See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/232417499

Gender-role stereotyping and career aspirations: A comparison of gifted early

adolescent boys and girls

Article · January 2002

CITATIONS READS

69 1,768

2 authors, including:

Linda Raffaele Mendez

Fairleigh Dickinson University
40 PUBLICATIONS 861 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Linda Raffaele Mendez on 24 May 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 The Journal of Secondary Gifted Education

Gender-Role Stereotyping
and Career Aspirations:
A Comparison of Gifted Early Adolescent Boys and Girls

Linda M. Raffaele Mendez and Kelly M. Crawford

Abstract such as overt sexism and discrimination limited the educa-

tional opportunities that were available to women, women’s
This study examined the career aspirations of gifted early adoles- access to male-dominated careers, and the freedom to choose
cent boys and girls utilizing a career aspirations measure that dif- a combination of a career and family (Kerr, 1995). In Terman’s
ferentiated between the careers that were still being considered by landmark study of gifted individuals, 50% of the women
each student versus those that had been ruled out. Careers were whom researchers followed at age 44 had not pursued a full-
classified by sex type (male dominated, female dominated, or bal- time career (Terman & Oden, 1959).
anced), education required (high school degree, college degree, As we enter the 21st century, many of the barriers to voca-
graduate degree), and prestige associated with the career. tional choice among women have been reduced. In particular,
Assessments of gender-related personality attributes, achievement there is greater acceptance of women pursuing male-dominat-
motivation, and attitudes toward the rights and roles of women ed careers and greater choice in childcare options.
also were administered to provide information on the correlates of Concomitantly, there has been a consistent increase in female
career aspirations among gifted early adolescent students (exam- participation in traditionally male-dominated fields over the
ined separately by gender). Results showed that girls were interest- past few decades (U.S. Department of Labor, 1998). And yet,
ed in a significantly greater number of careers (i.e., had ruled out evidence shows that young men entering careers in math and
fewer occupations than boys). Girls also showed greater gender-role the sciences continue to greatly outnumber young women. In
flexibility in their career aspirations than their male counterparts. 1996, for example, women earned 26.7% of master’s degrees in
Boys aspired to careers that were significantly higher in education computer science, 17.2% of master’s degrees in engineering,
required and prestige level than girls. The strength and direction of and 32.2% of master’s degrees in the physical sciences and sci-
the relationships between career aspirations and gender-related ence technologies (U.S. Department of Education, 2000).
personality attributes and achievement motivation varied by gen- Similar underrepresentation has been documented at the bach-
der. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for under- elor’s level, where women earned 27.5% of degrees in com-
standing the differing career development needs of gifted early ado- puter science, 16.1% of degrees in engineering, and 36% of
lescent boys and girls. degrees in the physical sciences and science technologies.
Notably, virtually all high-pay, high-prestige careers continued
to be male dominated.
Many have hypothesized that the underrepresentation of

G
iven the underrepresentation of women in high-sta-
tus, high-pay occupations (e.g., medicine, engineer- women in high-pay, high-status professions is related to the
ing, the natural sciences, law), there has been consid- continued gender-role stereotyping of careers. Children learn
erable interest in understanding how gifted young women from a young age that, for example, secretaries are female,
come to choose their vocations. Certainly, in the past, there was while business executives are male (Berk, 2000). Examples of
much less choice for women in the vocational domain. Factors men in positions of power and women in supportive roles

The Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, Vol. XIII, No. 3, Spring 2002, pp. 96–107. Copyright ©2002 Prufrock Press, P.O. Box 8813, Waco, TX 76714.

