the out-of-plane ϕ-direction.

When solving the equations as an eigenfrequency problem the eigenvalue is the

complex eigenfrequency λ = −jω + δ, where δ is the damping of the solution. The
Q-factor is given from the eigenvalue by the formula

ω
Q fact = ---------
2δ

Using the relation εr = n2, where n is the refractive index, the equation can
alternatively be written

2 2
∇ × ( ∇ × E ) – k0 n E = 0

When the equation is written using the refractive index, the assumption is that μr = 1
and σ = 0 and only the constitutive relations for linear materials are available. When
solving for the scattered field the same equations are used but E = Esc + Ei and Esc is
the dependent variable.

The Divergence Constraint subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT FIELD

Select an Electric displacement field model — Relative permittivity (the default),
Refractive index, Loss tangent, loss angle, Loss tangent, dissipation factor, Dielectric loss,
Drude-Lorentz dispersion model, or Debye dispersion model.

Relative Permittivity
When Relative permittivity is selected, the default Relative permittivity εr takes values
From material. Select Porous media to add a Porous Media subnode, or for User defined
select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic and enter values or expressions in
the field or matrix.

Refractive Index
When Refractive index is selected, the default Refractive index n and Refractive index,
imaginary part k take the values From material. To specify the real and imaginary parts
of the refractive index and assume a relative permeability of unity and zero

86 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

conductivity, for one or both of the options, select User defined then choose Isotropic
or Diagonal. Enter values or expressions in the field or matrix.

The diagonal components of the input refractive index matrix correspond

to the semi-axes of the so called index ellipsoid. You can orient the index
ellipsoid by first creating a suitably oriented coordinate system below the
Definitions node for the model component. Then select the created
coordinate system in the Coordinate system setting in the Coordinate
System Selection section in the settings for the Wave Equation, Electric
feature.

Beware of the time-harmonic sign convention requiring a lossy material

having a negative imaginary part of the refractive index (see Introducing
Losses in the Frequency Domain).

Loss Tangent, Loss Angle

When Loss tangent, loss angle is selected, the default Relative permittivity (real part) ε′
and Loss tangent, loss angle δ take values From material. For User defined select Isotropic,
Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic and enter values or expressions in the field or
matrix. Then if User defined is selected for Loss tangent, loss angle δ, enter a value to
specify a loss angle for dielectric losses. This assumes zero conductivity.

Loss Tangent, Dissipation Factor

When Loss tangent, dissipation factor is selected, the default Relative permittivity (real
part) ε′ and Loss tangent, dissipation factor tanδ take values From material. For User
defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic and enter values or
expressions in the field or matrix. Then if User defined is selected for Loss tangent,
dissipation factor tanδ, enter a value to specify a dissipation for dielectric losses. This
assumes zero conductivity.

Dielectric Loss
When Dielectric loss is selected, the default Relative permittivity ε′ and Relative
permittivity (imaginary part) ε″ take values From material. For User defined select

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 Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic and enter values or expressions in the field
or matrix.

Beware of the time-harmonic sign convention requiring a lossy material

having a negative imaginary part of the relative permittivity (see
Introducing Losses in the Frequency Domain).

Drude-Lorentz Dispersion Model

The Drude-Lorentz dispersion model is defined by the equation

M 2
fj ωP
εr ( ω ) = ε∞ +  ---------------------------------------
2
ω 0j – ω + iΓ j ω
2
-
j=1

where ε∞ is the high-frequency contribution to the relative permittivity, ωP is the

plasma frequency, fj is the oscillator strength, ω0j is the resonance frequency, and Γj is
the damping coefficient.

When Drude-Lorentz dispersion model is selected, the default Relative permittivity, high
frequency ε∞ (dimensionless) takes its value From material. For User defined select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic and enter a value or expression in the field
or matrix.

Enter a Plasma frequency ω∞ (SI unit: rad/s). The default is 0 rad/s.

In the table, enter values or expressions in the columns for the Oscillator strength,
Resonance frequency (rad/s), and Damping in time (rad/s).

Debye Dispersion Model

The Debye dispersion model is given by

Δε k
ε ( ω ) = ε∞ +  ---------------------
1 + iωτ k
-
k

where ε∞ is the high-frequency contribution to the relative permittivity, Δεk is the

contribution to the relative permittivity, and τk is the relaxation time.

When Debye dispersion model is selected, the default Relative permittivity, high
frequency ε∞ (dimensionless) takes its value From material. For User defined select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic and enter a value or expression in the field
or matrix.

88 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

In the table, enter values or expressions in the columns for the Relative permittivity
contribution and Relaxation time (s).

MAGNETIC FIELD
Select the Constitutive relation — Relative permeability (the default) or Magnetic losses.

For magnetic losses, beware of the time-harmonic sign convention

requiring a lossy material having a negative imaginary part of the relative
permeability (see Introducing Losses in the Frequency Domain).

• For Relative permeability the relative permeability μr uses values From material. For
User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on the
characteristics of the magnetic field, and then enter values or expressions in the field
or matrix. If Porous media is selected, the Porous Media subnode is available from
the context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar,
Attributes menu.
• For Magnetic losses the default values for Relative permeability (real part) μ′ and
Relative permeability (imaginary part) μ″ are taken From material. For User defined
enter different values.

CONDUCTION CURRENT
By default, the Electrical conductivity σ (SI unit: S/m) uses values From material.

• For User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on the
characteristics of the current and enter values or expressions in the field or matrix.
• For Linearized resistivity the default values for the Reference temperature Tref (SI
unit: K), Resistivity temperature coefficient α (SI unit: 1/K), and Reference resistivity
ρ0 (SI unit: Ω⋅m) are taken From material. For User defined enter other values or
expressions for any of these variables.
• When Porous media is selected, the Porous Media subnode is available from the
context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes
menu.
• When Archie’s law is selected, the Archie’s Law subnode is available from the context
menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

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 Divergence Constraint
The Divergence Constraint subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
Wave Equation, Electric parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. It
is used for numerical stabilization when the frequency is low enough for the total
electric current density related term in the wave equation to become numerically
insignificant. For The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface and Heat
Transfer Interfaces the divergence condition is given by

∇⋅J = 0

and for The Electromagnetic Waves, Transient Interface it is

∇ ⋅ ( σA ) = 0

DIVERGENCE CONSTRAINT
Enter a value or expression for the Divergence condition variable scaling ψ0.

For the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain and Microwave Heating

interfaces, the SI unit is kg/(m⋅s3⋅A)). The default is 1 kg/(m⋅s3⋅A).

For the Electromagnetic Waves, Transient interface (and the Microwave Plasma
interface available with the Plasma Module) the SI unit is A/m and the default is
1 A/m.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the electric field that can serve as an
initial guess for a nonlinear solver. Add additional Initial Values nodes from the Physics
toolbar.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial values of the components of the Electric field
E (SI unit: V/m). The default values are 0 V/m.

External Current Density

The External Current Density node adds an externally generated current density Je,
which appears in Ohm’s law

J = σE + J e

90 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

and in the equation that the physics interface defines.

EXTERNAL CURRENT DENSITY

Based on space dimension, enter the components (x, y, and z for 3D components for
example) of the External current density Je (SI unit: A/m2).

Far-Field Domain
To set up a far-field calculation, add a Far-Field Domain node and specify the far-field
domains in its Settings window. Use Far-Field Calculation subnodes (one is added by
default) to specify all other settings needed to define the far-field calculation. If a
Perfectly Matched Layer (PML) node has been added before adding the Far-Field
Domain, all of the domains in the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain interface
adjacent to the PML are automatically selected by default. If there is no PML, all of
the domains are selected. The selection can be modified. In that case, select only a
homogeneous domain or domain group that is outside of all radiating and scattering
objects and which has the material settings of the far-field medium.

Far-Field Support in the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain

Interface

Radar Cross Section: Application Library path

RF_Module/Scattering_and_RCS/radar_cross_section

Biconical Antenna: Application Library path

RF_Module/Antennas/biconical_antenna

Far-Field Calculation
A Far-Field Calculation subnode is added by default to the Far-Field Domain node and
is used to select boundaries corresponding to a single closed surface surrounding all
radiating and scattering objects. By default, all exterior boundaries of the Far-Field
Domain are selected. If a Perfectly Matched Layer (PML) node has been added before
adding the Far-Field Domain, all exterior boundaries of the Far-Field Domain adjacent
to the PML are selected. Symmetry reduction of the geometry makes it relevant to
select boundaries defining a nonclosed surface. Also use this feature to indicate
symmetry planes and symmetry cuts applied to the geometry, and whether the selected

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 boundaries are defining the inside or outside of the far field domain; that is, to say
whether they are facing away from infinity or toward infinity.

FAR-FIELD CALCULATION
Enter a Far-field variable name. The default is Efar.

Select as needed the Symmetry in the x=0 plane, Symmetry in the y=0 plane, or
Symmetry in the z=0 plane check boxes to use it your model when calculating the
far-field variable. The symmetry planes have to coincide with one of the Cartesian
coordinate planes.

When a check box is selected, also choose the type of symmetry to use from the
Symmetry type list that appears — Symmetry in E (PMC) or Symmetry in H (PEC). The
selection should match the boundary condition used for the symmetry boundary.
Using these settings, include the parts of the geometry that are not in the model for
symmetry reasons in the far-field analysis.

From the Boundary relative to domain list, select Inside or Outside (the default) to define
if the selected boundaries are defining the inside or outside of the far-field domain (that
is, whether facing away from infinity or toward infinity).

If perfectly matched layers are added to the model after the Far-Field
Domain is configured, then it is necessary to press the Reset Far-Field
Boundaries button to reassign all exterior boundaries.

Dielectric Resonator Antenna: Application Library path

RF_Module/Antennas/dielectric_resonator_antenna

Perfect Electric Conductor

The Perfect Electric Conductor boundary condition

n×E = 0

is a special case of the electric field boundary condition that sets the tangential
component of the electric field to zero. It is used for modeling of a lossless metallic
surface (for example, a ground plane) or as a symmetry type boundary condition. It
imposes symmetry for magnetic fields and “magnetic currents” and antisymmetry for
electric fields and electric currents. It supports induced electric surface currents and

92 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

thus any prescribed or induced electric currents (volume, surface, or edge currents)
flowing into a perfect electric conductor boundary is automatically balanced by
induced surface currents.

Js
J
I'
I

Js

Figure 4-2: The perfect electric conductor boundary condition is used on exterior and
interior boundaries representing the surface of a lossless metallic conductor or (on exterior
boundaries) representing a symmetry cut. The shaded (metallic) region is not part of the
model but still carries effective mirror images of the sources. Note also that any current
flowing into the boundary is perfectly balanced by induced surface currents. The
tangential electric field vanishes at the boundary.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.

RF Coil: Application Library path RF_Module/Passive_Devices/rf_coil

Perfect Magnetic Conductor

The Perfect Magnetic Conductor boundary condition

n×H = 0

is a special case of the surface current boundary condition that sets the tangential
component of the magnetic field and thus also the surface current density to zero. On
external boundaries, this can be interpreted as a “high surface impedance” boundary
condition or used as a symmetry type boundary condition. It imposes symmetry for
electric fields and electric currents. Electric currents (volume, surface, or edge
currents) are not allowed to flow into a perfect magnetic conductor boundary as that
would violate current conservation. On interior boundaries, the perfect magnetic
conductor boundary condition literally sets the tangential magnetic field to zero,

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 which in addition to setting the surface current density to zero also makes the
tangential electric field discontinuous.

Js=0

I'
I
J=0

Figure 4-3: The perfect magnetic conductor boundary condition is used on exterior
boundaries representing the surface of a high impedance region or a symmetry cut. The
shaded (high impedance) region is not part of the model but nevertheless carries effective
mirror images of the sources. Note also that any electric current flowing into the boundary
is forbidden as it cannot be balanced by induced electric surface currents. The tangential
magnetic field vanishes at the boundary. On interior boundaries, the perfect magnetic
conductor boundary condition literally sets the tangential magnetic field to zero which in
addition to setting the surface current density to zero also makes the tangential electric
field (and in dynamics the tangential electric field) discontinuous.

Magnetic Frill: Application Library path

RF_Module/Antennas/magnetic_frill

Port
Use the Port node where electromagnetic energy enters or exits the model. A port can
launch and absorb specific modes. Use the boundary condition to specify wave type
ports. Ports support S-parameter calculations but can be used just for exciting the
model. This node is not available with the Electromagnetic Waves, Transient interface.

94 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

In 3D, also right-click these subnodes are available from the context menu (right-click
the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu:

• Circular Port Reference Axis to determine a reference direction for the modes. This
subnode is selected from the Points submenu when Circular is selected as the type of
port.
• Periodic Port Reference Point to uniquely determine reciprocal lattice vectors. This
subnode is selected from the Points submenu when Periodic is selected as the type of
port.

PO R T PRO PER TIES

Enter a unique Port name. Only nonnegative integer numbers can be used as Port name
as it is used to define the elements of the S-parameter matrix and numeric port names
are also required for port sweeps and Touchstone file export.

Select the Type of Port — User defined, Numeric, Rectangular, Coaxial, Circular, or
Periodic.

Periodic ports are available in 3D and 2D. Circular and Coaxial ports are available in 3D
and 2D axisymmetry.

Numeric ports require a Boundary Mode Analysis study type. It should appear before the
frequency domain study node in the study branch of the model tree. If more than one
numeric port is needed, use one Boundary Mode Analysis node per port and assign
each to the appropriate port. Then, it is best to add all the studies; Boundary Mode
Analysis 1, Boundary Mode Analysis 2,..., Frequency Domain 1, manually. Numeric
ports are by default computed for the deformed mesh whereas other types of ports
compute the mode shape using geometry information.

It is only possible to excite one port at a time if the purpose is to compute

S-parameters. In other cases (for example, when studying microwave
heating) more than one inport might be wanted, but the S-parameter
variables cannot be correctly computed, so when several ports are excited,
the S-parameter output is turned off.

Wave Excitation at this Port

To set whether it is an inport or a listener port, select On or Off from the Wave excitation
at this port list. If On is selected, enter a Port input power Pin (SI unit: W) or a Deposited
power Pdep (SI unit: W) if the Specify deposited power check box is marked. When a
Deposited power is specified, the input power is adjusted so that the power that is not

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 reflected equals the specified Deposited power. If Specify deposited power is marked this
must be the only inport.

The Port Sweep Settings section in the Electromagnetic Waves,

Frequency Domain interface cycles through the ports, computes the
entire S-matrix and exports it to a Touchstone file. When using port
sweeps, the local setting for Wave excitation at this port is overridden by
the solver so only one port at a time is excited.

Activate Slit Condition

Select the Activate slit condition on interior port check box to use the Port boundary
condition on interior boundaries.

Then select a Slit type — PEC-backed (the default) or Domain-backed. The PEC-backed
type makes the port on interior boundaries perform as it does on exterior boundaries.
The Domain-backed type can be combined with perfectly matched layers to absorb the
excited mode from a source port and other higher order modes.

Select a Port orientation — Forward (the default) or Reverse to define the inward normal
vector of the port. The Forward direction is visualized with a red arrow on the port
boundary. The Reverse direction is opposite to the arrow.

Note that there can only be one domain-backed slit port per boundary.

When the Slit type is set to Domain-backed, there must be no waves

reflected from the domain backing the port. Thus, the backing domain
must have homogeneous material and geometric properties and it should
be truncated by a PML domain or a non-reflecting boundary condition.

When an active slit port is adjacent to a periodic condition, the periodic

condition needs to be split at the active port, as the field is discontinuous
at the point (in 2D) or edge (in 3D) where the slit port and the periodic
condition meet.

Analyze as a TEM Field

This check box is available for 3D components and when the Type of port is Numeric.

Select the Analyze as a TEM field check box to add Integration Line for Current and
Integration Line for Voltage subnodes. These subnodes are available from the context

96 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

menu (right-click the Port parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
Enter a Characteristic impedance Zref (SI unit: Ω). The default is 50 Ω. The
characteristic impedance of a port is calculated using the ratio of the voltage and
current and the mode field on a port boundary is scaled by the ratio between the
characteristic impedance and Zref..

Notch Filter Using a Split Ring Resonator: Application Library path

RF_Module/Filters/notch_filter_srr

PO R T MODE SETT IN GS
The input is based on the Type of Port selected above — User Defined, Rectangular,
Circular, or Periodic. No entry is required if Numeric or Coaxial are selected.

Set the Mode phase θin (SI unit: rad) for the port mode field. The default is 0 radians.
For instance, if the inspected port mode field is polarized in the opposite direction
compared to the expected direction, a Mode phase of π (enter pi in the field) can be
used for polarizing the mode field in the expected direction. Notice that a change of
the Mode phase, either on the exciting or the listener port, changes also the S-parameter
coupling the exciting and the listener port. However, a change of the Mode phase on
the exciting port does not modify the reflection coefficient (normally denoted S11)
associated with the exciting port.

User Defined
For User defined specify the eigenmode of the port. The mode field can be entered with
an arbitrary amplitude and is normalized internally.

• Enter the components of the Electric mode field E0 (SI unit: V/m) or the Magnetic
mode field H0 (SI unit: A/m). The entered expressions must be differentiable.
• Enter the Propagation constant β (SI unit: rad/m). This is frequency dependent for
all but TEM modes and a correct frequency-dependent expression must be used.

Notice that expressions including coupling operators are not

differentiable and cannot be used as mode fields.

Rectangular
For Rectangular specify a unique rectangular mode.

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 For 3D components, select a Mode type — Transverse electric (TE) or Transverse
magnetic (TM). Enter the Mode number, for example, 10 for a TE10 mode, or 11 for a
TM11 mode.

For 2D components, to excite the fundamental mode, select the mode type Transverse
electromagnetic (TEM), since the rectangular port represents a parallel-plate waveguide
port that can support a TEM mode. Only TE modes are possible when solving for the
out-of-plane vector component, and only TM and TEM modes are possible when
solving for the in-plane vector components. There is only a single mode number,
which is selected from a list.

Coaxial
In 2D axisymmetry, Coaxial does not support non-zero azimuthal mode number. The
Azimuthal mode number in the Physics interface should be defined as zero.

Circular
For Circular specify a unique circular mode.

• Select a Mode type — Transverse electric (TE) or Transverse magnetic (TM).

• Select the Mode number from the list.

For 3D components, enter the Mode number, for example, 11 for a TE11 mode, or 01
for a TM01 mode. When Circular is selected as the type of port in 3D, the Circular Port
Reference Axis subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the parent
node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. It defines the orientation of fields
on a port boundary.

For 2D axisymmetry components, select whether the Azimuthal mode number is

defined in the Physics interface or if it is User defined. For User defined define an integer
constant or an integer parameter expression for the Azimuthal mode number. Note that
the absolute value of the Azimuthal mode number must be less than 11.

Periodic
For Periodic specify parameters for the mode field. When Periodic is selected, the
Diffraction Order port subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Select a Input quantity — Electric field or Magnetic field and define the mode field
amplitude.

• For 2D components and if the Input quantity is set to Electric field, define the Electric
mode field amplitude. For example, for a TE wave set the x, y, and z components to

98 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 0, 0, 1. Similarly, if the Input quantity is set to Magnetic field, define the Magnetic
mode field amplitude. For a TM wave set the x, y, and z components to 0, 0, and 1.
• Define the Angle of incidence, if Wave excitation at this port is On.

For 3D components, if Wave excitation at this port is On, define the Elevation angle of
incidence and Azimuth angle of incidence. The Elevation angle of incidence α1 and Azimuth
angle of incidence α2 are used in the relations

k = k parellel + k perpendicular

k parallel = k F = k sin α 1 ( a 1 cos α 2 + n × a 1 sin α 2 )

where k is the wave vector, kparallel is the projection of k onto the port, kF is the
k-vector for Floquet periodicity, n is the outward unit normal vector to the boundary,
and a 1 is one of the normalized primitive unit cell vectors from the periodic structure
defined from Periodic Port Reference Point.

The Elevation angle of incidence α1 is the angle between n and k.

The Azimuth angle of incidence is the counterclockwise rotating angle from the
primitive vector a1 around the axis built with Periodic Port Reference Point and n.

For periodic ports with hexagonal port boundaries, the definition of the vector a1 is
slightly different from the default definition. In this case, the unit cell is actually a
rhomboid, with primitive vectors pointing in other directions than the side vectors of
the hexagon. Thus, for a hexagonal periodic port, the vector a1 is defined along one
of the sides of the hexagon, and it is not one of the primitive vectors of the hexagonal
point lattice. The Azimuth angle of incidence α2 is still measured from the vector a1,
even though this vector now refers to a side vector of the hexagonal port boundary and
not a primitive vector.

Hexagonal Grating: Application Library path

RF_Module/Tutorials/hexagonal_grating

For 2D components define the Angle of incidence. The Angle of incidence α is defined
by the relation

k × n = k sin αz

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 where k is the projection of the wave vector in the xy-plane, n is the normalized
normal vector to the boundary, k is the magnitude of the projected wave vector in the
xy-plane, and z is the unit vector in the z-direction.

