Know... How Your Car Works?

Brakes

The modern automotive brake system has been refined for over 100 years and has become
extremely dependable and efficient.

The typical brake system consists of disk brakes in front and either disk or drum brakes in the
rear connected by a system of tubes and hoses that link the brake at each wheel to the master
Other systems that are connected with the brake system include the parking brakes,
power brake booster and the anti-lock system.

When you step on the brake pedal, you are actually pushing against a plunger in the master
cylinder which forces hydraulic oil (brake fluid) through a series of tubes and hoses to the braking
unit at each wheel. Since hydraulic fluid (or any fluid for that matter) cannot be compressed,
pushing fluid through a pipe is just like pushing a steel bar through a pipe. Unlike a steel bar,
however, fluid can be directed through many twists and turns on its way to its destination, arriving
with the exact same motion and pressure that it started with. It is very important that the fluid is
pure liquid and that there are no air bubbles in it. Air can compress, which causes a sponginess to
the pedal and severely reduced braking efficiency. If air is suspected, then the system must be
bled to remove the air. There are "bleeder screws" at each wheel cylinder and caliper for this

disk brake, the fluid from the master cylinder is forced into a caliper where it presses against
a piston. The piston, in-turn, squeezes two brake pads against the disk (rotor) which is attached to
the wheel, forcing it to slow down or stop.
This process is similar to a bicycle brake where two rubber pads rub against the wheel rim creating

drum brakes, fluid is forced into the wheel cylinder which pushes the brake shoes out so that
the friction linings are pressed against the drum which is attached to the wheel, causing the wheel

In either case, the friction surfaces of the pads on a disk brake system, or the shoes on a drum
brake convert the forward motion of the vehicle into heat. Heat is what causes the friction surfaces
(linings) of the pads and shoes to eventually wear out and require replacement.

Let's take a closer look at each of the components in a brake system and see where other problems
can occur...

Master Cylinder
The master cylinder is located in the engine compartment on the firewall, directly in front of the
driver's seat. A typical master cylinder is actually two completely separate master cylinders in one
housing, each handling two wheels. This way if one side fails, you will still be able to stop the car.
The brake warning light on the dash will light if either side fails, alerting you to the problem. Master
cylinders have become very reliable and rarely malfunction; however, the most common problem
that they experience is an internal leak. This will cause the brake pedal to slowly sink to the floor
when your foot applies steady pressure. Letting go of the pedal and immediately stepping on it
again brings the pedal back to normal height.

Brake Fluid
Brake fluid is a special oil that has specific properties. It is designed to withstand cold temperatures
without thickening as well as very high temperatures without boiling. (If the brake fluid should boil, it
will cause you to have a spongy pedal and the car will be hard to stop.) Brake fluid must meet
standards that are set by the Department of Transportation (DOT). The current standard is DOT-3
which has a boiling point of 460º F. But check your owners manual to see what your vehicle
manufacturer recommends.

The brake fluid reservoir is on top of the master cylinder. Most cars today have a transparent
reservoir so that you can see the level without opening the cover. The brake fluid level will drop
slightly as the brake pads wear. This is a normal condition and no cause for concern. If the level
drops noticeably over a short period of time or goes down to about two thirds full, have your brakes
checked as soon as possible. Keep the reservoir covered except for the amount of time you need to
fill it and never leave a can of brake fluid uncovered. Brake fluid must maintain a very high boiling
point .Exposure to air will cause the fluid to absorb moisture which will lower that boiling point.
NEVER PUT ANYTHING BUT APPROVED BRAKE FLUID IN YOUR BRAKES. ANYTHING
ELSE CAN CAUSE SUDDEN BRAKE FAILURE! Any other type of oil or other fluid will react
with the brake fluid and very quickly destroy the rubber seals in the brake system causing
brake failure.

Brake Lines
The brake fluid travels from the master cylinder to the wheels through a series of steel tubes and
reinforced rubber hoses. Rubber hoses are only used in places that require flexibility, such as at the
front wheels, which move up and down as well as steer. The rest of the system uses non-corrosive
seamless steel tubing with special fittings at all attachment points. If a steel line requires a repair,
the best procedure is to replace the complete line. If this is not practical, a line can be repaired
using special splice fittings that are made for brake system repair. You must never use brass
"compression" fittings or copper tubing to repair a brake system. They are dangerous and illegal.