96 ▼ Spring 2002
 Gender-Role Stereotyping

abound in children’s books, movies, television socially valued (Galambos, Almeida, & Petersen,
programming, and children’s actual life experi- 1990). Certainly, with regard to careers, those that
ences. Many researchers have noted that limited are the highest in earning potential and prestige
exposure to women in nontraditional careers may are male-dominated. Thus, it makes sense that tal-
limit the occupational aspirations of gifted girls ented young women would be more attracted to
who have the potential to pursue education lead- male dominated careers than their male counter-
ing to a prestigious career, but may not perceive parts would be to female-dominated careers.
it as being within their realm of options (see, in
particular, Kerr, 1995). Overview of the Current Study
Recent research examining differences in
career aspirations among gifted boys and girls is The primary purpose of the current investiga-
relatively limited. Those studies that do exist, tion was to further examine gen-
however, suggest that strong adherence to gen-
der-role stereotypes in career aspirations may be
der-role stereotyping in the
career aspirations of gifted boys
▼
diminishing among gifted girls. Leung, Conoley, and girls. The study focused on
and Scheel (1994) suggested that the “social and students in the early adolescent Examples of men in positions
cultural changes occurring the past two decades years because, according to
have gradually and successfully resulted in some Gottfredson’s (1981) theory of of power and women
changes in women’s attitudes about careers” (p. circumscription and compro-
302). For example, a 1988 study conducted by mise, by the time youngsters in supportive roles abound
Kerr and Colangelo found that business had reach early adolescence, they
replaced education as the top choice of college have ruled out a number of
majors for gifted girls. Additionally, Reis, potential occupations that they
in children’s books, movies,
Callahan, and Goldsmith (1996) found the top believe are inconsistent with their
four career choices for gifted early adolescent gender role, their social class, or television programming,
males and females to be identical (i.e., doctor, sci- their intellectual potential. Thus,
entist, lawyer, and business owner), although they the typical early adolescent is and children’s actual life
were ranked differently for boys and girls. likely to have narrowed his or her
It appears from the literature that the career options, but not actually experiences
increased similarity in the career aspirations of selected a career. This narrowing
gifted boys and girls is attributable to girls becom- process is important because,
ing more interested in male-dominated occupa- according to Gottfredson, once
tions, rather than vice versa. For example, Leung,
Conoley, and Scheel (1994), who retrospectively
certain types of careers have been
eliminated, they are not likely to
▼
examined the career aspirations of gifted high be considered in the future. The aim of this inves-
school juniors and seniors, found that, although tigation was to learn more about the types of
the boys in their study were more likely to have careers (in terms of sex-typing, education required,
considered only traditionally masculine occupa- and prestige level) that were still in the pool of
tions, girls had considered both feminine and options for gifted early adolescent boys and girls.
masculine career options. They found no differ- The measure of career aspirations that was select-
ences between gifted boys and girls in the pres- ed was designed to examine specifically those
tige level of career aspirations. Similarly, Dunnell options that were still being considered in con-
and Bakken (1991) found that 9th- and 12th- trast to those that had been ruled out.
grade gifted females were significantly more like- Three other variables with theoretical links to
ly than same-aged gifted males to choose occupa- both career aspirations and gender-role stereotyp-
tions that were nontraditional for their gender. ing also were examined: (1) gender-related person-
Consistent with this finding, it has been noted by ality attributes (i.e., self-perceptions of instrumen-
several researchers that there is greater pressure for tal and expressive traits); (2) attitudes toward the
boys than for girls to adhere to traditional gen- rights and roles of women, and; (3) achievement
der-role stereotyped behavior (e.g., Massad, motivation. The purpose of including these vari-
1981). This appears to be related to the fact that ables was to examine the broader context of gender-
masculine behaviors, preferences, and interests are related attitudes and attributes among the partici-

Spring 2002 ▼ 97
 The Journal of Secondary Gifted Education

pants and to examine the relationships between 5. What are the relationships (examined sepa-
these variables and career aspirations. Previous rately for girls and boys) between the sex typ-
research with gifted high school girls (Fleming & ing, education level, and prestige level of
Hollinger, 1979) and with unselected high school career aspirations and (a) gender-related per-
and college students (Spence & Helmreich, 1978) sonality attributes, (b) attitudes toward the
has shown significant positive correlations between rights and roles of women, and (c) achieve-
educational and occupational aspirations and both ment motivation?
students’ self-perceptions of instrumental traits
(stereotypically male characteristics such as Method
assertiveness, confidence, and independence) and
achievement motivation. Expressive traits (stereo- Participants
typically female characteristics Participants were 227 students (132 girls, 95
▼ such as kindness, gentleness, and
understanding) and attitudes
boys) in grades 6–8 who had been selected to par-
ticipate in a program for gifted students. They
toward the rights and roles of ranged in age from 11 to 14, with a mean age of
In particular, there is greater women have shown weaker rela- 12.8 years. All students attended one of two
tionships with career aspirations schools in a suburban district just outside a large
(e.g., Raffaele Mendez, 2000; southwestern city. At the time of data collection,
acceptance of women Spence & Helmreich, 1978). No 166 girls and 196 boys were enrolled in the gift-
previous studies, however, have ed program in the two schools where data was col-
examined these relationships for lected. Thus, of the 362 students who were eligi-
pursuing male-dominated gifted early adolescent boys and ble to participate, 227 (63%) agreed to
girls. participate, received parental permission, were
The intention of present on the day of data collection, and provid-
careers and greater choice this study was to understand the ed complete data on all of the measures. The
nature of the relationships majority of participants (n = 199) were Caucasian.
between career aspirations and Minority groups were minimally represented with
in childcare options. each of the other variables (i.e., 28 minority participants in the sample. Two were
gender-related personality attrib- African American, 7 were Hispanic, 13 were
utes, achievement motivation, Asian, and 6 identified themselves as belonging
and attitudes toward the rights to another ethnic group. Most of the students
and roles of women) specifically were from families of middle to upper socioeco-
▼ for a group of gifted early adoles-
cent students. These relation-
nomic status.
To identify students for its gifted program,
ships were examined separately for boys and girls the district from which students were recruited
in order to determine if they differed by gender. used indices of intellectual ability, achievement,
motivation, and creativity. The specific measures
Research Questions used to identify students were the SRA
Five major research questions were addressed Achievement Series (the Educational Abilities
in this study. Score was used to assess ability), a student inter-
1. Do gifted early adolescent boys and girls dif- view, and the Scales for Rating the Behavioral
fer in the sex typing, education level, and Characteristics of Students (Learning and
prestige associated with the careers to which Motivation subscales only, Renzulli & Hartman,
they aspire? 1971). Students were required to earn 14 points
2. Do gifted early adolescent boys and girls dif- or greater on a matrix involving these different
fer with regard to gender-related personality components in order to be admitted into the pro-
attributes? gram. The only exception to this process occurred
3. Do gifted early adolescent boys and girls dif- for students who earned a score of 130 or greater
fer in their attitudes toward the rights and on the Educational Abilities Scale of the SRA and
roles of women? an SRA achievement composite score at or above
4. Do gifted early adolescent boys and girls dif- the 95th percentile. These students automatically
fer in achievement motivation? qualified for the program. Most students were