Notice that the mode field defined for the Periodic port assumes isotropic
material properties in the domain adjacent to the selected port boundary.

The propagation directions for listener Periodic ports are deduced from
the angle setting(s) for the source Periodic port and the refractive indexes
defined for the source and the listener ports. Thus, adding source Periodic
ports with different propagation angles will give ambiguous propagation
directions for the listener Periodic ports.

AUTOMATIC DIFFRACTION ORDER CALCULATION

This section is only available for Periodic ports to provide parameter settings that are
used when automatically adding Diffraction Order subnodes to Periodic ports.

• Select the Include in automatic diffraction order calculation check box to add
Diffraction Order subnodes to the selected Periodic port, when the Compute
Diffraction Order button is clicked from the exciting Periodic port.
• Define the Refractive index, real part at the boundary.
• Define the Maximum frequency — From study (the default) or User defined. When
From study is selected, the Maximum frequency is taken from the study step associated
with the physics interface. For User defined, enter the maximum frequency fmax (SI
unit: Hz). The default value is 0 Hz. If a single frequency is used, insert the
frequency, or if a frequency sweep is performed, insert the maximum frequency of
the sweep. This parameter is only available when Wave excitation at this port is On.
When all parameters are defined, click the Compute Diffraction Orders button from the
exciting Periodic port to automatically create Diffraction Order ports as subnodes to all
Periodic ports having the Include in automatic diffraction order calculation check box
selected.

• S-Parameters and Ports

• S-Parameter Variables

100 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 3D model with numeric ports — Waveguide Adapter: Application Library
path RF_Module/Transmission_Lines_and_Waveguides/waveguide_adapter

2D model with rectangular ports — Three-Port Ferrite Circulator:

Application Library path RF_Module/Ferrimagnetic_Devices/circulator

2D model with periodic ports — Plasmonic Wire Grating: Application

Library path RF_Module/Tutorials/plasmonic_wire_grating

3D model using slit conditions — Frequency Selective Surface,

Complementary Split Ring Resonator: Application Library path
RF_Module/EMI_EMC_Applications/frequency_selective_surface_csrr

Integration Line for Current

The Integration Line for Current is available only in 3D from the context menu
(right-click the Port node) when the Analyze as a TEM field check box is selected under
the Port Properties section for the Port node.

Integration Line for Voltage

The Integration Line for Voltage is available only in 3D from the context menu
(right-click the Port node) when the Analyze as a TEM field check box is selected under
the Port Properties section for the Port node. The characteristic impedance of a
Numeric port is defined by the ratio between the voltage and current.

Circular Port Reference Axis

The Circular Port Reference Axis is available only in 3D. When the Type of port is set to
Circular under Port Properties, the Circular Port Reference Axis subnode is available from
the context menu (right-click the Port parent node) or from the Physics toolbar,
Attributes menu. Two points are used to define the orientation of fields on a port
boundary. If there are more than two points on the selection list, the first and last
points are used. For the fundamental TE11 mode, the direction of the reference axis
corresponds to the polarization of the electric field at the port center.

Diffraction Order
The Diffraction Order port is available in 3D and 2D. When the Type of Port is set to
Periodic under Port Properties, this subnode is available from the context menu

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN IN TERFACE | 101

 (right-click the Port parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Use the Diffraction Order port to define diffraction orders from a periodic structure.
Normally a Diffraction Order node is added automatically during the Periodic port
setup. Additional Diffraction Order ports subnodes are available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

POR T PROPER TIES

Enter a unique Port name. Only non-negative integer numbers can be used as Port
name as it is used to define the elements of the S-parameter matrix and numeric port
names are also required for port sweeps and Touchstone file export.

The Diffraction Order port is a listener port feature.

POR T MODE SETTINGS

These settings define the diffracted plane wave.

Components
Select the Components setting for the port — In-plane vector (the default) or
Out-of-plane vector. In 3D, when the diffraction order m and n are both set to 0, a third
option is Orthogonal polarization, which represents a polarization orthogonal to the
polarization of the incident wave.

Diffraction Order
Specify an integer constant or an integer parameter expression for the Diffraction order
m (the default is 0) and in 3D n (the default is 0).

Note that In-plane vector and Out-of-plane vector are based on the plane of diffraction
which is constructed with the diffraction wave vector and the outward normal vector
of the port boundary. The diffraction wave vector is defined by

k diffraction,parallel = k F + MG 1 + NG 2

k diffraction = k diffraction,parallel – nk diffraction,perpendicular

2 2
k diffraction,perpendicular = k – k diffraction,parallel

where M and N are diffraction orders, k ≥ kdiffraction,parallel, k is the magnitude of the

wave vector and kdiffraction,parallel is the magnitude of kdiffraction,parallel. Reciprocal
lattice vectors, G1 and G2 are defined from Periodic Port Reference Point.

102 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

In-plane vector lies on the plane of diffraction while Out-of-plane vector is normal to the
plane of diffraction.

For a 2D component, In-plane vector is available when the settings for the physics
interface is set to either In-plane vector or Three-component vector under Electric Field
Components Solved For. Out-of-plane vector is available when the settings for the
physics interface is set to either Out-of-plane vector or Three-component vector under
Electric Field Components Solved For.

Enter a value or expression for the Mode phase θin (SI unit: rad). The default is
0 radians. The Mode phase setting is further discussed for the Port feature.

Notice that the mode field defined for the Diffraction Order feature
assumes isotropic material properties in the domain adjacent to the
selected feature boundary.

• S-Parameters and Ports

• S-Parameter Variables

Plasmonic Wire Grating: Application Library path

RF_Module/Tutorials/plasmonic_wire_grating

Periodic Port Reference Point

The Periodic Port Reference Point subnode is available only in 3D. When the Type of
Port is set to Periodic under Port Properties, this subnode is available from the context
menu (right-click the Port parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

The Periodic Port Reference Point is used to uniquely identify two primitive unit cell
vectors, a1 and a2, and two reciprocal lattice vectors, G1 and G2. These reciprocal
vectors are defined in terms of the unit cell vectors, a1 and a2, tangent to the edges
shared between the port and the adjacent periodic boundary conditions. G1 and G2
are defined by the relation

a1 × a2
---------------------
- = n
a1 × a2

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN IN TERFACE | 103

 a2 × n n × a1
G 1 = 2π --------------------------- and G 2 = 2π ---------------------------
a1 ⋅ a2 × n a1 ⋅ a2 × n

where n is the outward unit normal vector to the port boundary. If there are multiple
points defined in the selection list, only the last point is used.

POINT SELECTION
The primitive unit cell vectors, a1 and a2 are defined from two edges sharing the
Periodic Port Reference Point on a port boundary. The two vectors can have unequal
lengths and are not necessarily orthogonal. They start from the Periodic Port Reference
Point.

For listener (passive, observation, and not excited) ports, if the outward normal vector
on the listener port boundary is opposite to that of the source port, the listener port
reference point needs to be mirrored from the source port reference point based on
the center coordinate of the model domain. For example, if the source port reference
point is at {-1,-1,1} in a cubic domain around the origin, the mirrored listener port
reference point is {1,1,-1}. In this case, if the Azimuth angle of incidence at the source
port boundary is α2, the Azimuth angle of incidence at the listener port boundary
π/2 − α2 and the signs of the diffraction order on the source and listener ports are
opposite. See also Periodic for the angle definition.

If the lattice vectors are collinear with two Cartesian axes, then the lattice vectors can
be defined without the Periodic Port Reference Point. For the port where n points along
a positive Cartesian direction, a1 and a2 are also assigned to point along positive
Cartesian directions. Conversely, for the port where n points along a negative
Cartesian direction, a1 and a2 are assigned to point along negative Cartesian
directions. The condition a1 × a2 || n is true on both ports. For example, if n = z, then
a1/|a1| = x and a2/|a2| = y and if n = −z, then a1/|a1| = −x and a2/|a2| = −y.

Plasmonic Wire Grating: Application Library path

RF_Module/Tutorials/plasmonic_wire_grating

Lumped Port
Use the Lumped Port node to apply a voltage or current excitation of a model or to
connect to a circuit. A lumped port is a simplification of the port boundary condition.

104 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

A Lumped Port condition can only be applied on boundaries that extend between two
metallic boundaries — that is, boundaries where Perfect Electric Conductor, Impedance
Boundary, or Transition Boundary (Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain
interface only) conditions apply — separated by a distance much smaller than the
wavelength.

LUMPED POR T PROPER TIES

Enter a unique Lumped port name. It is recommended to use a numeric name as it is
used to define the elements of the S-parameter matrix and numeric port names are also
required for port sweeps and Touchstone file export (for the Electromagnetic Waves,
Frequency Domain interface).

Type of Lumped Port

Select a Type of lumped port — Coaxial, Multielement uniform, Uniform, or User defined.

Select User defined for nonuniform ports, for example, a curved port and enter values
or expressions in the fields — Height of lumped port hport (SI unit: m), Width of lumped
port wport (SI unit: m), and Direction between lumped port terminals ah. In 2D
axisymmetry, Coaxial does not support a nonzero azimuthal mode number. The
Azimuthal mode number in the Physics interface should be defined as zero.

Notice that the input field for Direction between lumped port terminals ah
is not shown in 2D, when Electric field components solved for is set to
Out-of-plane vector in the Components section for the physics interface. In
this case the Direction between lumped port terminals ah is defined to be
in the out-of-plane direction.

Select Multielement uniform for multi-excitation or -termination of, for example, a

coplanar waveguide port or a differential port. The direction of the field in each
sub-element of the Multielement uniform lumped port is defined by the subnodes,
Uniform element.

Terminal Type
Select a Terminal type — a Cable port for a voltage driven transmission line and
S-parameter calculation, a Current driven port, or a Circuit port.

For Cable select On or Off from the Wave excitation at this port list to set whether it is
an inport or a listener port. If On is selected, enter a Voltage V0 (SI unit: V), and Port
phase θin (SI unit: rad).

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN IN TERFACE | 105

 Note it is only possible to excite one Cable port at a time if the purpose is to compute
S-parameters. In other cases, for example, when studying microwave heating, more
than one inport might be wanted, but the S-parameter variables cannot be correctly
computed so if several ports are excited, the S-parameter output is turned off.

For the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain and Microwave Heating

interfaces, the Port Sweep Settings cycles through the ports, computes the entire
S-matrix, and exports it to a Touchstone file. When using port sweeps, the local setting
for Wave excitation at this port is overridden by the solver so only one port at a time is
excited.

SETTINGS
No entry is required if a Circuit terminal type is selected above.

• For a Cable terminal type enter the Characteristic impedance Zref (SI unit: Ω).
• For a Current terminal type enter a Terminal current I0 (SI unit: A).

Calculate S-parameter
The Calculate S-parameter check box needs to be activated for S-parameter calculation
with the Electromagnetic Waves, Transient interface, while the Cable port in the
Electromagnetic Wave, Frequency Domain calculates S-parameters automatically.

VO L T A G E S O U R C E T Y P E
When Calculate S-parameter is checked, select Voltage source type from the list (default
Modulated Gaussian pulse). The Modulated Gaussian pulse is defined as

( x – ( 0,97 ⋅ 2 ⁄ f 0 ) )
2

2f 0 – -----------------------------------------------
2 ⁄ ( 2f 0 )
2
-
----------
-e ⋅ sin ( 2πf 0 )
2π

where the Center frequency f0 defines the location as 0.97×2/f0, the standard deviation
as 1/(2f0), and the modulation frequency f0.

The Gaussian pulse location is slightly shifted from twice the period time by a factor of
0.97 to improve the frequency responses.

106 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

CENTER FREQUENCY
When Calculate S-parameter is checked, enter a Center frequency f0 for the input
modulated Gaussian pulse (SI unit: Hz).

• S-Parameters and Ports

• Lumped Ports with Voltage Input

As a multiport device example, Branch-Line Coupler: Application

Library path RF_Module/Couplers_and_Power_Dividers/branch_line_coupler

For example of how to use the Multielement uniform lumped port,

Coplanar Waveguide Bandpass Filter: Application Library path
RF_Module/Filters/cpw_bandpass_filter

Lumped Element
Use a Lumped Element node to mimic the insertion of a capacitor, inductor, or general
impedance between two metallic boundaries. A Lumped Element condition is a passive
lumped port boundary condition which cannot be used as a source. Unlike a Lumped
Port, it does not generate S-parameters. The sign of the current and power of a Lumped
Element is opposite to that of a Lumped Port.

It can only be applied on boundaries that extend between two metallic boundaries —
that is, boundaries where Perfect Electric Conductor, Impedance Boundary, or Transition
Boundary (Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain interface only) conditions
apply — separated by a distance much smaller than the wavelength.

LUMPED ELEMENT PROPERTIES

Enter a unique Lumped element name. See Lumped Port for the rest of the settings.

SETTINGS
Select a Lumped element device — User defined (the default), Inductor, Capacitor,
Parallel LC, Series LC, Parallel RLC, or Series RLC. Inductor, Capacitor, Parallel LC, Series LC,
Parallel RLC, and Series RLC are available only in the frequency domain study type.

• For User defined enter a Lumped element impedance Zelement (SI unit: Ω). The
default is 50 Ω.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN IN TERFACE | 107

 • For Inductor, Parallel LC, Series LC, Parallel RLC, or Series RLC enter a
Lumped element inductance Lelement (SI unit: H). The default is 1 nH.
• For Capacitor, Parallel LC, Series LC, Parallel RLC, or Series RLC enter a
Lumped element capacitance Celement (SI unit: F). The default is 1 pF.
• For Parallel RLC, or Series RLC enter a Lumped element resistance Relement
(SI unit: Ω). The default is 50 Ω.

SMA Connectorized Wilkinson Power Divider: Application Library path

RF_Module/Couplers_and_Power_Dividers/wilkinson_power_divider

Uniform Element
The Uniform Element is available in 3D. When the Type of lumped port is set to
Multielement uniform under Lumped Port Properties, this subnode is available from the
context menu (right-click the Lumped Port parent node) or from the Physics toolbar,
Attributes menu.

POR T PROPER TIES

Enter a unique Uniform element name. Enter values or expressions in the fields —
Direction between uniform element terminals ah. The Direction between uniform element
terminals defines the electric potential polarity, as ah points in the direction of the
electric field.

Electric Field
The Electric Field boundary condition

n × E = n × E0

specifies the tangential component of the electric field. It should in general not be used
to excite a model. Consider using the Port, Lumped Port, or Scattering Boundary
Condition instead. It is provided mainly for completeness and for advanced users who
can recognize the special modeling situations when it is appropriate to use. The
commonly used special case of zero tangential electric field is described in the Perfect
Electric Conductor section.

108 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

ELECTRIC FIELD
Enter the value or expression for the components of the Electric field E0
(SI unit: V/m).

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.

Magnetic Field
The Magnetic Field node adds a boundary condition for specifying the tangential
component of the magnetic field at the boundary:

n × H = n × H0

MAGNETIC FIELD
Enter the value or expression for the components of the Magnetic field H0
(SI unit: A/m).

Scattering Boundary Condition

Use the Scattering Boundary Condition to make a boundary transparent for a scattered
wave. The boundary condition is also transparent for an incoming plane wave. The
scattered (outgoing) wave types for which the boundary condition is perfectly
transparent are

– jk ( n ⋅ r ) – jk ( k ⋅ r )
E = E sc e + E0 e Plane scattered wave
– jk ( n ⋅ r )
e – jk ( k ⋅ r )
E = E sc ------------------------ + E 0 e Cylindrical scattered wave
r
– jk ( n ⋅ r )
e – jk ( k ⋅ r )
E = E sc ------------------------ + E 0 e Spherical scattered wave
rs

The field E0 is the incident plane wave that travels in the direction k. The boundary
condition is transparent for incoming (but not outgoing) plane waves with any angle
of incidence.

The boundary is only perfectly transparent for scattered (outgoing) waves of the
selected type at normal incidence to the boundary. That is, a plane wave at oblique
incidence is partially reflected and so is a cylindrical wave or spherical wave unless the
wave fronts are parallel to the boundary. For the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN IN TERFACE | 109

 Domain interface, the Perfectly Matched Layer feature is available as a general way of
modeling an open boundary.

• For cylindrical waves, specify around which cylinder axis the waves are cylindrical.
Do this by specifying one point at the cylinder axis and the axis direction.
• For spherical waves, specify the center of the sphere around which the wave is
spherical.

The domain material adjacent to the boundary where the Scattering Boundary
Condition is applied can be lossy.

If the problem is solved for the eigenfrequency or the scattered field, the boundary
condition does not include the incident wave.

– jk ( n ⋅ r )
E sc = E sc e Plane scattered wave
– jk ( n ⋅ r )
e
E sc = E sc ------------------------ Cylindrical scattered wave
r
– jk ( n ⋅ r )
e
E sc = E sc ------------------------ Spherical scattered wave
rs

SCATTERING BOUNDARY CONDITION

Select an Incident field — No incident field (the default), Wave given by E field, or Wave
given by H field. Enter the expressions for the components for the Incident electric field
E0 or Incident magnetic field H0.

If the Incident field is not set to No incident field, edit the Incident wave direction kdir
for the vector coordinates. The default direction is in the opposite direction to the
boundary normal. For 2D axisymmetry, the Incident wave direction kdir should be
parallel or anti-parallel to the symmetry axis.

Select a Scattered wave type for which the boundary is absorbing — Plane wave (the
default), Spherical wave, or Cylindrical wave.

• For the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain interface, select an Order —First
order (the default) or Second order.
• For Cylindrical wave also enter coordinates for the Source point r0 (SI unit: m) and
Source axis direction raxis (dimensionless). For 2D the Source axis direction is

110 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 assumed to be in the z-direction, whereas in 2D axisymmetry it is assumed to be
along the axis of rotation.
• For Spherical wave enter coordinates for the Source point r0 (SI unit: m).

Conical Antenna: Application Library path

RF_Module/Antennas/conical_antenna

IN IT IA L VA LU E S FO R I NC IDE N T WAVE
For the Electromagnetic Waves, Transient interface enter the components for the
initial value of the Magnetic vector potential A0 (SI unit: Wb/m).

DISPERSION AND ABSORPTION

This section is only available for the Electromagnetic Waves, Transient interface. To
display it, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.

Select the Dispersion and absorption model that will be used when calculating the wave
number and attenuation constant for the incident and scattered waves — Low loss

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN IN TERFACE | 111

 approximation (the default), or High loss. For High loss also enter a Carrier frequency f0
(SI unit: Hz). The default is 1 GHz.

When the Dispersion and absorption model is set to Low loss approximation
the refractive index is calculated from the relative permittivity and the
relative permeability as

n = εr μr .

Similarly, the absorption coefficient is calculated as

1 μ0 μr 1
γ = --- σ -----------
- = --- σZ c ,
2 ε0 εr 2

where Zc is the characteristic impedance.

When the Dispersion and absorption model is set to High loss, the real and
the imaginary parts of the complex refractive index is solved for from the
real and the imaginary parts of the relative permittivity, using the relations

2 2
n – κ = ε' r μ r

and

σμ r
2nκ = ε'' r μ r = --------- .
ωε 0

The absorption coefficient is then given by

ω
γ = ---- κ .
c

Impedance Boundary Condition

The Impedance Boundary Condition

μ0 μr
------------ n × H + E – ( n ⋅ E )n = ( n ⋅ E s )n – E s
εc

is used at boundaries where the field is known to penetrate only a short distance
outside the boundary. This penetration is approximated by a boundary condition to

112 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

avoid the need to include another domain in the model. Although the equation is
identical to the one in the low-reflecting boundary condition, it has a different
interpretation. The material properties are for the domain outside the boundary and
not inside, as for low-reflecting boundaries. A requirement for this boundary condition
to be a valid approximation is that the magnitude of the complex refractive index

μεc
N = -----------
-
μ1 ε1

where μ1 and ε1 are the material properties of the inner domain, is large; that is,
| N | >> 1.

The source electric field Es can be used to specify a source surface current on the
boundary.

The Surface Roughness subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Js
J
I'
I

Js

Figure 4-4: The impedance boundary condition is used on exterior boundaries

representing the surface of a lossy domain. The shaded (lossy) region is not part of the
model. The effective induced image currents are of reduced magnitude due to losses. Any
current flowing into the boundary is perfectly balanced by induced surface currents as for
the perfect electric conductor boundary condition. The tangential electric field is generally
small but non zero at the boundary.

IMPEDANCE BOUNDARY CONDITION

Select an Electric displacement field model — Relative permittivity (the default),
Refractive index, Loss tangent, loss angle, Loss tangent, dissipation factor, Dielectric loss,
Drude-Lorentz dispersion model, or Debye dispersion model. See the Wave Equation,
Electric node, Electric Displacement Field section, for all settings.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN IN TERFACE | 113

 SOURCE ELECTRIC FIELD
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.

Enter a Source electric field Es (SI unit: V/m). The default is 0 V/m.