Other Components in the Hydraulic System

Proportioning valve or Equalizer Valve
These valves are mounted between the master cylinder and the rear wheels. They are designed to
adjust the pressure between the front and rear brakes depending on how hard you are stopping.
The shorter you stop, the more of the vehicle's weight is transferred to the front wheels, in some
cases, causing the rear to lift and the front to dive. These valves are designed to direct more
pressure to the front and less pressure to the rear the harder you stop. This minimizes the chance
of premature lockup at the rear wheels.

Pressure Differential Valve

This valve is usually mounted just below the master cylinder and is responsible for turning the brake
warning light on when it detects a malfunction. It measures the pressure from the two sections of
the master cylinder and compares them. Since it is mounted ahead of the proportioning or equalizer
valve, the two pressures it detects should be equal. If it detects a difference, it means that there is
probably a brake fluid leak somewhere in the system.

Combination Valve
The Combination valve is simply a proportioning valve and a pressure differential valve that is
combined into one unit.

Electronic Brake Force Distribution

Newer cars use the antilock brake hardware and the onboard computer to replace these
proportioning valve systems with a system called Electronic Brake force Distribution (EBD) in order
to distribute the exact amount of pressure at each wheel to insure a balanced brake system.

Disk Brakes
The disk brake is the best brake we have found so far. Disk brakes are used to stop everything
from cars to locomotives and jumbo jets. Disk brakes wear longer, are less affected by water, are
self adjusting, self cleaning, less prone to grabbing or pulling and stop better than any other system
around. The main components of a disk brake are the Brake Pads, Rotor, Caliper and Caliper

Brake Pads
There are two brake pads on each caliper. They are constructed of a metal
"shoe" with the lining riveted or bonded to it. The pads are mounted in the
caliper, one on each side of the rotor. Brake linings used to be made primarily
of asbestos because of its heat absorbing properties and quiet operation;
however, due to health risks, asbestos has been outlawed, so new materials
are now being used. Brake pads wear out with use and must be replaced
periodically. There are many types and qualities of pads available. The
differences have to do with brake life (how long the new pads will last) and
noise (how quiet they are when you step on the brake). Harder linings tend to
last longer and stop better under heavy use but they may produce an irritating
squeal when they are applied. Technicians that work on brakes usually have a
favorite pad that gives a good compromise that their customers can live with.
Brake pads should be checked for wear periodically. If the lining wears down to the metal brake
shoe, then you will have a "Metal-to-Metal" condition where the shoe rubs directly against the rotor
causing severe damage and loss of braking efficiency. Some brake pads come with a "brake
warning sensor" that will emit a squealing noise when the pads are worn to a point where they
should be changed. This noise will usually be heard when your foot is off the brake and disappear
when you step on the brake. If you hear this noise, have your brakes checked as soon as possible.

The disk rotor is made of iron with highly machined surfaces where the brake pads contact it. Just
as the brake pads wear out over time, the rotor also undergoes some wear, usually in the form of
ridges and groves where the brake pad rubs against it. This wear pattern exactly matches the wear
pattern of the pads as they seat themselves to the rotor. When the pads are replaced, the rotor
must be machined smooth to allow the new pads to have an even contact surface to work with.
Only a small amount of material can be machined off of a rotor before it becomes unusable and
must be replaced. A minimum thickness measurement is stamped on every rotor and the
technician doing the brake job will measure the rotor before and after machining it to make sure it
doesn't go below the legal minimum. If a rotor is cut below the minimum, it will not be able to
handle the high heat that brakes normally generate. This will cause the brakes to "fade," greatly
reducing their effectiveness to a point where you may not be able to stop!

Caliper & Support

There are two main types of calipers: Floating calipers and fixed calipers. There are other
configurations but these are the most popular. Calipers must be rebuilt or replaced if they show
signs of leaking brake fluid.

Single Piston Floating Calipers are the most popular and

also least costly to manufacture and service. A floating
caliper "floats" or moves in a track in its support so that it can
center itself over the rotor. As you apply brake pressure, the
hydraulic fluid pushes in two directions. It forces the piston
against the inner pad which in turn pushes against the rotor.
It also pushes the caliper in the opposite direction against the
outer pad, pressing it against the other side of the rotor.
Floating calipers are also available on some vehicles with
two pistons mounted on the same side. Two piston floating
calipers are found on more expensive cars and can provide
an improved braking "feel".