98 ▼ Spring 2002
 Gender-Role Stereotyping

identified for the gifted program in the early ele- occupations included in the female-dominated,
mentary school years. neutral, and male-dominated categories were
based on percentages from 1992 data.
Measures Occupations listed on the OCL-R required
Parent questionnaire. A 17-item parent ques- varying levels of education (i.e., high school diplo-
tionnaire designed specifically for this study was ma, master’s degree) and were easily recognizable
used to gather information on ethnic background, to adolescents. In addition, occupations were
whether the child had been identified for a gifted selected to approximate the percentages of persons
or special education program in another school employed in each of Holland’s six work environ-
district, current household composition, educa- ments (i.e., Realistic, Investigative, Social,
tional levels of parents, occupations of parents Conventional, Enterprising, Artistic). Students
(which were used to calculate socioeconomic sta- were given instructions to check
tus and the degree to which the mother’s occupa-
tion would be considered traditional), and the age
either “Might Choose” or
“Would Not Choose” for each
▼
and gender of siblings. Occupational status scores occupation listed. For scoring
for mothers and fathers were calculated using the purposes, occupations were . . . strong adherence
Duncan Revised Socioeconomic Index of assigned the following values: 1
Occupational Status (Stevens & Featherman, = traditional (female dominat-
1981). The child’s socioeconomic status (SES) ed), 2 = neutral (neither male to gender-role stereotypes
score was recorded as the higher of the two par- nor female dominated), and 3 =
ents’ occupational status scores. The degree to nontraditional (male dominat-
which a mother’s occupation would be considered ed). Sex Type scores were calcu- in career aspirations
traditional was calculated using census informa- lated by summing the assigned
tion regarding the percentage of female workers values for all of the items
employed in various occupations (U.S. Bureau of checked “Might Choose” and may be diminishing
the Census, 1992). Occupations were coded as dividing by the number of items
follows: (a) traditional = 70% or more female checked “Might Choose.”
workers; (b) neutral = 30–69% female workers, Higher scores were associated among gifted girls.
and; (c) nontraditional = 29% or less female with more male-dominated
workers (Brooks, Holahan, & Galligan, 1985). career aspirations, while lower
Revised Occupational Checklist (OCL-R). The scores represented more female-
career aspirations measure used in this study was a dominated career aspirations.
revision of the Occupational Checklist (OCL;
Brooks, Holahan, & Galligan, 1985). The OCL,
The authors reported two-week,
test-retest reliability by item
▼
which utilized 1980 census data (U.S. agreement to be 85% for a group of 30 middle
Department of Commerce, 1980), measured stu- school girls and 86% for a group of 25 high
dent interest in careers that were traditional, neu- school girls (Brooks, Holahan, & Galligan, 1985).
tral, and nontraditional for women. The original The Education Level score was calculated by
OCL included 60 occupations: 20 traditionally first assigning each occupation one of the follow-
female occupations (defined as occupations in ing values: 1 = occupations generally requiring a
which 70% or more of workers in 1980 were high school degree or less; 2 = occupations gener-
female), 20 neutral (occupations in which ally requiring at least a college degree, but less
30–69% of workers in 1980 were female), and than a graduate degree; 3 = occupations generally
20 traditionally male (occupations in which 29% requiring at least a graduate degree. In the same
or less of the workers in 1980 were female). The manner as Sex Type was calculated, the Education
OCL was revised by the first author (OCL-R; Level score was calculated by summing the
Raffaele Mendez, 2000) based on 1992 data (U.S. assigned values for all the items checked “Might
Bureau of the Census, 1992). All other aspects of Choose” and then dividing by the number of
the measure, including number of items, direc- items checked “Might Choose.”
tions for completing the measure, and scoring, The Prestige score was calculated in the same
were the same as described by Brooks, Holahan, manner. Rankings of prestige were assigned to
and Galligan. The major difference was that the each of the occupations using the Duncan Revised

Spring 2002 ▼ 99
 The Journal of Secondary Gifted Education

Socioeconomic Index of Occupational Status Helmreich (1978) reported reliability coeffi-