Coaxial to Waveguide Coupling: Application Library path

RF_Module/Transmission_Lines_and_Waveguides/coaxial_waveguide_coupling

Computing Q-Factors and Resonant Frequencies of Cavity Resonators:

Application Library path
RF_Module/Verification_Examples/cavity_resonators

Surface Current Density

The Surface Current Density boundary condition

–n × H = Js
n2 × ( H1 – H2 ) = Js

specifies a surface current density at both exterior and interior boundaries, respectively.
The current density is specified as a three-dimensional vector, but because it needs to
flow along the boundary surface, COMSOL Multiphysics projects it onto the
boundary surface and neglects its normal component. This makes it easier to specify
the current density and avoids unexpected results when a current density with a
component normal to the surface is given.

For Transition Boundary Condition, the Surface Current Density subnode as an

one-sided surface current density is available from the context menu (right-click the
Transition Boundary Condition parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes
menu.

SURFACE CURRENT DENSITY

Enter values or expressions for the components of the Surface current density Js0
(SI unit: A/m).

For the Surface Current Density subnode, select Side — Upside (the default) or Downside
to define on which side the Surface Current Density is applied. The red arrow visualized
on the selected boundaries always indicates the upside.

114 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Surface Magnetic Current Density
The Surface Magnetic Current Density boundary condition

n × E = J ms
n 2 × ( E 1 – E 2 ) = – J ms

specifies a surface magnetic current density at both exterior and interior boundaries,
respectively. The magnetic current density is specified as a three-dimensional vector,
but because it needs to flow along the boundary surface, COMSOL Multiphysics
projects it onto the boundary surface and neglects its normal component. This makes
it easier to specify the magnetic current density and avoids unexpected results when a
magnetic current density with a component normal to the surface is given.

SURFACE MAGNETIC CURRENT DENSITY

Enter values or expressions for the components of the Surface magnetic current density
Jms0 (SI unit: V/m).

Surface Roughness
The Surface Roughness subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
Impedance Boundary Condition or Transition Boundary Condition parent node) or
from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

SURFACE ROUGHNESS
Select a Surface roughness model — Sawtooth (the default) or Snowball. For Sawtooth,
enter a value or expression for the Surface roughness ΔRMS (SI unit: m). For Snowball,
enter a Snowball hexagon cell area Ahex (SI unit: m2). Then enter values for the Snowball
radius (SI unit: m) and Number of snowballs in the table, adding as many rows as you
need.

Select the Skin depth type to be Physics-controlled (the default) or User defined. For User
defined, enter the Skin depth δ (SI unit: m).

The Surface Roughness increases the impedance, and consequently it decreases the
surface current density of Impedance Boundary Condition or Transition Boundary
Condition, proportional to the ratio between the impedance of a rough surface and
that of a smooth surface:

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN IN TERFACE | 115

 SAWTOOTH MODEL
Δ RMS 2
Z rough = Z smooth ⋅ 1 + --- atan  ( 1.4 )  --------------- 
2
π δ

where ΔRMS is the root mean square of the surface roughness, and δ is the skip depth
of the material (Ref. 1).

SNOWBALL MODEL

2
3  N i ⋅ 4πa i   δ δ 
2
Z rough = Z smooth ⋅ 1 + ---
2   ------------------------ ⁄  1 + ----- + -----2-
 A hex   ai a 
i i

where Ahex is the hexagonal area of a unit cell, Ni is the number of snowballs, ai is the
radius of a snowball, and δ is the skip depth of the material (Ref. 2).

For Transition Boundary Condition, select Side — Upside (the default) or Downside to
define on which side the Surface Roughness is applied. The red arrow visualized on the
selected boundaries always indicates the upside.

References
1. E. Hammerstad, O. Jensen, “Accurate Models for Microstrip Computer-Aided
Design”, Microwave symposium Digest, 1980 IEEE MTT-S International, pp.407–
409, May 1980

2. P.G. Huray, The Foundation of Signal Integrity, Wiley-IEEE Press, 2010

Transition Boundary Condition

The Transition Boundary Condition is used on interior boundaries to model a sheet of a
medium that should be geometrically thin but does not have to be electrically thin. It
represents a discontinuity in the tangential electric field. Mathematically it is described
by a relation between the electric field discontinuity and the induced surface current
density:

116 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 ( Z S E t1 – Z T E t2 )
J s1 = --------------------------------------------
2 2
-
ZS – ZT
( Z S E t2 – Z T E t1 )
J s2 = --------------------------------------------
2 2
-
ZS – ZT
– jωμ 1
Z S = ------------- ----------------------
k tan ( kd )
– jωμ 1
Z T = ------------- ---------------------
k sin ( kd )
k = ω ( ε + ( σ ⁄ ( jω ) ) )μ

where indices 1 and 2 refer to the different sides of the layer. This feature is not
available with the Electromagnetic Waves, Transient interface.

The Surface Roughness subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

TR A N S I T I O N B O U N D A R Y C O N D I T I O N
Select an Electric displacement field model — Relative permittivity (the default),
Refractive index, Loss tangent, loss angle, Loss tangent, dissipation factor, Dielectric loss,
Drude-Lorentz dispersion model, or Debye dispersion model. See the Wave Equation,
Electric node, Electric Displacement Field section, for all settings.

Enter a Thickness d (SI unit: m). The default is 0.01 m.

Periodic Condition
The Periodic Condition sets up a periodicity between the selected boundaries. The
Destination Selection subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the parent
node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
The software automatically identifies the boundaries as either source boundaries or
destination boundaries This works fine for cases like opposing parallel boundaries. To
control the destination, add a Destination Selection subnode. By default it contains the
selection that COMSOL Multiphysics has identified.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN IN TERFACE | 117

 PERIODICITY SETTINGS
Select a Type of periodicity — Continuity (the default), Antiperiodicity, or Floquet
periodicity. Select:

• Continuity to make the electric field periodic (equal on the source and destination),
• Antiperiodicity to make it antiperiodic, or
• Floquet periodicity (The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface only)
to use a Floquet periodicity (Bloch-Floquet periodicity).

- For Floquet periodicity also enter the source for the k-vector for Floquet periodicity.
- For User defined specify the components of the k-vector for Floquet periodicity kF
(SI unit: rad/m).
- For From periodic port the k-vector for Floquet periodicity kF is obtained from the
Periodic Port settings.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.

For information about the Orientation of Source section, see Orientation of Source and
Destination in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Periodic Boundary Conditions

• Fresnel Equations: Application Library path

RF_Module/Verification_Examples/fresnel_equations
• Plasmonic Wire Grating: Application Library path:
RF_Module/Tutorials/plasmonic_wire_grating

Magnetic Current
The Magnetic Current node specifies a magnetic line current along one or more edges.
For a single Magnetic Current source, the electric field is orthogonal to both the line
and the distance vector from the line to the field point. For 2D and 2D axisymmetric
models the Magnetic Current node is applied to Points, representing magnetic currents
directed out of the model plane. For 3D models, the Magnetic Current is applied to
Edges.

118 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

MAGNETIC CURRENT
Enter a value for the Magnetic current Im (SI unit: V).

Two-Port Network
Use the Two-Port Network node to characterize the response of a two-port network
system such as reflection and transmission using S-parameters.

A Two-Port Network can only be applied on boundaries that extend between two
metallic boundaries — that is, boundaries where Perfect Electric Conductor, Impedance
Boundary, or Transition Boundary conditions apply — separated by a distance much
smaller than the wavelength.

TW O - P O R T N E T W O R K P R O P E R T I E S

Type of Port
Select a Type of Port — Coaxial or Uniform.

Coaxial does not support nonzero azimuthal mode number. The Azimuthal mode
number in the Physics interface should be defined as zero.

Type of S-parameter Definition

Select a Type of S-parameter Definition — Matrix or Touchstone file.

Matrix defines the S-parameter by a constant matrix input. Touchstone file imports a
two-port Touchstone file to characterize the two-port boundaries as a function of
frequency.

SETTINGS
Enter the Characteristic impedance Zref (SI unit: Ω) for Matrix.

INTERPOLATION AND EXTRAPOLATION

Select Interpolation and Extrapolation types to obtain S-parameter values from the
imported Touchstone file corresponding to the simulation frequencies.

Interpolation
Select a Interpolation — Nearest neighbor, Linear, Piecewise cubic, or Cubic spline (the
default).

The S-parameter values are interpolated within the frequency range specified in the
Touchstone file.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN IN TERFACE | 119

 Extrapolation
Select a Extrapolation — Constant (the default), Linear, Nearest function, or Specific
value.

The S-parameter values are extrapolated outside the frequency range specified in the
Touchstone file.

Two-Port Network Port

A pair of Two-Port Network Port subnodes is added by default to the Two-Port
Network node and is used to select boundaries corresponding to port 1 and port 2 in
the S-parameter input, respectively.

Edge Current
The Edge Current node specifies an electric line current along one or more edges.

EDGE CURRENT
Enter an Edge current I0 (SI unit: A).

Electric Point Dipole

Add Electric Point Dipole nodes to 3D and 2D models. This represents the limiting case
of when the length d of a current filament carrying uniform current I approaches zero
while maintaining the product between I and d. The dipole moment is a vector entity
with the positive direction set by the current flow.

DIPOLE SPECIFICATION
Select a Dipole specification — Magnitude and direction or Dipole moment.

DIPOLE PARAMETERS
Based on the Dipole specification selection:

• For Magnitude and direction enter coordinates for the Electric current dipole moment
direction np and Electric current dipole moment, magnitude p (SI unit: A·m).
• For Dipole moment enter coordinates for the Electric current dipole moment p (SI
unit: A·m).

120 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Magnetic Point Dipole
Add a Magnetic Point Dipole to 3D and 2D models. The point dipole source represents
a small circular current loop I in the limit of zero loop area a at a fixed product I*a.

DIPOLE SPECIFICATION
Select a Dipole specification — Magnitude and direction or Dipole moment.

DIPOLE PARAMETERS
Based on the Dipole specification selection:

• For Magnitude and direction enter coordinates for the Magnetic dipole moment
direction nm and Magnetic dipole moment, magnitude m (SI unit: m2·A).
• For Dipole moment enter coordinates for the Magnetic dipole moment m (SI unit:
m2·A).

Line Current (Out-of-Plane)

Add a Line Current (Out-of-Plane) node to 2D or 2D axisymmetric models. This
specifies a line current out of the modeling plane. In axially symmetric geometries this
is the rotational direction, in 2D geometries it is the z direction.

LINE CURRENT (OUT-OF-PLANE)

Enter an Out-of-plane current I0 (SI unit: A).

Archie’s Law
This subfeature is available only when Archie’s law is selected as the Electrical
conductivity material parameter in the parent feature (for example, the Wave Equation,
Electric node). Then the subnodes are made available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) as well as from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Use the Archie’s Law subnode to provide an electrical conductivity computed using
Archie’s Law. This subnode can be used to model nonconductive porous media
saturated (or variably saturated) by conductive liquids, using the relation:

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN IN TERFACE | 121

 n m
σ = sL εp σL

Archie’s Law Theory

CONDUCTION CURRENTS
By default, the Electrical conductivity σL (SI unit: S/m) for the fluid is defined From
material. This uses the value of the conductivity of the material domain.

For User defined enter a value or expression. If another type of temperature dependence
is used other than a linear temperature relation, enter any expression for the
conductivity as a function of temperature.

Enter these dimensionless parameters as needed:

• Cementation exponent m
• Saturation exponent n
• Fluid saturation SL
• Porosity εp to set up the volume fraction of the fluid.

Porous Media
This subfeature is available only when Porous media is selected as the material
parameter (for example, Relative permeability or Relative permittivity) in the parent
feature node when it is available with the physics interface (for example, the Wave
Equation, Electric node). Then the subnodes are made available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) as well as from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Use the Porous Media subfeature to specify the material properties of a domain
consisting of a porous medium using a mixture model. Depending on the specific
physics interface being used, the subfeature can be used to provide a mixture model
for the electric conductivity σ, the relative dielectric permittivity εr, or the relative
magnetic permeability μr.

POROUS MEDIA
This section is always available and is used to define the mixture model for the domain.

Select the Number of materials (up to 5) to be included in the mixture model.

122 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

For each material (Material 1, Material 2, and so on), select either Domain material, to
use the material specified for the domain, or one of the other materials specified in the
Materials node. For each material, enter a Volume fraction θ1, θ2, and so on.

The Volume fractions specified for the materials should be fractional (between 0 and
1) and should add to 1 in normal cases.

The availability of the Effective Electrical Conductivity, Effective Relative

Permittivity, and Effective Relative Permeability sections depend on the
material properties used in the physics interface. In addition, these
sections are only active if Porous media is selected in the corresponding
material property for the parent feature node.

E F F E C T I VE E L E C T R I C A L C O N D U C T I V I T Y, E F F E C T I V E R E L A T I V E
PE R M I T T I V I T Y, O R E F F E C T I V E R E L A T I V E PE R M E A B I L I T Y
Select the averaging method to use in the mixture model between the Volume average
of the material property (for example, conductivity or permittivity), the volume average
of its inverse (for example, the resistivity), or the Power law. For each material, specify
either From material, to take the value from the corresponding material specified in the
Porous Media section, or User defined to manually input a value.

Effective Material Properties in Porous Media and Mixtures

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN IN TERFACE | 123

 T he E le c tr o m a gn et i c W av es,
Transient Interface
The Electromagnetic Waves, Transient (temw) interface ( ), found under the Radio
Frequency branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to solve a time-domain
wave equation for the magnetic vector potential. The sources can be in the form of
point dipoles, line currents, or incident fields on boundaries or domains. It is primarily
used to model electromagnetic wave propagation in different media and structures
when a time-domain solution is required—for example, for non-sinusoidal waveforms
or for nonlinear media. Typical applications involve the propagation of
electromagnetic pulses.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder—Wave Equation, Electric, Perfect Electric Conductor, and Initial Values. Then,
from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary
conditions and mass sources. You can also right-click Electromagnetic Waves, Transient
to select physics features from the context menu.

Except where indicated, most of the settings are the same as for The Electromagnetic
Waves, Frequency Domain Interface.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is temw.

COMPONENTS
This section is available for 2D and 2D axisymmetric components.

Select the Electric field components solved for. Select:

• Three-component vector (the default) to solve using a full three-component vector

for the electric field E.

124 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

• Out-of-plane vector to solve for the electric field vector component perpendicular to
the modeling plane, assuming that there is no electric field in the plane.
• In-plane vector to solve for the electric field vector components in the modeling
plane assuming that there is no electric field perpendicular to the plane.

DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES

The dependent variable (field variable) is for the Magnetic vector potential A. The name
can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within
a model.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization.

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the

Electromagnetic Waves, Transient Interface
• Theory for the Electromagnetic Waves Interfaces

Transient Modeling of a Coaxial Cable: Application Library path

RF_Module/Verification_Examples/coaxial_cable_transient

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the

Electromagnetic Waves, Transient Interface
The Electromagnetic Waves, Transient Interface shares most of its nodes with The
Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface.

The domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes are available from the Physics
ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or
right-click to access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

T H E E L E C T R O M A G N E T I C W A V E S , TR A N S I E N T I N T E R F A C E | 125
 DOMAIN
These nodes are unique for this physics interface and described in this section:

• Wave Equation, Electric

• Initial Values
• Drude-Lorentz Polarization

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
With no surface currents present the boundary conditions

n2 × ( E1 – E2 ) = 0
n2 × ( H1 – H2 ) = 0

need to be fulfilled. Depending on the field being solved for, it is necessary to analyze
these conditions differently. When solving for A, the first condition can be formulated
in the following way.

 ∂A 2 ∂A 1 ∂
n2 × ( E1 – E2 ) = n2 ×  –  = ( n2 × ( A2 – A1 ) )
∂t ∂t  ∂t

The tangential component of the magnetic vector potential is always continuous and
thus the first condition is fulfilled. The second condition is equivalent to the natural
boundary condition.

–1 –1 –1
–n × ( μr ∇ × A1 – μr ∇ × A2 ) = –n × μr ( H1 – H2 ) = 0

and is therefore also fulfilled.

These nodes and subnodes are available and described for the Electromagnetic Waves,
Frequency Domain interface (listed in alphabetical order):

• Archie’s Law • Periodic Condition

• Lumped Port • Porous Media
• Magnetic Field • Scattering Boundary Condition
• Perfect Electric Conductor • Surface Current Density
• Perfect Magnetic Conductor

126 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

EDGE, PO IN T, A ND PA IR
These edge, point, and pair nodes are available and described for the Electromagnetic
Waves, Frequency Domain interface (listed in alphabetical order):

• Edge Current • Magnetic Point Dipole (2D and 3D

• Electric Point Dipole (2D and 3D components)
components) • Perfect Electric Conductor
• Line Current (Out-of-Plane) (2D • Perfect Magnetic Conductor
and 2D axisymmetric components) • Surface Current Density

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node to the component that is valid on the axial symmetry
boundaries only.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-3 for links
to common sections and Table 2-4 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Wave Equation, Electric

The Wave Equation, Electric node is the main node for the Electromagnetic Waves,
Transient interface. The governing equation can be written in the form

∂A ∂ ∂A
+ μ0 ε0  εr  + ∇ × ( μr ∇ × A ) = 0
–1
μ0 σ
∂t ∂t ∂ t 

for transient problems with the constitutive relations B = μ0μrH and D = ε0εrE. Other
constitutive relations can also be handled for transient problems. The Divergence
Constraint subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the parent node) or
from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

T H E E L E C T R O M A G N E T I C W A V E S , TR A N S I E N T I N T E R F A C E | 127
 ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT FIELD
Select an Electric displacement field model—Relative permittivity (the default),
Refractive index, Polarization, Remanent electric displacement, or Drude-Lorentz
dispersion model.

Relative Permittivity
When Relative permittivity is selected, the default Relative permittivity εr
(dimensionless) takes values From material. For User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal,
Symmetric, or Anisotropic and enter values or expressions in the field or matrix. If
Porous media is selected, the Porous Media subnode is available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Refractive Index
When Refractive index is selected, the default Refractive index n (dimensionless) takes
the value From material. To specify the refractive index and assume a relative
permeability of unity and zero conductivity, for one or both of the options, select User
defined then choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic. Enter values or
expressions in the field or matrix.

Notice that only the real part of the refractive index is used for the
transient formulation.

Polarization
For Polarization enter coordinates for the Polarization P (SI unit: C/m2).

Remanent Electric Displacement

For Remanent electric displacement enter coordinates for the Remanent electric
displacement Dr (SI unit: C/m2). Then select User defined or From Material as above
for the Relative permittivity εr.

Drude-Lorentz Dispersion Model

For Drude-Lorentz Dispersion Model select User defined or From Material for the Relative
permittivity, high-frequency ε∞ and enter a value for the Plasma frequency ωp (SI unit:
rad/s).

When Drude-Lorentz Dispersion Model is selected, the Drude-Lorentz Polarization

subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the
Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. Each Drude-Lorentz Polarization subnode adds
another polarization term Pn to the electric displacement field D, defined by

128 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 N

D = ε0 ε∞ E +  Pn ,
n=1

where the polarization is the solution to the ordinary differential equation

 ∂2 ∂ 2 2
 -------2- + Γ n ----- + ω n P n = ε 0 f n ω p E .
 ∂t ∂t 

For more information, see the Drude-Lorentz Polarization feature.

MAGNETIC FIELD
This section is available if Relative permittivity, Polarization, or Remanent electric
displacement are chosen as the Electric displacement field model.

Select the Constitutive relation—Relative permeability (the default), Remanent flux

density, or Magnetization.

Relative Permeability
For Relative permeability the relative permeability μr uses values From material. For User
defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on the characteristics
of the magnetic field, and then enter values or expressions in the field or matrix. If
Porous media is selected, the Porous Media subnode is available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Remanent Flux Density

For Remanent flux density the relative permeability μr uses values From material. For
User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on the
characteristics of the magnetic field, and then enter values or expressions in the field or
matrix. Then enter coordinates for the Remanent flux density Br (SI unit: T).

Magnetization
For Magnetization enter coordinates for M (SI unit: A/m).

CONDUCTION CURRENT
This section is available if Relative permittivity, Polarization, or Remanent electric
displacement are chosen as the Electric displacement field model.

By default, the Electrical conductivity σ (SI unit: S/m) uses values From material.

• For User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on the
characteristics of the current and enter values or expressions in the field or matrix.

T H E E L E C T R O M A G N E T I C W A V E S , TR A N S I E N T I N T E R F A C E | 129
 • For Linearized resistivity the default values for the Reference temperature Tref (SI
unit: K), Resistivity temperature coefficient α (SI unit: 1/K), and Reference resistivity
ρ0 (SI unit: Ωm) use values From material. For User defined enter other values or
expressions for any of these variables.
• If Porous media is selected, the Porous Media subnode is available from the context
menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
• If Archie’s Law is selected, the Archie’s Law subnode is available from the context
menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the magnetic vector potential and its
time derivative that serves as initial conditions for the transient simulation.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial values of the components of the magnetic
vector potential A (SI unit: Wb/m) and its time derivative ∂A/∂t (SI unit: V/m). The
default values are 0 Wb/m and 0 V/m, respectively.