Four Piston Fixed Calipers are mounted rigidly to the support and are not allowed to move.
Instead, there are two pistons on each side that press the pads against the rotor. Four piston
calipers have a better feel and are more efficient, but are more expensive to produce and cost more
This type of caliper is usually found on more expensive luxury and high performance

Drum Brakes
So if disk brakes are so great, how come we still have cars with drum brakes? The reason is cost.
While all vehicles produced for many years have disk brakes on the front, drum brakes are cheaper
to produce for the rear wheels. The main reason is the parking brake system. On drum brakes,
adding a parking brake is the simple addition of a lever, while on disk brakes, we need a complete
mechanism, in some cases, a complete mechanical drum brake assembly inside the disk brake
Parking brakes must be a separate system that does not use hydraulics. It must be totally
mechanical, but more on parking brakes later.
Drum brakes consist of a backing plate, brake shoes, brake drum, wheel cylinder, return
and an automatic or self-adjusting system. When you apply the brakes, brake fluid is
forced, under pressure, into the wheel cylinder which, in turn, pushes the brake shoes into contact
with the machined surface on the inside of the drum. When the pressure is released, return springs
pull the shoes back to their rest position. As the brake linings wear, the shoes must travel a
greater distance to reach the drum. When the distance reaches a certain point, a self-adjusting
mechanism automatically reacts by adjusting the rest position of the shoes so that they are closer
to the drum.

Brake Shoes
Like the disk pads, brake shoes
consist of a steel shoe with the
friction material or lining riveted
or bonded to it. Also like disk
pads, the linings eventually
wear out and must be
If the linings are
allowed to wear through to the
bare metal shoe, they will
cause severe damage to the
brake drum.

Backing Plate
The backing plate is what holds
everything together. It attaches
to the axle and forms a solid
surface for the wheel cylinder, brake shoes and assorted hardware. It rarely causes any problems.

Brake Drum
Brake drums are made of iron and have a machined surface on the inside where the shoes make
Just as with disk rotors, brake drums will show signs of wear as the brake linings seat
themselves against the machined surface of the drum. When new shoes are installed, the brake
drum should be machined smooth. Brake drums have a maximum diameter specification that is
stamped on the outside of the drum. When a drum is machined, it must never exceed that
measurement. If the surface cannot be machined within that limit, the drum must be replaced.

Wheel Cylinder
The wheel cylinder consists of a cylinder that has two pistons, one on each side. Each piston has a
rubber seal and a shaft that connects the piston with a brake shoe. When brake pressure is applied,
the pistons are forced out pushing the shoes into contact with the drum. Wheel cylinders must be
rebuilt or replaced if they show signs of leaking.
Return Springs
Return springs pull the brake shoes back to their rest position after the pressure is released from
the wheel cylinder. If the springs are weak and do not return the shoes all the way, it will cause
premature lining wear because the linings will remain in contact with the drum. A good technician
will examine the springs during a brake job and recommend their replacement if they show signs of
On certain vehicles, the technician may recommend replacing them even if they look good
as inexpensive insurance.

Self Adjusting System

The parts of a self adjusting system should be clean and move freely to insure that the brakes
maintain their adjustment over the life of the linings. If the self adjusters stop working, you will
notice that you will have to step down further and further on the brake pedal before you feel the
brakes begin to engage. Disk brakes are self adjusting by nature and do not require any type of
mechanism. When a technician performs a brake job, aside from checking the return springs, he
will also clean and lubricate the self adjusting parts where necessary.