(Stevens & Featherman, 1981). For each occupa- cients (Cronbach’s alpha) of .85 for the M scale,
tion listed on the OCL-R, the first author looked .82 for the F scale, and .78 for the M-F scale for
up the occupation in the index and noted the the short form of the PAQ.
prestige score associated with that occupation. Attitudes Toward Women Scale for Adolescents
This index includes three possible scores for each (AWSA). The AWSA (Galambos, Peterson,
occupation. For this investigation, the MSEI2, Richards, & Gitelson, 1985) is a measure for ado-
which is preferred and recommended by the lescents based on Spence and Helmreich’s (1974)
authors of the index, was used. The lowest Attitudes Toward Women Scale (AWS). It con-
Prestige score on the OCL-R was 18.06 (restau- tains 12 items assessing adolescent attitudes
rant cook) and the highest was 87.14 (surgeon). toward the rights and roles of women in contem-
Personal Attributes porary society. Students indicate on a scale of 0
▼ Questionnaire (PAQ). The PAQ
(Spence & Helmreich, 1978)
to 3 how much they agree with each item. Total
scores are calculated by summing the responses
was used to assess students’ to each item (items 3, 5, 7, 9, and 12 are reverse-
Results of this investigation self-perceptions of desirable scored) and then dividing by 12 to retain the item
instrumental (i.e., stereotypi- metric. Higher scores are associated with more lib-
cally masculine) and expressive eral attitudes toward the rights and roles of
showed that, (i.e., stereotypically feminine) women. The authors reported the average reliabil-
characteristics. Originally ity coefficient (Cronbach’s alpha) to be .72 for
among the careers listed, designed for use with high girls and .78 for boys. Test-retest reliability over a
school and college students, one-to-two-year period ranged from .46 to .73.
the version of the PAQ used in Work and Family Orientation Questionnaire
girls perceived a wider range this study was a revision of the (WOFO). The WOFO (Spence & Helmreich,
short form of the PAQ 1978) was used to assess achievement motivation.
of options open to them designed for use with children This instrument, which also utilizes self-report,
and younger adolescents. It employs a format similar to that of the PAQ. The
contains three scales of eight measure contains four scales: (1) Work (six items
than boys. items each: (1) a Masculinity measuring a desire to work hard and do a good
(M) scale (measuring self-per- job), (2) Mastery (eight items measuring a desire
ceptions of instrumental char- for intellectual challenge and for meeting one’s
acteristics that are considered own internal standards of excellence), (3)
▼ desirable for both genders), (2)
a Femininity (F) scale (measur-
Competitiveness (five items measuring a desire to
outperform others), and (4) Personal Unconcern
ing self-perceptions of expressive characteris- (four items measuring lack of concern about the
tics that are considered desirable for both gen- reactions of others to one’s success—or an absence
ders), and (3) a Masculinity-Femininity (M-F) of fear of success). Higher scores are associated
scale (measuring self-perceptions of a combi- with higher achievement motivation. Spence and
nation of instrumental and expressive charac- Helmreich reported reliability coefficients
teristics that are considered more desirable in (Cronbach’s alpha) ranging from the low-.60s to
one gender than the other). (Note: While the the mid-.70s for the Work, Mastery, and
M-F scale was given to students to maintain the Competitiveness scales of the WOFO. For this
format of the scale, it was not analyzed due to investigation, the Work, Mastery, and
a lack of theoretical relevance in the current Competitiveness scales were utilized in their orig-
study.) For each item, students rate themselves inal form, but an Expanded Personal Unconcern
on a scale of 0 (not at all like me) to 4 (very scale (Raffaele Mendez, 2000) was used in place of
much like me). Items on the M and M-F scale the original Personal Unconcern scale. The origi-
are scored in “masculine direction” (i.e., the nal scale had been omitted from other investiga-
extreme “masculine” response is scored a 4), tions because of reported findings of low reliabili-
while items on the F scale are scored in the ty coefficients (e.g., Adams, Priest, & Prince,
“feminine direction” (i.e., the extreme “femi- 1985). The Expanded Personal Unconcern scale,
nine” response is scored a 4). Spence and which was designed by the first author based on a

100 ▼ Spring 2002

 Gender-Role Stereotyping

review of the fear of success literature, contained mother’s employment would be considered “tradi-
the original four items plus an additional eight tional,” sibling position, or living arrangement
items designed to assess the same construct as the (e.g., with both biological parents, with mother
original scale. Using a sample of 209 early adoles- and stepfather, etc.). Significant differences did
cent girls, Raffaele Mendez (2000) reported inter- emerge between groups, however, on mother’s
item reliability of .83 for the 12-item scale, which occupational status, F(1,188) = 5.04, p < .03.
compares favorably to reliability coefficients of Girls had mothers with higher occupational sta-
around .50 for the original 4-item scale (see tuses than boys (M = 40.93 for mothers of girls vs.
Adams, Priest, & Prince, 1985; Spence & M = 32.54 for mothers of boys) based on the
Helmreich, 1978). Duncan Revised Socioeconomic Index of
Occupational Status (Stevens & Featherman,
Data Collection 1981).

Participants were recruited through a short

In order to determine if sig-
nificant differences existed
▼
presentation regarding the nature of the study that between girls and boys on the
was given by the first author during one of their dependent variables, a multivari- . . . girls also were interested
classes. It was explained to students that the pur- ate analysis of variance (MANO-
pose of the study was to gain information about VA) was conducted using gender
how middle school students think and feel about as the independent variable. The
in careers that required
themselves, their school experiences, and their 11 dependent measures were as
futures. Those students expressing an interest in follows: the number of occupa- considerable education
participating were given a letter requesting tions marked “Might Choose” on
parental permission to participate with both an the OCL-R; the Sex Type,
attached permission slip and a parent question- Education Level, and Prestige and were high in prestige,
naire. Students were asked to return the permis- scores from the OCL-R; the
sion slip and parent questionnaire in a sealed Masculinity and Femininity although not to quite
envelope to their teacher within one week. scores from the PAQ; the overall
The assessments were given to all participants score from the AWSA; and the
in the classes through which they were recruited. Work, Mastery, Competitiveness, the same degree as boys.
Participants were given one class period (i.e., 50 and Expanded Personal
minutes) to complete the measures (which were Unconcern scores from the
provided to all students in the same order in one sta- WOFO. Table 1 shows the
pled packet). The measures were ordered as follows:
(1) PAQ, (2) WOFO, (3) OCL-R, and (4) AWSA.
means and standard deviations
for each of the dependent vari-
▼
Measures were not counterbalanced because order ables by group. It also lists the F values, probabili-
effects were not expected. However, the AWSA was ties associated with the F values (p), and effect sizes
placed last in the packet because it contained items (d) for the comparison of the two groups on each
that would be most likely to evoke an emotional variable. Pearson product moment correlations
response. All students were able to complete the between the OCL-R and each of the other depen-
measures within the given time period. dent measures were calculated, as well. These are
presented by group in Table 2.
Results Because results showed the omnibus F value
of the MANOVA to be significant, F(10, 216) =
To determine the similarity between groups 29.66, p < .0001, post hoc t-tests using the Tukey
(i.e., girls vs. boys), analyses of all demographic Method were conducted to further examine the
variables were conducted. Univariate F tests were specific variables on which the groups differed.
performed on all continuous variables, while chi- Results of the post-hoc Tukey tests are reported
square analyses were performed on all noncon- for each of the four measures below.
tinuous variables. Using p < .05 as the alpha level, Revised Occupational Checklist. Several dif-
results showed no significant differences between ferences emerged between groups on the OCL-R.
groups with regard to age, grade, race, SES, First, girls expressed interest in (i.e., indicated
father’s occupational status, degree to which they “Might Choose”) a significantly greater