Drude-Lorentz Polarization
This subfeature is available only when Drude-Lorentz Dispersion Model is selected as the
Electric displacement field model in the Wave Equation, Electric feature node. Then the
subnodes are made available from the context menu (right-click the parent node) as
well as from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Each Drude-Lorentz Polarization subnode adds another polarization term Pn to the

electric displacement field D, defined by

D = ε0 ε∞ E +  Pn ,
n=1

where the polarization is the solution to the ordinary differential equation

 ∂2 ∂ 2 2
 -------2- + Γ n ----- + ω n P n = ε 0 f n ω p E .
 ∂t ∂t 

Here Γn is a damping coefficient, ωn is a resonance frequency, fn is an oscillator

strength, and ωp is the plasma frequency.

130 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Enter values or expressions for the Oscillator strength fn (SI unit: 1), the Resonance
frequency ωn (SI unit: rad/s), and the Damping in time coefficient Γn (SI unit: rad/s).

IN IT IA L VA LUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial values of the components of the
Drude-Lorentz polarization Pn (SI unit: C/m2) and its time derivative ∂Pn/∂t (SI
unit: A/m2). The default values are 0 C/m2 and 0 A/m2, respectively.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. Select the
element order from the list box for the Drude-Lorentz polarization Pn.

Time-Domain Modeling of Dispersive Drude-Lorentz Media:

Application Library path RF_Module/Tutorials/drude_lorentz_media

T H E E L E C T R O M A G N E T I C W A V E S , TR A N S I E N T I N T E R F A C E | 131
 The Transmission Line Interface
The Transmission Line (tl) interface ( ), found under the Radio Frequency
branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to study propagation of waves
along one-dimensional transmission lines. The physics interface solves the
time-harmonic transmission line equation for the electric potential.

The physics interface is used when solving for electromagnetic wave propagation along
one-dimensional transmission lines and is available in 1D, 2D, and 3D. The physics
interface has Eigenfrequency and Frequency Domain study types available. The
Frequency Domain study is used for source driven simulations for a single frequency
or a sequence of frequencies.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder— Transmission Line Equation, Absorbing Boundary, and Initial Values. Then, from
the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary
conditions. You can also right-click Transmission Line to select physics features from the
context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is tl.

POR T SWEEP SETTINGS

Select the Activate port sweep check box to switch on the port sweep. When selected,
this invokes a parametric sweep over the lumped ports in addition to the automatically
generated frequency sweep. The generated lumped parameters are in the form of an
S-parameter matrix. For Activate port sweep enter a Sweep parameter name (the default
is PortName) to assign a specific name to the variable that controls the port number
solved for during the sweep.

132 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

For this physics interface, the S-parameters are subject to Touchstone file export. Click
Browse to locate the file, or enter a file name and path. Select an Output format—
Magnitude angle, Magnitude (dB) angle, or Real imaginary.

DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES

The dependent variable (field variable) is the Electric potential V (SI unit: V). The name
can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within
a model.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization.

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Transmission
Line Equation Interface
• Theory for the Transmission Line Interface
• Visualization and Selection Tools in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual

Quarter-Wave Transformer: Application Library path

RF_Module/Transmission_Lines_and_Waveguides/quarter_wave_transformer

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the

Transmission Line Equation Interface
The Transmission Line Interface has these domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair
nodes available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu
(Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

T H E TR A N S M I S S I O N L I N E I N T E R F A C E | 133
 Select Edges for 3D models, Boundaries for 2D models, and Domains for
1D models. Points are available for all space dimensions (3D, 2D, and
1D).

For all space dimensions, select Points for the boundary condition.

• Absorbing Boundary • Terminating Impedance

• Incoming Wave • Transmission Line Equation
• Initial Values • Short Circuit
• Open Circuit • Lumped Port

Theory for the Transmission Line Boundary Conditions

Transmission Line Equation

The Transmission Line Equation node is the main feature of the Transmission Line
interface. It defines the 1D wave equation for the electric potential. The wave equation
is written in the form

1 - ∂V
∂  -------------------- – ( G + iωC )V = 0
∂ x  R + iωL ∂ x 

where R, L, G, and C are the distributed resistance, inductance, conductance, and

capacitance, respectively.

TR A N S M I S S I O N L I N E E Q U A T I O N
Enter the values for the following:

• Distributed resistance R (SI unit: m⋅kg/(s3⋅A2)). The default is 0 m⋅kg/(s3⋅A2).

• Distributed inductance L (SI unit: H/m). The default is 2.5e-6 H/m.
• Distributed conductance G (SI unit: S/m). The default is 0 S/m.
• Distributed capacitance C (SI unit: F/m). The default is 1e-9 F/m.

The default values give a characteristic impedance for the transmission line of 50 Ω.

134 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the electric potential that can serve as
an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.

IN IT IA L VA LUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial values of the Electric potential V (SI unit: V).

Absorbing Boundary
The Absorbing Boundary condition is stated as

n ⋅ ∇V - ------ V
-------------------- + = 0
R + jωL Z 0

where γ is the complex propagation constant defined by

γ = ( R + iωL ) ( G + iωC )

and n is the normal pointing out of the domain. The absorbing boundary condition
prescribes that propagating waves are absorbed at the boundary and, thus, that there
is no reflection at the boundary. The Absorbing Boundary condition is only available
on external boundaries.

Theory for the Transmission Line Boundary Conditions

Incoming Wave
The Incoming Wave boundary condition

V – 2V 0
n ⋅ ∇V - --------------------
-------------------- + = 0
R + jωL Z0

lets a wave of complex amplitude Vin enter the domain. The complex propagation
constant γ and the outwards-pointing normal n are defined in the section describing
the Absorbing Boundary node. The Incoming Wave boundary condition is only
available on external boundaries.

T H E TR A N S M I S S I O N L I N E I N T E R F A C E | 135
 VO L T A G E
Enter the value or expression for the input Electric potential V0 (SI unit: V). The
default is 1 V.

Theory for the Transmission Line Boundary Conditions

Open Circuit
The Open Circuit boundary condition is a special case of the Terminating Impedance
boundary condition, assuming an infinite impedance, and, thus, zero current at the
boundary. The condition is thus

n ⋅ ∇V = 0

The Open Circuit boundary condition is only available on external boundaries.

Theory for the Transmission Line Boundary Conditions

Terminating Impedance
The Terminating Impedance boundary condition

n ⋅ ∇V - ------ V
-------------------- + - = 0
R + jωL Z L

specifies the terminating impedance to be ZL. Notice that the Absorbing Boundary
condition is a special case of this boundary condition for the case when

R + jωL-
ZL = Z0 = ---------------------
G + jωC

The Open Circuit and Short Circuit boundary conditions are also special cases of this
condition. The Terminating Impedance boundary condition is only available on
external boundaries.

136 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

IMPEDANCE
Enter the value or expression for the Impedance ZL (SI unit: Ω). The default is 50 Ω.

Theory for the Transmission Line Boundary Conditions

Short Circuit
The Short Circuit node is a special case of the Terminating Impedance boundary
condition, assuming that impedance is zero and, thus, the electric potential is zero.
The constraint at this boundary is, thus, V = 0.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.

Theory for the Transmission Line Boundary Conditions

Lumped Port
Use the Lumped Port node to apply a voltage or current excitation of a model or to
connect to a circuit. The Lumped Port node also defines S-parameters (reflection and
transmission coefficients) that can be used in later postprocessing steps.

PO R T PRO PER TIES

Enter a unique Port Name. It is recommended to use a numeric name as it is used to
define the elements of the S-parameter matrix and numeric port names are also
required for port sweeps and Touchstone file export.

Select a Type of Port — Cable (the default), Current, or Circuit.

SETTINGS

If a Circuit port type is selected under Port Properties, this section does not
require any selection.

T H E TR A N S M I S S I O N L I N E I N T E R F A C E | 137
 • If a Cable port type is selected under Port Properties, enter the Characteristic
impedance Zref (SI unit: Ω). The default is 50 Ω.
• If a Current terminal type is selected under Port Properties, enter a Terminal
current I0 (SI unit: A). The default is 1 A.

If Cable is selected as the port type, select the Wave excitation at this port check box to
enter values or expressions for the:

• Electric potential V0 (SI unit: V). The default is 1 V.

• Port phase θin (SI unit: rad). The default is 0 radians.

• S-Parameters and Ports

• Lumped Ports with Voltage Input
• Theory for the Transmission Line Boundary Conditions

138 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

The Electromagnetic Waves, Time
Explicit Interface
The Electromagnetic Waves, Time Explicit (ewte) interface ( ), found under the Radio
Frequency branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to model
time-dependent electromagnetic wave propagation in linear media. The sources can be
in the form of volumetric electric or magnetic currents, or electric surface currents or
fields on boundaries.

This physics interface solves two first-order partial differential equations (Faraday’s law
and Maxwell-Ampère’s law) for the electric and magnetic fields using the time explicit
discontinuous Galerkin method.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder—Wave Equations, Perfect Electric Conductor, and Initial Values. Then, from the
Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions.
You can also right-click Electromagnetic Waves, Time Explicit to select physics features
from the context menu.

The interface includes absorbing layers that are used to set up effective nonreflecting
like boundary conditions. These features are added from the Definitions toolbar, by
clicking Absorbing Layer. If COMSOL Multiphysics is not running in full-screen mode
nor in a large window, Absorbing Layer is accessible on the Definitions toolbar by first
clicking Coordinate Systems and then Absorbing Layer. You can also right-click
Definitions in the Model Builder and select Absorbing Layer from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is ewte.

COMPONENTS
This section is available for 2D and 2D axisymmetric components.

T H E E L E CT RO M A G N E T I C WAVE S , T I M E E X P L I CI T I N T E R F A C E | 139
 Select the Field components solved for:

• Full wave (the default) to solve using a full three-component vector for the electric
field E and the magnetic field H.
• E in plane (TM wave) to solve for the electric field vector components in the modeling
plane and one magnetic field vector component perpendicular to the plane,
assuming that there is no electric field perpendicular to the plane and no magnetic
field components in the plane.
• H in plane (TE wave) to solve for the magnetic field vector components in the
modeling plane and one electric field vector component perpendicular to the plane.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are for the Electric field vector E and for the
Magnetic field vector H. The name can be changed but the names of fields and
dependent variables must be unique within a model.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization.

• Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Electromagnetic Waves,

Time Explicit Interface
• Theory for the Electromagnetic Waves, Time Explicit Interface

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Electromagnetic Waves,

Time Explicit Interface
The Electromagnetic Waves, Time Explicit Interface has these domain and boundary
nodes, listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows
users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context
menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

140 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-3 for links
to common sections and Table 2-4 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node to the component that is valid on the axial symmetry
boundaries only.

• Electric Field • Magnetic Current Density

• Electric Current Density • Perfect Electric Conductor
• Flux/Source • Perfect Magnetic Conductor
• Initial Values • Surface Current Density
• Low-Reflecting Boundary • Wave Equations
• Magnetic Field

Wave Equations
The Wave Equations node is the main node for the Electromagnetic Waves, Time
Explicit interface. The governing transient equations can be written in the form

∂D
∇ × H = σE + -------
∂t
∂------
B-
∇×E = –
∂t

with the constitutive relations B = μ0μrH and D = ε0εrE, which reads

∂E
ε 0 ε r ------- – ∇ × H + σE = 0
∂t
∂H
μ 0 μ r -------- + ∇ × E = 0
∂t

MATERIAL PROPERTIES
The default Relative permittivity εr (dimensionless), Relative permeability μr
(dimensionless), and Electrical conductivity σ (SI unit: S/m) take values From material.

T H E E L E CT RO M A G N E T I C WAVE S , T I M E E X P L I CI T I N T E R F A C E | 141
 For User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic and enter values or
expressions in the field or matrix.

NUMERICAL PARAMETERS
The defaults for each parameter are as follows:

• Lax-Friedrichs flux parameter for E field τE (SI unit: S), the default is 0.5/Z for
Ampere’s law.
• Lax-Friedrichs flux parameter for H fieldτH (SI unit:Ω), the default is 0.5 Z for
Faraday’s law, where Z is the impedance of vacuum.
• Estimate of maximum wave speed cmax (SI unit: m/s) the default is taken from the
speed of light in a vacuum c_const.

FILTER PARAMETERS
The filter provides higher-order smoothing of nodal discontinuous Galerkin
formulations and is intended to be used for absorbing layers, but you can also use it to
stabilize linear wave problems with highly varying coefficients. The filter is constructed
by transforming the solution (in each global time step) to an orthogonal polynomial
representation, multiplying with a damping factor and then transforming back to the
(Lagrange) nodal basis. Select the Activate check box to use this filter.

The exponential filter can be described by the matrix formula

–1
VΛV

where V is a Vandermonde matrix induced by the node points, and Λ is a diagonal

matrix with the exponential damping factors on the diagonal:


 1, 0 ≤ η ≤ η c

Λ mm = σ(η) =  η – η c 2s
 --------------
-
 – α  1 – η c
 e , ηc ≤ η ≤ 1


where

im
η = η ( m ) = -------
Np

and Np is the basis function and im the polynomial order for coefficient m. α (default
value: 36), ηc (default value: 1), and s (default value: 3) are the filter parameters that

142 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

you specify in the corresponding text fields. The damping is derived from an a spatial
dissipation operator of order 2s. For s = 1, you obtain a damping that is related to the
classical 2nd-order Laplacian. Higher order (larger s) gives less damping for the
lower-order polynomial coefficients (a more pronounced low-pass filter), while
keeping the damping property for the highest values of η, which is controlled by α.
The default values 36 for a correspond to maximal damping for η = 1. It is important
to realize that the effect of the filter is influenced by how much of the solution (energy)
is represented by the higher-order polynomial coefficients. For a well resolved solution
this is a smaller part than for a poorly resolved solution. The effect is stronger for
poorly resolved solutions than for well resolved ones. This is one of the reasons why
this filter is useful in an absorbing layer where the energy is transferred to the
higher-order coefficients through a coordinate transformation. See Ref. 1 (Chapter 5)
for more information.

α must be positive; α = 0 means no dissipation, and the maximum value is related to

the machine precision, −log(ε), which is approximately 36. ηc should be between 0 and
1, where ηc = 0 means maximum filtering, and ηc = 1 means no filtering, even if
filtering is active.

When using Absorbing Layer features, add an additional Wave Equations feature for the
corresponding domain selection. Select the Activate check box and add filter
parameters. An example of a filter parameter combination that can be used for a Wave
Equations feature active on an Absorbing Layer domain selection is α = 0.1, ηc = 0.01,
and s = 2. However, other combinations could work better, depending on the
particular application.

• Absorbing Layers

Reference
1. J.S. Hesthaven and T. Warburton, Nodal Discontinuous Galerkin Methods—
Algorithms, Analysis, and Applications, Springer, 2008.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds the initial values for the Electric field and Magnetic field
variables that serve as an initial condition for the transient simulation.

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 DOMAIN SELECTION
If there is more than one type of domain, each with different initial values defined, it
might be necessary to remove these domains from the selection. These are then
defined in an additional Initial Values node.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial values of the components of the Electric field
E (SI unit: V/m) and Magnetic field H (SI unit: A/m). The default values are 0 for all
vector components.

Electric Current Density

The Electric Current Density node adds an external current density to the specified
domains, which appears on the right-hand side of Ampere’s law

∂E
ε 0 ε r ------- – ∇ × H + σE = – J e
∂t

ELECTRIC CURRENT DENSITY

Based on space dimension, enter the coordinates (x, y, and z for 3D components for
example) of the Electric current density Je (SI unit: A/m2).

Magnetic Current Density

The Magnetic Current Density node adds an external current density to the specified
domains, which appears on the right-hand side of Faraday’s law

∂H
μ 0 μ r -------- + ∇ × E = – J m
∂t

MAGNETIC CURRENT DENSITY

Based on space dimension, enter the coordinates (x, y, and z for 3D components for
example) of the Magnetic current density Jm (SI unit: V/m2).

Electric Field
The Electric Field boundary condition

n × E = n × E0

144 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

specifies the tangential component of the electric field. The commonly used special
case of zero tangential electric field (perfect electric conductor) is described in the next
section.

ELECTRIC FIELD
Enter values or expressions for the components of the Electric field E0 (SI unit: V/m).

Perfect Electric Conductor

The Perfect Electric Conductor boundary condition

n×E = 0

is a special case of the electric field boundary condition that sets the tangential
component of the electric field to zero. It is used for the modeling of a lossless metallic
surface, for example a ground plane or as a symmetry type boundary condition.

It imposes symmetry for magnetic fields and antisymmetry for electric fields and
electric currents. It supports induced electric surface currents and thus any prescribed
or induced electric currents (volume, surface or edge currents) flowing into a perfect
electric conductor boundary is automatically balanced by induced surface currents.

Magnetic Field
The Magnetic Field node adds a boundary condition for specifying the tangential
component of the magnetic field at the boundary:

n × H = n × H0

MAGNETIC FIELD
Enter values or expressions for the components of the Magnetic field H0
(SI unit: A/m).

Perfect Magnetic Conductor

The Perfect Magnetic Conductor boundary condition

n×H = 0

is a special case of the surface current density boundary condition that sets the
tangential component of the magnetic field and thus also the surface current density

T H E E L E CT RO M A G N E T I C WAVE S , T I M E E X P L I CI T I N T E R F A C E | 145
 to zero. On external boundaries, this can be interpreted as a “high surface impedance”
boundary condition or used as a symmetry type boundary condition. It imposes
symmetry for electric fields and electric currents. Electric currents (volume, surface, or
edge currents) are not allowed to flow into a perfect magnetic conductor boundary as
that would violate current conservation. On interior boundaries, the perfect magnetic
conductor boundary condition literally sets the tangential magnetic field to zero which
in addition to setting the surface current density to zero also makes the tangential
electric field discontinuous.

Surface Current Density

The Surface Current Density boundary condition

–n × H = Js
n × ( H1 – H2 ) = Js

specifies a surface current density at both exterior and interior boundaries. The current
density is specified as a three-dimensional vector, but because it needs to flow along
the boundary surface, COMSOL Multiphysics projects it onto the boundary surface
and neglects its normal component. This makes it easier to specify the current density
and avoids unexpected results when a current density with a component normal to the
surface is given.

SURFACE CURRENT DENSITY

Enter values or expressions for the components of the Surface current density Js0
(SI unit: A/m). The defaults are 0 A/m for all vector components.

Low-Reflecting Boundary
The Low-Reflecting Boundary condition

n × E = Z0 H

specifies the tangential component of both electric and magnetic fields.

IMPEDANCE
Enter the value or expression for the medium Impedance Z0 (SI unit: Ω). By default,
the Z0 uses the value of the vacuum’s impedance. Then select Isotropic, Diagonal,
Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on the material characteristics and enter values or
expressions in the field or matrix.

146 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Flux/Source
The Flux/Source boundary condition

n × E = E0
n × H = H0

specifies the tangential component of both electric and magnetic fields.

BOUNDARY FLUX/SOURCE
Enter values or expressions for the components of the tangential Electric field E0
(SI unit: V/m) and the tangential Magnetic field H0 (SI unit: A/m).

T H E E L E CT RO M A G N E T I C WAVE S , T I M E E X P L I CI T I N T E R F A C E | 147
 Theory for the Electromagnetic
Waves Interfaces
The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interfaceand The Electromagnetic
Waves, Transient Interface theory is described in this section:

• Introduction to the Physics Interface Equations

• Frequency Domain Equation
• Time Domain Equation
• Vector Elements
• Eigenfrequency Calculations
• Gaussian Beams as Background Fields
• Effective Material Properties in Porous Media and Mixtures
• Effective Conductivity in Porous Media and Mixtures
• Effective Relative Permittivity in Porous Media and Mixtures
• Effective Relative Permeability in Porous Media and Mixtures
• Archie’s Law Theory

Introduction to the Physics Interface Equations

Formulations for high-frequency waves can be derived from Maxwell-Ampère’s and
Faraday’s laws,

∂D
∇ × H = J + -------
∂t
∂------
B-
∇×E = –
∂t

Using the constitutive relations for linear materials D = εE and B = μH as well as a

current J = σE, these two equations become

∂εE
∇ × H = σE + ----------
∂t
∂H
∇ × E = – μ --------
∂t

148 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Frequency Domain Equation
Writing the fields on a time-harmonic form, assuming a sinusoidal excitation and linear
media,

jωt
E ( x, y, z, t ) = E ( x, y, z )e
jωt
H ( x, y, z, t ) = H ( x, y, z )e

the two laws can be combined into a time harmonic equation for the electric field, or
a similar equation for the magnetic field

∇ × ( μ –1 ∇ × E ) – ω 2 εc E = 0
–1
∇ × ( ε c ∇ × H ) – ω 2 μH = 0

The first of these, based on the electric field is used in The Electromagnetic Waves,
Frequency Domain Interface.

Using the relation εr = n2, where n is the refractive index, the equation can
alternatively be written

2 2
∇ × ( ∇ × E ) – k0 n E = 0

The wave number in vacuum k0 is defined by

ω
k 0 = ω ε 0 μ 0 = -----
c0

where c0 is the speed of light in vacuum.

When the equation is written using the refractive index, the assumption is that μr = 1
and σ = 0 and only the constitutive relations for linear materials are available. When
solving for the scattered field the same equations are used but E = Esc + Ei and Esc is
the dependent variable.