Parking Brakes
The parking brake (a.k.a. emergency brake) system controls the rear brakes through a series of
steel cables that are connected to either a hand lever or a foot pedal. The idea is that the system is
fully mechanical and completely bypasses the hydraulic system so that the vehicle can be brought
to a stop even if there is a total brake failure.
drum brakes, the cable pulls on a lever mounted in the rear brake and is directly connected to
the brake shoes. this has the effect of bypassing the wheel cylinder and controlling the brakes

Disk brakes on the rear wheels add additional complication for parking brake systems. There are
two main designs for adding a mechanical parking brake to rear disk brakes. The first type uses the
existing rear wheel caliper and adds a lever attached to a mechanical corkscrew device inside the
caliper piston. When the parking brake cable pulls on the lever, this corkscrew device pushes the
piston against the pads, thereby bypassing the hydraulic system, to stop the vehicle. This type of
system is primarily used with single piston floating calipers, if the caliper is of the four piston fixed
type, then that type of system can't be used. The other system uses a complete mechanical drum
brake unit mounted inside the rear rotor. The brake shoes on this system are connected to a lever
that is pulled by the parking brake cable to activate the brakes. The brake "drum" is actually the
inside part of the rear brake rotor.

On cars with automatic transmissions, the parking brake is rarely used. This can cause a couple of
The biggest problem is that the brake cables tend to get corroded and eventually seize
up causing the parking brake to become inoperative. By using the parking brake from time to time,
the cables stay clean and functional. Another problem comes from the fact that the self adjusting
mechanism on certain brake systems uses the parking brake actuation to adjust the brakes. If the
parking brake is never used, then the brakes never get adjusted.

Power Brake Booster

The power brake booster is mounted on the firewall directly
behind the master cylinder and, along with the master cylinder, is
directly connected with the brake pedal. Its purpose is to amplify
the available foot pressure applied to the brake pedal so that the
amount of foot pressure required to stop even the largest vehicle
Power for the booster comes from engine vacuum.
The automobile engine produces vacuum as a by-product of
normal operation and is freely available for use in powering
accessories such as the power brake booster. Vacuum enters
the booster through a check valve on the booster. The check
valve is connected to the engine with a rubber hose and acts as a
one-way valve that allows vacuum to enter the booster but does
not let it escape. The booster is an empty shell that is divided into
two chambers by a rubber diaphragm. There is a valve in the
diaphragm that remains open while your foot is off the brake
pedal so that vacuum is allowed to fill both chambers. When you
step on the brake pedal, the valve in the diaphragm closes,
separating the two chambers and another valve opens to allow
air in the chamber on the brake pedal side. This is what provides the power assist. Power
boosters are very reliable and cause few problems of their own, however, other things can
contribute to a loss of power assist. In order to have power assist, the engine must be running. If
the engine stalls or shuts off while you are driving, you will have a small reserve of power assist for
two or three pedal applications but, after that, the brakes will be extremely hard to apply and you
must put as much pressure as you can to bring the vehicle to a stop.

Anti-Lock Brakes (ABS)

The most efficient braking pressure takes place just before each wheel locks up. When you slam on
the brakes in a panic stop and the wheels lock up, causing a screeching sound and leaving strips of
rubber on the pavement, you do not stop the vehicle nearly as short as it is capable of stopping.
Also, while the wheels are locked up, you loose all steering control so that, if you have an
opportunity to steer around the obstacle, you will not be able to do so. Another problem occurs
during an extended skid is that you will burn a patch of rubber off the tire which causes a "flat spot"
on the tread that will produce an annoying thumping sound as you drive.

Anti-lock brake systems solve this lockup problem by rapidly pumping the brakes whenever the
system detects a wheel that is locked up. In most cases, only the wheel that is locked will be
pumped, while full braking pressure stays available to the other wheels. This effect allows you to
stop in the shortest amount of time while maintaining full steering control even if one or more
wheels are on ice. The system uses a computer to monitor the speed of each wheel. When it
detects that one or more wheels have stopped or are turning much slower than the remaining
wheels, the computer sends a signal to momentarily remove and reapply or pulse the pressure to
the affected wheels to allow them to continue turning. This "pumping" of the brakes occurs at ten or
more times a second, far faster then a human can pump the brakes manually. If you step on the
brakes hard enough to engage the anti-lock system, you may feel a strong vibration in the brake
pedal. This is a normal condition and indicates that the system is working, however, it can be
disconcerting to some people who don't expect it. If your vehicle has anti-lock brakes, read your
owner's manual to find out more about it.

The system consists of an electronic control unit, a hydraulic actuator, and wheel speed sensors at
each wheel. If the control unit detects a malfunction in the system, it will illuminate an ABS warning
light on the dash to let you know that there is a problem. If there is a problem, the anti-lock system
will not function but the brakes will otherwise function normally.