Spring 2002 ▼ 101

 The Journal of Secondary Gifted Education

Femininity (F) scale, F(1, 225) = 36.29, p <

Table 1 .0001. This indicates that, while boys and girls
Comparison of Males and Females on the perceived themselves as possessing similar levels
OCL-R, PAQ, AWSA , and WOFO of instrumental characteristics, girls perceived
themselves as possessing significantly higher lev-
Female Male Comparison of Groups els of expressive characteristics.
Attitudes Toward Women Scale for Adolescents.
Variable M SD M SD F p d
On the AWSA, girls scored significantly higher
than boys, F(1, 225) = 73.75, p < .0001, suggest-
OCL-R
Number of Occupations ing that girls held significantly more liberal atti-
Marked “Might Choose” 22.28 9.44 18.53 8.31 9.64 .0021 .41 tudes than boys toward the rights and roles of
women in society.
Sex Type 2.06 0.25 2.47 0.18 176.81 .0001 1.83 Work and Family Orientation Scale. On the
Education Level 1.89 0.25 1.99 0.23 10.11 .0017 .41 WOFO, only one significant difference emerged
Prestige 59.66 6.31 62.29 6.12 9.85 .0019 .42 between boys and girls. Boys scored significantly
higher on the Competitiveness scale than girls,
PAQ F(1, 225) = 7.00, p < .0087. No significant dif-
Masculinity (M) 22.23 4.10 21.87 4.54 0.39 .5321 .08 ferences were found on any of the other three
Femininity (F) 25.24 4.14 21.65 4.80 36.29 .0001 .81 scales on this measure: the Work scale, F(1, 225) =
1.38, p < .2421; the Mastery scale, F(1, 225) =
AWSA 2.64 0.28 2.18 0.51 73.75 .0001 1.17
0.05, p < .8247; or the Expanded Personal
WOFO Unconcern scale, F(1,225) = 0.22, p < .6410.
Work 20.89 3.41 20.36 3.26 1.38 .2421 .16 These findings indicate that, while boys were
Mastery 20.05 4.99 20.20 5.44 0.05 .8247 .03 found to be significantly more competitive than
Competitiveness 13.39 3.77 14.69 3.54 7.00 .0087 .35 girls, the two sexes were similar in their desire to
Expanded Personal work hard, do a good job, and master those tasks
Unconcern 13.89 7.63 14.38 8.12 0.22 .6410 .06 they undertake. They also did not show differ-
ences with regard to the fear that academic success
Note. Female n = 132; Male n = 95; OCL-R = Occupational Checklist–Revised; PAQ =
would diminish their social standing (i.e., fear of
Personal Attributes Questionnaire; AWSA = Attitudes Toward Women Scale for Adolescents;
WOFO = Work and Family Orientation Questionnaire. success).
Correlations between the OCL-R and other
dependent measures. Pearson product moment
number of occupations than boys, F(1, 225) = correlation coefficients also were examined to
9.64, p < .0021. Girls expressed interest in a determine how career aspirations (as measured
mean of 22.28 of the 60 occupations, whereas by the OCL-R) were related to the other con-
boys expressed interest in a mean of 18.53 of the structs. Results were examined for girls and boys
60 occupations. Second, boys scored significantly separately to ascertain if there were any differ-
higher on Sex Type, indicating that they were ences in the relationships among the variables
more likely than girls to choose occupations that based on gender. Only those correlations that
are male dominated, F(1, 225) = 176.81, p < were in the moderate (.3) to high (.5 or above)
.0001. Boys also scored significantly higher on range (Cohen, 1992) are reported below,
both Education Level, F(1, 225) = 10.11, p < although all correlations between the three scales
.0017 and Prestige, F(1, 225) = 9.85, p < .0019 of the OCL-R and the other variables are listed
indicating that the careers boys in which were in Table 2.
interested were significantly higher in both edu- For girls, there was a moderate positive cor-
cation required and prestige than careers selected relation between the OCL-R Sex Type score and
by girls. the PAQ M scale (r = .37). Additionally, the
Personality Attributes Questionnaire. On the Mastery scale of the WOFO showed moderate
PAQ, no significant differences emerged positive correlations with all three scales of the
between girls and boys on the Masculinity (M) OCL-R (r = .45 for Sex Type, r = .40 for
scale, F(1, 225) = 0.39, p < .5321. However, girls Education Level, and r = .40 for Prestige). The
scored significantly higher than boys on the Work scale of the WOFO also showed a mod-