EIGENFREQUENCY ANALYSIS
When solving the frequency domain equation as an eigenfrequency problem the
eigenvalue is the complex eigenfrequency λ = jω + δ, where δ is the damping of the
solution. The Q-factor is given from the eigenvalue by the formula

THEOR Y FOR THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES INTERFACES | 149

 ω
Q fact = ---------
2δ

MODE ANALYSIS AND BOUNDARY MODE ANALYSIS

In mode analysis and boundary mode analysis COMSOL Multiphysics solves for the
propagation constant. The time-harmonic representation is almost the same as for the
eigenfrequency analysis, but with a known propagation in the out-of-plane direction

˜ jωt – jβz ˜ jωt – αz

E ( r, t ) = Re ( E ( r T )e ) = Re ( E ( r )e )

The spatial parameter, α = δz + jβ = −λ, can have a real part and an imaginary part. The
propagation constant is equal to the imaginary part, and the real part, δz, represents
the damping along the propagation direction. When solving for all three electric field
components the allowed anisotropy of the optionally complex relative permittivity and
relative permeability is limited to:

ε rxx ε rxy 0 μ rxx μ rxy 0

ε rc = ε ryx ε ryy 0 μ r = μ ryx μ ryy 0
0 0 ε rzz 0 0 μ rzz

Limiting the electric field component solved for to the out-of-plane

component for TE modes requires that the medium is homogeneous;
that is, μ and ε are constant. When solving for the in-plane electric field
components for TM modes, μ can vary but ε must be constant. It is
strongly recommended to use the most general approach, that is solving
for all three components which is sometimes referred to as “perpendicular
hybrid-mode waves”.

Variables Influenced by Mode Analysis

The following table lists the variables that are influenced by the mode analysis:

NAME EXPRESSION CAN BE COMPLEX DESCRIPTION

beta imag(-lambda) No Propagation constant

dampz real(-lambda) No Attenuation constant
dampzdB 20*log10(exp(1))* No Attenuation per meter in dB
dampz
neff j*lambda/k0 Yes Effective mode index

150 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

PROPAGATING WAVES IN 2D
In 2D, different polarizations can be chosen by selecting to solve for a subset of the
3D vector components. When selecting all three components, the 3D equation applies
with the addition that out-of-plane spatial derivatives are evaluated for the prescribed
out-of-plane wave vector dependence of the electric field.

In 2D, the electric field varies with the out-of-plane wave number kz as

˜
E ( x, y, z ) = E ( x, y ) exp ( – ik z z ) .

The wave equation is thereby rewritten as

˜ 2 ˜
( ∇ – ik z z ) × [ μ r–1 ( ∇ – ik z z ) × E ] – k 0 ε rc E = 0 ,

where z is the unit vector in the out-of-plane z-direction.

Similarly, in 2D axisymmetry, the electric field varies with the azimuthal mode number
m as

˜
E ( r, ϕ, z ) = E ( r, z ) exp ( – imϕ )

and the wave equation is expressed as

∇ – im ˜ ˜
----- ϕ × μ r–1  ∇ – i m
----- ϕ × E – k 0 ε rc E = 0 ,
2
 r   r 

where ϕ is the unit vector in the out-of-plane ϕ-direction.

In-plane Hybrid-Mode Waves

Solving for all three components in 2D is referred to as “hybrid-mode waves”. The
equation is formally the same as in 3D with the addition that out-of-plane spatial
derivatives are evaluated for the prescribed out-of-plane wave vector dependence of the
electric field

In-plane TM Waves
The TM waves polarization has only one magnetic field component in the z direction,
and the electric field lies in the modeling plane. Thus the time-harmonic fields can be
obtained by solving for the in-plane electric field components only. The equation is
formally the same as in 3D, the only difference being that the out-of-plane electric field
component is zero everywhere and that out-of-plane spatial derivatives are evaluated
for the prescribed out-of-plane wave vector dependence of the electric field.

THEOR Y FOR THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES INTERFACES | 151

 In-plane TE Waves
As the field propagates in the modeling xy-plane a TE wave has only one non zero
electric field component, namely in the z direction. The magnetic field lies in the
modeling plane. Thus the time-harmonic fields can be simplified to a scalar equation
for Ez,

2
– ∇ ⋅ ( μ̃ r ∇E z ) – ε rzz k 0 E z = 0

where

T
μr
μ̃ r = -------------------
det ( μ r )

To be able to write the fields in this form, it is also required that εr, σ, and μr are non
diagonal only in the xy-plane. μr denotes a 2-by-2 tensor, and εrzz and σzz are the
relative permittivity and conductivity in the z direction.

Axisymmetric Hybrid-Mode Waves

Solving for all three components in 2D is referred to as “hybrid-mode waves”. The
equation is formally the same as in 3D with the addition that spatial derivatives with
respect to ϕ are evaluated for the prescribed azimuthal mode number dependence of
the electric field.

Axisymmetric TM Waves
A TM wave has a magnetic field with only a ϕ component and thus an electric field
with components in the rz-plane only. The equation is formally the same as in 3D, the
only difference being that the ϕ component is zero everywhere and that spatial
derivatives with respect to ϕ are evaluated for the prescribed azimuthal mode number
dependence of the electric field.

Axisymmetric TE Waves
A TE wave has only an electric field component in the ϕ direction, and the magnetic
field lies in the modeling plane. Given these constraints, the 3D equation can be
simplified to a scalar equation for E ϕ . To write the fields in this form, it is also required
that εr and μr are non diagonal only in the rz-plane. μr denotes a 2-by-2 tensor, and
ε rϕϕ and σ ϕϕ are the relative permittivity and conductivity in the ϕ direction.

152 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

INTRODUCING LOSSES IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN

Electric Losses
The frequency domain equations allow for several ways of introducing electric losses.
Finite conductivity results in a complex permittivity,

σ
ε c = ε – j ----
ω

The conductivity gives rise to ohmic losses in the medium.

A more general approach is to use a complex permittivity,

ε c = ε 0 ( ε' – jε'' )

where ε' is the real part of εr, and all losses are given by ε''. This dielectric loss model
can be combined with a finite conductivity resulting in:

σ
ε c = ε 0  ε' – j  --------- + ε'' 
  ωε 0 

The complex permittivity can also be introduced as a loss tangent:

ε c = ε 0 ε' ( 1 – j tan δ )

When specifying losses through a loss tangent, conductivity is not allowed

as an input.

In optics and photonics applications, the refractive index is often used instead of the
permittivity. In materials where μr is 1, the relation between the complex refractive
index

n = n – jκ

and the complex relative permittivity is

2
ε rc = n

that is

2 2
ε' r = n – κ
ε'' r = 2nκ

THEOR Y FOR THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES INTERFACES | 153

 The inverse relations are

2 1 2 2
n = --- ( ε' r + ε' r + ε'' r )
2
2 1 2 2
κ = --- ( – ε' r + ε' r + ε'' r )
2

The parameter κ represents a damping of the electromagnetic wave. When specifying

the refractive index, conductivity is not allowed as an input.

In the physics and optics literature, the time harmonic form is often written with a
minus sign (and “i” instead of “j”):

– i ωt
E ( x, y, z, t ) = E ( x, y, z )e

This makes an important difference in how loss is represented by complex material

coefficients like permittivity and refractive index, that is, by having a positive imaginary
part rather than a negative one. Therefore, material data taken from the literature
might have to be conjugated before using it in a model.

Magnetic Losses
The frequency domain equations allow for magnetic losses to be introduced as a
complex relative permeability.

μ r = ( μ' – jμ'' )

The complex relative permeability can be combined with any electric loss model except
refractive index.

Time Domain Equation

The relations μH = ∇ × A and E = −∂A/∂t make it possible to rewrite
Maxwell-Ampère’s law using the magnetic potential.

∂A ∂ ∂A ∇ μ –1
μ0 σ + μ0 ε + × ( r ∇ × A) = 0
∂t ∂t ∂t

This is the equation used by The Electromagnetic Waves, Transient Interface. It is

suitable for the simulation of non-sinusoidal waveforms or non linear media.

Using the relation εr = n2, where n is the refractive index, the equations can
alternatively be written

154 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 ∂  n 2 ∂A + ∇ × ( ∇ × A ) = 0
μ0 ε0
∂t ∂t 

WAVE S IN 2D
In 2D, different polarizations can be chosen by selecting to solve for a subset of the
3D vector components. When selecting all three components, the 3D equation applies
with the addition that out-of-plane spatial derivatives are set to zero.

In-plane Hybrid-Mode Waves

Solving for all three components in 2D is referred to as “hybrid-mode waves”. The
equation form is formally the same as in 3D with the addition that out-of-plane spatial
derivatives are set to zero.

In-plane TM Waves
The TM waves polarization has only one magnetic field component in the z direction,
and thus the electric field and vector potential lie in the modeling plane. Hence it is
obtained by solving only for the in-plane vector potential components. The equation
is formally the same as in 3D, the only difference being that the out-of-plane vector
potential component is zero everywhere and that out-of-plane spatial derivatives are
set to zero.

In-plane TE Waves
As the field propagates in the modeling xy-plane a TE wave has only one non zero
vector potential component, namely in the z direction. The magnetic field lies in the
modeling plane. Thus the equation in the time domain can be simplified to a scalar
equation for Az:

∂A z ∂A z
+ μ 0 ε 0 ∂  ε r
–1
μ0 σ + ∇ ⋅ ( μ r ( ∇A z ) ) = 0
∂t ∂t ∂t 

Using the relation εr = n2, where n is the refractive index, the equation can
alternatively be written

∂  n 2 ∂A z ∇ ∇A
μ0 ε0 + ⋅( z) = 0
∂t ∂t 

When using the refractive index, the assumption is that μr = 1 and σ = 0 and only the
constitutive relations for linear materials can be used.

THEOR Y FOR THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES INTERFACES | 155

 Axisymmetric Hybrid-Mode Waves
Solving for all three components in 2D is referred to as “hybrid-mode waves”. The
equation form is formally the same as in 3D with the addition that spatial derivatives
with respect to ϕ are set to zero.

Axisymmetric TM Waves
TM waves have a magnetic field with only a ϕ component and thus an electric field
and a magnetic vector potential with components in the rz-plane only. The equation
is formally the same as in 3D, the only difference being that the ϕ component is zero
everywhere and that spatial derivatives with respect to ϕ are set to zero.

Axisymmetric TE Waves
A TE wave has only a vector potential component in the ϕ direction, and the magnetic
field lies in the modeling plane. Given these constraints, the 3D equation can be
simplified to a scalar equation for A ϕ . To write the fields in this form, it is also required
that εr and μr are non diagonal only in the rz-plane. μr denotes a 2-by-2 tensor, and
ε rϕϕ and σ ϕϕ are the relative permittivity and conductivity in the ϕ direction.

Vector Elements
Whenever solving for more than a single vector component, it is not possible to use
Lagrange elements for electromagnetic wave modeling. The reason is that they force
the fields to be continuous everywhere. This implies that the physics interface
conditions, which specify that the normal components of the electric and magnetic
fields are discontinuous across interior boundaries between media with different
permittivity and permeability, cannot be fulfilled. To overcome this problem, the
Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain interface uses vector elements, which do
not have this limitation.

The solution obtained when using vector elements also better fulfills the divergence
conditions ∇ · D = 0 and ∇ · B = 0 than when using Lagrange elements.

156 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Eigenfrequency Calculations
When making eigenfrequency calculations, there are a few important things to note:

• Nonlinear eigenvalue problems appear for impedance boundary conditions with

nonzero conductivity and for scattering boundary conditions adjacent to domains
with nonzero conductivity. Such problems have to be treated specially.
• Some of the boundary conditions, such as the surface current density condition and
the electric field condition, can specify a source in the eigenvalue problem. These
conditions are available as a general tool to specify arbitrary expressions between the
H field and the E field. Avoid specifying solution-independent sources for these
conditions because the eigenvalue solver ignores them anyway.

Using the default parameters for the eigenfrequency study, it might find a large
number of false eigenfrequencies, which are almost zero. This is a known consequence
of using vector elements. To avoid these eigenfrequencies, change the parameters for
the eigenvalue solver in the Study Settings. Adjust the settings so that the solver
searches for eigenfrequencies closer to the lowest eigenfrequency than to zero.

Gaussian Beams as Background Fields

When solving for the scattered field, the background wave type can be set to a
predefined Gaussian beam from within the Settings of The Electromagnetic Waves,
Frequency Domain Interface. The background field for a Gaussian beam propagating
along the z-axis is defined below,

w0 2 2
ρ - ρ
E b ( x, y, z ) = E bg0 ------------ exp – -------------- – jkz – jk ---------------- + j η ( z ) ,
w(z) w (z)
2 2R ( z )

where w0 is the beam radius, p0 is the focal plane on the z-axis, Ebg0 is the background
electric field amplitude and the spot radius for different positions along the
propagation axis is given by

z – p0 2
w ( z ) = w 0 1 +  --------------- .
z0

z0 2
R ( z ) = ( z – p0 ) 1 +  ---------------
 z – p 0

THEOR Y FOR THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES INTERFACES | 157

 defines the radius of curvature for the phase of the field and the so called Gouy phase
shift is given by

z–p
η ( z ) = atan  --------------0- .
z0

The equations above are expressed using the Rayleigh range z0 and the transverse
coordinate ρ, defined by

2
k0 w0 2 2 2
z 0 = --------------, ρ = x + y .
2

Note that the time-harmonic ansatz in COMSOL is ejωt and with this convention, the
beam above propagates in the +z-direction. The equations are modified accordingly
for beams propagating along the other coordinate axes.

The background field for a Gaussian beam is defined in a similar way for 2D
components. In the particular case where the beam propagates along the x-axis, the
background field is defined as

2 2
w0 y η(x)
y - -----------
E b ( x, y, z ) = E bg0 ------------ - – jkx – jk ---------------
exp – -------------- +j .
w( x) w (x)
2 2R ( x ) 2

For a beam propagating along the y-axis, the coordinates x and y are interchanged.

Notice that the expressions above for Gaussian beams are not solutions to the
Helmholtz equation, but to the so called paraxial approximation of the Helmholtz
equation. This means that these equations become less accurate the smaller the spot
radius is and should not be used when the spot radius is of the same size as or smaller
than the wavelength.

Effective Material Properties in Porous Media and Mixtures

One way of dealing with porous media or mixtures of solids in electromagnetic models
is to replace them with an homogenized medium. The electric and magnetic properties
of this medium are computed from the properties of each phase by means of an
averaging formula.

There are several possible approaches to compute an average material property starting
from the material properties and the volume fraction of each material.

158 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

The following sections illustrate the different formulas available to compute the
effective electrical conductivity, the effective relative permittivity and the effective
relative permeability of a homogenized medium. In the following, volume fractions
of the materials are indicated with θi, where i is the material index, and they are
assumed to be fractional (between 0 and 1). Up to five different materials can be
specified as phases of the mixture. Typically, their volume fractions should add up to 1.

Effective Conductivity in Porous Media and Mixtures

Three methods are available to compute the averaged electrical conductivity of the
mixture.

VO L U M E A V E R A G E , C O N D U C T I V I T Y
If the electric conductivities of the two materials are not so different from each other,
a simple form of averaging can be used, such as a volume average:

σ =  θi σi = θ1 σ1 + θ2 σ2 + …
i=1

where σi is the conductivity of the material i. This is equivalent to a “parallel” system

of resistivities.

If the conductivities are defined by second order tensors (such as for anisotropic
materials), the volume average is applied element by element.

VO L U M E A V E R A G E , R E S I S T I V I T Y
A similar expression for the effective conductivity can be used, which mimics a “series”
connection of resistivities. Equivalently, the effective conductivity is obtained from

n
θi θ1 θ2
--1- =
σ  ----σ-i = ------ + ------ + …
σ1 σ2
i=0

If the conductivities are defined by second order tensors, the inverse of the tensors are
used.

POWER L AW
A power law gives the following expression for the equivalent conductivity:

THEOR Y FOR THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES INTERFACES | 159

 n
θi θ θ
σ = ∏ σi = σ 11 σ 22 …
i=0

The effective conductivity calculated by Volume Average, Conductivity is the upper

bound, the effective conductivity calculated by Volume Average, Resistivity is the
lower bound, and the Power Law average is somewhere in between these two.

Effective Relative Permittivity in Porous Media and Mixtures

Three methods are available to compute the averaged electrical conductivity of the
mixture.

VOLUME AVERAGE, PERMITTIVITY

If the relative permittivity of the two materials is not so different from each other, the
effective relative permittivity εr is calculated by simple volume average:

ε =  θi εi = θ1 ε1 + θ2 ε2 + …
i=1

where εi is the relative permeability of the material i.

If the permittivity is defined by second-order tensors (such as for anisotropic

materials), the volume average is applied element by element.

VO L U M E A VE R A G E , R E C I P R O C A L PE R M I T T I V I T Y
The second method is the volume average of the inverse of the permittivities:

n
1 θi θ1 θ2
--- =
ε  ----εi = ----- + ----- + …
ε1 ε2
i=0

If the permittivity is defined by a second-order tensor, the inverse of the tensor is used.

POWER LAW
A power law gives the following expression for the equivalent permittivity:

n
θi θ θ
ε = ∏ εi = ε 11 ε 22 …
i=0

160 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

The effective permeability calculated by Volume Average, Permittivity is the upper
bound, the effective permeability calculated by Volume Average, Reciprocal
Permittivity is the lower bound, and the Power Law average gives a value somewhere
in between these two.

Effective Relative Permeability in Porous Media and Mixtures

Three methods are available to compute the averaged electrical conductivity of the
mixture.

VOLUME AVERAGE, PERMEABILITY

If the relative permeability of the two materials is not so different from each other, the
effective relative permeability μr is calculated by simple volume average:

μ =  θi μi = θ1 μ1 + θ2 μ2 + …
i=1

where μi is the relative permeability of the material i.

If the permeability is defined by second-order tensors (such as for anisotropic

materials), the volume average is applied element by element.

VO L U M E A V E R A G E , R E C I P R O C A L PE R M E A B I L I T Y
The second method is the volume average of the inverse of the permeabilities:

n
θi θ1 θ2
--1- =
μ  ----μ-i = ------ + ------ + …
μ1 μ2
i=0

If the permeability is defined by a second-order tensor, the inverse of the tensor is used.

POWER L AW
A power law gives the following expression for the equivalent permeability:

n
θi θ θ
μ = ∏ μi = μ 11 μ 22 …
i=0

The effective permeability calculated by Volume Average, Permeability is the upper

bound, the effective permeability calculated by Volume Average, Reciprocal

THEOR Y FOR THE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES INTERFACES | 161

 Permeability is the lower bound, and the Power Law average gives a value somewhere
in between these two.

Archie’s Law Theory

The electrical conductivity of the materials composing saturated rocks and soils can
vary over many orders of magnitude. For instance, in the petroleum reservoirs, normal
sea water (or brine) has a typical conductivity of around 3 S/m, whereas hydrocarbons
are typically much more resistive and have conductivities in the range 0.1−0.01 S/m.

The porous rocks and sediments can have even lower conductivities. In variably
saturated soils, the conductivity of air is roughly ten orders of magnitude lower than
the ground water. A simple volume average (of either conductivity or resistivity) in
rocks or soils might give different results compared to experimental data.

Since most crustal rocks, sedimentary rocks, and soils are formed by nonconducting
materials, Archie (Ref. 2) assumed that electric current are mainly caused by ion fluxes
through the pore network. Originally, Archie’s law is an empirical law for the effective
conductivity of a fully saturated rock or soil, but it can be extended to variably
saturated porous media.

Archie’s law relates the effective conductivity to the fluid conductivity σL, fluid
saturation sL, and porosity εp:

n m
σ = sL εp σL

here, m is the cementation exponent, a parameter that describes the connectivity of the
pores. The cementation exponent normally varies between 1.3 and 2.5 for most
sedimentary rocks and is close to 2 for sandstones. The lower limit m = 1 represents a
volume average of the conductivities of a fully saturated, insulating (zero conductivity)
porous matrix, and a conducting fluid. The saturation coefficient n is normally close
to 2. The ratio F = σL/σ is called the formation factor.

Archie’s law does not take care of the relative permittivity of either fluids or solids, so
the effective relative permittivity of the porous medium is normally consider as εr = 1.

Reference for Archie’s Law

2. G.E. Archie, “The Electric Resistivity as an Aid in Determining Some Reservoir
Characteristics,” Trans. Am. Inst. Metal. Eng., vol. 146, pp. 54–62, 1942.

162 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Theory for the Transmission Line
Interface
The Transmission Line Interface theory is described in this section.

• Introduction to Transmission Line Theory

• Theory for the Transmission Line Boundary Conditions

Introduction to Transmission Line Theory

Figure 4-5 is an illustration of a transmission line of length L. The distributed
resistance R, inductance L, conductance G, and capacitance C, characterize the
properties of the transmission line.

Figure 4-5: Schematic of a transmission line with a load impedance.

The distribution of the electric potential V and the current I describes the propagation
of the signal wave along the line. The following equations relate the current and the
electric potential

∂V
= – ( R + jωL )I (4-1)
∂x

∂I
= – ( G + jωC )V (4-2)
∂x

Equation 4-1 and Equation 4-2 can be combined to the second-order partial
differential equation

T H E O R Y F O R T H E TR A N S M I S S I O N L I N E I N T E R F A C E | 163
 2
∂ V 2
2
= γ V (4-3)
∂x

where

γ = ( R + jωL ) ( G + jωC ) = α + jβ

Here γ, α, and β are called the complex propagation constant, the attenuation
constant, and the (real) propagation constant, respectively.

The attenuation constant, α, is zero if R and G are zero.

The solution to Equation 4-3 represents a forward- and a backward-propagating wave

– γx γx (4-4)
V ( x ) = V+ e + V- e

By inserting Equation 4-4 in Equation 4-1 you get the current distribution

γ – γx γx
I ( x ) = --------------------- ( V + e – V - e )
R + jωL

If only a forward-propagating wave is present in the transmission line (no reflections),

dividing the voltage by the current gives the characteristic impedance of the
transmission line

V R + jωL R + jωL-
Z 0 = ---- = --------------------- = ---------------------
I γ G + jωC

To make sure that the current is conserved across internal boundaries, COMSOL
Multiphysics solves the following wave equation (instead of Equation 4-3)

1 - ∂V
∂  -------------------- – ( G + jωC )V = 0 (4-5)
∂ x  R + jωL ∂ x 

Theory for the Transmission Line Boundary Conditions

The Transmission Line Interface has these boundary conditions:

V1 = V2 (4-6)

164 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

and

I1 = I2 (4-7)

In Equation 4-6 and Equation 4-7, the indices 1 and 2 denote the domains on the two
sides of the boundary. The currents flowing out of a boundary are given by

n i ⋅ ∇V i
I i = – ------------------------- , i = 1, 2
R i + jωL i

where ni are the normals pointing out of the domain.

Because V is solved for, the electric potential is always continuous, and thus
Equation 4-6 is automatically fulfilled. Equation 4-7 is equivalent to the natural
boundary condition

1 - ∂V
-------------------------- – --------------------------- ∂V
1
= 0
R 2 + jωL 2 ∂ x 2 R 1 + jωL 1 ∂ x 1

which is fulfilled with the wave-equation formulation in Equation 4-5.

When the transmission line is terminated by a load impedance, as Figure 4-5 shows,
the current through the load impedance is given by

V( L)
I ( L ) = ------------- (4-8)
ZL

Inserting Equation 4-1into Equation 4-8, results in the Terminating Impedance

boundary condition

1 - ∂V ------V
-------------------- + - = 0 (4-9)
R + jωL ∂ x Z L

If the arbitrary load impedance ZL is replaced by the characteristic impedance of the

transmission line Z0 you get the Absorbing Boundary condition. By inserting the
voltage, defined in Equation 4-4, in Equation 4-9 you can verify that the boundary
condition does not allow any reflected wave (that is, V is zero).

The Open Circuit boundary condition is obtained by letting the load impedance
become infinitely large, that is, no current flows through the load impedance.

On the other hand, the Short Circuit boundary condition specifies that the voltage at
the load is zero. In COMSOL Multiphysics this is implemented as a constraint on the
electric potential.

T H E O R Y F O R T H E TR A N S M I S S I O N L I N E I N T E R F A C E | 165
 To excite the transmission line, use the Incoming Wave boundary condition. Referring
to the left (input) end of the transmission line in Figure 4-5, the forward propagating
wave has a voltage amplitude of V0. Thus, the total voltage at this boundary is given by

V ( 0 ) = V = V0 + V-

Thereby, the current can be written as

1 ∂V 1 2V 0 – V
I ( 0 ) = – --------------------- = ------ ( V 0 – V - ) = --------------------
R + jωL ∂ x x=0
Z0 Z0

resulting in the boundary condition

1 ∂V V – 2V 0
– --------------------- + -------------------- = 0
R + jωL ∂ x Z0

For the Lumped Port boundary condition, the port current (positive when entering
the transmission line) defines the boundary condition as

1 ∂V
– --------------------- – I port = 0
R + jωL ∂ x

where the port current Iport is given by

2V 0 – V
I port = --------------------
Z0

for a Cable lumped port (see the Lumped Port section for a description of the lumped
port settings).

For a Current-controlled lumped port, you provide Iport as an input parameter,

whereas it is part of an electrical circuit equation for a Circuit-based lumped port.

166 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

Theory for the Electromagnetic
Waves, Time Explicit Interface
The Electromagnetic Waves, Time Explicit Interface theory is described in this section:

• The Equations
• In-plane E Field or In-plane H Field
• Fluxes as Dirichlet Boundary Conditions
• Absorbing Layers

The Equations
Maxwell’s equations are a set of equations, written in differential or integral form,
stating the relationships between the fundamental electromagnetic quantities. These
quantities are the:

• Electric field intensity E

• Electric displacement or electric flux density D
• Magnetic field intensity H
• Magnetic flux density B
• Current density J
• Electric charge density ρ

For general time-varying fields, the differential form of Maxwell’s equations can be
written as

∂D
∇ × H = J + -------
∂t
∂B
∇ × E = – ------- (4-10)
∂t
∇⋅D = ρ
∇⋅B = 0

The first two equations are also called Maxwell-Ampere’s law and Faraday’s law,
respectively. Equation three and four are two forms of Gauss’ law, the electric and
magnetic form, respectively.

T H E O R Y FO R T H E E L E CT RO M A G N E T I C WAVE S , T I M E E X P L I CI T I N T E R F A C E | 167
 CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS
To obtain a closed system of equations, the constitutive relations describing the
macroscopic properties of the medium are included. These are given as

D = ε0 E + P
B = μ0 ( H + M ) (4-11)

J = σE
Here ε0 is the permittivity of a vacuum, μ0 is the permeability of a vacuum, and σ the
electric conductivity of the medium. In the SI system, the permeability of a vacuum is
chosen to be 4π·10−7 H/m. The velocity of an electromagnetic wave in a vacuum is
given as c0 and the permittivity of a vacuum is derived from the relation

1 – 12 1 –9
ε 0 = ----------
2
= 8.854 ⋅ 10 F/m ≈ --------- ⋅ 10 F/m
c0 μ0 36π

The electric polarization vector P describes how the material is polarized when an
electric field E is present. It can be interpreted as the volume density of electric dipole
moments. P is generally a function of E. Some materials might have a nonzero P also
when there is no electric field present.

The magnetization vector M similarly describes how the material is magnetized when
a magnetic field H is present. It can be interpreted as the volume density of magnetic
dipole moments. M is generally a function of H. Permanent magnets, for example,
have a nonzero M also when there is no magnetic field present.

To get a wave equation for the E field, for example, take the curl of the second
equation in Equation 4-10 (previously divided by μ0), and insert it into the time
derivative of the first row in Equation 4-10

2 2
∂M ∂E ∂ E- ∂ P
– ∇ ×  ----- ∇ × E + -------- = σ ------- + ε 0 ---------
1
+ ----------
μ0 ∂t ∂t ∂t 2 ∂t 2

this is referred as curl-curl formulation in the literature (second order time derivatives
and second order space derivatives).

LINEAR MATERIALS
In the simplest case linear materials, the polarization is directly proportional to the
electric field, that is

∂P ⁄ ∂E = ε 0 χ e and P = ε 0 χ e E

168 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

where χe is the electric susceptibility (which can be a scalar or a second-rank tensor).
Similarly, the magnetization is directly proportional to the magnetic field, or

∂M ⁄ ∂H = χ m and M = χ m H

where χm is the magnetic susceptibility.

As a consequence, for linear materials, the constitutive relations in Equation 4-11 can
be written as

D = ε 0 E + P = ε 0 ( 1 + χ e )E = ε 0 ε r E
B = μ 0 ( H + M ) = μ 0 ( 1 + χ m )H = μ 0 μ r H

Here, ε = ε0εr and μ = μ0μr are the permittivity and permeability of the material. The
relative permittivity εr and the relative permeability μr are usually scalar properties but
these can be second-rank symmetric (Hermitian) tensors for a general anisotropic
material.

For general time-varying fields, Maxwell’s equations in linear materials described in

Equation 4-10 can be simplified to Maxwell-Ampere's law and Faraday’s law:

∂E
∇ × H = σE + ε 0 ε r -------
∂t
(4-12)
∂-------
H-
∇ × E = –μ 0 μr
∂t

The electric conductivity σ can also be a scalar or a second-rank tensor. Another

important assumption is that the relative permittivity εr, the relative permeability μr
and the electric conductivity σ might change with position and orientation
(inhomogeneous or anisotropic materials) but not with time.

FIRST ORDER IMPLEMENTATION OF MAXWELL EQUATIONS

In order to accommodate Maxwell’s equations in the coefficients for the Wave Form
PDE interface in the form

∂u
da + ∇ ⋅ Γ(u) = f
∂t

the curl of a vector is written in divergence form as

T H E O R Y FO R T H E E L E CT RO M A G N E T I C WAVE S , T I M E E X P L I CI T I N T E R F A C E | 169
 0 u3 –u2
∇ × u = ∇ ⋅ –u3 0 u1 (4-13)
u2 –u1 0

where the divergence is applied on each row of the flux Γ(u).

Maxwell’s equations in 3D

∂E
ε 0 ε r ------- – ∇ × H = – σE
∂t
∂H
μ 0 μ r -------- + ∇ × E = 0
∂t

are then accommodated to the Wave Form PDE as

∂E
d E ------- + ∇ ⋅ Γ E ( H ) = f
∂t
∂-------
H
dH - + ∇ ⋅ ΓH ( E ) = 0
∂t

with the “mass” coefficients

d E = ε 0 ε r and d H = μ 0 μ r

the “flux” terms

0 h3 –h2 0 e3 –e2
ΓE ( H ) = – –h3 0 h1 and Γ H ( E ) = – e 3 0 e1
h2 –h1 0 e2 –e1 0

and the “source” term f = −σE.

THE LAX-FRIEDRICHS FLUX PARAMETERS

When using SI units (or other) for the electromagnetic fields and material
properties, the Lax-Friedrichs flux parameter is not dimensionless and
must have units of τE = 1/(2Z) for Ampere’s law and τH = Z/2 for
Faraday’s law, where Z is the impedance of the medium.

170 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

In-plane E Field or In-plane H Field
In the general case, in 2D and 2D axisymmetric, solving for three variables for each
field is still required. The “in-plane H” or “in-plane E” assumption simplifies the
problem to only three dependent variables.

TM WAVES IN 2D
For TM waves in 2D, solve for an in-plane electric field vector and one out-of-plane
variable for the magnetic field. Maxwell’s equations then read

∂E
ε 0 ε r ------- + ∇ ⋅ Γ E ( H ) = – σ ⋅ E
∂t
(4-14)
∂H
μ 0 μ r -------- + ∇ ⋅ Γ H ( E ) = 0
∂t

with the flux terms

0 –h3
ΓE ( H ) = and Γ H ( E ) = e 2 – e 1 (4-15)
h3 0

The divergence on ΓE(H) is applied row-wise. The conductivity and permittivity

tensors σ and εr represent in-plane material properties, while the relative permeability
μr is an out-of-plane scalar property.

The default Lax-Friedrichs flux parameters are τE = 1/(2Z) for Ampere law, and the
scalar τH = Z/2 for Faraday’s law, where Z is the impedance of a vacuum.

TE WAVE S IN 2D
For TE waves in 2D, solve for an in-plane magnetic field vector and one out-of-plane
variable for the electric field. Maxwell’s equations then read

∂E
ε 0 ε r ------- + ∇ ⋅ Γ E ( H ) = – σE
∂t
(4-16)
∂H
μ 0 μ r -------- + ∇ ⋅ Γ H ( E ) = 0
∂t

with the flux terms

0 e3
Γ E ( H ) = – h 2 h 1 and Γ H ( E ) = (4-17)
–e3 0

T H E O R Y FO R T H E E L E CT RO M A G N E T I C WAVE S , T I M E E X P L I CI T I N T E R F A C E | 171
 The divergence of ΓH(E) is applied row-wise. The tensor of relative permeability μr
represents in-plane material properties, while the relative permittivity εr and
conductivity σ are out-of-plane scalar properties.

The default Lax-Friedrichs flux parameters are τE = 1/(2Z) for Ampere law, and two
scalar τH = Z/2 for Faraday’s law, where Z is the impedance of a vacuum.

Fluxes as Dirichlet Boundary Conditions

Consider Maxwell’s equations in 3D

∂E
ε 0 ε r ------- + ∇ ⋅ Γ E ( H ) = – σE
∂t
∂H
μ 0 μ r -------- + ∇ ⋅ Γ H ( E ) = 0
∂t

with the flux terms

0 –h3 h2 0 e3 –e2
ΓE ( H ) = h3 0 – h 1 and Γ H ( E ) = – e 3 0 e1
–h2 h1 0 e2 –e1 0

and the divergence on ΓE(H) and ΓH(E) applied row-wise.

For Ampere’s law, the normal to the flux term on exterior boundaries reads

n ⋅ ΓE ( H ) = –n × H

and for Faraday’s law

n ⋅ ΓH ( E ) = n × E

which means that normal fluxes on external boundaries can only prescribe tangential
components for the fields.

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The boundary conditions for outer boundaries are computed from the normal fluxes
n · ΓH(E) and n · ΓE(H).

• Perfect electric conductor n × E = 0 , or zero tangential components for E, is

obtained by setting n · ΓH(E) = 0.

172 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

• Perfect magnetic conductor n × H = 0 , or zero tangential components for H, is
obtained by prescribing n ⋅ Γ E ( H ) = 0 .
• Electric field n × E = n × E 0 , or n · ΓH(E) = n × E0.
• Magnetic field n × H = n × H 0 , or −n · ΓE(H) = n × H0.
• For external boundaries, the surface currents BC means n × H = J s , or
−n · ΓE(H) = Js.

ABSORBING BOUNDARY CONDITION

A simple absorbing boundary can be implemented by setting n × E = ZH .

Absorbing Layers
The Electromagnetic Waves, Time Explicit Interface includes so-called absorbing
layers, also often referred to as sponge layers. The layers work by combining three
techniques: a scaling system, filtering, and simple nonreflecting conditions. For a
review of the method see, for example, Ref. 1.

The layers are set up by adding the Absorbing Layer under the Definitions node. This
adds a special scaled system. The scaling effectively slows down the propagating waves
and ensures that they hit the outer boundary in the normal direction. For the
Absorbing Layer domain selection, add an additional Wave Equations feature, mark
the Activate check box under the Filter Parameters section, and enter filter parameters.
Filtering attenuates and filters out high-frequency components of the wave. Finally, at
the outer boundary of the layer add a simple Low-Reflecting Boundary condition,
which will work well to remove all remaining waves as normal incidence has been
ensured.

For more detailed information about the filter see the Filter Parameters
section under Wave Form PDE in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.

T H E O R Y FO R T H E E L E CT RO M A G N E T I C WAVE S , T I M E E X P L I CI T I N T E R F A C E | 173
 For the Absorbing Layers select the Type (Cartesian, cylindrical, spherical, or user
defined) under the Geometry section. Enter values for the Physical Width and Pole
Distance under the Scaling section.

For more detailed on the Geometry and Scaling see the Infinite Elements,
Perfectly Matched Layers, and Absorbing Layers in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

For the layers to work optimally the filter should not be too aggressive. Moreover, the
scaled coordinates in the layer domain should also vary smoothly. To inspect the scaled
system you can plot the coordinate variables x_absorb_ab1, y_absorb_ab1, and
z_absorb_ab1. Using the absorbing layers with the three combined techniques will
enable the reduction of spurious reflections by a factor between 100 and 1000
compared to the incident amplitude.

For an example of a filter parameter combination that can be used for a

Wave Equations feature on an Absorbing Layer domain selection see the
Filter Parameters section for the Wave Equations feature.

Reference
1. P. G. Petropoulos, L. Zhao, and A. C. Cangellaris, “A Reflectionless Sponge Layer
Absorbing Boundary Condition for the Solution of Maxwell’s Equations with
High-Order Staggered Finite Difference Schemes”, J. Comp. Phys., vol. 139, pp.
184–208, 1998.

174 | CHAPTER 4: RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFACES

 5

AC/DC Interfaces

This chapter summarizes the functionality of the electrical circuit interface found
under the AC/DC branch ( ) when adding a physics interface.

In this chapter:

• The Electrical Circuit Interface

• Theory for the Electrical Circuit Interface

See The AC/DC Interfaces in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for
other AC/DC interface and feature node settings.

175
 The Electrical Circuit Interface
The Electrical Circuit (cir) interface ( ), found under the AC/DC branch ( ) when
adding a physics interface, is used to model currents and voltages in circuits including
voltage and current sources, resistors, capacitors, inductors, and semiconductor
devices. Models created with the Electrical Circuit interface can include connections
to distributed field models. The physics interface supports stationary,
frequency-domain and time-domain modeling and solves Kirchhoff's conservation
laws for the voltages, currents and charges associated with the circuit elements.

When this physics interface is added, it adds a default Ground Node feature and
associates that with node zero in the electrical circuit.

Circuit nodes are nodes in the electrical circuit (electrical nodes) and
should not be confused with nodes in the Model Builder tree of the
COMSOL Multiphysics software. Circuit node names are not restricted
to numerical values but can contain alphanumeric characters.

DEVICE NAMES
Each circuit component has an associated Device name, which is constructed from a
prefix identifying the type of the device and a string. The string can be specified in the
feature’s Settings window. The Device name is used to identify variables defined by the
component, and for the SPICE Import and Exportfunctionality.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is cir.

176 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL TO PN JUNCTIONS
For numerical stability, a large resistance is added automatically in parallel to the pn
junctions in diodes and BJT devices. Enter a default value for the Resistance in parallel
to pn junctions Rj (SI unit: Ω). The default value is 1·1012 Ω.

CREATE UNIQUE NODES FOR NEW DEVICES

When this setting is selected (the default), newly added devices will be assigned unused
node names. The devices will be disconnected from the rest of the circuit and the
nodes should be updated to reflect the actual circuit connections. When the this setting
is deselected, new devices will be connected to the lowest-numbered nodes starting
from 0.

• Theory for the Electrical Circuit Interface

• Connecting to Electrical Circuits

E L E C T R I C A L C I R C U I T TO O L B A R
The following nodes are available from the Electrical Circuit ribbon toolbar (Windows
users), Electrical Circuit context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the
context menu (all users).:

For step-by-step instructions and general documentation

descriptions, this is the Electrical Circuit toolbar.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 177

 • Ground Node • Subcircuit Definition
• Resistor • Subcircuit Instance
• Capacitor • Mutual Inductance
• Inductor • Transformer
• Voltage Source • NPN BJT and PNP BJT2
• Current Source • n-Channel MOSFET and
• Diode p-Channel MOSFET2

• Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source1 • External I vs. U3

• Voltage-Controlled Current Source1 • External U vs. I3

• Current-Controlled Voltage Source1 • External I-Terminal3

• Current-Controlled Current Source1 • SPICE Circuit Import

• SPICE Circuit Export
1
Selected from the Dependent Sources submenu when you right-click main node.
2
Selected from the Transistors submenu when you right-click main node.
3 Selected from the External Couplings submenu when you right-click main node.

Ground Node
The Ground Node ( ) feature adds a ground node with the default node number zero
to the electrical circuit. This is the default node in the Electrical Circuit interface. More
ground nodes can be added but those must have unique node numbers and are by
default given higher node numbers.

GROUND CONNECTION
Set the Node name for the ground node in the circuit. The convention is to use 0 (zero)
for the ground node. If adding more ground nodes. each must have a unique node
name (number).

Resistor
The Resistor ( ) feature connects a resistor between two nodes in the electrical
circuit.

DEVICE NAME
Enter a Device name for the resistor. The prefix is R.

178 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the resistor.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Resistance of the resistor.

Capacitor
The Capacitor ( ) feature connects a capacitor between two nodes in the electrical
circuit.

DEVICE NAME
Enter a Device name for the capacitor. The prefix is C.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the capacitor.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Capacitance of the capacitor.

Inductor
The Inductor ( ) feature connects an inductor between two nodes in the electrical
circuit.

DEVICE NAME
Enter a Device name for the inductor. The prefix is L.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the inductor.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Inductance of the inductor.

Voltage Source
The Voltage Source ( ) feature connects a voltage source between two nodes in the
electrical circuit.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 179

 DEVICE NAME
Enter a Device name for the voltage source. The prefix is V.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the voltage source. The first node
represents the positive reference terminal.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Source type that should be adapted to the selected study type. It can be
DC-source, AC-source, or a time-dependent Sine source or Pulse source. Depending on
the choice of source, also specify the following parameters:

• For a DC-source, the Voltage Vsrc (default value: 1 V). DC-sources are active in
Stationary and Time-Dependent studies.
• For an AC-source: the Voltage Vsrc (default value: 1 V) and the Phase Θ (default
value: 0 rad). AC-sources are active in Frequency Domain studies only.
• For a sine source: the Voltage Vsrc (default value: 1 V), the Offset Voff (default value:
0 V), the Frequency (default value: 1 kHz), and the Phase Θ (default value: 0 rad).
The sine sources are active in Time-Dependent studies and also in Stationary
studies, providing that a value for t has been provided as a model parameter or
global variable.
• For a pulse source: the Voltage Vsrc (default value: 1 V), the Offset Voff (default value:
0 V), the Delay td (default value: 0s), the Rise time tr and Fall time tf (default values:
0 s), the Pulse width pw (default value: 1 μs), and the Period Tper (default value: 2 μs).
The pulse sources are active in Time-Dependent studies and also in Stationary
studies, providing that a value for t has been provided as a model parameter or
global variable.