102 ▼ Spring 2002

 Gender-Role Stereotyping

Table 2
Pearson Product Moment Correlations Between
the OCL-R and the PAQ, WOFO, and AWSA (by Gender)
Measure PAQ WOFO-R AWSA

OCL-R Male Female Work Mastery Competitiveness EPU

Sex Type
Girls .37 -.02 .26 .45 .26 -.10 .13
Boys .02 -.35 -.14 .04 .08 -.13 -.03
Ed Level
Girls .19 .13 .29 .40 .18 -.09 .10
Boys -.02 .09 .14 .19 .00 -.15 .15
Prestige
Girls .18 .09 .32 .40 .13 -.07 .01
Boys -.04 .05 .17 .17 -.01 -.17 .16

Note. EPU = Expanded Personal Unconcern Scale; OCL-R = Occupational Checklist–Revised; PAQ = Personal Attributes Questionnaire; AWSA = Attitudes Toward
Women Scale for Adolescents; WOFO = Work and Family Orientation Questionnaire.

erate positive correlation with the OCL-R Career Aspirations

Prestige score (r = .32). The remainder of the Results of this investigation showed that,
scales (e.g., PAQ F, WOFO Competitiveness among the careers listed, girls perceived a wider
and Expanded Personal Unconcern, AWSA) range of options open to them than boys. It is
showed low-level correlations with the three likely that girls perceived male-dominated,
scales of the OCL-R. female-dominated, and balanced careers (e.g.,
The correlational findings for boys were makeup artist, doctor, social worker, college pro-
somewhat different. Only one moderate to strong fessor, veterinarian) to be within their realm of
correlation was found among the scales. The options, while boys perceived mostly male-domi-
OCL-R Sex Type score showed a moderate nega- nated and balanced careers to be among their
tive correlation with the PAQ F scale (r = -.35). “appropriate” choices (e.g., forest ranger, profes-
All other correlations between the OCL-R scales sional athlete, marine scientist, mechanical engi-
and the PAQ, AWSA, and WOFO were lower neer). Mean scores for Sex Type of the OCL-R
than .20. would support this hypothesis. Girls scored sig-
nificantly lower than boys on this particular scale.
Discussion Looking at the mean scores (M = 2.06 for girls vs.
2.47 for boys), it seems that boys’ choices were
Results of this investigation illuminated some focused more on the male-dominated and bal-
important differences between gifted early ado- anced careers, while the mean score for girls was
lescent boys and girls with regard to gender-role closer to the middle of the scale. The very strong
stereotyping and career aspirations. Overall, these effect size of 1.83 indicates how differently girls
results are consistent with previous research (e.g., and boys responded to this scale.
Dunnell & Backen, 1991; Leung, Conoley, & Boys had significantly higher Education
Scheel, 1994) indicating that gifted girls show Level and Prestige scores compared to girls on
more gender-role flexibility in their career aspira- the OCL-R. These findings, however, must be
tions than do their male counterparts. Specific interpreted carefully. Looking at the mean scores
findings regarding career aspirations and their for boys (M = 1.99 for Education Level and
relationships to gender roles and achievement 62.29 for Prestige), it would seem that boys were
motivation—which differ by sex—are discussed attracted not only to male-dominated careers,
below. but in particular, to male-dominated careers that

Spring 2002 ▼ 103

 The Journal of Secondary Gifted Education

require considerable education and are high in 1985).

prestige (e.g., surgeon, judge). The mean scores Gender Roles and Career Aspirations
for girls (M = 1.88 for Education Level and Interestingly, what tended to predict sex type
59.66 for Prestige), while significantly lower of careers for both boys and girls was the level of
from a statistical perspective, might not be con- self-perceived opposite-sex characteristics. For girls,
sidered very different from a practical perspec- the correlation between the Femininity scale of the
tive. Indeed, the effect sizes of .41 for Education PAQ and Sex Type score was .02 (see Table 2),
Level and .42 for Prestige are in the small to indicating that there was almost no relationship
medium range (Cohen, 1992). Findings are best between these two variables. Thus, it cannot be
interpreted as indicating that girls also were concluded that girls who perceive themselves as
interested in careers that required considerable possessing higher levels of feminine traits are
education and were high in attracted to more female-dominated careers. In
▼ prestige, although not to quite
the same degree as boys. Girls’
actuality, for girls, self-perceptions of femininity
are independent of sex type of the careers to which
overall scores were likely pulled they aspire. However, self-perceptions of mas-
. . . attitudes toward down by the fact that they culinity are moderately correlated (r = .37) with
expressed greater interest than sex typing of career aspirations. In other words,
the rights and roles of women boys in more female-dominat-
ed professions like elementary
girls who perceive themselves as possessing higher
levels of instrumental traits are more likely to
school teacher and registered aspire to careers that are male dominated. Thus,
in society have little to do nurse (which are lower in edu- for girls, self-perceptions of masculinity are more
cation required and prestige predictive of the sex type of the careers to which
than many male-dominated they aspire than are self-perceptions of femininity.
with the types of careers professions). The reverse was found for boys. Boys who per-
ceived themselves as possessing higher levels of
to which gifted early Gender Roles stereotypically feminine traits were more attracted
The boys and girls to female-dominated careers, as shown by the neg-
in this study were quite similar ative correlation (r = -.35) between the Femininity
adolescents aspire. in their perceptions of the scale of the PAQ and the Sex Type scores.
degree to which they possess Additionally, as opposed to the findings for girls,
masculine (or instrumental) self-perceptions of masculinity showed a zero-
traits such as independence, order correlation (r = .02) with the sex typing of
▼ assertiveness, and self-confi-
dence. However, girls perceived
boys’ career aspirations. Thus, for boys, self-per-
ceptions of femininity are more predictive of the
themselves as possessing significantly higher lev- sex type of the careers to which they aspire than
els of feminine traits, such as kindness, caring, are self-perceptions of masculinity.
and understanding than boys. These findings These findings demonstrate the important
are somewhat different from those reported for role that self-perceptions of opposite-sex gender-
the general population, where results typically related personality attributes play in students’
show that boys score higher on Masculinity than career aspirations. It appears that, in general, girls
girls and girls score higher on Femininity than are more attracted to female-dominated careers
boys (e.g., Bem, 1974; Hall & Halberstadt, than boys, while boys are more attracted to male-
1980). They are, however, consistent with pre- dominated careers than girls. Holding strong self-
vious research on gifted girls, which has shown perceptions of feminine personality attributes
these girls to score significantly higher on does not appear to make a girl more likely to
Masculinity (and similarly on Femininity) when aspire to a career in teaching, nursing, and other
compared to their nongifted peers (e.g., Raffaele traditionally female careers. However, when a stu-
Mendez, 2000). Boys in this study also were less dent perceives in him- or herself a tendency to dis-
liberal toward the rights and roles of women play personality attributes that are characteristic of
than were girls, a finding that is consistent with the opposite sex, there is a greater likelihood that
findings in the general population (e.g., those attributes will be reflected in career aspira-
Galambos, Petersen, Richards, & Gitelson, tions that are more typical of the opposite sex.