All values are peak values rather than RMS.

For the AC source, the frequency is a global input set by the solver. AC
sources should be used in Frequency-domain studies only. Do not use the
Sine source unless the model is time-dependent.

Current Source
The Current Source ( ) feature connects a current source between two nodes in the
electrical circuit.

180 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

DEVICE NAME
Enter a Device name for the current source. The prefix is I.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the current source. The first node
represents the positive reference terminal from where the current flows through the
source to the second node.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the Source type that should be adapted to the selected study type. It can be
DC-source, AC-source, or a time-dependent Sine source or Pulse source. Depending on
the choice of source, also specify the following parameters:

• For a DC-source, the Current isrc (default value: 1 A). DC-sources are active in
Stationary and Time-Dependent studies.
• For an AC-source: the Current isrc (default value: 1 A) and the Phase Θ (default
value: 0 rad). AC-sources are active in Frequency Domain studies only.
• For a sine source: the Current isrc (default value: 1 A), the Offset ioff (default value:
0 A), the Frequency (default value: 1 kHz), and the Phase Θ (default value: 0 rad).
The sine sources are active in Time-Dependent studies and also in Stationary
studies, providing that a value for t has been provided as a model parameter or
global variable.
• For a pulse source: the Current isrc (default value: 1 A), the Offset ioff (default value:
0 A), the Delay td (default value: 0 s), the Rise time tr and Fall time tf (default values:
0 s), the Pulse width pw (default value: 1 μs), and the Period Tper (default value: 2 μs).
The pulse sources are active in Time-Dependent studies and also in Stationary
studies, providing that a value for t has been provided as a model parameter or
global variable.

All values are peak values rather than RMS.

For the AC source, the frequency is a global input set by the solver. AC
sources should be used in Frequency-domain studies only. Do not use the
Sine source unless the model is time-dependent.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 181

 Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source
The Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source ( ) feature connects a voltage-controlled
voltage source between two nodes in the electrical circuit. A second pair of nodes
define the input control voltage.

DEVICE NAME
Enter a Device name for the voltage-controlled voltage source. The prefix is E.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify four Node names: the first pair for the connection nodes for the voltage source
and the second pair defining the input control voltage. The first node in a pair
represents the positive reference terminal.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the voltage Gain. The resulting voltage is this number multiplied by the control
voltage.

Voltage-Controlled Current Source

The Voltage-Controlled Current Source ( ) feature connects a voltage-controlled
current source between two nodes in the electrical circuit. A second pair of nodes
define the input control voltage.

DEVICE NAME
Enter a Device name for the voltage-controlled current source. The prefix is G.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify four Node names: the first pair for the connection nodes for the current source
and the second pair defining the input control voltage. The first node in a pair
represents the positive voltage reference terminal or the one from where the current
flows through the source to the second node.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the source Gain (SI units: S). The resulting current is this number multiplied by
the control voltage. It represents the transconductance of the source.

182 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

Current-Controlled Voltage Source
The Current-Controlled Voltage Source ( ) feature connects a current-controlled
voltage source between two nodes in the electrical circuit. The input control current
is the one flowing through a two-pin device.

DEVICE NAME
Enter a Device name for the current-controlled voltage source. The prefix is H.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Set two Node names for the connection nodes for the voltage source. The first node in
a pair represents the positive reference terminal.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the voltage Gain and select the Device whose current is taken as the control
current. The resulting voltage is this number multiplied by the control current through
the named Device (any two-pin device). Thus it formally has the unit of resistance.

Current-Controlled Current Source

The Current-Controlled Current Source ( ) feature connects a current-controlled
current source between two nodes in the electrical circuit. The input control current
is the one flowing through a named device that must be a two-pin device.

DEVICE NAME
Enter a Device name for the current-controlled current source. The prefix is F.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify two Node names for the connection nodes for the current source. The first node
in a pair represents the positive reference terminal from where the current flows
through the source to the second node.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter the current Gain and select the Device whose current is taken as the control
current. The resulting current is this number multiplied by the control current
through the Device.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 183

 Subcircuit Definition
The Subcircuit Definition ( ) feature is used to define subcircuits, which can be
inserted as devices into the main circuit using Subcircuit Instance nodes. Create the
subcircuit by adding subnodes to the Subcircuit Definition node, either by using the
Physics toolbar, or by right-clicking the Subcircuit Definition.

SUBCIRCUIT PINS
Define the Pin names at which the subcircuit connects to the main circuit or to other
subcircuits when referenced by a Subcircuit Instance node. The Pin names refer to
circuit nodes in the subcircuit. The order in which the Pin names are defined is the
order in which they are referenced by a Subcircuit Instance node. The devices
constistuting the subcircuit should be connected only to the subcircuit’s pins and to
themselves.

Subcircuit Instance
The Subcircuit Instance ( ) feature represents an instance of a subcircuits defined by
a Subcircuit Definition feature.

DEVICE NAME
Enter a Device name for the subcircuit instance. The prefix is X.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Select the Name of subcircuit link from the list of defined subcircuits in the circuit model
and the circuit Node names at which the subcircuit instance connects to the main circuit
or to another subcircuit if used therein.

NPN BJT and PNP BJT

The NPN BJT ( ) and the PNP BJT ( ) device models are large-signal models for
bipolar junction transistors (BJT). It is an advanced device model and no thorough
description and motivation of the many input parameters are attempted here. Many
device manufacturers provide model input parameters for this BJT model. For any
particular make of BJT, the device manufacturer should be the primary source of
information.

DEVICE NAME
Enter a Device name for the BJT. The prefix is Q.

184 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify three Node names for the connection nodes for the BJT device. These represent
the collector, base, and emitter nodes for the NPN transistor, and the emitter, base, and
collector nodes for the PNP transistor.

MODEL PARAMETERS
Specify the Model Parameters. Reasonable defaults are provided but for any particular
BJT, the device manufacturer should be the primary source of information.

The interested reader is referred to Ref. 1 for more details on

semiconductor modeling within circuits.

For an explanation of the Model Parameters see Bipolar Transistors.

n-Channel MOSFET and p-Channel MOSFET

The n-Channel MOSFET ( ) and the p-Channel MOSFET ( ) device models are
large-signal models for, respectively, an n-Channel MOS field-effect transistor
(MOSFET) and p-Channel MOSFET. These are advanced device models and no
thorough description and motivation of the many input parameters are attempted
here. Many device manufacturers provide model parameters for the MOSFET models.
For any particular make of MOSFET, the device manufacturer should be the primary
source of information.

DEVICE NAME
Enter a Device name for the MOSFET. The prefix is M.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify four Node names for the connection nodes for the n-Channel MOSFET or
p-Channel MOSFET device. These represent the drain, gate, source, and bulk nodes,
respectively.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 185

 MODEL PARAMETERS
Specify the Model Parameters. Reasonable defaults are provided but for any particular
MOSFET, the device manufacturer should be the primary source of information.

The interested reader is referred to Ref. 1 for more details on

semiconductor modeling within circuits.

For an explanation of the Model Parameters see MOSFET Transistors.

Mutual Inductance
The Mutual Inductance allows specifying a coupling between two existing Inductor
features in the circuit. The mutual inductance of the coupling is

M = k L1 L2

where k is the coupling factor and L1 and L2 are the inductances of the inductors.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Enter values or expressions for the:

• Coupling factor k (dimensionless). The value must be between 0 and 1, and the
default is 0.98.
• First inductance L1 (SI unit: H) and Second inductance L2 (SI unit: H). These must
be set to two different Inductor features in the circuit.

Transformer
The Transformer feature represents either a combination of two Inductor and a Mutual
Inductance features, or an ideal transformer.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Enter or edit the table in the Node names column for the primary and secondary node
connections.

DEVICE PARAMETERS
Chose a Transformer model—Specify inductors (the default) or Ideal transformer.

For Specify inductors enter values or expressions for the:

• Coupling factor k (dimensionless). The default is 0.98.

186 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

• First inductance L1 (SI unit: H). The default is 1 mH.
• Second inductance L2 (SI unit: H). The default is 1 mH.

For Ideal transformer enter values or expressions for the Winding ratio N1/N2
(dimensionless). The default is 10.

Diode
The Diode device model ( ) is a large-signal model for a diode. It is an advanced
device model and no thorough description and motivation of the many input
parameters are attempted here. The interested reader is referred to Ref. 1 for more
details on semiconductor modeling within circuits. Many device manufacturers
provide model parameters for this diode model. For any particular make of diode, the
device manufacturer should be the primary source of information.

DEVICE NAME
Enter a Device name for the diode. The prefix is D.

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify two Node names for the positive and negative nodes for the Diode device.

MODEL PARAMETERS
Specify the Model Parameters. Reasonable defaults are provided but for any particular
diode, the device manufacturer should be the primary source of information.

For an explanation of the Model Parameters see Diode.

External I vs. U
The External I vs. U ( ) feature connects an arbitrary voltage measurement (for
example, a circuit terminal or circuit port boundary or a coil domain from another
physics interface) as a voltage source between two nodes in the electrical circuit. The
resulting circuit current from the first node to the second node is typically coupled
back as a prescribed current source in the context of the voltage measurement.

DEVICE NAME
Enter a Device name for the External I vs. U node.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 187

 NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the voltage source. The first
node represents the positive reference terminal.

EXTERNAL DEVICE
Enter the source of the Voltage. If circuit or current excited terminals or circuit ports
are defined on boundaries or domains or a multiturn coil domains is defined in other
physics interfaces, these display as options in the Voltage list. Also select the User defined
option and enter your own voltage variable, for example, using a suitable coupling
operator. For inductive or electromagnetic wave propagation models, the voltage
measurement must be performed as an integral of the electric field because the electric
potential only does not capture induced EMF. Also the integration must be performed
over a distance that is short compared to the local wavelength.

Except when coupling to a circuit terminal, circuit port, or coil, the

current flow variable must be manually coupled back in the electrical
circuit to the context of the voltage measurement. This applies also when
coupling to a current excited terminal. The name of this current variable
follows the convention cirn.IvsUm_i, where cirn is the tag of the
Electrical Circuit interface node and IvsUm is the tag of the External I vs.
U node. The tags are typically displayed within curly brackets {} in the
Model Builder.

Component Couplings and Coupling Operators in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual

External U vs. I
The External U vs. I ( ) feature connects an arbitrary current measurement (for
example, a coil domain from another physics interface) as a current source between
two nodes in the electrical circuit. The resulting circuit voltage between the first node
and the second node is typically coupled back as a prescribed voltage source in the
context of the current measurement.

DEVICE NAME
Enter a Device name for the External U vs. I node.

188 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

NODE CONNECTIONS
Specify the two Node names for the connecting nodes for the current source. The
current flows from the first node to the second node.

EXTERNAL DEVICE
Enter the source of the Current. Voltage excited terminals or lumped ports defined on
boundaries in other physics interfaces are natural candidates but do not appear as
options in the Voltage list because those do not have an accurate built-in current
measurement variable. A User defined option must be selected and a current variable
entered, for example, using a suitable coupling operator.

The voltage variable must be manually coupled back in the electrical

circuit to the context of the current measurement. This applies also when
coupling to a voltage excited terminal or lumped port. The name of this
voltage variable follows the convention cirn.UvsIm_v, where cirn is the
tag of the Electrical Circuit interface node and UvsIm is the tag of the
External U vs. I node. The tags are typically displayed within curly
brackets {} in the Model Builder.

Component Couplings and Coupling Operators in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual

External I-Terminal
The External I-Terminal ( ) feature connects an arbitrary voltage-to-ground
measurement (for example, a circuit terminal from another physics interface) as a
voltage-to-ground assignment to a node in the electrical circuit. The resulting circuit
current from the node is typically coupled back as a prescribed current source in the
context of the voltage measurement. This node does not apply when coupling to
inductive or electromagnetic wave propagation models because then voltage must be
defined as a line integral between two points rather than a single point measurement
of electric potential. For such couplings, use the External I vs. U node instead.

DEVICE NAME
Enter a Device name for the External I-terminal.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 189

 NODE CONNECTIONS
Set the Node name for the connecting node for the voltage assignment.

E X T E R N A L TE R M I N A L
Enter the source of the Voltage. If circuit- or current-excited terminals are defined on
boundaries in other physics interfaces, these display as options in the Voltage list. Also
select the User defined option and enter a voltage variable, for example, using a suitable
coupling operator.

Except when coupling to a circuit terminal, the current flow variable must
be manually coupled back in the electrical circuit to the context of the
voltage measurement. This applies also when coupling to a current
excited terminal. The name of this current variable follows the convention
cirn.termIm_i, where cirn is the tag of the Electrical Circuit interface
node and termIm is the tag of the External I-Terminal node. The tags are
typically displayed within curly brackets {} in the Model Builder.

Component Couplings and Coupling Operators in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual

SPICE Circuit Import

Right-click the Electrical Circuit ( ) feature node to import an existing SPICE netlist
(select Import Spice Netlist). A window opens—enter a file location or browse your
directories to find one. The default file extension for a SPICE netlist is .cir. The
SPICE circuit import translates the imported netlist into Electrical Circuit interface
nodes so these define the subset of SPICE features that can be imported.

See Spice Import about the supported SPICE commands.

SPICE Circuit Export

Right-click the Electrical Circuit ( ) feature node to export the current circuit to the
SPICE netlist file format (select Export Spice Netlist ). A window opens—enter a
file location or browse your directories to find one. The default file extension for a

190 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

SPICE netlist is .cir. The compatible circuit nodes are exported as SPICE devices

See SPICE Export for more details on the supported SPICE commands.

THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 191

 Theory for the Electrical Circuit
Interface
The Electrical Circuit Interface theory is discussed in this section:

• Electric Circuit Modeling and the Semiconductor Device Models

• Bipolar Transistors
• MOSFET Transistors
• Diode
• Reference for the Electrical Circuit Interface

Connecting to Electrical Circuits

Electric Circuit Modeling and the Semiconductor Device Models

Electrical circuit modeling capabilities are useful when simulating all sorts of electrical
and electromechanical devices ranging from heaters and motors to advanced plasma
reactors in the semiconductor industry. There are two fundamental ways that an
electrical circuit model relates to a physical field model.

• The field model is used to get a better, more accurate description of a single device
in the electrical circuit model.
• The electrical circuit is used to drive or terminate the device in the field model in
such a way that it makes more sense to simulate both as a tightly coupled system.

The Electrical Circuit interface makes it possible to add nodes representing circuit
elements directly to the Model Builder tree in a COMSOL Multiphysics model. The
circuit variables can then be connected to a physical device model to perform
co-simulations of circuits and multiphysics. The model acts as a device connected to
the circuit so that its behavior is analyzed in larger systems.

The fundamental equations solved by the Electrical Circuit interface are Kirchhoff’s
circuit laws, which in turn can be deduced from Maxwell’s equations. The supported
study types are Stationary, Frequency Domain, and Time Dependent.

192 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

There are three more advanced large-signal semiconductor device features available in
the Electrical Circuit interface. The equivalent circuits and the equations defining their
non-ideal circuit elements are described in this section. For a more detailed account on
semiconductor device modeling, see Ref. 1.

Bipolar Transistors
Figure 5-1 illustrates the equivalent circuit for the npn bipolar junction transistor.

Figure 5-1: A circuit for the bipolar transistor.

The pnp transistor model is similar in all regards to the npn transistor, with the
difference that the polarities of the currents and voltages involved are reversed. The
following equations are used to compute the relations between currents and voltages
in the circuit.

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 193

 R B – R BM
v rb = ----  R BM – -------------------------- i b
1
A  f bq 

 v be
 – --------------
v bc
– --------------  
  NF VT NR VT

= -----------------------------------------------  1 + 1 + 4I S  -------------------------- + -------------------------- 
1 e – 1 e – 1
f bq
v v   I A I A  
2  1 – ----------- – ----------- 
bc be KF KR
 V AF V AR    
v be v be
 I S  – -------------
N V
-
  – --------------
N V 
i be = A  -------  e F T – 1 + I SE  e E T – 1 
B
 F   
v bc v bc
 I S  – --------------
N V   – --------------
N V 
i bc = A  --------  e R T – 1 + I SC  e C T – 1 
B
 R   
v be v bc
 I S  – -------------
N V
- – -------------- 
N V
i ce = A  -------  e F T + e C T 
f
 bq  
k B T NOM
V T = ------------------------
q

There are also two capacitances that use the same formula as the junction capacitance
of the diode model. In the parameter names below, replace x with C for the
base-collector capacitance and E for the base-emitter capacitance.

 v bx  – MJx
 1 – ---------
 -
 V Jx v bx < F C V Jx
C jbx 
= AC Jx × 
v bx  v bx ≥ F C V Jx
 ( 1 – F ) – 1 – M Jx  1 – F ( 1 + M ) + M ---------
 C  C Jx Jx V -
Jx

The model parameters are listed in the table below.

TABLE 5-1: BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR MODEL PARAMETERS

PARAMETER DEFAULT DESCRIPTION

BF 100 Ideal forward current gain

BR 1 Ideal reverse current gain
2
CJC 0 F/m Base-collector zero-bias depletion capacitance
2
CJE 0 F/m Base-emitter zero-bias depletion capacitance
FC 0.5 Breakdown current
2
IKF Inf (A/m ) Corner for forward high-current roll-off
2
IKR Inf (A/m ) Corner for reverse high-current roll-off

194 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

TABLE 5-1: BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR MODEL PARAMETERS

PARAMETER DEFAULT DESCRIPTION

IS 1e-15 A/m2 Saturation current

ISC 0 A/m2 Base-collector leakage saturation current
ISE 0 A/m2 Base-emitter leakage saturation current
MJC 1/3 Base-collector grading coefficient
MJE 1/3 Base-emitter grading coefficient
NC 2 Base-collector ideality factor
NE 1.4 Base-emitter ideality factor
NF 1 Forward ideality factor
NR 1 Reverse ideality factor
RB 0 Ωm2 Base resistance
RBM 0 Ωm2 Minimum base resistance
RC 0 Ωm2 Collector resistance
RE 0 Ωm2 Emitter resistance
TNOM 298.15 K Device temperature
VAF Inf (V) Forward Early voltage
VAR Inf (V) Reverse Early voltage
VJC 0.71 V Base-collector built-in potential
VJE 0.71 V Base-emitter built-in potential

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 195

 MOSFET Transistors
Figure 5-2 illustrates an equivalent circuit for the n-channel MOSFET transistor. The
p-channel MOSFET transistor is treated similarly, but the polarities of the involved
voltages are reversed.

Figure 5-2: A circuit for the MOSFET transistor.

The following equations are used to compute the relations between currents and
voltages in the circuit.

196 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

  K
 W - ------P- ( 1 + Λv ds )v ds ( 2v th – v ds ) v ds < v th
 ----
L 2

i ds =  W KP 2
 ----- ------- ( 1 + Λv ds )v th v ds ≥ v th
 L 2
 0 v ds < v th ≤ 0

v th = v gs – ( V TO + Γ ( Φ – v bs – Φ ) )
v bd
 – -----------
NV T
-

i bd = I S  e – 1
 
v bs
 – -----------
NV T
-

i bs = I S  e – 1
 
k B T NOM
V T = ------------------------
q

There are also several capacitances between the terminals

C gd = C gd0 W
C gs = C gs0 W

1 – v
–M J
 bd
--------
-
  PB  v bx < F C P B
C jbd = C BD × 
 v bx v bx ≥ F C P B
 ( 1 – F ) – 1 – M J  1 – F ( 1 + M ) + M -------
-
 C  C J JP 
B

The model parameters are as follows:

TABLE 5-2: MOSFET TRANSISTOR MODEL PARAMETERS

PARAMETER DEFAULT DESCRIPTION

CBD 0 F/m Bulk-drain zero-bias capacitance

CGDO 0 F/m Gate-drain overlap capacitance
CGSO 0 F/m Gate-source overlap capacitance
FC 0.5 Capacitance factor
IS 1e-13 A Bulk junction saturation current
2
KP 2e-5 A/V Transconductance parameter
L 50e-6 m Gate length
MJ 0.5 Bulk junction grading coefficient
N 1 Bulk junction ideality factor

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 197

 TABLE 5-2: MOSFET TRANSISTOR MODEL PARAMETERS

PARAMETER DEFAULT DESCRIPTION

PB 0.75 V Bulk junction potential

RB 0Ω Bulk resistance
RD 0Ω Drain resistance
RDS Inf (Ω) Drain-source resistance
RG 0Ω Gate resistance
RS 0Ω Source resistance
TNOM 298.15 K Device temperature
VTO 0V Zero-bias threshold voltage
W 50e-6 m Gate width
Γ (GAMMA) 0 V0.5 Bulk threshold parameter
Φ (PHI) 0.5 V Surface potential
Λ (LAMBDA) 0 1/V Channel-length modulation

198 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

Diode
Figure 5-3 illustrates equivalent circuit for the diode.