104 ▼ Spring 2002

 Gender-Role Stereotyping

This may be because the student sees those oppo- value competition, while girls are more likely to
site-sex characteristics as more salient because they value connectedness and cooperation (e.g., Berk,
are different from what would be expected. Thus, 2000), although, with an effect size of .35, it was
a boy who has a strong sense of being kind and not a particularly strong finding.
understanding may be pulled toward a career in
the helping professions, whereas many girls would Achievement Motivation
be pulled toward those careers simply because and Career Aspirations
they are female dominated and consistent with The relationships that emerged between
expectations. achievement motivation and career aspirations
Consistent with previous work conducted by differed by gender. Results showed that girls who
Spence and Helmreich (1978), attitudes toward perceived themselves as harder working and more
the rights and roles of women showed low corre- internally motivated were more
lations with sex typing of career aspirations both
for boys (r = -.02) and girls (r = .13). This indi-
likely to aspire to careers that are
male dominated, require more
▼
cates that attitudes toward the rights and roles of education, and/or are higher in
women in society have little to do with the types prestige. In contrast, boys’ career Among girls, however,
of careers to which gifted early adolescents aspire. aspirations appeared largely
It might be hypothesized that this relationship unrelated to their self-perceived
would be stronger for girls than for boys given achievement motivation. This
those who aspire to the most
that girls with less liberal attitudes might choose finding may reflect a tendency
more traditional roles. In actuality, however, this for most gifted boys to aspire to prestigious careers appear
study showed that gifted girls were very liberal in prestigious, male-dominated
their attitudes (M = 2.63 on a scale of 0 to 3) with occupations requiring high levels
little variability in responses (SD = 0.28). Thus, of education regardless of how to be those who perceive
even if a relationship existed between attitudes strong they perceive their
toward women and career aspirations among girls, achievement motivation to be. themselves as higher
it would have been difficult to detect it in this Among girls, however, those
study because of the restriction of range among who aspire to the most presti-
girls’ scores. gious careers appear to be those in achievement motivation.
who perceive themselves as high-
Achievement Motivation er in achievement motivation. It
Few differences emerged between boys and may be that among girls, high
girls in achievement motivation in this study. The
failure to find a significant difference on the
career aspirations are not neces-
sarily expected, and it is the
▼
Expanded Personal Unconcern scale (measuring hardest working girls who are most likely to aspire
lack of concern about the reactions of others to to nontraditional careers for women.
one’s success—or an absence of fear of success) is
notable in that many of those writing about gifted Conclusions
girls have posited that this population of girls is
particularly vulnerable to the perception that aca- Overall, results of this study show that gifted
demic and social success are incompatible (e.g., early adolescent boys continue to aspire to careers
Kerr, 1995; Reis, 1987). In this investigation, girls that are higher in education required and prestige
showed the same desire for hard work and meet- than their female counterparts. This appears to
ing one’s own internal standards of excellence as be due mainly to the fact that boys limit their
boys, but appeared no more likely than boys to aspirations to those careers that are male domi-
be concerned that this would negatively impact nated (and high in prestige), while girls express
their social standing. The only scale on which interest in a wider range of careers that includes
boys and girls differed was the Competitiveness both male- and female-dominated options. It is
scale, on which boys scored significantly higher notable that girls who perceive themselves as pos-
than girls, indicating a greater desire than girls to sessing higher levels of instrumental (or stereotyp-
outperform others. This finding is consistent with ically masculine) personality traits and are higher
research indicating that boys are more likely to in achievement motivation are more likely than

Spring 2002 ▼ 105

 The Journal of Secondary Gifted Education

those who see themselves as low on these traits to Center.