Figure 5-3: A circuit for the diode.

The following equations are used to compute the relations between currents and
voltages in the circuit.

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 199

 i d = i dhl + i drec + i db + i c
vd
 – -----------
NV T
-  1
i dhl = IS  e – 1 ------------------------------------------------------
  vd
I S  – -----------
NV T
-

1 + ---------  e – 1
I KF  
vd
 – --------------
N V 
i drec = I SR  e R T – 1
 
vd + BV
– ------------------
N BV V T
i db = I BV e

 vd  –M
  1 – ------
- vd < FC VJ
  V J
C j = C J0 × 
 – 1 – M vd
 ( 1 – FC ) 1 – F C ( 1 + M ) + M ------- v d ≥ F C V J
  V J


k B T NOM
V T = ------------------------
q

where the following model parameters are required

TABLE 5-3: DIODE TRANSISTOR MODEL PARAMETERS

PARAMETER DEFAULT DESCRIPTION

BV Inf (V) Reverse breakdown voltage

CJ0 0F Zero-bias junction capacitance
FC 0.5 Forward-bias capacitance coefficient
IBV 1e-09 A Current at breakdown voltage
IKF Inf (A) Corner for high-current roll-off
IS 1e-13 A Saturation current
M 0.5 Grading coefficient
N 1 Ideality factor
NBV 1 Breakdown ideality factor
NR 2 Recombination ideality factor
RS 0Ω Series resistance
TNOM 298.15 K Device temperature
VJ 1.0 V Junction potential

200 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES

Reference for the Electrical Circuit Interface
1. P. Antognetti and G. Massobrio, Semiconductor Device Modeling with Spice, 2nd
ed., McGraw-Hill, 1993.

THEORY FOR THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT INTERFACE | 201

202 | CHAPTER 5: AC/DC INTERFACES
 6

Heat Transfer Interfaces

This chapter describes The Microwave Heating Interface found under the Heat
Transfer>Electromagnetic Heating branch ( ) when adding a physics interface.

See The Heat Transfer Interfaces and The Joule Heating Interface in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual for other Heat Transfer interface and feature node
settings.

203
 The Microwave Heating Interface
The Microwave Heating interface ( ) is used to model electromagnetic heating for
systems and devices that are on a scale ranging from 1/10 of a wavelength up to,
depending on available computer memory, about 10 wavelengths. This multiphysics
interface adds an Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain interface and a Heat
Transfer in Solids interface. The multiphysics couplings add the electromagnetic losses
from the electromagnetic waves as a heat source, and the electromagnetic material
properties can depend on the temperature. The modeling approach is based on the
assumption that the electromagnetic cycle time is short compared to the thermal time
scale.

The following table shows what study step combinations of Electromagnetic Waves,
Frequency Domain interface and Heat Transfer in Solids interface are supported from
the Microwave Heating interface.
TABLE 6-1: STUDY STEP COMBINATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE
AND HEAT TRANSFER IN SOLIDS INTERFACE

PRESET STUDIES ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, HEAT TRANSFER IN SOLIDS

FREQUENCY DOMAIN INTERFACE INTERFACE

Frequency-Stationary Frequency Domain Stationary

Frequency-Transient Frequency Domain Transient

When a predefined Microwave Heating interface is added from the Heat

Transfer>Electromagnetic Heating branch ( ) of the Model Wizard or Add Physics
windows, Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain and Heat Transfer in Solids
interfaces are added to the Model Builder.

In addition, a Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the

multiphysics coupling features Electromagnetic Heat Source, Boundary Electromagnetic
Heat Source, and Temperature Coupling.

On the Constituent Physics Interfaces

The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain interface computes time-harmonic
electromagnetic field distributions. To use this physics interface, the maximum mesh
element size should be limited to a fraction of the wavelength. Thus, the domain size
that can be simulated scales with the amount of available computer memory and the
wavelength. The physics interface solves the time-harmonic wave equation for the
electric field.

204 | C H A P T E R 6 : H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S
 The Heat Transfer in Solids interface provides features for modeling heat transfer by
conduction, convection, and radiation. A Heat Transfer in Solids model is active by
default on all domains. All functionality for including other domain types, such as a
fluid domain, is also available. The temperature equation defined in solid domains
corresponds to the differential form of Fourier's law that may contain additional
contributions like heat sources.

In previous versions of COMSOL Multiphysics, a specific physics

interface called Microwave Heating was added to the Model Builder.
Now, a predefined multiphysics coupling approach is used, improving the
flexibility and design options for your modeling. For specific details, see
Multiphysics Modeling Approaches in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

SETTINGS FOR PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, for example
Microwave Heating, specific settings are included with the physics interfaces and the
coupling features.

However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings are not automatically included.

For example, if single Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain and Heat Transfer in
Solids interfaces are added, COMSOL adds an empty Multiphysics node. You can
choose from the available coupling features, Electromagnetic Heat Source, Boundary
Electromagnetic Heat Source, and Temperature Coupling, but the modified settings are
not included.

Coupling features are available from the context menu (right-click the
Multiphysics node) or from the Physics toolbar, Multiphysics menu.

TABLE 6-2: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR A MICROWAVE HEATING INTERFACE

PHYSICS INTERFACE OR MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

COUPLING FEATURE

Electromagnetic Waves, No changes.

Frequency Domain
Heat Transfer in Solids No changes.

THE MICROWAVE HEATING INTERFACE | 205

 TABLE 6-2: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR A MICROWAVE HEATING INTERFACE

PHYSICS INTERFACE OR MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

COUPLING FEATURE

Electromagnetic Heat The Domain Selection is the same as that of the participating
Source physics interfaces.
The corresponding Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain
and Heat Transfer in Solids interfaces are preselected in the
Electromagnetic Heat Source section (described in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual).
Boundary The Boundary Selection is the same as the exterior and interior
Electromagnetic Heat boundaries of the Domain Selection of the participating physics
Source interfaces.
The corresponding Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain
and Heat Transfer in Solids interfaces are preselected in the
Boundary Electromagnetic Heat Source section (described in
the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual).
Temperature Coupling The corresponding Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain
and Heat Transfer in Solids interfaces are preselected in the
Temperature Coupling section (described in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual).

A side effect of adding physics interfaces one at a time is that two study
types—Frequency-Stationary and Frequency-Transient—are not available
for selection until after at least one coupling feature is added. In this case,
it is better to first add an Empty Study, then add the coupling features to
the Multiphysics node, and lastly, right-click the Study node to add the
study steps as needed.

PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

Use the online help in COMSOL Multiphysics to locate and search all the
documentation. All these links also work directly in COMSOL
Multiphysics when using the Help system.

Coupling Features
• The Electromagnetic Heat Source coupling feature node is described in this section.
• The Boundary Electromagnetic Heat Source and Temperature Coupling coupling
feature nodes are described for The Joule Heating Interface in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

206 | C H A P T E R 6 : H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S
Physics Interface Features
Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

• The available physics features for The Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain
Interface are listed in the section Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes
for the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain Interface.
• See The Heat Transfer Interfaces in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual
for information about the available physics features for heat transfer.

If you have an add-on module, such as the Heat Transfer Module, there
are additional specialized physics nodes available and described in the
individual module documentation.

Microwave Oven: Application Library path RF_Module/

Microwave_Heating/microwave_oven

Electromagnetic Heat Source

The Electromagnetic Heat Source node represents the electromagnetic losses, Qe
(SI unit: W/m3), as a heat source in the heat transfer part of the model. It is given by

Q e = Q rh + Q ml

where the resistive losses are

1 *
Q rh = --- Re ( J ⋅ E )
2

and the magnetic losses are

1 *
Q ml = --- Re ( iωB ⋅ H )
2

THE MICROWAVE HEATING INTERFACE | 207

 SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is emh.

ELECTROMAGNETIC HEAT SOURCE

This section defines the physics involved in the electromagnetic heat source
multiphysics coupling. By default, the applicable physics interface is selected in the
Electromagnetic list to apply the Heat transfer to its physics interface to establish the
coupling.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the Electromagnetic Heat Source
node from a physics interface. If the physics interface is removed from the Model
Builder, for example Heat Transfer in Solids is deleted, then the Heat transfer list defaults
to None as there is nothing to couple to.

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, and in
order to re-establish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the Heat transfer or Electromagnetic lists. This is
applicable to all multiphysics coupling nodes that would normally default
to the once present physics interface. See Multiphysics Modeling
Approaches in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

208 | C H A P T E R 6 : H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S
 7

Glossary

This Glossary of Terms contains finite element modeling terms in an

electromagnetic waves context. For mathematical terms as well as geometry and
CAD terms specific to the COMSOL Multiphysics® software and documentation,
see the glossary in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual. For references
to more information about a term, see the index.

209
 Glossary of Terms
absorbing boundary A boundary that lets an electromagnetic wave propagate through
the boundary without reflections.

anisotropy Variation of material properties with direction.

constitutive relation The relation between the D and E fields and between the B and
H fields. These relations depend on the material properties.

cutoff frequency The lowest frequency for which a given mode can propagate
through, for example, a waveguide or optical fiber.

edge element See vector element.

eigenmode A possible propagating mode of, for example, a waveguide or optical fiber.

electric dipole Two equal and opposite charges +q and −q separated a short distance
d. The electric dipole moment is given by p = qd, where d is a vector going from −q
to +q.

gauge transformation A variable transformation of the electric and magnetic potentials

that leaves Maxwell’s equations invariant.

lumped port A type of port feature. Use the lumped port to excite the model with a
voltage, current, or circuit input. The lumped port must be applied between two
metallic objects, separated by much less than a wavelength.

magnetic dipole A small circular loop carrying a current. The magnetic dipole
moment is m = IAe, where I is the current carried by the loop, A its area, and e a unit
vector along the central axis of the loop.

Maxwell’s equations A set of equations, written in differential or integral form, stating

the relationships between the fundamental electromagnetic quantities.

Nedelec’s edge element See vector element.

perfect electric conductor (PEC) A material with high electrical conductivity, modeled
as a boundary where the electric field is zero.

210 | CHAPTER 7: GLOSSARY

perfect magnetic conductor A material with high permeability, modeled as a boundary
where the magnetic field is zero.

phasor A complex function of space representing a sinusoidally varying quantity.

quasi-static approximation The electromagnetic fields are assumed to vary slowly, so

that the retardation effects can be neglected. This approximation is valid when the
geometry under study is considerably smaller than the wavelength.

surface current density Current density defined on the surface. The component
normal to the surface is zero. The unit is A/m.

vector element A finite element often used for electromagnetic vector fields. The
tangential component of the vector field at the mesh edges is used as a degree of
freedom. Also called Nedelec’s edge element or just edge element.

G L O S S A R Y O F TE R M S | 211
212 | CHAPTER 7: GLOSSARY
I n d e x
2D microwave heating 207
wave equations 85 perfect electric conductor 93
2D axisymmetry perfect magnetic conductor 94
wave equations 85 periodic boundary condition 118
2D modeling techniques 27, 29 periodic boundary conditions 32
3D modeling techniques 29 periodic port reference point 104

A absorbing boundary (node) 135 port 101

AC/DC Module 13 port sweeps 42

anisotropic materials 66 reduced order modeling 58, 60

antiperiodicity, periodic boundaries and scattered fields 35

32 scattering boundary condition 111

application libraries examples transmission line 133

S-parameter calculations 41 applying electromagnetic sources 30

Application Libraries window 20 Archie’s law (node) 121

application library examples attenuation constant 164

analyze as a tem field 97 axisymmetric models 28

axial symmetry 28 axisymmetric waves theory

Cartesian coordinates 28 frequency domain 152

connecting electrical circuits to phys- time domain 156

ics interfaces 51 B backward-propagating wave 164

diffraction order 103 base node 185
Drude-Lorentz polarization 131 bipolar junction transistor 184
electrical circuits 51 Bloch-Floquet periodicity 118
electromagnetic waves, frequency do- boundary conditions
main interface 83 nonlinear eigenfrequency problems
electromagnetic waves, transient 125 and 48
far field plots 39 perfect electric conductor 93
far-field calculation 92 perfect magnetic conductor 94
far-field calculations 36 periodic 32
far-field domain and far-field calcula- theory 68
tion 91 using efficiently 30
hexagonal periodic port 99 boundary nodes
impedance boundary condition 114 electromagnetic waves, frequency do-
lossy eigenvalue calculations 47 main interface 83
lumped element 108 electromagnetic waves, time explicit
lumped port 46, 107 140

INDEX| 213
 electromagnetic waves, transient 126 divergence constraint (node) 90
transmission line 133 documentation 18
bulk node 185 domain nodes
electromagnetic waves, frequency do-
C calculating
main interface 83
S-parameters 41
electromagnetic waves, time explicit
capacitor (node) 179
140
Cartesian coordinates 27
drain node 185
cementation exponent 122, 162
Drude-Lorentz dispersion model 88
circuit import, SPICE 190
Drude-Lorentz polarization (node) 130
circular port reference axis (node) 101
collector node 185 E E (PMC) symmetry 36
common settings 15 edge current (node) 120
complex permittivity, electric losses and eigenfrequency analysis 47
153 eigenfrequency calculations theory 157
complex propagation constant 164 eigenfrequency study 149
complex relative permeability, magnetic eigenmode analysis 70
losses and 154 eigenvalue (node) 49
constitutive relations 168 electric current density (node) 144
constitutive relations, theory 63 electric field (node) 108, 144
continuity, periodic boundaries and 32 electric losses theory 153
coupling, to the electrical circuits inter- electric point dipole (node) 120
face 52 electric scalar potential 64
curl-curl formulation 168 electric susceptibility 169
current source (node) 180 electrical circuit interface 176
current-controlled current source theory 192
(node) 183 electrical circuits
current-controlled voltage source modeling techniques 51
(node) 183 electrical conductivity 63
cutoff frequency 71 electrical conductivity, porous media 162
cylindrical coordinates 28 electrical size, modeling 13
cylindrical waves 110 electromagnetic energy theory 65
electromagnetic heat source (node) 207
D Debye dispersion model 88
electromagnetic quantities 75
device models, electrical circuits 193
electromagnetic sources, applying 30
dielectric medium theory 68
electromagnetic waves, frequency do-
diffraction order (node) 101
main interface 78–79
diode (node) 187
theory 148
diode transistor model 199
electromagnetic waves, time explicit in-
dispersive materials 66

214 | I N D E X
 terface 139 axisymmetric, frequency domain 152
theory 167 axisymmetric, time domain 156
electromagnetic waves, transient inter- in-plane, frequency domain 151
face 124 in-plane, time domain 155
theory 148 perpendicular 150
emailing COMSOL 20
I impedance boundary condition (node)
emitter node 185
112
error message, electrical circuits 52
importing
exponential filter, for wave problems 142
SPICE netlists 55, 190
exporting
incoming wave (node) 135
SPICE netlists 56
inductor (node) 179
external current density (node) 90
inhomogeneous materials 66
external I vs. U (node) 187
initial values (node)
external I-terminal (node) 189
electromagnetic waves, frequency do-
external U vs. I (node) 188
main interface 90
F far field variables 38 electromagnetic waves, time explicit
Faraday’s law 167 interface 143
far-field calculation (node) 91 electromagnetic waves, transient 130
far-field calculations 73 transmission line 135
far-field domain (node) 91 in-plane TE waves theory
far-field variables 36 frequency domain 152
file, Touchstone 82, 133 time domain 155
Floquet periodicity 32, 118 in-plane TM waves theory
fluid saturation 122 frequency domain 151
flux/source (node) 147 time domain 155
formation factor 162 inports 95
forward-propagating wave 164 integration line for current (node) 101
free-space variables 85 integration line for voltage (node) 101
frequency domain equation 149 internet resources 18
Frequency-Domain Modal Method 58
K Kirchhoff’s circuit laws 192
G gate node 185 knowledge base, COMSOL 21
Gauss’ law 167
L line current (out-of-plane) (node) 121
geometry, simplifying 27
linearization point 49
ground node (node) 178
listener ports 95
H H (PEC) symmetry 36 losses, electric 153
high frequency modeling 13 losses, magnetic 154
hybrid-mode waves low-reflecting boundary (node) 146

INDEX| 215
 lumped element (node) 107 perfect electric conductor (node) 145
lumped port (node) 104, 137 boundaries 92
lumped ports 43–44 perfect magnetic conductor (node) 93,
145
M magnetic current (node) 118
periodic boundary conditions 32
magnetic current density (node) 144
periodic condition (node) 117
magnetic field (node) 109, 145
periodic port reference point (node) 103
magnetic losses theory 154
permeability
magnetic point dipole (node) 121
anisotropic 150
magnetic susceptibility 64, 169
permeability of vacuum 63
material properties 66
permittivity
materials 67
anisotropic 150
Maxwell’s equations 62
permittivity of vacuum 63
electrical circuits and 192
phasors theory 68
Maxwell-Ampere’s law 167
physics interfaces, common settings 15
mesh resolution 31
PMC. see perfect magnetic conductor
microwave heating interface 204
PNP BJT (node) 184
mode analysis 49, 150
polarization, 2D and 2D axisymmetry 29
mode phase
porous media (node) 122
for Port and Diffraction Order 97
port (node) 94
modeling tips 26
port boundary conditions 41
MPH-files 20
ports, lumped 43–44
multiphysics couplings
potentials theory 64
microwave heating 204
power law, porous media
mutual inductance (node) 186
conductivity 159
N n-Channel MOS transistor 185, 196
permeability 161
n-Channel MOSFET (node) 185
permittivity 160
netlists, SPICE 55, 190
Poynting’s theorem 65
nodes, common settings 15
predefined couplings, electrical circuits
nonlinear materials 66
52
NPN bipolar junction transistor 193
propagating waves 164
NPN BJT (node) 184
propagation constant 164
numeric modes 95
Q quality factor (Q-factor) 47, 149
O open circuit (node) 136
quasi-static modeling 13
P p-Channel MOS transistor 185
R reciprocal permeability, volume average
p-Channel MOSFET (node) 185
161
PEC. see perfect electric conductor
reciprocal permittivity, volume average
perfect conductors theory 68
160

216 | I N D E X
 refractive index 86 mode analysis 49, 150
refractive index theory 153 subcircuit definition (node) 184
relative electric field 35 subcircuit instance (node) 184
relative permeability 64 surface charge density 68
relative permittivity 64 surface current density (node) 114, 146
remanent displacement 64 surface magnetic current density (node)
resistor (node) 178 115
surface roughness (node) 115
S saturation coefficient 162
symbols for electromagnetic quantities
saturation exponent 122
75
scattered fields, definition 34
symmetry in E (PMC) or H (PEC) 36
scattering boundary condition (node)
symmetry planes, far-field calculations 36
109
symmetry, axial 28
scattering parameters. see S-parameters
selecting T TE axisymmetric waves theory
mesh resolution 31 frequency domain 152
solver sequences 31 time domain 156
study types 13, 16 TE waves theory 72
semiconductor device models 193 technical support, COMSOL 20
short circuit (node) 137 TEM waves theory 72
SI units 75 terminating impedance (node) 136
simplifying geometries 27 theory
skin effect, meshes and 31 constitutive relations 63
solver sequences, selecting 31 dielectrics and perfect conductors 68
source node 185 electric and magnetic potentials 64
space dimensions 14, 27 electrical circuit interface 192
S-parameter calculations electromagnetic energy 65
electric field, and 40 electromagnetic waves 148
port node and 94 electromagnetic waves, time explicit
theory 70 interface 167
spherical waves 110 far-field calculations 73
SPICE lumped ports 44
exporting 56 Maxwell equations 62
SPICE netlists 55, 190 phasors 68
standard settings 15 S-parameters 70
study types 13 surface charges 68
boundary mode analysis 95 transmission line 163
eigenfrequency 47, 149 time domain equation, theory 154
frequency domain 149 TM waves

INDEX| 217
 axisymmetric 149 wave number, free-space 85
TM waves theory 72 wavelength, meshes and 31
Touchstone file 82, 133 websites, COMSOL 21
transformer (node) 186
transition boundary condition (node)
116
transmission line equation (node) 134
transmission line interface 132
theory 163
TW axisymmetric waves theory
frequency domain 152
time domain 156
two-port network (node) 119
two-port network port (node) 120

U uniform element (node) 108

units, SI 75

V variables
eigenfrequency analysis and 48
far-field 36
for far fields 38
lumped ports 46
mode analysis 50, 150
S-parameters 41
vector elements theory 156
voltage input, ports 43
voltage source (node) 179
voltage-controlled current source
(node) 182
voltage-controlled voltage source (node)
182
volume average, permeability 161
volume average, permittivity 160
volume averages, porous media 159

W wave equation, electric (node) 85, 127

wave equations (node) 141
wave excitation 95
wave impedance theory 72

218 | I N D E X