keep male-dominated occupations within their Galambos, N. L., Almeida, D. M., & Petersen,
pool of future career options. These correlational A. C. (1990). Masculinity, femininity, and sex
findings highlight the fact that there are particular role attitudes in early adolescence: Exploring
traits that educators can nurture in girls (e.g., gender intensification. Child Development,
assertiveness, confidence, mastery orientation) 61, 1905–1914.
that are related to the development of nontradi- Galambos, N. L., Petersen, A. C., Richards, M.,
tional occupational interests. & Gitelson, I. B. (1985). The Attitudes
The findings for boys lead to somewhat dif- Toward Women Scale for Adolescents
ferent conclusions. Although it may seem posi- (AWSA): A study of reliability and validity.
tive that boys are attracted to occupations that Sex Roles, 13, 343–357.
require high levels of education and are high in Gottfredson, L. S. (1981). Circumscription and
prestige, the question arises if some boys might compromise: A developmental theory of
be missing out on rewarding vocational oppor- occupational aspirations. Journal of
tunities because they have ruled them out based Counseling Psychology, 28, 545–579.
on their sex type. Results indicate that boys Hall, J. A. & Halberstadt, A. G. (1980).
who see themselves as having more expressive Masculinity and femininity in children:
traits (e.g., kindness, understanding) are less Development of the Children’s Personality
likely than boys with fewer expressive traits to Attributes Questionnaire. Developmental
have ruled out occupations simply because they Psychology, 16, 270–280.
are nontraditional for their gender. Recognition Kerr, B. A. (1995). Smart girls two. Dayton: Ohio
of the problems associated with the limited Psychology Press.
development of expressive traits among boys is Kerr, B. A., & Colangelo, N. (1988). The college
just beginning to emerge (see Pollack, 1998), plans of academically talented students.
but clearly this is an area that merits further Journal of Counseling and Development, 67,
investigation. 42–49.
Leung, S. A., Conoley, C. W., & Scheel, M. J.
References (1994). The career and educational aspira-
tions of gifted high school students: A retro-
Adams, J., Priest, R. F., & Prince, H. T. (1985). spective study. Journal of Counseling and
Achievement motive: Analyzing the validity Development, 72, 298–303.
of the WOFO. Psychology of Women Massad, C. M. (1981). Sex role identity and
Quarterly, 9, 357–370. adjustment during adolescence. Child
Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psycho- Development, 52, 1290–1298.
logical androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Pollack, W. S. (1998). Real boys: Rescuing our sons
Clinical Psychology, 42, 155–162. from the myths of boyhood. New York: Random
Berk, L. E. (2000). Child development (5th ed.). House.
Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Raffaele Mendez, L. M. (2000). Gender roles and
Brooks, L., Holahan, W., & Galligan, M. (1985). achievement-related choices: A comparison of
The effects of a nontraditional role-modeling early adolescent girls in gifted and general
intervention on sex typing of occupational education programs. Journal for the Education
preferences and career salience in adolescent of the Gifted 24, 149–169.
females. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 26, Reis, S. M. (1987). We can’t change what we don’t
264–276. recognize: Understanding the special needs
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological of gifted females. Gifted Child Quarterly, 31,
Bulletin, 112(1), 155–159. 83–89.
Dunnell, P. A., & Backen, L. (1991). Gifted high Reis, S. M., Callahan, C. M., & Goldsmith, D.
school students’ attitudes toward careers and (1996). Attitudes of adolescent gifted girls
sex roles. Roeper Review, 13, 198–202. and boys toward education, achievement, and
Fleming, E. S., & Hollinger, C. L. (1979). Project the future. In K. D. Arnold, K. D. Noble, &
choice: Creating her options in career explo- R. F. Subotnik (Eds.), Remarkable women:
ration. Newton, MA: Education Development Perspectives on females talent development (pp.

106 ▼ Spring 2002

 Gender-Role Stereotyping

209–224). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press. Washington, D.C.

Renzulli, J. S., & Hartman, R. K. (1971). Scale U.S. Department of Commerce. (1980). Detailed
for rating behavioral characteristics of superi- occupation and years of school completed by age,
or students. Exceptional Children, 38, for the civilian labor force, by sex, race, and
243–248. Spanish origin: 1980 (PC 80–51–8,
Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. L. (1978). Supplemental Report). Washington, DC:
Masculinity and femininity: Their psychological Bureau of the Census.
dimensions, correlates, and antecedents. Austin: U.S. Department of Education. (2000). Trends
University of Texas Press. in educational equity of girls and women
Stevens, G., & Featherman, D. L. (1981). A (NCES Publication No. 2000–030).
revised socioeconomic index of occupational Washington, DC: National Center for
status. Social Science Research, 10, 364–395. Education Statistics.
Terman, L. M., & Oden, M. H. (1959). The gift- U.S. Department of Labor. (1998). Employment
ed child grows up: Genetic studies of genius (Vol. and earnings. Washington, DC: Bureau of
4). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Statistics.
U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1992). Statistical
abstract of the U.S.: 1992 (112th ed.).

Call for Papers

Special Issue on Foreign Language Learning

and Instruction for Gifted Students
Guest Editors: Michael Clay Thompson and Myriam Borges Thompson,
Language Arts Authors and Consultants

We are looking for papers that address the following topics or issues:
• the new core curriculum status for foreign language in the United States
in the 21st century;
• the differentiation of foreign language for gifted secondary students;
• the elements that make foreign language highly appropriate for gifted
children; and
• practical observations for teaching foreign language to gifted children.
Other significant topics welcome.

Please submit papers to Paula Olszewski-Kubilius by April 1, 2002.

Spring 2002 ▼ 107

View publication stats